The Thermal Acceleration of Pyrolytic Graphite

Andrew Meesseman and Ian Rasch

Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center

Physics

11B

Mr. McMillan / Mrs. Cybulski

9 June 2016
 The Thermal Acceleration of Pyrolytic Graphite

With the constant advancements that are being made in technology and the

transportation industry, people begin to wonder what else can be done. With technology,

the future of transportation could be a light guided, levitating train. The experiment

conducted was to observe the acceleration of pyrolytic graphite discs. Pyrolytic graphite

is a material that is strongly diamagnetic at room temperature. The graphite was placed

above a grid of magnets and its diamagnetic property repelled the magnetic fields and it

levitated. When exposed to a laser with a focus, the graphite heats up at the point of the

laser and makes the magnetic field unstable causing the graphite to move in the direction

of the laser. Using different thickness and different diameters of pyrolytic graphite discs a

two factor design of experiment was conducted. The experiment proved that the thickness

of the discs was significant while the diameter of the discs proved insignificant. The

graphite disc with the lowest thickness and the smallest diameter had the most

acceleration out of all other graphite discs.

 Table of Contents

Introduction....................................................................................................................................1

Review of Literature.......................................................................................................................3

Problem Statement..........................................................................................................................7

Experimental Design......................................................................................................................8

Data and Observations..................................................................................................................10

Data Analysis and Interpretation.................................................................................................12

Conclusion....................................................................................................................................18

Acknowledgements......................................................................................................................21

Appendix A: Magnet Setup...........................................................................................................22

Appendix B: Velocity and Acceleration........................................................................................23

Appendix C: Prediction Equations................................................................................................24

Works Cited..................................................................................................................................25
 Meesseman Rasch 1

Introduction

Throughout time many people have made the assumption that magnetic levitation

was nothing but science fiction, however it is not only real but also the future of

transportation. There are many occurrences of magnetic levitation being used to create

high speed transportation systems, such as trains. These magnetic levitating trains are

known as maglevs, which is derived from the first three letters of the words magnetic and

levitating (Wilson).

Japan developed a train in the 1990s that could exceed speeds of 563 kilometers

per hour (kph), or 350 miles per hour (mph). This was the fastest maglev that has been

recorded. The first patent for the concept for a magnetic levitating train was made in 1934

by Hermann Kemper, while the idea did not start to develop until 24 years later. The

design of a maglev is a train with magnets on the bottom or sides and opposing magnets

in the rails or walls that attract and repel to provide a magnetic suspension for the train.

Currently Japan has a commercial train that reaches speeds of 431 kph, 250 mph, and

transports people 19 miles in 8 minutes. Advances in technology will only make these

trains faster, bringing a whole new level to transportation (Wilson).

Using pyrolytic graphite and a grid of permanent magnets another form of

magnetic levitation can be achieved. While most substances in the world are diamagnetic,

pyrolytic graphite is a material that is strongly diamagnetic at room temperature. This

means that pyrolytic graphite repels all other magnetic forces and fields. When the

graphite is placed above a grid of permanent magnets with alternating positive and

negative forces, its diamagnetism pushes against the magnetic field and the graphite is

suspended above the grid. Differences in the diameter and thickness of the graphite were
 Meesseman Rasch 2

used to determine which combination had the most acceleration when exposed to a laser.

The laser heats up the graphite and creates an unbalance in the magnetic field and

weakens the diamagnetism in the graphite lowering the levitation height at the point at

which the laser is focused on, forcing the graphite to move in the direction of the laser

(Zyga). The distance of the track was divided by the time it took each disc to make the

length of the track, and then divided by the time again to calculate the acceleration.

Temperature was a factor that was not used because the graphites temperature is already

being altered, and the increase or decrease in temperature of permanent magnets can

weaken or even destroy the magnetic properties.

Different factors when testing provide real-life examples that can be helpful in

determining new forms of transportation. Using different levels of each factor, such as

different thicknesses or different diameter discs, can be useful in observing how the

graphite can be used with limited conditions in different places around the world. Places

might only be able to make or obtain graphite of a certain thickness or a certain diameter,

the experiment explored the variations. The laser could also provide possible ideas of

laser based transportation.

 Meesseman Rasch 3

Review of Literature

The experiment tried to solve the question of which disc varying in thickness and

diameter of pyrolytic graphite would have the fastest acceleration when exposed to a

laser. The belief is that the laser will cause the smallest diameter and the thinnest disc to

have the most acceleration.

The first laser was constructed by Theodore Maiman in 1960 at the Hughes

Research Laboratory in California with nothing but a flash lamp and a ruby rod

(Townes). The word laser is not really a word at all, it is actually an acronym for Light

Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Lasers, in fact, are quite simple in

design as shown in Figure 1 below. A laser is created when an electric current is passed

through a laser medium that can be composed of either gasses, crystals, or glasses, and

then becomes excited. As the excited particles move to the outer orbit around the nucleus

and back down to their original orbit, or ground state, they emit photons of light. These

photons all emit the same color wavelength as they are produced, they are coherent. The

wavelength of a laser determines the color of photons that are emitted by the excited

particles (How Lasers Work).

(Frequently Asked)

Figure 1. Laser Composition

Figure 1 shows the components of a laser. The mirrors in the laser allow the

photons to be reflected and a small concentrated amount that escapes through the second
 Meesseman Rasch 4

mirror make the beam of light, or the laser beam. Different mediums such as; argon,

helium, neon, rubies, or liquid dyes can make changes in the wavelength. Each medium

creates its own wavelength and color (Frequently Asked ). Argon ion laser produce a

blue wavelength, in the range around 450 nm. A blue laser, most likely, with an argon ion

medium was used during the experiment.

Electric currents create magnetic fields on macroscopic and microscopic levels.

The electric current can either be macroscopic, like the electric current in wires, or

microscopic, like the actual electrons in orbit (Nave). Alternatively, there are materials

that have magnetic fields, magnets. There are generally two different types of magnets,

conventional and rare-earth magnets. Conventional magnets are considered to be fridge

magnets, or magnets with any composition other than lanthanide or actinides as the rare-

earth magnets are composed of.

One of the most popular rare-earth magnets is neodymium magnets. These

permanent magnets are made of the lanthanide neodymium. Neodymium magnets have

the chemical makeup of Nd Fe B, which means that there are two neodymium atoms,
2 14

fourteen atoms of iron, and only one atom of boron. Scientists believe that neodymium is

the strongest magnetic material, allowing the magnets to receive a gauss rating of 13,500

or more, while a conventional fridge magnet has a rating of a mere 50 gauss (Anissimov,

Foster, What is a). The strengths of these magnets are noted with the letter N

followed by a number. The weakest on the strength scale is N24 and the largest being

N55, however, there can theoretically be a magnet as strong as N64. Neodymium

magnets can attract and hold up to one thousand times their own weight. With their

incredible size-to-strength ratio, these magnets are used around the world for many
 Meesseman Rasch 5

industrial purposes (Anissimov, Foster, What are Neodymium). The magnets used in

the experiment where a quarter inch diameter and an eighth inch thick with a pulling

force of approximately 3.5 pounds. These tiny magnets have an incredible magnetic force

for being smaller than a common penny. These magnets provided an excellent magnetic

field for the experiment.

Diamagnetism is defined as the force that acts in opposition to externally applied

magnetic fields (Diamagnetism and Levitation). The force, even with strong

diamagnetic materials, is very small. Although the force is diminutive, it is able to be

observed in specific conditions. One such example of this phenomenon was the

experiment to levitate a frog (Simon and Geim). Formulas were used to calculate how

strong the magnets needed to be to create a stable zone for the frog to levitate, this was

accomplished because water, H O, is weakly diamagnetic and with frogs having a high
2

proportion of their bodies being water they were able to be levitated. Some materials in

the world are weakly diamagnetic if they are not magnetic. One such material that is

diamagnetic is pyrolytic graphite. This form type of graphite has a high presence of

diamagnetism. Aside from being highly diamagnetic, it also transfers heat very well. This

materials high diamagnetism can allow it to levitate over grids of magnets

(Diamagnetism and Levitation).

 Meesseman Rasch 6

Figure 2. Neodymium Magnet Track and Laser Emission on Pyrolytic Graphite

Figure 2 is a diagram of the setup used in this experiment. It consists of pyrolytic

graphite, a laser to heat up the graphite, a neodymium magnet track that will allow the

graphite to levitate, and a stopwatch for timekeeping.

In this case, the laser was used to concentrate its light onto the pyrolytic graphite

in order to heat it up, which therefore causes an unbalance in the magnetic field. When

the laser heats up the graphite, it expands the molecules making their structure not as

uniform and lowering is diamagnetic presence. This causes it to become less diamagnetic

at the point at which the laser is shining. The weakened diamagnetic properties at this

point lowers the height that the disc is suspended at. The strong diamagnetism on the rest

of disc is still pushing against the magnetic field and is now pushing on an angle and

propelling itself in the direction of the laser, or the point that has the lower diamagnetism

(Zyga).
 Meesseman Rasch 7

Problem Statement

Problem Statement:

Starting from rest which combination of pyrolytic graphite thickness and diameter

will experience the greatest acceleration when exposed to a laser?

Hypothesis:

Pyrolytic graphite of the smallest diameter and thickness will experience the

largest acceleration when exposed to a laser.

Data Measured:

The independent variables in this experiment are the diameter (small, average,

and large) of the pyrolytic graphite and the thickness (thin, average, and thick) of the

graphite discs. The dependent variable is the acceleration (in meters per second squared)

of the graphite during exposure to a laser. A two factor design of experiment (DOE) was

used with 7 trials per DOE. Three DOEs were conducted and the data was used to

analyze the effect of temperature and size of pyrolytic graphite on the acceleration of the

graphite when exposed to a laser.

 Meesseman Rasch 8

Experimental Design

Materials:

Compass
Glass beaker 250 mL
Laser 5 W
Metal track 152.4mm long x 25.4 mm wide x 12.7 (See Figure 1)
(96) Neodymium magnets 6.35 mm diameter x 3.18 mm thick
Plastic pipette dropper 0.5 mL
Pyrolytic graphite sheet 180 mm long x 115 mm wide x 0.25 mm thick
Ruler
Stopwatch
(2) Sunglasses

Procedures:

I. Precautions

1. Wear sunglasses to avoid damage to retinas

II. System Setup

1. Set up neodymium magnets on the metal track (see Appendix A)

2. Use metal point of the compass to cut out circles with proper diameter

3. Place the pyrolytic graphite on the one end of the track

4. Turn the laser on, clear the stopwatch, point the laser at the graphite, and start the

stopwatch

5. Move the graphite from one end of the track to the other, stop the stopwatch, and

record the time

6. Repeat steps 1-5 for each of the 21 trials

III. Data Collection

1. Calculate the average time for each trail

2. Calculate the velocity by diving the distance traveled by the time

 Meesseman Rasch 9

3. Calculate the acceleration by dividing the change in velocity by the change in

time

Diagram:

Figure 3. Setup of Experiment

Figure 3 shows a picture of the materials used during the trials.

 Meesseman Rasch 10

Data and Observations

Table 1
Factors Used in Experiment
Diameter of Pyrolytic Graphite Thickness of Pyrolytic Graphite
(mm) (mm)

(-) Standard (+) (-) Standard (+)

0.50 0.75 1.00 0.25 0.50 0.75

Table 1 shows the two factors that were used to conduct the experiment. There

was a different thicknesses and the diameters of the pyrolytic graphite discs were used to

see which combination would yield the quickest acceleration. The diameter varied from

0.50 mm (low), 0.75 mm (standard), and 1.00 mm (high). The thickness of the graphite

varied from 0.25 mm (low), 0.50 mm (standard), and 0.75 mm (high).

Table 2
Acceleration of Pyrolytic Graphite
Order

Table 2 shows the acceleration that was calculated from the velocity for every trail

in each design of experiment (see Figure 4 below).

 Meesseman Rasch 11

Distance
Velocity=
Time
D
V=
T
Velocity
Acceleration=
Time
V
A=
T

Figure 4. Acceleration Calculations

Figure 4 shows the formula for calculating the velocity of the pyrolytic graphite

and then the acceleration of the graphite. The distance the discs traveled was divided by

how long it took each disc to travel the same distance. The change in velocity of the

discs, from rest, was divided by the time it took the disc to reach the end of the track to

calculate the acceleration (see Appendix B for sample problem).

Table 3
Experimental Observations
Trial Observations

3 The discs seemed to be harder to move than expected and started to separate.

8 The disc started to smoke but showed no damage to the graphite.

11 Moved easily compared to other trails, no difficulties.

17 Appeared to move the fastest out of other trials.

19 Hardest disc to move because of separation and thickness.

Table 3 shows some of the observations made while conducting the experiment.

The thicker pieces were harder to move than the thinner pieces. No damage or holes came

to the discs that smoked.

 Meesseman Rasch 12

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Table 4
Average Acceleration
Runs
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3 Average Accel.
Diameter Thickness

(+) (+) 0.029 0.031 0.016 0.025

(-) (-) 0.102 0.109 0.033 0.082

(+) (-) 0.037 0.101 0.101 0.079

(-) (+) 0.037 0.016 0.034 0.029

Table 4 shows the acceleration for each of the design of experiments (DOE), and

the average for each combination of factors. The grand average (average of the averages)

is 0.0539 m/s.

Figure 5. Dot Plot of Standards

Figure 5 shows a dot plot of the standards data collected. Variability of the

standards (i.e., the range of standards) provides an indication of an experiments

consistency in design and execution. A range of standards equal to 0.022 m/s. This
 Meesseman Rasch 13

suggests that there is consistency with the results that were collected. There is no

increasing or decreasing trend in the standards, further ensuring the consistency of the

experiment.

Double the range of standards is 0.044; this value will be used later when

determining whether variable effect values are statistically significant to the experiment

(that is, less than -0.044 or greater than 0.044).

0.056
Acceleration of Pyrolytic Graphite (m/s) 0.052

-1 1
Diameter

Table 5
Effect of Diameter
Diameter

(-) (+)

0.082 0.025

0.029 0.079

Average = 0.056 Average = 0.052

Figure 6. Effect of Diameter

Table 5 and Figure 6 show the effect that diameter had on the acceleration of

pyrolytic graphite discs. The Average acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite when the

diameter variable was held high (1.0 mm) and low (0.5 mm). Adding the high values and

dividing by two yields an average of 0.052 m/s. Adding the two low values and dividing

by two yields an average of 0.056 m/s. By subtracting the low value (0.056) from the
 Meesseman Rasch 14

high value (0.052), there is a result of -0.004. That means as the diameter increased, on

average, the acceleration of the graphite decreased by 0.004 m/s.

 Meesseman Rasch 15

Table 6

0.081

Acceleration of Pyrolytic Graphite (m/s)

0.027

-1
Thickness

Effect of Thickness
Thickness

(-) (+)

0.082 0.025

0.079 0.029

Average = 0.081 Average = 0.027

Figure 7. Effect of Thickness

Table 6 and Figure 7 show the effect that thickness had on the acceleration of

pyrolytic graphite discs. The average acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite when the

thickness variable was held high (0.75 mm) and low (0.25 mm). Adding the high values

and dividing by two yields an average of 0.027 m/s. Adding the two low values and

dividing by two yields an average of 0.081 m/s. By subtracting the low value (0.081)

from the high value (0.027), there is a result of -0.054. That means that as the thickness of

the pyrolytic graphite discs increases, on average, the acceleration decreases by 0.054

m/s.
 Meesseman Rasch 16

Acceleration of Pyrolytic Graphite (m/s)

Thicknes s

Table 7
Interaction Effect

Figure 8. Interaction Effect

Table 7 and Figure 8 show how the two factors of diameter and thickness

interaction on the acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite. These compare the total averages

of diameter and the total averages of thickness to find the interaction effect. It can be

noted that the slopes of the solid and dotted segments are nearly parallel. This suggests

there was little interaction, or that the effect value was not statistically significant.

The overall interaction effect was found by subtracting the slope of the dashed

segment (-0.0265) from the slope of the solid segment (-0.027). The interaction of

diameter and thickness in this experiment was approximately -0.0005. The -0.0005 value

means that as both diameter and thickness increased, the average acceleration of the

graphite decreased by 0.0005 m/s.

When diameter was held high on its own, an average acceleration of 0.052 m/s

was observed (see Figure 8). The solid segment, which represents the interaction of

diameter and thickness, is shown above. When thickness is held high, there is an average
 Meesseman Rasch 17

acceleration of 0.027 m/s; this value is much lower than the 0.052 m/s expected

originally. However, when thickness was held low, there was an average of 0.079 m/s;

this value is much higher than 0.052 m/s.

Additionally, when diameter was held low, an average acceleration of 0.056 m/s

was observed (see Figure 8). When thickness is held high, there is an average

acceleration of 0.027 m/s, which is again much lower than the original acceleration of

0.052 m/s. However, when thickness is held low, there is an average acceleration of

0.081 m/s. Thickness, when held high, consistently lowers the acceleration of the

graphite, and increases the acceleration of the graphite when held low.

Figure 9. Dot Plot of Effects

Figure 9 shows the effects of each variable: diameter (D), thickness (T), and their

interaction (DT). To determine if a variable is statistically significant to a given

experiment, its effect value can be compared to double the range of standards (-0.044 and

0.044).

The three different factors were all checked for their effect on the acceleration.

The effect of diameter, -0.004, proved not to be statistically significant, meaning that the
 Meesseman Rasch 18

diameter of the graphite discs had little effect on the acceleration of the discs. The effect

of thickness, -0.054, proved to be the only statistically significant, meaning that the

thickness of the graphite discs had a greater effect than any other factor on the

acceleration of the discs. The interaction effect was calculated to be -0.0005 m/s. With

this effect being in the range of standards the interaction between diameter and the

thickness of the pyrolytic graphite discs proved to be insignificant and have very little, to

no effect being that the effect value was close to zero.

Only one effect was found to be significant from conducting this experiment. The

effect of thickness was the only significant effect that was determined by doubling the

range of standards. This means that the factor of thickness had the greatest impact on the

acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite.

Effect D Effect T Effect DT

Y =Grand Average + + + +noise
2 2 2

Figure 10. Prediction Equation

Figure 10 shows the prediction equation. This equation is made by combining the

grand average, or the average of all the averages, with the effects of the factors and the

interaction all divided by two. This is used to interpolate the acceleration of the pyrolytic

graphite with all the factors affecting the acceleration. The prediction is 0.025 m/s for a

thickness of 0.625 mm and a diameter of 0.875 mm, or halfway between the standards

and the high values for the factors (see Appendix C for sample calculation).

Effect T
Y =Grand Average + + noise
2

Figure 11. Parsimonious Prediction Equation

 Meesseman Rasch 19

Figure 11 shows the parsimonious prediction equation. The equation only

includes the grand average and any significant effects divided by two. Thickness was the

only significant factor, and therefore was the only effect to go in the equation. This

equation can be used to interpolate the acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite by using the

only effect that proved significant. The parsimonious prediction is 0.0269 m/s, for a

thickness of 0.625 mm, or halfway between the standard (0.5 mm) and the high (0.75

mm) values (see Appendix C for sample calculation).

 Meesseman Rasch 20

Conclusion

The goal of this experiment was to determine the acceleration of pyrolytic

graphite when exposed to the photons of a laser. The hypothesis that the low diameter and

low thickness would have the highest acceleration was accepted. With the highest

average acceleration of 0.082 m/s, the lowest diameter and lowest thickness factors

provide the evidence to support the original hypothesis. Of the two factors, thickness and

diameter, thickness proved to be statistically significant with an effect of -0.054. This

means that as thickness increased, the acceleration of the graphite decreased by 0.054

m/s. With the slopes of the interaction between the two factors being so similar, it

showed that the interaction was not significant, also the diameter was proven to not be

significant.

Most people have heard about magnetism, the attractive and repulsive forces

between two objects, but diamagnetism is the force acting in opposition to externally

applied magnetic fields. The force is very small even in strongly diamagnetic materials.

In this experiment, the diamagnetic properties of pyrolytic graphite at room temperature

were explored. When coupled with a grid of neodymium magnets, the diamagnetic

properties of the graphite repel and push against the magnetic field created by the

magnets and levitates the graphite above the magnet grid. With the laser focused at the

graphite, the heat from the laser causes the molecules to expand and decrease the

diamagnetic property that it had from its uniform structure. The area will have a

weakened diamagnetic properties and with have a lower height of levitation above the

magnets than the other half, and the diamagnetism will push on an angle moving the disc
 Meesseman Rasch 21

forward (Zyga). The time it took for the graphite to reach the end of the six-inch track

was recorded and used to calculate the velocity and the and then the acceleration. The

thickness was significant because it was more difficult to heat up and weaken the

diamagnetic property enough to produce a high acceleration. The diameter did not appear

to make a difference because the diameter only changed the difficulty of the laser

focusing on the graphite and not the acceleration.

Although reliable data was collected from this experiment, there were some flaws

in the experiment that could have affected the data. The primary issue that could have led

to problems in the data was the discs not finishing the length of the track while being

moved. Often, the laser would move off of the edge of the pyrolytic graphite and this

would cause the disc to stop moving which resulted in the trial run having to be re-

conducted. This could have caused small inconsistencies in the data resulting from the

continuous re-runs of the trials. The laser also had to focus differently for each different

trial to keep the discs from revolving around the point of focus that the laser was at. The

smaller discs and thinner discs would often rotate in a circle around the point at which the

beam was at. This is because the laser was covering a larger portion of the discs, and they

were harder to stabilize than the other diameter discs.

While diamagnetic materials are still hard to work with and not fully taken

advantage of, this research could be a gateway into the exploration of diamagnetic

properties of materials on a much larger scale. Currently magnetism is used to make

magnetic levitating train system, or maglevs. Although these trains are electromagnetic,

there could be better ways to make a levitating train system without the use of these

electromagnets. Research, such as this, could help the potential idea of a laser guided or
 Meesseman Rasch 22

light guided diamagnetic levitation transportation system. With new advances in

technology and a vast amount of lasers with incredible power, such an idea could be

possible. The use of infrared lasers could even be used to provide the heat needed to

move the diamagnetic materials without the creating a beam of light visible in the

spectrum that humans can see, which would make the beam safer. Transportation systems

with the use of diamagnetic properties of materials could be the future of everyday

transportation.
 Meesseman Rasch 23

Acknowledgements

We are unable to express how thankful we are for all the help from our teachers.

Our teachers Mr. McMillan and Mrs. Cybulski have proved a vast amount constructive

criticism that helped us make this paper with a quality that is to be not only required but

unexpected and intelligent. Without all of their time and effort they put into checking and

rechecking our paper section by section and the helpful ideas to improve this paper and

make it something to be proud of.

Without help from close friends and other students this paper would not have been

completed. Our friends provided helpful comments and ideas for how to incorporate all

of our ideas into this one paper and make it scientifically accurate.

A final thank you to our parents and families for supporting our idea and allowing

the purchasing of materials that could be harmful if not used carefully. And another thank

you to Mr. McMillan and for helping us adjust our topic to make it something worth

researching and presenting, while giving us the moral to further investigate the idea.
 Meesseman Rasch 24

Appendix A: Magnet Setup

Figure 12. Setup of Neodymium Magnets

Figure 12 shows how the magnets were placed on the track. They were placed in

an alternating positive and negative pattern so they will stay together and create a

magnetic field. The magnets are in four columns of twenty-four magnets, for a total of

ninety-six.
 Meesseman Rasch 25

Appendix B: Velocity and Acceleration

Distance
Velocity=
Time

Df Di
V=
T f T i

0.15240 0.1524
V= = =0.049 m/ s
3.070 3.07

Velocity
Acceleration=
Time

V f V i
A=
T f T i

0.0490 0.049
A= = =0.016 m/s
3.070 3.07

Figure 13. Calculations of Velocity and Acceleration

Figure 13 shows an example problem of how to calculate the velocity and the

acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite disc from when the diameter and thickness were

both held high in the third DOE. The velocity was calculated by taking the distance the

disc traveled, the length of the track, and dividing by the time it took the disc to get

across the track. The acceleration was calculated by taking the velocity of the disc and

dividing by the time it took the disc to reach the end of the track. All of the initial values

for these calculations were zero because the disc was at rest at the start of the trails.
 Meesseman Rasch 26

Appendix C: Prediction Equations

D T DT
Y =Grand Average + + + +noise
2 2 2

0.004 D 0.054 T 0.0005 DT

Y =0.054 + + + + noise
2 2 2

Y =0.025 m/ s

Figure 14. Calculation of the Prediction Equation

Figure 14 shows the formula of the prediction equation and what the prediction is.

The prediction is equal to the sum of the grand average (average of the all the averages),

the effects divided by 2, and noise. Noise is an unquantifiable effect that accounts for

design flaws or other factors that may have affected the data.

T
Y =Grand Average + + noise
2

0.054 T
Y =0.054 + + noise
2

Y =0.027 m/ s

Figure 15. Calculation of the Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Figure 15 shows the formula of the parsimonious prediction equation and what

the prediction is. The prediction is equal to the sum of the grand average (average of the

all the averages), the statistically significant effects divided by 2, and noise. Noise is an

unquantifiable effect that accounts for design flaws or other factors that may have

affected the data.

Meesseman Rasch 27
 Meesseman Rasch 28

Works Cited

Anissimov, Michael, and Niki Foster. "What Is a Neodymium Magnet?" WiseGeek.

Conjecture, n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2016. <http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-a-

neodymium-magnet.htm>.

- - - "What Are Neodymium Magnets?" WiseGeek. Conjecture, n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2016.

<http://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-neodymium-magnets.htm>.

"Diamagnetism and Levitation." K&J Magnetics Blog. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2016.

<https://www.kjmagnetics.com/blog.asp?p=diamagnetic-levitation>.

"Frequently Asked Questions About Lasers." U.S. Food and Drug Administration. U.S.

Food and Drug Administration, 11 Apr. 2016. Web. 24 Apr. 2016.

<http://www.fda.gov/Radiation-

EmittingProducts/RadiationEmittingProductsandProcedures/HomeBusinessandEn

tertainment/LaserProductsandInstruments/ucm116362.htm>.

"How Lasers Work." Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Department of Energy's

National Nuclear Security Administration, n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2016.

<https://lasers.llnl.gov/education/how_lasers_work>.

Nave, Carl R. "Magnetic Field." Hyper Physics. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2016.

<http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfie.html>.

"New World Record Speed for Trains." Maglev NET. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 May 2016.

<http://www.maglev.net/new-world-record-speed>.

Simon, M. D. and A. K. Geim. "Diamagnetic Levitation: Flying Frogs and Floating

Magnets (invited)." J. Appl. Phys. Journal of Applied Physics 87.9 (2000): 6200.

Web. <http://www.physics.ucla.edu/marty/diamag/diajap00.pdf>.
 Meesseman Rasch 29

Townes, Charles H. "The First Laser." The University of Chicago Press. Ed. Laura

Garwin and Tim Lincoln. The University of Chicago, 2003. Web. 24 Apr.

2016. <http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/284158_townes.html>.

Wilson, Cornell. "Maglev: Magnetic Levitating Trains." Electrical and Computer

Engineering Design Handbook. Creative Commons Attribution, n.d. Web. 8 May

2016. <https://sites.tufts.edu/eeseniordesignhandbook/2015/maglev-magnetic-levi

tating-trains/>.

Zyga, Lisa. "Magnetically Levitating Graphite Can Be Moved with Laser." Phys.org.

Science X Network, 27 Dec. 2012. Web. 26 Apr. 2016.

<http://phys.org/news/2012-12-magnetically-levitating-graphite-laser.html>.