HUMAN FACTORS ENGINEERING

Course Code: IE-322

TOPIC:
HUMAN INFORMATION
PROCESSING

WEEK # 2

Course Instructor: Engr.Zahid Rashid

E-mail: zahid.rashid@uettaxila.edu.pk
University of Engineering & Technology , Taxila Pakistan
2nd Feb 2016
 INTRODUCTION
Human information processing has become a very important area
in HFE. It may seem surprising that there was little interest in
cognition and human information processing until 1967, when
Ulrich Neisser published his book on cognitive psychology.

Today, cognitive psychology and cognitive science are

fundamental to the design of information systems, including the
design of information displays, pervasive and ubiquitous
computing (computers everywhere), handheld computing, and
mobile phones.

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 HUMAN INFORMATION PROCESSING
A traditional approach to human information processing is
presented ON NEXT SLIDE. According to this model, people
sense the environment through seeing and hearing, then make
decisions, and finally act on the decisions.

There are three processors in this model:

1. A perceptual processor (to see and hear)
2. A cognitive processor (to think)
3. A motor processor (to act)

The average time to process information in the 3 processors is as

follows: 100 ms for perception; 70 ms for cognition; and 70 ms for
action. These numbers depend upon the task; a complex target
with many details takes a longer time to process than a simple
target.
Introdution to Human Factors Engineering
Human information processing. Adapted from a model by Card, Moran, and Newell (1982).
HT=half-time of memory; Cap=capacity; T=average processing time.
Introdution to Human Factors Engineering
SALIENCE BIAS

AVAILABILITY HEURISTIC

High probability events are favored

over low probability events.
Introdution to Human Factors Engineering
CONFIRMATION BIAS

OVERCONFIDENCE IN DIAGNOSIS

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 RASMUSSENS MODEL
Jens Rasmussen (1983; 1986) was one of the first to formulate a
model of naturalistic decision making. He distinguished between
Skill-Based, Rule-Based, and Knowledge- Based decision making
and task performance .

1. Skill-based decisions behavior

2. Rule Based Decisions
If situation A, then I do X.
If situation B, then I do Y.
If situation C, then I do Z.

3. Knowledge-based decisions
are typical for complex environments and for unfamiliar tasks.

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 WEBERS LAW
Understanding human ability of noticing minute differences in
shapes, colors, heights etc can help graphic designers in designing
better interfaces and interactions.

Perceptual ability to make out differences in objects, colors, shapes,

texts etc influences the cognition and the interaction efficiency.

Can we perceive the difference between a line of 10cm length

against a line of 10.05 cm ? Can we perceive the difference in
holding a weight of 10.0 kg against a weight of 10.05 kg ?

This incremental threshold for detecting the difference in any

observed value is an important human factor useful in designing
GUIs.
Introdution to Human Factors Engineering
 WEBERS LAW
For an initial stimulus value I ( say 10 cm ) let the increment
threshold for detecting a difference be I ( say 0.05 cm ).

Weber's Law ( E. H. Weber, in 1834 ) states that the ratio of I/I is

constant for a specific measure.

Where
I = Differential threshold I = Initial stimulus intensity K= Weber fraction

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 WEBERS LAW (Applications)
Many times large amount of information is required to be
displayed on a limited size computer screen. Information is
displayed in various forms viz. text, pictures, drawings, maps,
graphs, videos etc.

Poor visual design of user interface lacks the ability of

differentiating between two close enough visual stimuli e.g. two
lines with different thicknesses in a map (for wide roads and
narrow lanes).What is this threshold of line thickness that may lead
to noticeable difference is governed by Webers law.

The threshold of noticeable difference between colour shades is

also governed by Webers law.

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 HICKS LAW
Hick's Law (for William Edmund Hick) or the HickHyman Law
(for Ray Hyman), predicts the time it takes to make a decision in
selecting among possible choices.

The Hick-Hyman Law measures cognitive information capacity.

Given n equally probable choices, the average reaction time T
required to choose among them is approximately.

Hicks law stipulates that the reaction time is a function of the

number of choices in adecision.

RT=a+b log2N
where RT is reaction time, N is the number of alternatives, and a and b are
constants.
Introdution to Human Factors Engineering
 HICKS LAW
Hicks Law is applicable in menus and submenu design of GUI or
web interfaces. It helps us in designing the menu hierarchy and its
depth.

When we have too many choices we need to cognitively categorize

items to reduce the time taken to select an item at any stage.

The logarithmic function of Hicks Law decides the depth of

hierarchy of the menu tree.

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

memory
 MEMORY

Memory is an person's mental ability to store, retain, and recall

the information.

CLASSIFICATION:

A. Sensory memory

B. 1) Short-term memory (STM)

2) Long-term memory (LTM)

C. Working/Operative memory

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 INTRODUCTION
A. Sensory memory

Sensory memory corresponds approximately to the initial 200 500

milliseconds after an item is perceived.

The ability to look at an item, and remember what it looked like with just a
second of observation, or memorization, is an example of sensory memory.

B. 1) Short-term memory (STM)

Short-term memory allows recall for a period of several seconds to a minute

without rehearsal. Its capacity is also very limited: (G. A. Miller, The Magical Number
7 2, 1956) when working at Bell Laboratories, conducted experiments showing
that the store of short term memory was 7 2 items.

Modern estimates of the capacity of short-term memory are lower, typically on

the order of 4 5 items.
Introdution to Human Factors Engineering
 MEMORY
B. 2) Long-term memory (LTM)

The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory

generally have a strictly limited capacity and duration, which
means that information is available only for a certain period of
time, but is not retained indefinitely.

By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities

of information for potentially unlimited duration (sometimes a
whole life span). The capacity can also approach infinity
(unlimited).

Example:
Chase and Simon (1973)
Introdution to Human Factors Engineering
 MEMORY
C. Working Memory

Working memory is the locus of attention demanding operations,

like

1) selecting information that needs attention

2) scanning the current contents of the working memory itself
3) retaining relevant information in working memory a short
period of time

6 4
+ 8___
14
Introdution to Human Factors Engineering
 SERIAL POSITION EFFECT
Serial position effect: the phenomenon of remembering the material at the
beginning and the end of a list better than the material in the middle.

For example:

1 3 4 5 1 6 2 4 5 4 7 2 1 8 2 5 4

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 MEMORY

Amnesia: Amnesia (from Greek) is a condition in which memory

is disturbed or lost.

Psychological Amnesia

1. Childhood amnesia (also known as infantile amnesia) is the

common inability to remember events from one's own
childhood.

2. Dreams amnesia

3. Blackout phenomenon can be caused by excessive short-term

alcohol consumption.
Introdution to Human Factors Engineering
 Human Factors Implications for
System Designer
1. Minimize working memory load

An overall rule of thumb is that both, the time and alphabetical-

numerical items that human operators have to retain in working
memory during task performance should be kept to a minimum.
(Loffus et al., 1979)

2. Provide Visual Echoes

Wherever synthetic voice is used to convey verbal messages,

these messages can, and ideally should, be coupled with a
redundant visual.

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 Human Factors Implications for
System Designer
3. Provide placeholders for sequential tasks.

Tasks that require multiple steps, whose actions may be similar in

appearance or feedback, benefit from some visual reminder of
what steps have been completed so that the momentarily distracted
operator will not return to task, forgetting what was done and
needing start from scratch. (Gray, 2000)

4. Minimize confusability Confusability in working memory can

be reduced by building physical distinctions into material to be
retained.

5. Avoid unnecessary zeros in codes to be remembered.

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 Human Factors Implications for
System Designer
6. Consider working memory limits in instructions:

The sentences presented in instructions must be accurately

comprehended. There is no tolerance for error in such instructions.

7. Memory often fails because of:

1) weak or few associations with other information

2) interfering associations

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 Consistency & Inconsistency in
Interaction

Actions such as pointing, clicking, dragging, placing have to be

done in repeated cycles by the user. This often leads to forming a
habit for a given interface environment.

If the dialogue between the user and the interface consists of

random patterns it leads to increase in cognitive load. It is
therefore important for interactions to be not only reliable but also
consistent across all interfaces constituting a task.

Inconsistency leads to unpredictability contributing to

inefficiency. Errors could creep in.

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

 Consistency & Inconsistency in
Interaction
Consistency in presentation
Consistency in presentation means that users should see
information and objects in the same logical, visual, or physical
way throughout the product.

Consistency in behaviour
Consistency in behavior means that the way an object works is the
same everywhere.

Consistency in Interaction Techniques

Interaction technique consistency is also important. The same
shortcut keys should work in similar programs. Mouse techniques
should produce the same results anywhere in the interface.

Introdution to Human Factors Engineering

Questions?
More Information?

Course Instructor: Engr.Zahid Rashid

E-mail: zahid.rashid@uettaxila.edu.pk
Industrial Engineering Department
University of Engineering &
Technology, Taxila Pakistan