January 2014 PDF

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JANUARY 2014 A DEVELOPMENT MONTHLY ` 10
Tribal and Marginalized Communities

Constitutional Provisions, Laws and Tribes
Virginius Xaxa
Actualising Adivasi Self-Rule

Rahul Banerjee
The Food Bill, Wild Foods and Adivasi People

Madhu Ramnath
Community Resource Person:

Harbinger of Change in Rural Land Governance
Sanjoy Patnaik
Special Article
Climate Change and State Preparedness
Subhash Sharma
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Regd. No. RNI 949/57 ISSN -097 1-84 00
Virginius Xaxa
Rahul Banerjee
Madhu Ramnath
Sanjoy Patnaik
Special Article
Subhash Sharma
Regd. No. RNI 949/57 ISSN -097 1-84 00
Virginius Xaxa
Rahul Banerjee
Madhu Ramnath
Sanjoy Patnaik
Special Article
Subhash Sharma
Regd. No. RNI 949/57 ISSN -097 1-84 00

Virginius Xaxa

Rahul Banerjee

Madhu Ramnath

Sanjoy Patnaik
Special Article
Subhash Sharma
January 2014 Vol 58
Chief Editor : Rajesh K. Jha

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Rig Veda
CONTENTS
Constitutional Provisions, Laws and Tribes Scheduled Caste Sub-Plan and Tribal Sub-Plan
Virginius Xaxa..........................................................................................4 Saumya Shrivastava................................................................................38
The Limits to Law, Democracy and Governance Evidence from some Least Developed States
Ajit Menon, C R Bijoy..............................................................................9 Archana Prasad.......................................................................................44
do you know?................................................................................13 Reflections on Marginalization of

Tribes in South India
Special Article Ritambhara Hebbar.................................................................................49
Climate Change and State Preparedness Economic sustainability of the
Subhash Sharma......................................................................................15 Himalayan ecosystem
B K Konwar............................................................................................52
Actualising Adivasi Self-RuleThe Only Panacea
Rahul Banerjee........................................................................................22 The Need, Costs and
Alternatives to the Food Security Bill
North east diary . .....................................................................26 Surjit S Bhalla.........................................................................................58
The Food Bill, Wild Foods and the Adivasi people Best practices
Madhu Ramnath......................................................................................27
Cultivating self-reliance
Community Resource Person: Shailendra Sinha.....................................................................................62
Sanjoy Patnaik........................................................................................31 Sabla: The road to empowerment and self
esteem for adolescent girls
J&K Window . .................................................................................36 Manisha Jain...........................................................................................63
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YOJANA
Lest we Forget the Other Panchsheel....
W
e all know that Jawaharlal Nehru enunciated the five principles for the conduct of
international relations which is known as Panchsheel. However, it is relatively unknown
that Nehru also formulated another set of five fundamental principles to draw a framework
for the development of the tribal people. This is contained in his preface to the book titled A
Philosophy for North Eastern Frontier Area (NEFA) written by the renowned anthropologist Verrier
Elwin whom Nehru greatly admired and respected. The cornerstone of Nehruvian vision of tribal
development is based on the need to respect the tribal rights in land and forests. It cautions against
the imposition of the thinking and values of the outsiders on the tribals and argues that they should
be allowed to develop along the lines of their own genius. These principles lay a clear emphasis
on retaining and respecting the autonomy of the tribal social and cultural institutions. These ideas
are in consonance with the Article 244 of the constitution which mandates the preservation of the
tradition and culture of the Scheduled Tribes and the autonomy of the scheduled areas.
The history of the marginalisation of the tribal people goes long back. In the colonial period a number of constitutional
provisions were enacted which effectively deprived the tribals of their traditional rights over land, forest and other natural
resources. The Indian Forest Act of 1927 introduced the principle of res nullius which implied that any property which
does not have a documented legal owner can be appropriated by the government. Using this principle large tracts of land
were handed over by the British to the Forest Department which was created to implement this rule. Similarly, the concept
of Eminent Domain that owes its origin to the Land Acquisition Act of 1894 gives the government the first right to acquire
any land for public purpose. This has also been criticised for taking away the traditional rights of the tribal people over
land and natural resources.
It is a fact that the tribals have faced displacement and deprivation to facilitate various developmental projects such as
setting up of industries, mining operations, construction of big dams etc. According to some estimates close to 10 million
tribals have been displaced and lost their livelihoods on account of such developmental activities undertaken in the country.
The modern nation states indeed divide their territories into complex and overlapping political and economic zones,
rearrange people and resources within these units, and create regulations delineating how and by whom these zones can be
used to achieve certain goals but safeguarding the rights of the indigenous people, protecting their culture and livelihood
has been accepted as a fundamental duty of the state.
In India too, the provisions like the Fifth and Sixth Schedules of the constitution provide a historic guarantee to the
adivasis on the right over their land and have been hailed as constitution within constitution so far as tribal rights are
concerned. The Panchayat (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act (PESA), gives substantive powers to the tribals with regard
to natural resource management and self-governance. The Forest Rights Act also grants community rights over common
resources apart from the individual rights to integrate the conservation and livelihood rights of some of the poorest of
the poor people of the country. The recently promulgated Land Acquisition Act prohibits the acquisition of land in the
Scheduled areas without the consent of the local institutions of self-governance and thus seeks to address some of these
concerns about the right to land and livelihood of the marginalised people.
Marshall Sahlins has called the hunter-gatherers, aboriginal and indigenous people the Original affluent Society who
lived the Zen road to affluence with finite and few but adequate material wants for a dignified life. In contrast the modern,
western Galbraithean way to affluence is based on the great wants of man to be satisfied with limited means. Let us not
try to bridge this gap through the suffering of the tribal and the marginalised people since a tear long suppressed can turn
our glitzy dreams into nightmares. q

tribal rights
legal view
Virginius Xaxa
ribes in I n d i a leadership showed special concern for
T
have come to be tribes in the post-independent India.
conceptualized This is reflected in the provisions
primarily in relation to enshrined for them in the constitution.
their geographical and Tribes as citizens of free India were
social isolation from extended civil, political and social
the larger Indian society and not in rights in equal measure as others.
relation to the stage of their social Civil and political rights have been
formation. This is why a wide range enshrined within the purview of
of groups and communities at different the Fundamental Rights of the
levels of the social formation have Indian Constitution while social
It is ironical that despite all come to be categorized as tribes. rights have been envisaged in the
By virtue of the fact that tribes lived Directive Principles of the Indian
a large number of well in isolation from the larger Indian Constitution.
meaning constitutional society, they enjoyed autonomy of
Besides the ones stated above,
provisions and laws governance over the territory they
tribes were also extended certain
inhabited. They held control over the
aimed at protecting land, forest and other resources and
special rights as being members
of a distinct community. Such
and safeguarding the governed themselves in terms of their
rights, among other things, include
own laws, traditions and customs. It
welfare and interest of was the advent of colonial rule that
provisions for statutory recognition
(article 342); proportionate
the tribal communities, brought tribes and non-tribes into one
representation in Parliament and
the process of single political and administrative
state legislatures (articles 330 and
structure by means of war, conquest
marginalization 332); restriction on the right of the
and annexation. This was followed by
ordinary citizen to move freely or
of the tribals has introduction of new and uniform civil
settle in particular areas or acquire
and criminal laws as well as setting up
gone on unabated. of administrative structures that were
property in them (article19(5));
conservation of ones language,
Paradoxically, at alien to tribal tradition and ethos.
dialects and culture, etc (article 29).
the root of such All these developments led to large- The Constitution also has a clause
scale alienation of land from tribes to that enables the State to make
marginalization are the non-tribes through such processes and provision for reservation in general
laws themselves means as fraud, deceit, mortgage, etc. (article 14(4)) and in particular, in
This being the case, the nationalist jobs and appointments in favour
The author is a Professor and Deputy Director at Tata Institute of Social Sciences, Guwahati Campus. He is a member of the Advisory
Committee, Tribal Development in the Ministry of Rural Development, Government of India, UPE (University with Potential for
Excellence Phase II), Central University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad. He has also authored book's like Economic Dualism and Structure
of Class: A Study in Plantation and Peasant Settings in North Bengal (1997) and State, Society and Tribes: Issues in Post- Colonial
India (2008). He is also the co-author of Plantation Labour in India (1996) and co-editor of Social Exclusion and Adverse Inclusion:
Adivasis in India (2012).

of tribal communities (article for people hailing from the even protective discrimination,
16(4)). There is also the Directive scheduled tribe category. Protective effective.
Principle of the Constitution that discrimination in favour of the group
requires that the educational and is also evident in relaxation granted This means there was a need for
economic interest of the weaker to candidates from the scheduled making provisions for economic and
sections of society, including tribes, tribe category. social rights for the tribes not only
is especially promoted (article 46). through legislation or constitutional
Besides these, there are provisions Despite these provisions, the provision but also through effective
in the 5th or 6th schedule of the result is far from satisfactory, more legal, administrative, infrastructure
Constitution (Articles 244 and so in the case of scheduled tribes and financial support. In respect of
244(a) that empower the state to than scheduled castes. Nevertheless, provisions for which, certain support
bring the area inhabited by the the inability of the State to fill up systems were made available, for
tribes under special treatment of the quota is not considered as a example, the provision of protective
administration. The provisions violation of the rights enshrined in discrimination. such arrangements
in the Constitution range from the Constitution. This is so, because did lead to some results, no matter
creation of the scheduled and tribal in the first place, necessary measures how inadequate they might have
have been taken in pursuit of the b e e n . H o w e v e r, w h e r e s u c h
areas, to providing representation
rights enshrined in the Constitution. measures were non-existent or
in Parliament and State legislatures
S e c o n d l y, t h e e x t e n s i o n s o f largely ineffective, the provisions
including special privileges in
reservation to candidates from the made in the Constitution have
Of all the provisions, protective category are not automatic. Rather, it hardly led to any desirable results
is contingent upon certain conditions in favour of tribes.
discrimination has been seen stipulated in the Constitution itself.
as one of the most important Article 335, for example, stipulates
It is not only that effective social
and economic rights were not
rights given to tribal people. that the claims of the scheduled
evolved and extended to tribes,
The government evolved specific castes and scheduled tribes can be
but even rights that they enjoyed,
taken into consideration, consistent
measures with a view to with maintenance of efficiency
such as rights over land and forest
executing rights conferred on were taken away from them by
of administration in making
the colonial state to begin with
tribal people in the Constitution. appointments to services and posts.
and later by the post- independent
It earmarked 7.5 per cent of Thirdly, though such rights have
been given to tribes, they can avail It is not only that effective social
the jobs in government, semi- of them only as members of the and economic rights were not
government and also educational tribal community. evolved and extended to tribes,
institutions for people hailing It is an individuals right to but even rights that they enjoyed,
from the scheduled tribe secure access to these provisions on such as rights over land and forest
category. equal terms with others. The right is
also individual in the sense that the
were taken away from them by the
the form of reservation of a individual is required to take some colonial state to begin with.
certain per centage of posts in action to ensure that he gets it. In
government services and seats view of issues such as these, there Indian state. It is a well-established
in educational institutions. In is an inbuilt difficulty in challenging fact that tribes live mainly off land
short, the Constitution aimed the negligence or indifference of and forest. Yet, the process of land
at safeguarding, protecting and the state in the court of law. Only alienation that began during British
promoting the interest of tribal specific cases of discrimination rule has gone on unabated in the
people. or denials can be taken to court, post-independence period. This
but these could be defended by has already been referred to earlier.
Of all the provisions, protective taking recourse to article 335 of the In order to deal with the problem
discrimination has been seen as one Constitution. In short, the provision of land alienation to non-tribals,
of the most important rights given of protective discrimination is laws have been enacted in almost
to tribal people. The government not sufficient in itself. To become all states where there are tribal
evolved specific measures with a effective, the provision must be populations. In some parts, such
view to executing rights conferred supplemented by what may be called acts have been in existence since
on tribal people in the Constitution. substantive equality i.e. ability, the British period like, Chotanagpur
It earmarked 7.5 per cent of the jobs resources and actual opportunity Tenancy Act 1908 and The Santhal
in government, semi-government must be created to make the formal Pargana Tenancy Act 1940. The
and also educational institutions equality or in the case of tribes, British initiated such measures not

so much out of concern for the tribes Scheduled Areas), Act, 1996. The towards tribes was quite to the
but for reasons of administrative and act empowers the scheduled tribes contrary. This was mainly due
political expediency. These were to safeguard and preserve the to the imperatives of national
more in the direction of protection traditions and customs of the people, development. The issue of tribal
from land alienation of the tribes their cultural identity, community development could not be pursued
and restriction of the movement of resources and customary mode of outside of the issues of national
the non-tribal population into tribal dispute resolution through the gram development. In fact, measures
areas. sabha. Interestingly, the provisions undertaken for bringing about rapid
of the Panchayat Act hardly find national development were seen
In the post-independence
its due place in letter and spirit, as a kind of important mechanism
period, all states with tribal
for example, in provisions on the whereby integration of tribal
population enacted legislation, not
pattern of the sixth schedule, in the society could be achieved. In fact,
only for prevention of alienation
acts enacted by the different states. the national objective to build up
of lands from tribes to non-
tribes, but also for its restoration. Further, though no enactment
has been made to extend part The issue of tribal development
In some states, acts have even
been amended with a view to IX A (The Municipalities) to could not be pursued outside
protecting the interest of non-tribes. the scheduled areas, the same is of the issues of national
steadily being pushed in all states
The Andhra Pradesh (Selected
having scheduled areas. The other
development. In fact,
Areas) Land Transfer Regulation, measures undertaken for
1959, was amended in 1970, in act in the direction has been the
an attempt to accommodate the The Scheduled Tribe and Other bringing about rapid national
interest of non-tribes. The Kerala Traditional Forest Dwellers Act, development were seen as a
2006. The act is aimed at undoing
Scheduled Tribes (Regulation of kind of important mechanism
the age old injustice done to tribals
Transfer of Land and Restoration
by restoring and recognizing their whereby integration of tribal
of Alienated Land) Act, 1975
pre-existing rights. The recognition society could be achieved. In
In some states, Acts have even been and restoration has been, however fact, the national objective
passing through rough weather in to build up a productive
amended with a view to protecting respect of its implementation.
the interest of non-tribes. The structure for future growth and
Andhra Pradesh (Selected
Under the Constitutional resource mobilization was far
provisions of Directive Principles, the
Areas) Land Transfer Regulation, more important than issues
States major concern for tribes has
1959, was amended in 1970, in been their welfare and development. concerning the welfare and
an attempt to accommodate the This was to be pursued under a kind interest of the tribes.
of constitutional provision, the letter
interest of non-tribes. The Kerala
and spirit of which was the most a productive structure for future
Scheduled Tribes (Regulation of evident in the five principles (panch growth and resource mobilization
Transfer of Land and Restoration shila), Nehru is credited to have was far more important than
of Alienated Land) Act, 1975 has enunciated in a foreword to a book issues concerning the welfare and
even been repealed to give effect to entitled, A Philosophy of NEFA interest of the tribes. So, tribal
by Verier Elwin. Since then, those interest and welfare were invariably
concessions made to non-tribes. principles have been taken as the sacrificed in the name of national
ethos of tribal development in post- development.
has even been repealed to give independence India. The principles
effect to concessions made to non- entailed development along the Tribes have been unable to
tribes (Verma 1990; Rao 1996; safeguard and promote their language,
lines of their own genius, respect
Bijoy 1999). As a recent of such culture and religion; even though
of tribals right in land and forest,
acts, tribal land continued to pass Article 19(5) of the Constitution states
training and building up a team of
from tribes to non-tribes. that a cultural or linguistic minority
their own people to do the work of
has the right to conserve its language
To reinforce the constitutional administration and development, not
and culture. This means that tribes as
provisions for protection of the over- administering the areas with
individuals and groups have right to
tribals, two important laws have a multiplicity of schemes, working
use their own language, to practise
been enacted in more recent through, and not in rivalry, to their
their own religion, to study their own
social and cultural institutions.
years. One was the Provisions of history, culture, tradition, heritage, etc.
the Panchayat (Extension to the Yet the approach adopted The state cannot, by law, enforce upon

them any other culture or language. especially the northeast, the scenario is tribals, has been working hand in hand
While the state may not have enforced somewhat better. This has been mainly with their ethnic kinsmen to ensure
any language or culture on them, due to the fact that in northeast India, smooth transfer of land from tribes to
neither has it taken any positive steps there was a kind of institutionalized non-tribes.
worth the name towards meeting arrangement that facilitated such
this provision of the Constitution. development. This has received a major Tied up with the above have also
Rather, the steps taken are far from being boost with the creation of tribal states been laws that protect tribes and
in consonance with the provisions laid and autonomous districts. This shows the laws that are meant for general
down in the Constitution. The posture that a collective right such as this can citizenry and human beings. The latter
they have adopted has invariably been be better realized only where tribes see is articulated in terms of citizenship
in the direction of assimilation into themselves as a nationality or nation, and human rights. Indeed, rights
the language and culture of the major meant for tribes have invariably been
to govern themselves.
community, rather than protection and pitied against citizenship rights and
promotion of the distinct language It is ironical that despite a more importantly human rights. In
and culture of the tribes. Schooling large number of well meaning the process, specific laws meant for
extended to tribes, for example, has constitutional provisions and laws a group, even though marginalized,
invariably been made in the language aimed at protecting and safeguarding have invariably come to be subjected
of the dominant regional community the welfare and interest of the to general laws. On the same vein are
of the respective States. The result tribal communities, the process of the laws aimed at protecting tribes and
is that tribes are increasingly losing marginalization of the tribals has
knowledge of their own language those aimed at public interest such as
gone on unabated. Paradoxically, land acquisition act, conservation act,
and culture. Indeed the promotion of
at the root of such marginalization forest act, wildlife sanctuary act, etc.
language and culture has been left to
are the laws themselves. Tribes had The latter have invariably held sway
tribals themselves. Yet, because of lack
of control over human, organizational no tradition of reading and writing over the former under the garb of public
and financial resources, the tribes and had, hence, no tradition of interest and purpose. Tribal rights have
have not been able to take effective record keeping and dealing with come to be sacrificed to the greater
measures in this direction. Only where such laws. The court language and cause of the nation and public interest.
such support has been made available practice had been alien to them. In the In short, those who are in charge of
in some form or the other have tribes absence of such tradition, the non- tribal rights are in general insensitive
been able to protect and safeguard their tribes have taken advantage of such to the constitutional provision and
culture. This explains why in western, laws and have been depriving tribals legal entitlements of the tribal
northern and southern India, there has of their lands through variety of ways communities. q
been much more erosion of the tribal and means. The local administration,
language and culture. In eastern India, which is generally manned by the non- (E-mail : virg1978@gmail.com)
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Tribal Development
the other side
The Limits to Law, Democracy and Governance
Ajit Menon
C R Bijoy
ribal to legislation such as the Panchayati
T
development policy Raj (Extension to Scheduled Areas)
from its inception has Act, 1996 (hereafter PESA), and the
always been beset by a Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional
contradiction, namely to Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest
recognize the uniqueness Rights) Act, 2006 (hereafter FRA),
of tribal communities legal measures have been passed to
(including their governance systems) but empower tribal communities to govern
yet deliver the benefits of mainstream themselves. But invariably these
development. In practice, the former legal measures have to a large extent
has, for the most part been undermined, remained on paper because of a lack of
seemingly to attain the latter. However, political will to implement them, given
Both PESA and FRA give even the latter goal mostly has not been the economic priorities of growth.
powers to communities that achieved because of the wider priorities
allow them to determine their of growth and development for the The purpose of this paper is limited
nation. Over the last two decades since to detailing tribal development policy
future destiny. What these the adoption of the New Economic in India and the tensions that exist
laws also do is to make the Policy in 1991 and the drive to speed between mainstreaming development
state bureaucracy and for up the growth process, a widening and protecting the rights of tribal
gap between the goals of national communities. While the historical
that matter elected, mostly development and tribal development narrative illustrates the possibilities
non-tribal, representatives has emerged. The accelerated attempt within a parliamentary democracy to
accountable to community to exploit natural resources in the pass progressive legislations, it also
name of economic growth has led to suggests how hegemonic discourses
institutions. The centre of maladministration and misgovernance of development undermine these
power will, therefore, shift (governance deficit) and neglect in legislations in practice.
and allow tribals control terms of infrastructure, development
and welfare (development deficit) Constitutional Protection to Tribals:
over their own governance in tribal areas. These failures of state Good Intention, Limited Scope
and natural resources that policy have led to the spread of Left Tribal areas were to a large extent
they are dependent upon for Wing Extremism (LWE), pervasive self-governing prior to British
now in 83 districts of the country.
their livelihood. PESA and colonization, though many of these
FRA can create a legitimate This is not to say that progressive areas were notionally part of non-
Constitutional provisions and laws that tribal states. While the British tried to
political space and democratic empower tribal communities have not colonize tribal areas, they were often
mechanism where equity, been periodically passed, but rather unsuccessful because of tribal resistance
justice and participatory that, these have been for the most and revolts. One consequence of this
part undermined. From Article 244 was an official recognition by the British
democracy are the core of existing customary institutional
of the Constitution, which led to the
establishment of Fifth Schedule Areas, arrangements through special laws
Ajit Menon is an Associate Professor at the Madras Institute of Development Studies. CR Bijoy is a researcher and works for tribal
issues.

which effectively acknowledged and judicial and executive powers with with Scheduled Areas in the states of
permitted the relative independent power to make rules with the approval Bihar, Gujarat, Himachal Pradesh,
existence of tribal regions. Examples of the Governor. Powers cover matters Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Odisha
of this were Regulation XIII of 1833 such as primary schools, markets, and Rajasthan. The Dilip Singh Bhuria
that declared the central Indian region dispensaries, ferries, cattle ponds, Committee constituted by the central
of Chotanagpur, a non-regulated area roads, fisheries, road transport and government to recommend extension
and later the Scheduled Districts Act water-ways. Additional powers to of the 73rd Amendment to Scheduled
of 1874 that declared certain backward make laws with respect to other Areas has also recommended inclusion
districts as scheduled so as to make matters such as secondary education, of the left out areas under the Fifth
existing laws not applicable in these agriculture, social security and social Schedule. As recently as 2012, the
tracts. The Government of India Acts insurance, public health and sanitation National Advisory Council of the
of 1919 and 1935 further allowed for and minor irrigation were granted Government of India has recommended
the declaration of backward districts to the Autonomous Councils of the the same. However, no follow up action
and the exemption of excluded or North Cachar Hills and Karbi Anglong has been taken.
partially excluded areas from the in Assam. Councils (excepting in
provisions of national and state laws. State governors have also not
This allowed for tribal self-governance Unfortunately, Constitutional carried out their duties diligently in
in such areas. protections have had their limits. terms of the powers conferred upon
them in Scheduled Areas. The Governor
Partially excluded and excluded Well over fifty per cent of STs is the constitutional head of state in the
areas were translated into Article 244 of live outside the Scheduled Areas states and is appointed by the Central
post-Independence Indias Constitution and hence are denied rights government. However, under Article
the article that sanctioned the creation 163 of the Constitution, the Governor is
of Fifth and Sixth Schedule areas. provided in Article 244. There are bound to exercise his/her powers with
Article 244 (1) provides that the tribal habitations in states with the aid and advice of the Council of
provisions of the Fifth Schedule shall Scheduled Areas that are left out of Ministers, i.e. the Cabinet of the elected
apply to the administration and control state government. In other words, in
of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled the provisions of the Fifth Schedule. practice the Governor appears to be
Tribes (STs) in any state other than bound by Cabinet decisions and the
the states of Assam, Meghalaya, Bodoland and Tripura) have the power
under the Civil Procedure Code and policy of the elected government,
Tripura and Mizoram. A Scheduled although there has been significant
Area was any area defined as such Criminal Procedure Code for trial of
certain suits and offences, powers debate as to whether this should have
by the President. In brief, the Fifth been the case. In fact, an official
Schedule allowed the President to to collect revenue and taxes, and
powers to regulate and manage natural committee found that the mandatory
rescind any order or orders made, that annual reports by Governors to the
were applicable to any given state resources. However, these councils do
not have the power to manage reserved President regarding the administration
and in consultation with the Governor of Scheduled Areas under Para 3 of
of the states concerned, make fresh forests or acquire land.
the Fifth Schedule were irregular.
orders for Scheduled Areas. Para 5 (2) Unfortunately, Constitutional Moreover, these reports contain
provides that the Governor may make protections have had their limits. Well largely stale narrative of departmental
regulations for the peace and good over fifty per cent of STs live outside programmes without reference to
government of Scheduled Areas under the Scheduled Areas and hence are crucial issues of administration, the
Clause (a) to prohibit or restrict the denied rights provided in Article 244. main intended thrust of the Fifth
transfer of land by or among members There are tribal habitations in states Schedule. The Ministry of Tribal
of the STs, under Clause (b) to regulate with Scheduled Areas that are left out Affairs, in a letter to the Governors of
the allotment of land to members of of the provisions of the Fifth Schedule. states having Scheduled Areas, dated
the STs in such areas and under Clause Tribal habitations in the states of 4 April, 2013, also asserted that given
(c) to regulate the business of money Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, West the threat of mining to inhabitants in
lending to STs. Bengal, Uttar Pradesh and Jammu Fifth Schedule areas, Governors should
Article 244(2) provides for the and Kashmir have not been brought have invoked their powers in pro-active
Sixth Schedule to the Constitution under the Fifth or Sixth Schedule. ways to secure the rights of STs. This
and applies to the administration Various Government-appointed letter was followed by a meeting of
of certain tribal areas in the states Committees have recommended eight Governors organised by the
of Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and including the remaining Tribal Sub- Ministry in December 2013 at Jaipur
Mizoram. These areas are governed Plan and Modified Area Development in which the same was reiterated.
by District Councils, Autonomous Approach (MADA) areas and similar Pro-active Vision Retrogade
Councils and Regional Councils pockets as Scheduled Areas but the Implementation
constituted for Autonomous Districts government is yet to comply with
and Autonomous Regions. These these recommendations. At present, the Notwithstanding the limited
councils have wide ranging legislative, Tribal Sub-Plan areas are coterminous geographical scope of the Fifth

Schedule, a number of other legal recognise and vest the forest rights managed forest land that comes under
initiatives have been taken vis--vis and occupation in forest land in forest this law. Moreover, the rejection rate
tribal self governance. PESA, the dwelling STs and other traditional of claims is over 50 per cent.
result, no doubt of tribal movements forest dwellers who have been residing
and protest, promotes people- Tribal Development vs. Tribal Self
in such forests for generations but
centric governance. PESA extended Governance
whose rights could not be recorded;
the provisions of Part Nine of the and to provide for a framework for Despite the enactment of progressive
Constitution, which addressed issues recording the forest rights so vested and legislations that empower tribal
of decentralization, to tribal areas. The the nature of evidence required for such communities to govern themselves
most noteworthy features of PESA are recognition and vesting. Fourteen rights through their own institutions, the
that it empowers gram sabhas at the were identified excluding hunting. main thrust of tribal development
hamlet (or groups of hamlet) level as Individual and community rights were policy continues to be that of the
opposed to at the level of the unwieldy to be conferred. Furthermore the law, in Integrated Tribal Development
gram panchayat. This was done so as to addition to vesting rights on claimants, Programme (ITDP) through Tribal
safeguard and preserve the traditions of also spoke about responsibilities Sub Plans. Tribal Sub Plans have been
tribal people, to prevent land alienation and authority for sustainable use, in operation in 22 states and two Union
within Scheduled Areas, to control (and conservation of biodiversity and Territories, i.e. in all states except the
give consent to) local development tribal majority states of Arunachal
maintenance of ecological balance,
plans and to be consulted in matters Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram and
hence strengthening the conservation Nagaland and in the Union Territories
of land acquisition and rehabilitation.
regime of forests while ensuring the of Lakshadweep and Dadra and Nagar
Additionally, it was incumbent on the
state governments having Scheduled A Planning Commission Working Haveli. The main aim of the ITDP is
Areas to adopt the pattern of Sixth Group Report in 2006 minced no to bring the fruits of development to
Schedule areas in structure and content, tribal areas.
i.e. District Councils with wide ranging
words in saying that most states
legislative, judicial and executive had not taken adequate action ITDP and TSPs have come under a
cloud for not having had any significant
powers. to make PESA work. Old rules impact on tribals due to inefficient
But, here too, there have been
regarding money lending, forest delivery of schemes, often marred
significant limits in terms of use and ownership, mining and by corruption and diversion of funds.
achievements. A Planning Commission excise remained in place nullifying Most states, moreover, do not allocate
proportionate funds as required.
Working Group Report in 2006 minced PESA. Moreover, powers statutorily Despite central guidelines from the
no words in saying that most states had devolved to gram sabhas were not Ministry of Tribal Affairs and other
not taken adequate action to make
PESA work. Old rules regarding money matched with concomitant transfer agencies, most states have also failed to
lending, forest use and ownership, of funds and functionaries resulting set specific targets for TSP expenditure,
and no states have field monitoring
mining and excise remained in place, in the non-exercise of such powers. mechanisms to verify how well the
nullifying PESA. Moreover, powers
funds are being spent.
statutorily devolved to gram sabhas livelihood and food security needs of
were not matched with concomitant forest dwellers. An elaborate procedure Considering that ITDP and TSPs
transfer of funds and functionaries was prescribed through which rights are the primary development and
resulting in the non-exercise of such could be claimed and verified. What welfare strategy of the Government of
powers. Despite repeated calls by the Act also implied was the need to India for STs, there has been a clamour
the central government and Planning to provide them statutory character.
get gram sabha consent for diversion of
Commission to rectify the flaws, Andhra Pradesh has enacted a law,
forest land for projects such as mines
the state governments have been namely the Andhra Pradesh Scheduled
and dams, though in practice, this has Castes Sub-Plan and Tribal Sub-Plan
unresponsive. In fact, many states
not happened. (Planning, Allocation and Utilization
still have not framed rules for
implementation of PESA. Rules have Weak implementation, failure to of Financial Resources) Act, 2013, that
only been notified in three of the nine follow due process prescribed by the does exactly that. A similar law has
states that have Scheduled Areas, Act, refusal to recognise community recently been enacted by Karnataka.
namely Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan However, these Acts are at variance
forest resources and other community
and Andhra Pradesh and that too with the provisions of PESA as, under
rights and stiff resistance by the forest
recently. Empowering the gram PESA the Gram Sabha is endowed
bureaucracy have been the order of with powers to oversee local plans and
sabha, it would seem, is anathema the day. Although 22,35,166 hectares
to resource grabbing for neoliberal resources [Sec.4(m)(vii)]. The ITDP
have been settled and 13,98,831 titles is a bureaucracy driven programme,
development. given (as on 30 September 2013) under not one of self governance. It cannot
In 2006, the FRA was enacted. the Act, this is only about 15-20 per be a substitute for either PESA or the
The main aim of the FRA was to cent of the government controlled and FRA.

It is important to note that of are still richest in natural resources and International Labour Organisation,
particular concern are the 75 Particularly and where people are waging a battle Geneva, 2010.
Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs), to protect resources from destruction. Bijoy, C.R. Policy brief on Panchayat
previously called as Primitive Tribal Tribal self-governance, in fact, is seen Raj (Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act
Groups (PTGs), most of whom have as a space to develop conservation and of 1996, UNDP, 2012, p.48. Accessible
a precarious existence as a result development solutions that counter at http://www.undp.org/content/dam/
of ecological vulnerability of their projects that destroy natural resources india/docs/UNDP-Policy-Brief-on-
habitats and the precariousness of in the name of national development. PESA.pdf.
their livelihoods. A specific strategy Unlike the centralized, bureaucracy-
for their survival with dignity is yet to Manthan. Report, National Committee
driven visions of conservation and
be charted out concretely though, there on Forest Rights Act, A Joint Committee of
development that have for the most
are some recent initiatives to work Ministry of Environment and Forests and
part failed, PESA and FRA offer an
towards this. open system of decision-making, Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government
transparency and accountability as of India, December 2010. Accessible
The National Advisory Council, like at http://moef.nic.in/downloads/public-
the earlier Mungekar Committee report, no other known system with space
to raise and address all concerns. information/FRA per cent20COMMITTEE
noted how tribal governance has been per cent20REPORT_FINAL per cent20Dec
undermined. On 31 December, 2012, Quite significantly, in March 2010,
per cent202010.pdf.
the National Advisory Council made It is important to note that of Ministry of Environment, Government
a detailed set of recommendations vis-
-vis governance in Scheduled Areas. particular concern are the 75 of India. India Forestry Outlook, Asia-
The recommendations included the Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Pacific Forestry Sector Outlook Study II,
Working Paper Series, Working Paper No.
need to amend PESA so as to empower Groups (PVTGs), previously called APFSOS II/WP/2009/06, FAO, Regional
gram sabhas and give them the powers
to constitute committees, the need as Primitive Tribal Groups (PTGs), Office for Asia and The Pacific. Bangkok,
to align central and state laws in most of whom have a precarious 2009, p.18. Accessible at http://www.fao.
org/docrep/014/am251e/am251e00.pdf.
conformity with PESA, the importance existence as a result of ecological
of mandating prior informed consent
for land acquisition and the importance vulnerability of their habitats Ministry of Panchayati Raj, Government
of including excluded tribal areas and the precariousness of their of India. Roadmap for the Panchayati Raj
(2011-17): An All India Perspective,
within the Fifth Schedule. livelihoods. 2011, pp.7-12. Accessible at http://www.
The Governance That Could Be the Ministry of Panchayati Raj indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/
recommended adoption of such a panchayat per cent20Roadmap.pdf.
The community governance regime
that underlies the FRA and PESA system for all areas and peoples. The Planning Commission Reviewing the
departs from prescriptive solutions question is whether such a vision Implementation of PESA in States with
that privilege a bureaucracy-centred is possible given the priorities of Schedule V Rreas, Report of the Working
governance model. Both PESA and neoliberal growth and the increasing
Group on Democratic Decentralisation &
FRA give powers to communities that claims to land and resources in tribal
PRIs, November 2006.
allow them to determine their future areas?
destiny. What these laws also do is Planning Commission. Raising
Readings
to make the state bureaucracy and Standards of Administration in Tribal Areas,
for that matter elected, mostly non- Bhengra, Retnaker, C.R Bijoy and Third Report of the Standing Committee
tribal, representatives accountable Shimreichon Luithui. The Adivasis of on Inter-Sectoral Issues relating to Tribal
to community institutions. The India, Minority Rights Group International, Development, (headed by Dr. Bhalchandra
centre of power will, therefore, shift London, 1998, p.5. Accessible at http:// Mungekar, Member, Planning Commission,
and allow tribals control their own www.minorityrights.org/Profiles/profile. with Secretaries of some key Ministries
governance and natural resources asp?ID=2. concerned with tribal development as
that they are dependent upon for Bijoy, C.R. Adivasis Betrayed: Adivasi Members), 2009.
their livelihood. PESA and FRA can Land Rights in Kerala, Economic and
create a legitimate political space and Report of MPs and Experts to Make
Political Weekly, Vol. XXXIV, No.22, May Recommendations on the Salient Features
democratic mechanism where equity, 29 - June 4, 1999, pp.1329-35.
justice and participatory democracy of the Law for Extending Provisions of the
are the core. Bijoy, C.R, Shankar Gopalakrishnan Constitution (73rd) Amendment Act, 1992
and Shomona Khanna, India and the Rights to Scheduled Areas, 1994. Accessible at
Skeptics might argue that these of Indigenous Peoples: Constitutional, http://www.odi.org.uk/projects/00-03-
laws commit tribal communities to a Legislative and Administrative Provisions livelihood-options/forum/sched-areas/
life of backwardness and that it will Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples about/bhuria_report.htm. q
likely most result in degradation, not in India and their Relation to International
protection of natural resources. On Law on Indigenous peoples, Asia (E-mail :ajit@mids.ac.in
the contrary, it is the tribal areas which Indigenous Peoples Pact (AIPP), Thailand cr.bijoy@gmail.com)

do you know?
What is Islamic Banking? 1992, the authorised capital of the including governments and standard
bank was two billion Islamic dinars, bodies. Along with Free Software
Islamic banking is based on a unit of account of IDB which is Foundation, OSI has become one
the principle of Islam that interest equivalent to one Special Drawing of the two principal advocacy
should not be charged on money Right (SDR) of the International organisations for free and open
lent. The emphasis is on risk sharing Monetary Fund. According to one source developers. As against the
and profit sharing whereas the
report, the growth rate of Islamic proprietary software, free software
charging of interest is prohibited as
Banking is 10-15% per year. Islamic offers freedom. It involves a larger
it gives the lender an edge over the
banks have more than 300 institutions number in the development of
borrower. The person who needs
spread over 51 countries worldwide. software. A closed source software
the money often becomes a victim
Sharia compliant assets are estimated does not disclose its source code
of undue exploitation at the hands
to be 822 billion US dollars. These are to the public. Open Source system
of the money lender. Islam does not
0.5% of total estimated world assets has several applications and has
consider money as an asset but as a
in 2005. been proving useful in several cases
tool for measuring value. Risk/profit
sharing rather than getting income Islamic banking broadly has like telecommunication products,
from the money is the objective. It the same purpose and functions as academic research etc.
is considered a form of a socially conventional banks except for the The objective of open source
responsible investment. fact that it adheres to the Islamic software is to build bridges among
laws of fair play. Some Islamic books different constituencies in the
Charging interest is considered
are said to be having 100% reserve open source community for the
unjust and tilted in the favour of
the lender, thereby making usury ratio. Islamic banks claim that they good of the community. This
unacceptable in Islam. Sharia engage in ethical investing and moral method provides economic and
(Islamic law) allows investment in purchasing. Islamic banks also face strategic advantages, according to
company shares if the company does challenges and in some Muslim its advocates.
not deal with prohibited activities countries, their activities remain
like gambling, production of alcohol restricted to certain non-priority Open source software can be
etc. sectors. used for commercial purposes
also. However, the person so using
This form of banking gained What is open source software?
the software cannot put further
momentum in the Islamic countries According to Open Source restrictions on those who receive
in the sixties. In 1975, Islamic Initiative (OSI), open source software the software from him. The way
Development Bank (IDB) was is a software that can be freely used, people use the open source licensed
established to provide funds to changed and shared (in modified or programme cannot be restricted.
member countries. Its headquarters unmodified form) by anyone. Open There can be no discrimination against
is in Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) with Source Software is made by many people or groups in this programme.
four regional offices in Morocco, people and distributed under licenses It was felt by the advocates of
Malaysia and Senegal. Its financial that comply with that definition. open source software that software
year is the lunar Hijri year. The Open Source Software is a computer freedom was practical rather than
purpose of the bank is to foster software in which the copyright holder ideological. A program cannot be
socio economic development allows the rights to study, change and called open source, without using
in accordance with the Islamic distribute the software to anyone with approved license. As far as software
principles. The bank participates a license. in the public domain is concerned, it
in equity capital and grants loans
is also a sort of open source. Yet this
for productive purposes apart from The Open Source label was
issue has certain complications too.
assisting member countries. The created on 3 rd February 1998 in
Organisations like OSI say they are
bank accepts deposits and mobilizes Palo Alto, California (USA). The
not legal services organisation and
resources through Sharia compliant meeting where the initiative was
modes. It also assists in promoting generally cannot offer any help in
formed was attended by Eric Raymond
foreign trade, especially in capital and Michael Tiemann. By October case of any violation of copy right
goods among member countries. 1991, OSI had published its first license. q
At present, 56 Islamic countries are formal list of approved licenses. It (Compiled by Hasan Zia, Sr. Editor,
members of this bank. Upto June is referred to by many third parties E-mail: hasanzia14@gmail.com)

YE-226/2013

environment
special article
Subhash Sharma
limate is the sum the warmest years were 1998, 2005,
C
of weather trends over 2002, 2003 and 2004 (in descending
a long period of time order). As per UK Meteorological
(say, a century or so). office, global average temperature has
Obviously, weather is a been rising by 0.150 C every decade.
short term phenomenon. The period of 2001-2010 was 0.200 C
Since Rio Earth Summit in 1992 as warmer than 1991-2000 decade (that
well as UN Framework Convention was 0.240C above 1961-90 while the
on Climate Change (1992), it has been period of 2001-2010 was 0.440 C above
widely recognised and accepted that 1961-90 mean temperature).
there are various forms of climate Undoubtedly, climate is affected
change in different parts of the world: by the multiple factors which are as
....it should take all steps increase in summer temperature, follows:
voluntarily to reduce carbon shorter but severe winter, more erratic
i) Incident solar radiation- variation
rainfall distribution, severe and more
footprint through clean frequent fog, more frequent occurrence
with latitude e.g. high latitude
technology like LED, CNG, is energy deficit while the low
of extreme events like floods and
latitude has excess energy.
integrated approach to droughts, though total rainfall in
a year may be the same, acid rain ii) Closeness to large water bodies-
implement green building, and so on. Global warming is more distribution of land and water.
sustainable building and pronounced and hence, recognized iii) Mountain barriers- e.g. in
energy codes, encouraging by all the stakeholders in the entire Maharashtra, Mumbai and
world. Obviously, climate is a global Pune have different mountain
public transport and scenarios; hence, Pune is colder
issue with local consequences. The
non-motorised transport climate system is defined by the than Mumbai.
(cycle, rickshaw, camel, dynamics and interactions of five iv) Ocean temperature and currents.
horse, bullock carts) and components- atmosphere, hydrosphere,
v) Altitude- higher altitude is
cryosphere, land surface and biosphere.
strong political will in this colder.
Climate system dynamics is driven by
direction for popularising both internal and external forces like vi) Land cover with vegetation and
volcanic eruptions, solar variations or forests.
of renewable energy (wind,
human induced activities like green vii) A t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e
solar, etc) and adapting house gases or land use changes. It is (atmosphere consists of 78.09
reduce, recycle and reuse estimated by various researchers that per cent nitrogen, 20.95 per cent
moto at a larger scale. the world will experience three to four oxygen, 0.93 per cent argon and
degree Celsius warming by 2100 A.D. 0.04 per cent CO2).
According to Inter-governmental Panel Obviously, three main features of
on Climate Change (IPCC), since 1850 climate change are noticeable:
The author is Principal Secretary, Labour Resources Department, Government of Bihar. He has also authored a number of books and
articles on environmental issues.

a) D e v i a t i o n from mean emphasise that, nitrous oxides effect is g) A northward movement, by some
magnitudes. more dangerous, as impact of one kg 100 kms, of Alaskas boreal forest
b) P h a s e d i f f e r e n c e f r o m of nitrous oxide on global warming is line for every one degree rise in
periodicity. over 300 times that of one kg of carbon temperature.
dioxide. And, agriculture is the largest
c) A l t e r e d f r e q u e n c y of source of nitrous oxide emissions. If we look at the total GHG emission
occurrences. Further, when nitrogenous fertilizer in the world, we find that in absolute
(urea, ammonium etc) is used in soil, terms, China, US, Russia, EU and
However, there are various
a chemical reaction (hydrolysis) takes India are the highest emitting nations
uncertainties regarding climate change.
place and while the plant takes up (table-1):
Three of these are as follows:
nitrogen as No3, another by product
First, how climate change will vary (N2O)- nitrous oxide- escapes into the Table 1: Global GHG Emission in
regionally, is a grey area. Different Countries in 2006
atmosphere- leading to global warming.
Second, uncertain impact of climate Unfortunately, N2O molecules remain Country Total GHG per cent
in the atmosphere for 120 years! The emission of Global
change on different sectors.
situation in Indias green revolution (million GHG
Third, possible surprising belt (Punjab, Haryana and western U.P) tons per emission
consequences from unanticipated has aggravated because the so-called yr)
effects (e.g. volcanoes) miracle seeds of dwarf wheat requires 1 China 6017 21.8 %
Anthropogenic Activities and high doses of nitrogenous fertilizer and 2 US 5902 20.3 %
Climate Change consequently, there is soil degradation, 3 Russia 1704 05.7 %
falling down of water table, salination
It remains a fact that, as per IPCC- 4 European NA 24.5 %
of water and soil and decline of bio-
Union
AR4, various greenhouse gases (namely diversity (rice-wheat monoculture).
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide) IPCC is of the view that every delay 5 India 1293 04.7 %
since 1750 AD had greater cumulative in the peak emissions could add about It is estimated that GHG emission
effect than the aggregate emissions of 0.50C of warming and GHGs emitted
in India will increase from 1293
the last ten thousand years. Further, today will result into full warming in
million tonnes/year to 2750-3600
during 1995-2005, the level of carbon the decades to come. Needless to say
million tonnes/year in 2020 and to
dioxide increased by 20 per cent. that CO2 fossil fuel contributes 56 per
4900-5700 million tonnes/year in 2031.
Nevertheless, it is also noteworthy that cent of emission of GHGs in India. In
India's emission profile depicts that the
naturally occurring greenhouse gases 2005, global per capita CO2 emission
electricity consumption sector emits
(e.g. water vapour) too, contribute was 4.5 tonnes and Indias per capita
the highest (37.8 per cent), followed
about 50 per cent of total warming- CO 2 emission in 2030 would be 5
tonnes. by agriculture (17.6 per cent), transport
creating necessary stable climate for all
(7.5 per cent), residential sector (7.2 per
life forms on the earth. But, during the
In addition, as per UN Convention cent), cement (6.8 per cent), iron and
last 200 years or so, GHG emission due
on Biological Diversity, following steel (6.2 per cent) etc. Table 2 may be
to anthropogenic activities have badly
natural changes are notable: perused for details:
affected this stable climate and the over-
consumption habits in industrialized a) Global mean sea level rose by Table 2: GHG Emission Profile
nations are largely responsible for 10-20 cm (present rate of rise is in India (2007)
this sordid state of affairs. To be more 3 mm per year);
Sector %emission
specific, annual global anthropogenic b) The overall volume of glaciers in
emission of carbon dioxide increased Switzerland decreased by 2/3; 1. Electricity 37.8 %
to approximately 38 Giga tonnes (GT) c) Arctic ice thickness in late summer 2. Agriculture 17.6 %
and by 2010, emissions from fossil fuel and early autumn decreased by 3. Transport 7.5 %
burning alone reached 30.6 GT. Further, about 40 per cent;
it is estimated that atmospheric carbon 4. Residential Sector 7.2 %
d) Mount Kenya lost 92 per cent
dioxide concentration increased from of its ice mass while Mount 5. Cement 6.8 %
280 PPM in pre-industrial era to 390 Kilimanjaro lost 82 per cent; 6. Iron & Steel 6.2 %
PPM in 2010- equivalent to 780 GT of
carbon dioxide, compared to 560 GT e) A 40-60 per cent decrease in 7. Other Energy 5.3 %
in pre-industrial era. As per Keeling total available water in the large
8. Other Industry 8.7 %
and Shertz, the main driver for about catchment basins of Niger, Lake
55 per cent of global warming is this Chad and Senegal; 9. Waste 3.0 %
additional carbon dioxide, the balance f) The retreat of 70 per cent of sandy Total 100.0
coming from other GHGs. Needless to shorelines; and Source: MOEF (2010)

This is the national profile of is a new and serious phenomenon, indirect impact from food price hike
emission but in different States, especially in Mumbai and Delhi. while rich people living in exposed
emission profile is different; for Delhi's urbanisation is 55 per cent coastal locations hardly notice it.
instance, in Delhi, which has the and it is expected to reach 85 per cent
notorious distinction of having the For instance, Howrahs coastal
in 2021. By then, Delhi's emission
largest number of vehicles among environment and mangroves are
position maybe the worst, if the
exposed to cyclones and storms,
all the metros, the transport sector current trend goes on uninterruptedly.
therefore, the poor living in low-lying
contributes the maximum emission However, it is also noteworthy that, due
areas and along river channels are
amounting to 46 per cent of total to public pressure from civil society
most affected by non-maintenance of
emission (15.41 million tonnes in a organizations like Centre for Science
coastal environment systems. Further,
year). For several years, a thick blanket and Environment, CNG fuel (relatively
in Gorakhpur city in UP, a low-lying
of smog has been enveloping Delhi clean energy) was introduced in public
region of middle Ganga basin, is facing
due to smoke particles coming from transport vehicles like buses, taxis
serious problem of waterlogging and
burning of paddy straw in Haryana, and autorickshaws. During 2007-12,
flooding due to change in rainfall
Punjab and Western U.P. This situation many State capitals like Patna had (average intensity of rainfall has
is worsened when haze mixes with the multifold increase in private vehicles- increased in summer) as well as by the
massive vehicular emission. During thus increasing vehicular emission degradation of water bodies, unplanned
October 26- November 8, 2012, smog resulting in environmental pollution. growth and land encroachment. Further,
spell led to an increase in respiratory It is estimated that 1375 cars are added due to lack of incinerators or water
and asthmatic diseases. In India, air daily in India. thus, emission from treatment plants, the problem of solid
pollution causes 6.20 lakh deaths transport is a major concern as per waste, siltation of drains and pollution
annually and it causes 32 lakh deaths in one estimate, 75 per cent of global/ of water bodies has become severe.
the world as a whole (fourfold increase national emission is from energy In another city of Indore (MP), due
from 8 lakh in 2000). Emission profile related sources and in India, 86 per to lack of sufficient water supply,
in Delhi may be persused in Table 3 : cent of energy comes from fossil the private water sector has come up
fuel. Further, increase in variability
Table 3: GHG Emission Profile of precipitation will stress the already On the other hand, when the
in Delhi (2007) stressed and constrained capacity storms, cyclones and rise in sea
Sector % emission of urban areas to meet the water, level affect the agricultural
1. Transport 46 %
sanitation, food, education, health production, the urban poor residing
and other needs of their permanent in protected inland locations may
2. Domestic 34 % population, migrant population and
floating population. Obviously, it have more severe indirect impact
3. Commercial 12 % from food price hike while rich
is a matter of serious concern as to
4. Industry 8% how and to what extent urban people people living in exposed coastal
Total 100.00 suffer from the climate change or locations hardly notice it.
adapt to it and do well. Hence, getting
At present, global urban population the structural components and the there since 1990s, sharing 10 per cent
is more than 50 per cent and as process of urbanisation right is very of total drinking water supply there.
such urbanites rely on institutional, critical in view of the rising unplanned Unregulated (non-packaged) water
environmental and physical systems for growth of towns, cities and metros. supply is causing health problems
food, water, shelter, transport, energy Marcus Moench rightly sees urban and there is no effective complaint
and communication beyond immediate vulnerability to climate change as redressal system. In addition, climate
local areas which are exposed to effects the consequence of fragile systems, change in the form of precipitation
of climate change in different ways. marginalized populations and exposure variability intensifies the existing
Undoubtedly, human productivity, to the impacts of climate change. For problems of contamination due to old
health and energy are directly affected instance, the rich people residing in and poor quality water supply pipes
by the rise of temperature. Indias urban coastal cities may be more valuable getting mixed up with the sewerage
population grows annually by 70 lakhs to the direct effects of sudden storms, and solid waste. Thus, the policy of
and that of Delhi alone by 5 lakhs. Not cyclones and rise in sea level than poor water supply and sewerage disposal
merely heat increase is leading to more people living inland in less exposed system gets converted into sewerage
demand for refrigerators, ACs, coolers urban areas. On the other hand, when supply and water disposal system!
etc., but frequent and intense rainfall the storms, cyclones and rise in sea The climate change will further worsen
on poorly drained roads are causing level affect the agricultural production, this chaotic situation. On the other
flooding and disrupting traffic very the urban poor residing in protected hand, 60 per cent of Indias population
badly in many cities. Urban flooding inland locations may have more severe depends on agriculture which is very

much damaged due to various climatic cases. Their options were mostly i) Perennial rivers originating in
events: green measures (small scale the Himalayas carrying snow fed
water management at field level flows with significant discharge
a) 60 per cent of agriculture area is
and better use of rainfall) and in the dry season- Kosi, Gandak,
prone to earthquakes; blue measures (large scale Karnali (Ghaghra) and Mahakali
b) 40 per cent agriculture is subject storage dams) were seen less (Sharda).
to flood damage; viable for the Ganga basin.
ii) R i v e r s o r i g i n a t i n g i n t h e
c) 68 per cent agriculture is prone b) Stakeholders at district and state midlands of Mahabharata
to drought; levels saw cost as the main range of mountains, are fed by
d) 76 per cent of coastal regions are criterion for prioritisation of precipitation and ground water
prone to hurricane damage (800 adaptation options. High cost regeneration- Mechi, Kankai,
kms of total coastal area). options like strengthening of Kamala, Bagmati, West Rapti,
Aspects of Vulnerability embankments were low on priority and Babai. though these are
for district level stakeholders also perennial rivers, these have
Vu l n e r a b i l i t y h a s d i ff e r e n t in the upstream case. Similarly, wide seasonal fluctuations in
perceptions among different relocation of people from flood discharge.
stakeholders on the one hand and plains was least preferred and
iii) Small rivers originating from
variability in terms of issues, intensity, least feasible due to high costs
southern Siwalik range of hills-
degree and extent in different regions/ and low social acceptability.
seasonal and characterised by
States of India. c) At higher stakeholder levels (State flash floods during the monsoon.
Unregulated (non-packaged) and district), alignment with
Actually, all 21 districts in North
existing programmes / schemes
water supply is causing health Bihar are badly affected by floods
(e.g. widening scope and crop
problems and there is no effective insurance) was preferred. originating in Nepal. Hence, the local
complaint redressal system. In people constantly wait for relief as the
d) Community preferred immediate third crop. Further, the rise in sea
addition, climate change in the benefits like water storage level and potential changes in storm/
form of precipitation variability structures rather than long term cyclone patterns threaten several
intensifies the existing problems of measures like afforestation. coastal cities in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
contamination due to old and poor e) Social acceptability matters- nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Gujarat,
quality water supply pipes getting district level authorities West Bengal, Odisha, Andaman and
Nicobar islands and Goa.
mixed up with the sewerage emphasized shifting from
and solid waste. Thus, the policy summer rice-cultivation to less
water intensive crops (pulses,
...different States have different
of water supply and sewerage vegetables), it ranked low on intensity, degree and extent of
disposal system gets converted acceptance by communities. vulnerability. For instance, in Bihar,
into sewerage supply and water f) Farmers did not prefer new 73 per cent area is flood-prone, 17
disposal system! The climate techniques and practices due to per cent is drought- prone and 10
change will further worsen this existing gaps in capacity and their per cent is water logging area. In
chaotic situation. lack of confidence in supporting
2013 (June-October), many districts
institutions.
Locations (streams) and different suffered from drought, while five
levels (community, district and state) Further, different States have to six districts suffered from flood.
different intensity, degree and extent
have different perceptions. For instance,
of vulnerability. For instance, in Bihar, About 85 per cent of catchment
a Highnoon study of adaptation to
73 per cent area is flood-prone, 17 per area of North Bihar rivers lies
climate change in the Ganga basin,
north India, found the following cent is drought- prone and 10 per cent inside Bihar (especially Nepal). Kosi
different perceptions: is water logging area. In 2013, (June- River is the Sorrow of Bihar.
October), many districts suffered from
a) Flood protection management drought, while five to six districts Mitigation Efforts
scored high in the upstream suffered from flood. About 85 per cent
case while water conservation of catchment area of North Bihar rivers Different States have different
and storage, and livelihood lies inside Bihar (especially Nepal). issues of priority regarding climate
diversification were most Kosi River is the Sorrow of Bihar. change. Hence, they have to prepare
important issues in drought prone Bihar suffers from floods due to three State Action Plan (SAP) for mitigation
mid-stream and downstream categories of rivers:: at different stages and by different

stakeholders. By September 2013, TERI, New Delhi) is successful and unfriendly to environment and the
only 20 States in India had prepared Fiji has adapted it. local people.
SAP and Odisha was the first State
to do so. Gujarat is the only State to Secondly, capacity-building Fourth, though India is committed
have a separate department for climate (developing the technical skills and to the promotion of REDD+ (Reducing
change. There are two major types of institutional capabilities in developing emissions from deforestation and forest
adaptation- planned and unplanned countries) is to be accorded high degradation) through Green India
(autonomous). Planned adaptation priority for all stakeholders for pre- Mission, Joint Forest Management
means deliberate policy decision for a monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon Committee, Forest dwellers Right
desired goal e.g. wetland restoration, and winter seasons for agriculture Act, Community Forest Management,
cyclone mitigation, etc. Actually, sector. Flood forecasting, flood but, in practice, local communities
there are four major dimensions of proofing, flood plain zoning and so are exploited by forest officials in
adaptation: on, are the need of the hour. Weather the name of REDD+ or forest/ wild
forecast in India is not mature and life conservation. On the other hand,
i) Intent- autonomous or planned.
accurate so far, hence technological forest officials- contractors-traders
ii) Action- reactive (post), concurrent innovation is very much required. nexus is flourishing in allotting forests,
(during) or anticipatory (ante). Further, weather forecasting with site lands, water and mines to private
iii) T e m p o r a l - s h o r t t e r m specific modelling of soil, nutrient players despite protests from local
(instantaneous) or long term status and crop water stress are to be communities. Hence, there is a need
(cumulative). combined. Drainage system should for full transparency in adaptation
also be improved to accommodate measures by making the local people
iv) S p a t i a l - L o c a l i s e d or sudden rains; big water storage fully aware of the ground realities
widespread. systems for water supply during about vulnerability and they should
Obviously, informed and conscious drought period; earth quake, cyclone be fully involved in mitigation efforts
and storm-resistant structures and
people prefer the planned, anticipatory ... the need of the hour is a
and localised adaptation for immediate embankments in low lying areas
and visible outcomes. Following steps should be built. strong, transparent and proactive
need to be taken by different States regulatory authority for regulating
Thirdly, designing of clean
in India: CDM projects in India in order to
development mechanism (CDM) in
First, we should adopt bottom- India should take into account four have intense examining of such
up approach, planning from below, essential aspects: social well-being projects, so that these are not
(not the top-bottom approach) in (through alleviation of poverty, by unfriendly to environment and local
order to have realistic and specific generating additional employment, people.
measures suitable to local and removal of social dispensaries and
regional requirements. Swaminathan basic amenities for improvement in
by giving due weightage to their
quality of life), economic well-being
Different States have different (additional investment consistent with
indigenous knowledge systems,
collective experiences and well-
issues of priority regarding the needs of the people), environmental
informed choices.
climate change. Hence, they have well-being (resource sustainability,
to prepare State Action Plan (SAP) biodiversity friendliness, reduction in Fifth, the very development
pollution level, better sanitation) and paradigm of neo-liberalism (that
for mitigation at different stages technological well-being (transfer protects the interests of the corporate
and by different stakeholders. By of ecologically safe technology, more than that of the people), should be
September 2013, only 20 States energy efficient projects, etc). substituted by an alternative paradigm
in India had prepared SAP and Further, CDM scenario needs to be of people-oriented development that
made broad-based and participatory
Odisha was the first State to do so. should focus on peoples participation,
for community at local level as, political decentralisation, social equity,
Gujarat is the only State to have a at present, it is overpowered and economic visibility, technological
separate department for climate dominated by big Indian Corporate affordability, ecological sustainability
change. houses. Therefore, the need of the and cultural acceptability to the
hour is a strong, transparent and local people in general and the poor
Foundation as well as IFFCO are proactive regulatory authority for people in particular. Such alternative
providing helpline to farmers; regulating CDM projects in India in development paradigm demands
likewise solar biomass-based cold order to have intense examining of proactive policy formulation by
storage technology (designed by such projects, so that these are not involving the local people, civil society

orgnisations (CSOs) at grassroots is much lower than that of developed Readings
level, and mutual trust and partnership countries like US, Russia, European
1. Phil Jones (2012) Global Temperature
of government, CSOs and the common Union, Japan and emerging regional
Record, Climate Research Unit and
people rather than the so-called PPP power like China. India should stick
U.K. Meteorological Office Hadley
(Public-private partnership) which, to the principle of common but
Centre; www.cru.uea.ac.uk.
in reality, means public fund for differentiated responsibility in letter
private sectors gains mode. Hence, and spirit so that developing countries 2. S.D. Solomon et al (2007), Climate
shared learning dialogue is a key may get clean technology transfer as Change 2007: The Physical Science
participatory tool for adaptation to well as necessary fund, for adaptation Basis, Cambridge University Press,
climate change. The communication to climate change from the developed Cambridge.
silos between the stakeholders should countries who have been evilting the 3. R.F. Keeling & S.R. Shertz (1992)
be bridged at the earliest. Though, most in the past and are emitting the Seasonal & Inter-annual Variations
it is true that National Mission on most per head even today. However, in Atmosphere Oxygen and
Sustainable Habitats is committed it should take all steps voluntarily to Implications for the Global Carbon
to promoting sustainability in urban reduce carbon footprint through clean Cycle, Nature, 358 PP 723-27
habitats by enhancing the energy technology like LED, CNG, integrated 4. Institute for Social and Environmental
efficiency of buildings, solid waste approach to implement green building, Transition (ISET) (2010), The Time
management and shift towards public sustainable building and energy codes, is Now: Sustainable and Climate
transport, yet there are huge gaps in encouraging public transport and non- Resilient Urban Development,
implementation. Since prevention motorised transport (cycle, rickshaw, Bouldor, Colorado, USA.
is better than cure, early warning camel, horse, bullock carts) and
system regarding disasters should be 5. E.J. Moors, & C. Siderius (2012),
strong political will in this direction
developed fully. Adaptation to Climate Change
for popularising of renewable energy
in the Ganges Basin, Northern
(wind, solar etc) and adapting reduce,
Finally, the Indian government, India, Alterra, Wageningen UR,
recycle and reuse motto at a larger
private sector, NGOs and CSOs should Wageningen, the Netherlands.
scale.
collectively mobilize the citizens, 6. Govt. of India (2009) Resurgent
international NGOs, multilateral Thus, we may conclude that Bihar- A Development Vision,
agencies at different levels in different climate is a major long term problem Planning Commission of India,
ways so that the developed countries that requires a long term solution. New Delhi.
must bear the costs of adaptation of Hence, all the stakeholders should
7. Soumitra Ghosh (2013), Mitigating
climate change in developing countries try to take not only short term
Climate Change; The Indian way, in
for historical wrongs committed by (immediate) measures but also,
Soumya Dutta et al. (eds) Climate
the former. At international fora like medium term and long term measures Change in India, Daanish Books,
UNFCCC, India should strongly and by mainstreaming it in all kinds of New Delhi, PP 115-154. q
specifically assert her right for more development initiatives at all levels
carbon space, as its per capita emission in a transparent way. (E-mail :sush84br@yahoo.com)
Corrigendum
The name of the author in the article, National Food Security act : Work in progress, in December 2013 issue of yojana should read as
Dr. Himanshu. It had, inadvertently, been mentioned as Dr. Himanshu Bhushan.
Yojana February 2014

Forthcoming &
March 2014
Issues
February
Public Health
March
Administrative Reforms

YE-218/2013

tribal rights
alternatives
Actualising Adivasi Self-RuleThe Only Panacea
Rahul Banerjee
searingly hot the enactment of PESA and its later
A
summer afternoon in the non-implementation.
month of April 2001 saw
Motiabhai, the Bhilala The presence of articulate Adivasi
Adivasi Patel of Katukia leaders like Khan Abdul Ghaffar
village in Bagli Tehsil Khan and Jaipal Singh resulted
of Dewas district in Madhya Pradesh in the debates in the Constituent
sitting among the ruins of his house and Assembly reverberating with eulogies
plaintively asking the then Chairman for the inherently democratic and
of the National Scheduled Castes non-exploitative nature of Adivasi
and Scheduled Tribes Commission, communities and the expression
whether as a citizen of India he did not of concern about enabling them to
have the right to live with dignity under negotiate the process of integration into
Adivasi self rule will his own roof. the modern economy to their advantage
(GOI, 1954). Consequently, extensive
be possible only if Why is it that Adivasis like Motia provisions were made in the Constitution
there is conscious Patel have again and again been forced and many laws were enacted for
to ask this question in independent the protection and betterment of the
community mobilisation India without receiving any satisfactory Adivasis. Nevertheless, the imperatives
at the grassroots level answer? Why is it that, despite of modern industrial development
constitutional safeguards and other enunciated in the centralised planning
in support of this. ameliorative legislations, Adivasis process initiated from the early 1950s
Macro level policies continue to face the iron hand of state and the powerlessness of the Adivasis
repression whenever they demand their in the face of the State authorities,
since independence rights in any significant manner? Why resulted in a policy of even greater
have led to the decay has the Panchayat Provisions Extension intrusion into Adivasi areas than in
to Scheduled Areas Act 1996 (PESA), colonial times, being adopted after
of the traditional which had initially been hailed as the independence, to exploit the vast
communitarian practices long awaited panacea for all the ills of natural resources that these held.
Adivasi mal-development, also been
of the Adivasis and unable to deliver the goods to the The independent Indian government,
so a revival will have Adivasis? Why indeed does Adivasi in fact, continued the policy of the
self-rule still remain an elusive Holy British of extraction of resources to fuel
to be attempted at a Grail even after over six decades of modern industrial development. The
decentralised level by the independence? To find the answers British enacted the Indian Penal Code
Adivasis themselves to all these burning questions, it will (IPC) in 1860 and the Code of Criminal
be necessary to trace the history of Procedure (CrPC) in 1861. These
various legal provisions leading up to laws, with some minor amendments
The author is a development researcher and social activist who has worked along with the Bhil indigenous people to synthesise
their traditional qualities with modern skills and contribute to equitable and sustainable development.

only, are still in force today and have with the illegal actions of the rulers leaders at the state level usurped all
been codified in such a manner so as through the organs of the state. the powers emasculating the district
to provide the administration with a councils. Problems have been created
handy means of suppressing organised The Adivasi Dilemma by not giving sanction to the laws
public dissent. The Adivasis, as mentioned earlier, and rules passed by the councils and
had special provisions included for also by restricting the funds available
The biggest lacuna of all was to them to carry out developmental
that Gandhi's conception of "Gram their benefit in the Constitution. Those
in the states of Assam, Meghalaya, activities. Centralised development and
Swaraj" or the promotion of grassroots immiserisation of the tribals has been
democracy through the establishment Tripura and Mizoram were to be
covered by the provisions of the Sixth the rule and the district councils have
of autonomous village republics was fallen well short of the aspirations of
given a go by. Panchayati Raj was Schedule while those in the states of
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Jharkhand, the people in the north eastern states
included in the Directive Principles of (Roy-Burman, 1997).
State Policy which were non-justiciable Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,
that is, unlike the fundamental rights Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Gujarat The situation in the Fifth Schedule
these could not be enforced through and Rajasthan were to be covered by areas has been even worse. The relevant
the provisions of the Fifth Schedule. portions of Section 5 of the Fifth
The biggest lacuna of all was that The basic philosophy behind these Schedule reads thus
provisions was that the tribals had a
Gandhi's conception of "Gram unique communitarian culture based 5 (2).The Governor may make
Swaraj" or the promotion of on a subsistence non-accumulative regulations for the peace and good
grassroots democracy through lifestyle that was totally at odds with government of any area in a State which
the establishment of autonomous the consumerist culture spawned by is for the time being, a Scheduled Area.
modern industrial development. Thus, In particular and without prejudice to
village republics was given a go by. it was necessary to conserve this culture the generality of the foregoing power,
Panchayati Raj was included in the by secluding it from the aggressive such regulations may
Directive Principles of State Policy thrust of modern development. The
which were non-justiciable that is, British administrator, anthropologist Problems have been created by
unlike the fundamental rights these and social activist Verrier Elwin was not giving sanction to the laws
could not be enforced through the
the foremost proponent of this view and rules passed by the councils
and it was he who influenced Nehru
courts. in this matter and was the brain behind
and also by restricting the
his "Panchsheel" for tribal areas which funds available to them to carry
the courts. Basic rights like that to free spoke of their development keeping in out developmental activities.
education, health and nutrition services mind their uniqueness. However, given Centralised development and
the tremendous imbalance of powers
and the means to a dignified livelihood
away from the grassroots level, these
immiserisation of the tribals has
too, were included in this section. Thus,
noble ideas remained a pipe dream in been the rule and the district
provisions that could have created an
aware, healthy and articulate Adivasi reality. councils have fallen well short of
population and provided them with an The provisions under the Sixth the aspirations of the people in the
institutional structure for implementing Schedule purport to provide for a self northeastern states
their development according to their contained code for the governance
own genius, were ignored totally by a) Prohibit or restrict the transfer of
of the tribes living in those areas
the Governments, both at the centre and land by or among members of the
through the institution of autonomous
the states after independence, paving Scheduled Tribes in such area;
district councils. Despite the fact that
the way for the persistence of a form autonomous district councils gave b) Regulate the allotment of land to
of internal colonialism and feudalism. some powers to the tribes in respect members of the Scheduled Tribes
Matters were compounded by the fact of determining many aspects of their in such area;
that fundamental rights too, were not life, these were limited by the greater c) Regulate the carrying on of
easily assured, given the tremendous powers of the states of which they were business as money-lender by
expenses involved in approaching the a part. In the case of Assam and Tripura, persons who lend money to
High Courts and the Supreme Court for non-tribals who were in no mood to members of the Scheduled Tribes
redress. While the erstwhile princes, cede any substantial concessions to the in such area.
landlords and the industrialists often tribals dominated the state legislatures
went to court to obstruct the path of and curbed the powers of the district 5 (3). In making any such regulation
justice for the poor, the latter could councils. In the case of the states of as is referred to in sub-paragraph (2)
hardly afford to do so and had to bear Meghalaya and Mizoram, the tribal of this paragraph, the Governor may

repeal or amend any Act of Parliament be read as shall and has thus, be specified in such a law". Thus, this
or of the Legislature of the State or any effectively prevented the transfer was the first time that a central law had
existing law which for the time being, of Adivasi land to non-Adivasis. not been automatically extended to the
is applicable to the area in question. This view has now been further Scheduled Areas. It was also stated
strengthened by the recent decision of that such a law enacted by Parliament
Thus, theoretically it is possible the Supreme Court in the Niyamgiri would not amount to an amendment
for the Governor of a State, on the case in Odisha that the Adivasi Gram of the Constitution and could, thus be
advice of the Tribes Advisory Council Sabhas will have the final say in passed by a simple majority. Provision
consisting of the Adivasi MLAs of deciding whether their lands are to be for this special law was made keeping
the state, to prevent the application used for purposes other than for what in mind the failure of the Governors to
of or repeal the Indian Forest Act and implement the enabling provisions of
they have been traditionally using
the Land Acquisition Act. The most the Fifth Schedule.
them. This has now provided power
important aspect of these provisions to the movement for Adivasi self rule There was, however, no enthusiasm
is that the Governor may implement as will be detailed later. shown by the central government to
them so as to ensure "peace and good pass this special act and extend the
government" in Adivasi areas, as the The Promised Land provisions of the 73rd amendment
framers of the Constitution felt that this to the scheduled areas. Finally the
Obviously, the lack of grassroots
could be possible only if the Adivasis Government of India constituted a
governance institutions was becoming
were allowed to develop according to Committee of Members of Parliament
more and more of a problem as the level
their own laws and customs. However, and Experts in 1994 to suggest the
of political awareness and literacy was framework of the special law to be
this has never happened because it is
increasing and the centralised trickle enacted for this purpose and the
not a binding provision and only a
down type of development was coming changes necessary in other statutes
suggestion like the Directive Principles apart at the seams. There was a need
of State Policy, which finally has to accord with the spirit of the new
to provide a third tier of democratic law. This committee, which has since
to depend on the executive for its institutions to take some of the pressure come to be known as the Bhuria
implementation.
Committee submitted its report on
The report basically upheld the January 17th, 1995. The report basically
Consequently, there has been neither
paramountcy of the Adivasi Gram upheld the paramountcy of the Adivasi
peace nor good government in Adivasi
Sabha in all matters related to Gram Sabha in all matters related to
areas. The history of the past 60 years
their governance and development their governance and development
after independence is replete with
and defined the Gram Sabha as the and defined the Gram Sabha as the
innumerable struggles of the central
small Adivasi hamlet and not the small Adivasi hamlet and not the
Indian Adivasis against the injustice
administrative panchayat which administrative panchayat which may
meted out to them by the Indian state
may contain one or more villages contain one or more villages and is
through the ruthless implementation
and is too large a unit for the Gram too large a unit for the Gram Sabha
of the Indian Forest Act and the Land
Sabha to function through direct to function through direct democracy.
Acquisition Act and the cynical non-
democracy.With the enactment of With the enactment of PESA, the
implementation of the Fifth Schedule.
PESA, the paramount nature of the paramount nature of the Gram Sabha
There have been widespread protests
Gram Sabha in Adivasi areas has in Adivasi areas has been established
by Adivasi mass organizations. even though it has not been vested
been established even though it
with the wide ranging powers that it
The Samatha v.State of Andhra has not been vested with the wide should have.
Pradesh, 1997 8 SCC 191 case, fought ranging powers that it should have.
the Government of Andhra Pradeshs Illusion and Reality
decision of giving of a lease to a of accountability off the shoulders of The Madhya Pradesh Panchayat
private company to extract minerals the State and Central Governments. Raj Act was amended in 1997 in
in scheduled Adivasi areas, all the Consequently, the pressure building accordance with PESA and rules
way to the Supreme Court which, in up within the mainstream parties and framed for its implementation in
a landmark judgment, rendered in the from various mass organisations and 1998. The Gram Sabha or village
light of the debates in the Constituent NGOs finally led to the passing of council had been made the paramount
Assembly, upheld that the intention the 73rd Constitutional Amendment decision making body and so a special
of the founders of the Constitution in 1992 making Panchayati Raj local government system to accord
when drafting the Fifth Schedule was mandatory. Article 243M (4) (2) of with Adivasi lifestyle and culture had
that the Adivasis should be protected Part IX of the Constitution envisages become a legal possibility. Mobilisation
from dispossession of their land and that "Parliament may, by law, extend proceeded all over the Bhil Adivasi
so, even though the actual word in the Provisions of this part to the dominated western Madhya Pradesh
the constitution is that the Governor Scheduled Areas..... subject to such region to exert pressure towards
may act for their benefit, it should exceptions and modifications as may implementation of these provisions.

Since 1999, there had been deficient Adivasi Gram Sabha considerably. injustice done to the Adivasis through
rainfall in this region. Whereas some With the help of the judiciary and the implementation of the Indian
tehsils of Barwani and Jhabua districts the media, it may be possible to give Forest Act by making the Gram Sabha
had been officially declared drought weight to the contention that modern paramount.
hit, others had not been so fortunate as development cannot be carried out
the harvest there had not been less than at the cost of the Adivasis. Thus, The foregoing discussion makes
the statutory level of 37 per cent of the there is a chance to ensure that the it abundantly clear that ultimately
normal harvest required for declaring basic principles of liberal democratic Adivasi self rule will be possible
a district or tehsil as being drought governance are not flouted with only if there is conscious community
impunity by the State in Adivasi mobilisation at the grassroots level
hit. Even after being declared drought
areas as they were being earlier. The in support of this. Macro level
hit, paltry amounts of between Rs 3
PESA is a first step in the direction policies since independence have
and 4 crores each had been sanctioned
of preserving and promoting Adivasi led to the decay of the traditional
for these two districts for relief works
culture and thus, ensuring a saner communitarian practices of the
over and above the minimal amounts Adivasis and so a revival will have
that are normally available through world involving more sustainable
resource use and equitable inter- to be attempted at a decentralised
various Central Government schemes. level by the Adivasis themselves.
The rest of the region had not even personal relations than the one we
are living in (Rahul, 1997). Proof of Especially as, such communitarian
got these crumbs. The Adivasi mass culture, apart from ensuring peace
organisations launched a massive this can be found in the fact that the
leaders of the Chiapas indigenous and good governance, will also
campaign for putting pressure on the save the natural resources and
Government to carry out sufficient people's movement in Mexico have
used PESA as one of the reference have a mitigating effect on climate
relief works. Plans for soil and water change (Cruz, 2009). So, the way
conservation works were prepared points for the formulation of their own
draft constitution. ahead lies in persisting with the
by the people and sanctioned by the synergistic implementation and
Gram Sabhas and forwarded to the The PESA is a first step in the further refinement of the Adivasi
administration for action. direction of preserving and oriented laws that promote self rule
The net result was that the Sahukars promoting Adivasi culture and thus as envisaged in the Fifth Schedule
of the Constitution as the only
were having a field day. The Adivasis ensuring a saner world involving panacea for the lack of peace and
were forced to go to these sahukars
in the absence of any other support
more sustainable resource use and good government.
system and bear the burden of usurious equitable inter-personal relations Readings
interest rates that had shot up to levels than the one we are living in.
of 10 per cent per month and more. Banerjee, R, 2008, Recovering The
Reviewing the situation, the Adivasi The passage of the Mahatma Lost Tongue: The Saga of Environmental
mass organisations found that the only Gandhi National Rural Employment Struggles in Central India, Prachee
way in which things could be improved Guarantee Act and the Right Publications, Hyderabad.
was for the Government to take action to Information Act in 2006 has
considerably enhanced the Government of India, 1954, Constituent
under the various laws at its disposal Assembly Debates (CAD), Lok Sabha
against the sahukars. However, this effectiveness of PESA. There are
Secretariat, Delhi.
did not result in much relief as the now many instances throughout the
Adivasi mass organisations were not country of small mass organisations Rahul, 1992, Rhetoric Versus Reality:
strong enough to get the provisions in Fifth Schedule Areas taking The State, Jawahar Rozgar Yojana and
of the PESA implemented. Generally, advantage of the provisions of these People's Participation, EPW December
this has been the problem in most later laws and using them to fulfil 19-26, 1992.
places and PESA has largely remained the promise of self rule that is there
Roy-Burman, B K, 1997, Sixth Schedule
on paper. in PESA. Similarly, many Adivasi
and Seventythird and Seventyfourth
mass organizations have conducted
The Way Ahead Amendments of the Constitution, mimeo,
long drawn campaigns which have DCRC, University of Delhi.
The PESA, despite its lack of resulted in the enactment of the
implementation, does provide a greater Scheduled Tribes and Other Forest Sharma, B D, 1995, Whither Tribal
space for legal and mass action to Dwellers (Recognition of Rights) Areas: Constitutional Amendments
press for increased Adivasi autonomy Act, 2006, popularly known as the and After, Sahayog Pustak Kutir, New
especially after the Samatha and Forest Rights Act, which tries to give Delhi. q
Niyamgiri judgments of the Supreme teeth to the provisions of the Fifth
Schedule and nullify the historical (E-mail :rahul.indauri@gmail.com)
Court which have empowered the
Readers may send in their views/suggestions on the articles published in Yojana at the
e-mail:yojanace@gmail.com

North east diary
Assam Pavilion recieves gold medal at IITF 2013
T
he Assam Pavilion received the Gold Medal for First for Excellence in display amongst state governments
and Union Territory pavilions at the India International Trade Fair 2013 at Pragati Maidan, New Delhi
recently. The theme of this year was Inclusive Growth and the Assamese pavilion reflected the growth of
various sectors in the state. The live demonstrations of manufacturing of designer candles, various water hyacinths
products, traditional Assamese jewellery and natural dyes were the attractions at the pavilion. The stall, set up by
the Directorate of Tea, where various types of tea were shown and testing procedure of teas were demonstrated,
was another highlight. Live demonstrations of muga reeling, displayed by the department of sericulture also drew
large crowds. The various agro products displayed by the Horticulture department was also a big draw. This is the
first time in the 33 year old history of the IITF that a state government has consecutively received the prestigious
Gold Award in succession. q
Hornbill Festival attracts more than 1.60 lakh visitors
O
ver 1.60 lakh visitors including foreign tourists, domestics and locals thronged the picturesque Naga
Heritage village for the biggest indigenous festival of the north-east and the annual tourism promotional
festival organised by the government of Nagaland the Hornbill festival. This year, conciding with 50
years of Nagaland statehood, the Hornbill Festival was inaugurated by no less a dignitary than the Honble President
of India, Shri Pranab Mukherjee. The 10-day festival called the festival of festivals, showcases all aspects of
Nagaland culture. q
Assam to get Upper House in Assembly
T
he Union Cabinet has given approval for formation of an Upper House in the Assam Assembly. The Upper
House will consist of 42 members. As per Article 171 of the Constitution, the House must consist of one
third of the total members in the Legislative Assembly. Assam has a total number of 126 MLAs. q
Arunachal Pradesh as religious tourism destination
A
runachal Pradesh may soon be a religious tourism destination according to Chief Minister Nabam Tuki. He
pointed out that the world famous Tawang Monastry, the Buddhist town of Mechuka, the Golden Pagoda and the
famous pilgrimage centre of Parasuram Kund are all great tourist attractions. Several infrastructure projects in
the State like the Trans-Arunachal Highway, the railway connection to Tezu, besides proximity to the airport in Assams
Dibrugurh district would help religious tourism thrive. The Chief Minister was speaking after inaugurating the Golden
Pagoda eco resort tourism complex at Lohit district. The Rs 469.26 lakh project of the Union Tourism Ministy includes
four special suits, eight executive suits or twin sharing, two dormitories, a restaurant and other facilities. q
Bamboo tiles for European markets
I
ndias first bamboo park in Tripura has achieved success in its aim of developing bamboo products for the international
market. A Mumbai based industrial group, which had set up a factory in the bamboo park for bamboo floor tiles, is
all set to export these to European markets. Several hundred people are expected to get employment directly and
indirectly because of the unit. The Tirpura government, five years ago, had developed Indias first bamboo park at a cost
of Rs 30 crore on 70 acres of land to help expand bamboo-based industries. Bamboo is also known as green gold in the
Northeastern Region. With 19 to 20 species available Tripura is one of the major bamboo producing states, harvesting
1.5 million tones of total 13.67 million tones of bamboo harvested in the country each year.
(This item was inadvertently omitted from the north east diary of December 2013 issue of yojana) q

tribal rights & food security
Nutrition issues
The Food Bill, Wild Foods and the Adivasi people
Madhu Ramnath
bout 60 kms from intention to provide for food and
A
Bolangir, at the base nutritional security in human life
of the Gandhamardhan cycle approach, by ensuring access
hills, is Kendrabhata to adequate quantity of quality food
village. It is a forested at affordable prices to people to live
village, though all the a life with dignity and for matters
neighbouring fields in the tract have connected therewith or incidental
been invaded by cotton, quite like thereto. In the 15 Chapters that deal
maize, that pervades the bordering with different aspects of this ambitious
Nabrangpur district. Apart from the goal, the 14 th Chapter mentions,
discussions I had with the people about almost in passing, vulnerable groups
For the Food Bill to work the smuggling of timber and medicinal and tribal areas. Schedule II gives
plants from the hilly forests whose figures for nutritional standards and
in text as well as in spirit, fame is known since the Ramayana, Schedule III, under (1)(d), aims to
it would be necessary to my interest was also about the food that revitalise agriculture by prohibiting
go deeper into the point the tribal people in the village gathered unwarranted diversion of land and
from the forest. In the house where we water from food production. The
1(d) in Schedule III, about sat and talked, the people said that they entire Bill is focused on food grains
the diversion of land and had not dug up and eaten yams for 4 (rice and wheat) and coarse grains and
water, to ensure that along years. Not because it was unavailable, some agricultural produce and makes
with the distribution of but because neither the women nor the absolutely no mention about the
youth go into the forest to gather food: various kinds of wild and uncultivated
staple food grains the they only go to get wood or bamboo. foods consumed by the tribal and rural
various supplements are The story was the same in other villages populations of the country. This is an
also accessible. It should that I visited in the area; there was a astounding omission, as these foods
general decline in the collection and comprise in a region such as central
be recognized that the consumption of various greens. Apart India of over 400 species, available
procurement of foods, at least from the older generation, not many for nothing other than the cost of going
among some communities, people could even identify edible out to collect them.
keeps alive many aspects of plants, especially mushrooms; the
desire to buy food rather than go out to What is, after all, the meaning
traditional skills, ecology collect it has made people look out for of security? It is freedom from
and culture and that such wage labour of any kind, often away danger or anxiety which, in our case
from the village. All this showed on of food security, translates to the state
communities perform assuring its people of this hopeful
their health, especially in the health of
an important service in the women, many of whom suffered condition of food and nutritional
monitoring their local from anaemia. security. And do our rural and forest-
environment dwelling people feel insecure about
The National Food Security getting adequate food and nutrition,
Bill 2013 was formulated with the or are they insecure about the existence
The author is, at present, the Coordinator of the NTFP (Non Timber Forest Products) Exchange Programme in India.

and access to their resource base that Though, the fact that many require traps that demand bamboo, the
provides them a substantial part of subsistence foods are gathered skill to fashion traps and the knowledge
their foods? This is a crucial question from the forest is clear enough, the about fish movement in order to place
whose answer, understandably, may implications of the practice, in terms them in the appropriate spots; some
vary from place to place, depending of health and economics, has not fish are caught using plant poisons that
on the natural resources available. been officially recognized. It is the requires a knowledge of the plant part
But what is unfortunate is that over wild foods, such as fish, crab, small that is effective as well as the quantity
the last 2-3 decades, the food security game and seasonal greens that keeps to be used for a successful haul; toddy-
that a large section of our population nutritional deficiencies at bay; many of tapping requires that the basic aspects
enjoyed as a matter of course, has been these foods have important medicinal of plant phenology is understood to
undermined by government policies values; and all of them are available ensure a correct flow of the sap; many
and government apathy. Mining, the if the requisite skill and knowledge Unlike the intentions of the
pollution of rivers and water bodies, for gathering them are extant in the
the diversion of large amounts of water culture. It is unfortunate that the state Food Bill, that is little else but a
and areas of land - are some of the overlooks the important role of wild handout, which encourages high-
reasons that has made necessary and foods in tribal and rural life especially input agriculture and leads to the
has pushed people into accepting, the as most forest dwelling communities pollution of soil and water in the
NFS Bill 2013. procure and consume a substantial
amount of the foods directly from long run, food gathering demands
As mentioned above, rural their environment. Ironically, over the that people use their knowledge
communities in central India the
situation is similar in most parts of the
past decade, as diversions of forest and skill and be keen observers
and agricultural areas have increased,
...as diversions of forest and food security and the right to food of their environment. It is not
agricultural areas have increased, have come to play an important role the intention of the author to
food security and the right
as political spin-offs. The staples recommend that everyone take to
that have become ingredients in the food gathering, but to make clear
to food have come to play an promised Food Bill have displaced
important role as political spin- traditional crops such as millets and what a blind adherence to the
offs. The staples that have become pulses emphasizing hybrid strains Food Bill policy for a large tribal
ingredients in the promised Food
of rice and maize instead and have population can undermine with
been indirectly responsible for the
Bill have displaced traditional diminishing contribution of foods regard to indigenous knowledge.
crops such as millets and pulses gathered to supplement cultivated
staples. yams need processing before they can
emphasizing hybrid strains of be consumed to avoid itchy throats
rice and maize instead and have Almost all the foods gathered or and other unpleasant side-effects.
collected from the wild by adivasi
been indirectly responsible for the peoples are biological indicators of
Unlike the intentions of the Food Bill,
that is little else but a handout, which
diminishing contribution of foods water and soil qualities as well as encourages high-input agriculture and
gathered to supplement cultivated indicators of changes in microclimates leads to the pollution of soil and water
staples. and local ecology. They point to in the long run, food gathering demands
polluted rivers (when certain fish that people use their knowledge and
North East of India have traditionally are unavailable) or forests whose skill and be keen observers of their
harvested and consumed more than canopy has been broken (when environment. It is not the intention of
400 species of wild foods that include certain mushrooms dont appear); the author to recommend that everyone
yams, mushrooms, amaranths, tubers, the adequateness of a monsoon or the take to food gathering but to make clear
insects, fish, crab and small game. length of summer is known by time what a blind adherence to the Food Bill
Each of these have specific nutritional of flowering and fruiting of trees. policy for a large tribal population can
values, in terms of minerals, vitamins As biologists are seldom concerned undermine with regard to indigenous
and micro-nutrients, that are usually with such an array of species in their knowledge.
not available or found in most of the assessment of ecology or meteorology,
staples that are cultivated or procured it is the practical knowledge of the It is also imperative to realize that
through the shops. Most important, local adivasi people in the course of the kind of wild food gathering as
these are foods that are not just organic their livelihood that can provide us mentioned above is being threatened on
but a step ahead: they are beyond valuable information in these fields. a variety of fronts, the foremost among
organic, found in the wilder spaces them being the migration of a large
around villages, in the fallows, in select Many wild food species require section of adivasi youth from rural and
forest patches, along streams and on the specific skills and material before they forest areas to cities. This demographic
bunds of fields. can be collected or consumed. Fish shift has broken the natural and easy

transmission of knowledge and revive the availability of food species in difficult to find cowherds to look after
skills necessary between generations these areas. A preliminary assessment the village cattle: it has not been worth
within a community; the youth of of these, mostly, supplementary foods, their while to look after the cattle in
these communities no longer bother would help us understand the overall return for food! This single change in
about procuring their food from their status of existing food security that village society has led to large herds
landscapes but depend entirely on people in the rural and forest areas of unmanaged cattle-grazing in forest
subsidies and shops. This change in enjoy. Since de Condolles Origin of areas (thereby packing the earth and
the manner of procuring food has also Cultivated Plants, where he lists 249 slowing down regeneration) and a
led to an attitudinal change with regard species, there has been little of major vast number of cattle going feral (and
to their perception of the forest. The value that has been added to the human damaging crops). With agricultural
youth has little stake in their forest; fare; it is time that some research is wage labour becoming expensive
forest fires during the summer months, conducted on the wild species to see compounded with scarce fencing
diversion of forest areas for non- whether any of them could be fruitfully material available many fields lie
forestry purposes, the encroachment of domesticated. uncultivated. What is worse is that,
cotton, maize and other cash crops in with food grains made available almost
forest areas (accompanied by a heavy It is my contention, that the Food for free, there is no impetus for the
use of chemical inputs), etc., does not Bill should function as something more tribal and rural people to think around
bother them. Despite a democratic than just dole or charity and handed out these problems.
system of governance and the prime to the people regardless of what effects
position given to the Gram Sabha For the Food Bill to work in text as
It is my contention that the Food well as in spirit, it would be necessary
in the PESA areas, the youth have
increasingly distanced themselves from Bill should function as something to go deeper into the point 1(d) in
their natural resource bases, which more than just dole or charity and Schedule III, about the diversion of
land and water, to ensure that along
an earlier generation managed and handed out to the people regardless
depended upon. with the distribution of staple food
of what effects some of which grains, the various supplements are
Considering the impact that the have been indirectly detrimental also accessible. It should be recognized
Food Bill has on various aspects of the to the ecology - it has on society. In that the procurement of foods, at least
foods gathered from the wild, it would among some communities, keeps alive
be prudent to be aware of the threats many villages in central India, after
many aspects of traditional skills,
to adivasi knowledge and culture in 2003, when subsidized food grains ecology and culture and that such
the long run. It would be better if the was introduced, it has been difficult communities perform an important
respective state governments first make
to find cowherds to look after the service in monitoring their local
an assessment of, a) the kinds of foods environment. Finally, I would like to
the local people are able to access from village cattle: it has not been worth
stress that good forest management of
the environments, b) whether these their while to look after the cattle the forest comes only from regularly
foods are available as in earlier years or in return for food! using it, as with food gathering, and
are declining in yield, c) whether there not by distancing oneself from it, as
were other species available in the past some of which have been indirectly happens when food is subsidized and
but not now, d) the known reasons for detrimental to the ecology - it has on considered sufficient for a dignified
the decline or disappearance of various society. In many villages in central lifestyle. q
food species from an area, and e) India, after 2003, when subsidized
whether there have been any efforts to food grains was introduced, it has been (E-mail :madelly@gmail.com)
Yojana Web- Exclusives

Yojana has launched a new service named 'Web-Exclusives' for the benefit of its readers under which selected
articles are put up on the website of Yojana : www.yojana.gov.in. Announcement about the articles under the
Web-Exclusives section are carried in the Yojana magazine of the month but these articles are not published in the print
version of Yojana.
We are carrying the following articles under the Web-Exclusives section of Yojana on its website:
1. Livelihood and Health issues of the Adivasis in Sonebhadra district of Uttar Pradesh-Prema Tiwari
2. Pattern of Local Governance for Excluded Tribes in India-Dr. S. T. Shirsath
3. Schedule Tribe Areas & Tribals in Himachal Pradesh-Ravinder Kumar
4. SC, ST Sub-plan (Andhra Pradesh) Act 2013-Dr. G. R. Jayanandam, Panjala Narasaiah
Please send in your comments and suggestions to us on yojanace@gmail.com

YE-228/2013

rural initiative
people's participation

Sanjoy Patnaik
orld over, land focused on redistribution of available
W
is one tangible asset land through the introduction of
which has been the land ceiling provisions, with the
most precious for ultimate goal of providing "land to
families. They have the tiller." The laws also sought to
cherished it, revered achieve the more pragmatic objective
it, passed it from one generation to the of promoting proper and effective
next and have drawn their sustainance utilisation of land, in an effort to
and sense of self from it. However, increase agricultural production.
some of the most complicated and
The Government of Odisha
complex socio-economic and political
demonstrated its committed resolve
conflicts in India have emerged from
to provide land as well as land tenure
rural indebtedness and dispossessed
By virtue of its decentralised peasantry, especially in the context of
rights to the landless by enacting a
operation, the CRP number of progressive legislations
negligible and non-existent access to
that included redistribution of land,
programme has successfully land. The root cause of rural poverty
especially to the Scheduled Tribes and
in India, as in any other part of the
garnered support of world, is intricately tied to the control
Scheduled Caste families, by fixing
PRI functionaries, local ceiling limits. The state also introduced
and use of land.
strong legal instruments to protect
development actors and Land legislation in post- tribal land rights from being transferred
civil society to demystify independent India did aim to reform to the non-tribals. However, due to
the exploitative and iniquitous system several implementation bottlenecks,
perceived technicalities these measures provided only limited
of land revenue assessment that had
and complexities around taken firm root under the colonial success. This led to a scenario where
land administration and to regime. Agricultural development there were rampant issues related to
became the buzzword and this was land ownership with clear title. Again
make the process people- and again, rural households face the
seen as the gateway to improving the
friendly and uncomplicated. status of the rural poor - a class that problems of occupying government
Using CRPs to expedite suffered the most during the colonial land without a title and not being
regime. To confer ownership rights in possession of land for which
land allocation, motivated government had provided the title.
on the tenants, the state realised the
revenue officials to need to abolish intermediaries and homestead land distribution
prioritise land allocation ensure tenure security for tenants. The
central and state governments of India Based on an enumeration of
that they earlier could not landlessness undertaken by the Revenue
promulgated a number of land reform
accomplish because of staff laws post-1947 with the aim of bridging Department of Odisha in 2005-06,
shortages the gap between the landless poor and the state government introduced a
landed rich. These progressive laws homestead land allocation programme
The author is State Director, Landesa, Odisha.

called the Vasundhara. The initial to correctly enumerate landlessness. hire CRPs and Landesa would provide
enumeration had identified close to Additional capacity was required to technical support in the form of training
quarter of a million as homesteadless provide accurately enumerated landless and facilitation in order to ensure land
families who were provided with figures. to the landless in the 1056 project
4 decimals (later increased to 10 villages in 7 districts of Odisha.
decimals in 2008) under the Vasundhara The objective of the pilot was to Within a short span of time, in 98
supplement the Revenue Departments per cent of project villages, the CRPs
programme. But by 2008-09, it was
capacity by employing trained local helped identify close to 30000 landless
observed that the programme had wide
youth. In designing the pilot, Landesa families. Almost 16000 pattas had been
implementation challenges making
consulted revenue officials to develop distributed in the project villages.
it difficult to address the problems
a step-wise allocation plan along
that the programme was designed to
with a time line and defined roles and Based on the success of the
tackle.
responsibilities of CRPs and revenue CRP model, Government of Odisha
In 2009-10, (then Rural Landesa officials, mainly Revenue Inspectors, has extended the land allocation
Development Institute) conducted with whom the CRPs worked. programme to 18000 villages in the
an assessment of the status of the
implementation of the Vasundhara
The main tasks assigned to The CRP model was successful in
the cadre of CRPs are :collecting
scheme in selected villages of its project
information from various sources,
establishing that trained village
area. The study found that successful
identifying landlessness through youth could provide additional
implementation was very limited and
triangulation (cross matching capacity to the field level revenue
identified that the prime reason for
this was the lack of field-level revenue
household list with household names officials and help to undertake land
enlisted in the Record of Rights),
staff. Another key finding of the study allocation in a time bound manner.
providing support to the Revenue
was that the scheme did not have a
Inspector during field verification, 118 Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) blocks of
separate implementation guideline to and filling out requisite forms and
identify and settle the homesteadless 12 districts of the state. With close
applications. CRPs also ensure that to 1.2 million tribal households in
rural families. every homesteadless and landless
the TSP blocks, the land allocation
Navigating long standing family participates in the camp court
programme is expected to benefit half
constraints process organised by the revenue
a million families. The Scheduled Tribe
department. In this process, CRPs
In order to resolve the issue of and Scheduled Caste Development
help bridge the gap between Revenue
capacity, Landesa designed a pilot Department of the Government of
Inspector and community by creating
model using trained local youth to Odisha will be the nodal department for
awareness and action on new revenue
provide additional capacity to the field- the intervention. OTELP and Landesa
department schemes and programmes
level revenue officials. The local youth would continue supporting the Revenue
such as Vasundhara.
was called the Community Resource Department and the respective district
Scaling the CRP model administrations to ensure land to the
The idea of providing additional landless. While the Integrated Tribal
The CRP model was successful in
capacity through CRPs came from Development Agency will facilitate
establishing that trained village youth
the fact that the field-level revenue could provide additional capacity to
intervention at district-level, similar
facilitation will be done by NGOs at
officials could not undertake a the field level revenue officials and the block-level.
household survey to correctly help to undertake land allocation
enumerate landlessness. Additional in a time bound manner. The next Governance reforms : peoples
step was to scale their application. participation
capacity was required to provide Landesa identified Odisha Tribal
accurately enumerated landless Empowerment and Livelihoods Land administration in general,
figures. Programme (OTELP), an externally and determination of the extent of
aided Government programme, as landlessness, in particular, has been
Person (CRP) or Bhumi Sanjojak and the solution to address long standing the exclusive responsibility of the state
was selected by the community and problems in land allocation, which government. This project provided
trained by Landesa to provide additional were identified during the assessment an example in which the CRP, a
capacity to the Revenue Inspector. The of the Vasundhara programme. local community representative with
idea of providing additional capacity native and traditional knowledge and
through CRPs came from the fact that OTELP and Landesa agreed to active support and participation of the
the field-level revenue officials could jointly implement a land allocation village community, prepared a landless
not undertake a household survey programme in which OTELP would list (using government definitions

of landlessness) to be subsequently itself to a decision making role by keeping records at the community
authenticated by the revenue officials. identifying the extent of landlessness, level enhances community
Land allocation becomes a community- which is validated by the government, members' access to information
led process. subsequently, thereby redefining the and creates transparency about
existing definition of participatory landholding status in the village.
The involvement of local people development and rearranging the Earlier, the village RoR used to be
was not, however, limited only to leadership role in it. One of the key with the Revenue Inspector, and
enumeration of landless families. components that emerged as the land especially in Scheduled Areas,
During field verification, the identified allocation programme progressed, few community members were
landless families got an opportunity to has been the unprecedented and aware of something called the
actively participate in the identification unhindered trust on community's village RoR and its utility. Now,
and demarcation of their land to abilities to support government in with the CRP working closely
avoid any future conflict over area responding to the needs of the people. with the community and the
and possession. Earlier, villagers had This developed trust helped break two revenue inspector, people can
limited scope to know who was landless mutually contradicting and misplaced easily access revenue records,
and who had received land. With perceptions that neither the government especially the village RoR.
the CRP involving the poor and the nor the local communities can deliver
landless in the land allocation process, or work together. In a joint family situation, the
land allocation became a community- father is typically regarded as head
led process. The CRP programme in As development processes
of the family and therefore eligible
Odisha has been particularly significant evolve, government institutions
in establishing a robust team, taking need enhanced capacity to respond to get the land. Thus, Revenue
the government and non-government effectively to complex development Inspectors usually overlook the
actors together to collectively address challenges. Land to the landless is process of ascertaining family land
the complicated issue of land allocation one such complex and difficult state share of other family members.
and settlement. mandate that is hard to achieve unless But with the CRP working with the
a mutually complementing partnership
This was a rare example in which Revenue Inspector, descendants
is established by creatively juxtaposing
having less than two decimals
a state government enlisted multiple capacities. The CRP model
is one such partnership platform (2/100 acre) may also be considered
support from civil society to help
where the native and the traditional homesteadless. By using a
with one of its most critical and knowledge of local communities is transparent process to prepare the
core functions. The CRP model recognised as a crucial input to the genealogy to establish the exact
has emerged as a good practice, government's landless enumeration shares of family land, the CRPs
demonstrating results through an process, thereby assuring local
participation in land governance. help to avoid future conflicts among
efficient and collective planning descendants, especially conflicts
and monitoring process. Here, self knowledge : decentralising creation caused by ignorance of respective
and access
-help transcends from individual individual land shares.
dividends to community gain. The CRP model is an excellent
l To help descendants ascertain
example of decentralising knowledge
to enable enhanced access to basic their share of land, the CRP
This was a rare example in which prepares the genealogy (showing
a state government enlisted support information on ownership of land.
The process of this decentralisation family shares of ancestral land) in
from civil society to help with one of the presence of family members
its most critical and core functions. of knowledge begins with the CRP
bringing the village RoR to the and the Revenue Inspector. In a
The CRP model has emerged as a good
community and progresses to the CRP joint family situation, the father
practice, demonstrating results through
preparing and sharing the final list of is typically regarded as head of
an efficient and collective planning and
landless families to the community the family and therefore eligible
monitoring process. Here, self -help
transcends from individual dividends in a village meeting. A number of to get the land. Thus, Revenue
to community gain. The participatory activities are undertaken as part of this Inspectors usually overlook the
process as understood the common decentralisation of knowledge. process of ascertaining family land
parlance, is a system of development l The CRP, identifies landless share of other family members.
intervention where community supports households, brings the village RoR But with the CRP working
the government machinery. But the CRP to the community and educates the with the Revenue Inspector,
model, integrates the community into community members on the use descendants having less than two
the process: the community graduates of land records. The practice of decimals (2/100 acre) may also

be considered homesteadless. importance of land rights could even be possible. For the first
By using a transparent process to time in the country, a partnership
prepare the genealogy to establish The nature of identifying the was formed between the state and
landless is such that all issues related non-state actors, in an area that was
the exact shares of family land,
to land becomes public knowledge. considered an exclusive reserve of
the CRPs help to avoid future
The philosophy behind the CRP model the government. By accepting the
conflicts among descendants,
is to create a friend of the people increased engagement of non-revenue
especially conflicts caused by
figure who can help initiate social persons in land allocation, the state
ignorance of respective individual
mediation between communities and government exhibited its openness to
land shares.
the government to resolve land issues. recognising the capacity within the
l The CRP prepares and shares Throughout the pilot project and community to provide critical support
the final list of landless families OTELP scaling, the CRP proved to be
with the community in a village usefull in helping the people, especially Implementing the land allocation
meeting. This open process the landless, realising them that getting programme offers a unique
of reading out names in a a piece of homestead land was their
village meeting helps villagers right, thus generating demand that had
experience of a workable and
know which households are been missing. successful model in which
homesteadless and landless and government partners and civil
The CRP also helped the Revenue
what criteria has been used.
Inspector to locate families (not always society jointly carved out distinct
The entire exercise of providing landless) who had encroached onto roles and responsibilities for each
land to the landless used to government land by placing the RoR player in a rather complicated
be an activity limited to the before them and involving them in area of land allocation. The CRP
field verification. By bringing such
Revenue Department and Revenue unauthorised occupation to public
model not only ensures peoples
Inspector's office, with barely notice, the CRP provided able support participation in identifying landless
any role for the community. The to the Revenue Inspector. This helped families, but also ensures that
villagers rarely knew who was the CRP to gain the confidence and they take part and provide vital
trust of villagers, who could then sort
landless and who had received land out their problems with the Revenue
information regarding land holding
or what land they had received. Inspector mediating with other villagers to revenue officials.
and advocating on behalf of the poor.
l During field verification by to the government. It also recognised
revenue officials, families E a r l i e r, b e c a u s e t h e e n t i r e the ability of local youth to socially
identified as landless have an community was not involved in the mediate to reach the unreached.
opportunity to actively participate revenue process, such unauthorized
occupation of government land went Further, the CRPs could also re-
in identifying and demarcating
unnoticed, and the revenue inspector establish the link between the people
the government land they are
was not motivated to initiate eviction on and government by delivering results
occupying. This helps avoid
his or her own. With villager's support, in record time. Implementing the
future conflict over area and
encroachment on government land by land allocation programme offers a
possession. The entire exercise
the wealthier and more influential unique experience of a workable and
of providing land to the landless
members became a village issue. successful model in which government
used to be an activity limited
partners and civil society jointly carved
to the Revenue Department A public-private-community out distinct roles and responsibilities
and Revenue Inspector's office, partnership model for each player in a rather complicated
with barely any role for the
Involving literate youth from the area of land allocation. The CRP
community. The villagers rarely
knew who was landless and who village in regularizing the occupation model not only ensures peoples
had received land or what land of government land was an innovative participation in identifying landless
they had received. Moreover, model of land allocation because it families, but also ensures they take
with support from the CRP, the relied on the capacity of a private part and provide vital information
Revenue Inspectors have done individual to enumerate landlessness. regarding land holding to revenue
field verification in each village. Earlier, civil society and private officials.
individuals had no direct role in such
Previously, this had not been the Empowerment and other Benefits
practice due to multiple demands revenue operations. Land allocation
on the Revenue Inspectors' and settlement was not perceived as By virtue of its decentralised
time. an area in which peoples participation operation, the CRP programme

has successfully garnered support The process of keeping data at of November 2013, 94 per cent of
of PRI functionaries, local the community level and periodically homestead and farmland pattas
development actors and civil sharing it, created a proactive distributed in the project villages
society to demystify perceived engagement of communities in land were jointly titled, and 2.5 per cent
technicalities and complexities allocation issues. Increased access to went to women-headed households.
around land administration and to land records and the presence of CRPs A number of women who received
make the process people-friendly appears to have brought about a visible pattas revealed that they had never
and uncomplicated. Using CRPs to increase in the frequency and the before seen a patta and had never
expedite land allocation, motivated number of people visiting the revenue even heard about joint titling.
revenue officials to prioritise land circle offices. The CRP programme, After land allocation, the women
allocation that they earlier could to a large extent, empowered and exhibited the most interest and zeal
not accomplish because of staff motivated community members to to productively use the homestead
shortages. Many Revenue Inspectors get involved in land allocation work. plots by accessing government
Because of the CRPs close proximity schemes and programmes. There
have said that since they did not
to the community and the Revenue were instances in which women
follow a standardized method of
Inspector, the CRP has also been able landholders, on their own, formed
landless identification, the numbers
to help people with regard to land user groups to access government
they were offering were inaccurate.
disputes that were not strictly under
However, within the previously services. With regard to women-
the CRPs purview.
existing circumstances, they felt headed households, patta was of
they had no other option. Some The CRP programme has great help in getting residential proof
Revenue Inspectors also said that experienced increased participation to ensure their childrens education
since they did not have additional of women in land allocation for because such documents are required
support, they hardly ever undertook the land being jointly titled in the for enrolling children in schools. q
field verification before providing name of both spouses. As per patta
land. distribution figures collected as (E-mail :sanjoyp@landesa.org)
YE-217/2013

J&K Window
Migrant package approved
T
he Jammu & Kashmir Government has approved the proposed amendment to the Prime Ministers package
for the return and rehabilitation of Kashmiri migrants to Kashmir Valley. The proposed amendment will allow
all migrants families, which would return to the Valley to avail incentives for construction or reconstruction of
houses available under the package irrespective of the fact as to whether they had sold their properties before or after
1997. q
Golden crop to glow again
T
he Golden Crop of Kashmir i.e. the kashmiri saffron is set to register an increase of 10% yield this year thanks
to the efforts of the National Saffron Mission(NSM) scheme. The world famous crop, known for its fine quality,
is hopeful of yielding 11 metric tonnes this year as againt 10 metric tonnes the previous year. Pampore township
of Pulwama district is the largest producer of saffron in the country, with 80 per cent of area under the cultivation of the
crop and is referred to as the Golden Bowl of Kashmir. q
Artificial snow for Gulmarg visitors
T
he Jammu & Kashmir government is proposing to buy snow making machines to usher an early skiing season.
The aim is to advance the skiing season by six to eight weeks, according to Director of Tourism, govt of J&K.
This decision was taken since it was found that snowfall has been happening late in the past few years usually
only by mid or late December as against early November two decades ago. One of the major concerns about this
proposal is the availability of water. The Tourism Department hopes to be able to tap the water from the Seven springs
in Mount Apharwat at an altitude of 13,780 ft. The glaciers could also be utilized, the Department felt. These snow
machines or snow guns use water to create a blanket of artificial snow. In one minute, a snow gun can carpet upto
4000 sq ft with six inch snow. This technology is used in Europe to supplement natural snow when it is deficient and
to extend ski seasons. Indoors, where the temperature can be controlled, the machines can create snow for indoor ski
slopes like in parts of west Asia. q
J&K Govt and J&K Bank sign MoU for DBT
A
memorandum of Understanding was signed between the State Government of J&K and the J&K bank on
implementation of Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) Electronic Benefit Transfer (EBT) scheme in the state for
transfer of government entitlements under various Central Sector/centrally sponsored schemes directly into
the beneficiaries accounts. J&K Bank has been designated as the Leader Bank in all the 22 districts of the State.
The Scheme, in the first phase, is being launched in six pilots districts of Ganderbal, Jammu, Kargil, Leh, Rajouri
and Srinagar. In the pilot phase, the beneficiaries of IGNOAPD(Old Age pension scheme) are being covered under
DBT/EBT roll out. The remaining 16 districts will be covered in the second phase which will benefit the entire
IGNOAPS beneficiary population of the state of about 1,30,000 presently. q
Expert panel for Education Policy formed
A
n expert panel to work on formulation of Education Policy for the school system in J&K school education
Vision Document 2025 and language Policy; medium of instruction, regional languages and school
curriculum is proposed to be formed. The expert panel will comprise eminent academicians, intellectuals,
activitists and experts with Prof Farida Khan, Jamia Milia Islamia as Chairperson. It will furnish the report with
its recommendation within a period of three months. q

colour
YE-224/2013

administrative reforms
initiatives
Scheduled Caste Sub-Plan and Tribal Sub-Plan
Saumya Shrivastava
cheduled Castes clearly not be addressed through
S
(SCs) and Scheduled Tribes the general welfare schemes and
(STs) have been among programmes that had been in place.
the most disadvantaged
Scheduled Caste Sub-Plan and
sections of our society due
to their socio-economic Tribal Sub-Plan
exploitation and isolation over a long The persistence of socio-economic
period of time. They lag behind the backwardness of the SCs and the STs,
rest of the population in terms of in spite of the development efforts,
both human development as well as warranted a special and focused strategy,
economic indicators. Table 1 reflects to enable them to share the benefits of
the marked difference in the social and overall economic growth in a more
economic indicators of SCs and STs as equitable manner. In order to ensure
compared to other social groups. direct policy-driven benefits for SCs
The 12 th Five Year Plan noted and STs through specific interventions,
Clearly, it would be that the incidence of poverty is most the Planning Commission during the
pronounced among the SCs and the STs 1970s introduced plan strategies - the
neither feasible nor Special Component Plan for SCs
across all social groups. Though efforts
necessary for all have been made for bringing them at (SCP) and the Tribal Sub Plan (TSP).
The SCP for SCs was later renamed as
ministries to meet the 16 par with the rest of the population, gaps
still exist. The 12thplan document notes Scheduled Caste Sub Plan (SCSP). The
/ 8 per cent benchmark that This calls for an inclusive growth main objective of SCSP and TSP is to
for SCSP /TSP. But if the process which provides opportunities channel Plan funds for the development
of SCs and STs in accordance with the
ministries make serious for all to participate in the growth
proportion of these communities in
process combined with schemes that
efforts along these lines, would either deliver benefits directly the total population which was16 per
the combined Plan or more importantly help these groups cent and 8 per cent respectively at the
to benefit from the opportunities national level as per the 2001 Census.
allocations reported for
thrown up by the general development Under these strategies, Plan
all ministries is quite process. funds are to be earmarked for SCs
likely to be higher than (through SCSP) and STs (through TSP)
It was witnessed that despite
the benchmarks - if not dedicated efforts for the up liftment under separate budget heads (SCSP
in the first year itself, then of SCs and STs over the years, with budget head 789 and TSP with
they continued to face multiple budget head 796) for each ministry
over a span of a few years developmental deficits, which could implementing SCSP and TSP. These
The author works as a Research Associate at the Centre for Budget and Governance Accountability, New Delhi.

Table 1: Socio-Economic Indicators for Scheduled Castes
Indicators Year SCs STs Other Groups
Literacy Rate (Rural) % 2007-08 60.5 58.8 76.9
Literacy Rate (Urban) % 74.9 78 89.9
Unemployment Rate by Current Daily Status (Rural) 2007-08 11.9 7.5 8.4
Women with BMI < 18.5 (%) 2005-06 41.2 46.6 29.3
Women with Anaemia (%) 2005-06 58.3 68.5 51.2
Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000) 2005-06 66.4 62.1 48.9
Households with Pucca houses (%) 2008-09 38.3 39.5 66.1
Households with electricity (%) 2008-10 61.2 18.8 75
Source: India Human Development Report 2011, Towards Social Inclusion, Institute of Applied Manpower Research, Planning Commission, GoI
[computed from NFHS, NSS various years)
strategies could include allocations for Central Assistance to States and Union funds under this Statement (see
area-oriented programmes benefitting Territories) has dipped to 9.92 per cent Annexure 2). The Ministry of
SC/ST hamlets or designing new in 2013-14 BE. Agriculture which had been reporting
appropriate developmental programmes funds till 2012-13 BE, has stopped
Similarly, it is interesting to see reporting under Statement 21A from
for the development of these groups.
from Graph 2 that in no year have the 2012-13 RE. Similar is the case with
The SCSP and TSP funds should be allocations under the TSP reached the
non-divertible and non-lapsable. the Ministry of Civil Aviation and
stipulated 8 per cent mark, remaining Department of Biotechnology which
Allocations under SCSP and TSP below 6 per cent in all the years under reported allocations for just one year
analysis.As has been the case with (2010-11 RE). There hasnt been any
The sub plans statements show SCSP, the proportionate allocations increase in the number of ministries/
the allocations reported by various under TSP have remained almost departments reporting under it
ministries/ departments for welfare stagnant in the last few years. from last year.Annexure 2 shows
of SCs and STs. Graph 1 and 2 show allocations by various ministries/
Problems
the trend of the share of allocations departments for TSP, over the years.
for SCs and STs respectively as a Reporting is not being undertaken As per Statement 21A of Union
proportion of Total Plan allocations of by all the ministries/departments, and Budget 2013-14, the governments
the Union Government (excluding the some of these are the ones which are allocation under the Tribal Sub Plan
Central Assistance to States and Union liable to allocate funds under SCSP. (TSP) has increased to Rs. 24598.39
Territories). Source: Compiled from Further, a few Departments and Union crore from Rs. 18721.33 crore in
Statement 1, 21 and 21A, Expenditure Territories (UTs) have discontinued 2012-13 (RE), marking an increase
Budget in with Vol. I, Union Budget reporting under the statement. of Rs. 5877.57 crore.
(various years) Annexure 1shows allocations under On the positive side, the Statements
this Statement by various ministries/ (21 and 21A) have, for the first time
Allocations for SCs reached an departments. reported figures of Actuals in the Union
all-time high at 10.43 per cent of the
As per Statement 21 of Union Budget 2013-14, which could be seen
total plan allocation of Union Budget
Budget 2013-14, the governments as a step towards greater transparency.
2012-13 (RE), but this too fell short of Moreover, the Finance Minister in his
the 16.2 per cent share stipulated by allocation under SCSP has gone up
to Rs.41561 crore from Rs. 33085.04 budget speech this year, emphasised
SCSP norms. The increase in outlay that the funds allocated to the sub plans
crore in 2012-13 (RE). This marks an
was mainly due to a substantial fall in cannot be diverted and must be spent
increase of Rs. 8476.09 crore over the
the total plan allocation of the Union for the specified purposes. However,
year. Even so, several ministries and
government from Rs. 321405.55 much remains to be done with regard
departments still remain out of the
crore to Rs. 317184.62 crore, which to the reporting under these statements.
ambit of the SCSP.
increased the proportionate share of Some concerns that continue to affect
SCSP in the total allocations. However, As has been the case with the the proper implementation of these
the share of SCSP in the total plan SCSP, even in TSP, not all the plan strategies have been highlighted
allocations of Union Budget (excluding ministries/departments are allocating in the following section.

Concerns in the implementation of they are more in the nature of general l For Narmada Valley Development
SCSP and TSP interventions that cannot be perceived Project, Rs. 40 lakh is allocated
as meant largely for the benefit of for survey and mapping of the
As noted above, the implementation
SCs / STs. There are some glaring detailed project for Narmada
of these two strategies has been fraught
examples of how the SCSP / TSP Valley Development.
with three major problems: allocations
funds, particularly the SCSP funds, are
not meeting the stipulated earmarking Source: Data compiled by National
being used for very general purposes
of 16 and 8 per cent; many ministries Campaign on Dalit Human Rights
that cannot be perceived as meant
remaining out of the ambit of these (NCDHR), a Delhi based NGO, from
statements and several ministries not largely for the benefit of SCs / STs.
Detailed Demands for Grants in the
having the required budget heads for This can be clearly seen from some
State Budget of Madhya Pradesh for
SCSP and TSP in their detailed budget state level examples outlined below.
2010-11
books (Detailed Demands for Grants). Example from Madhya Pradesh
Additionally, there also remain issues Example from Odisha State
State Budget: Madhya Pradesh State Budget: The Odisha State Budget
regarding the overall approach of Budget reported interventions like
these plan strategies. for 2010-11 reported Construction of
purchase of furniture and equipment, Jail Buildings under SCSP with an
An other key issue that has constructions of channels and survey allocation of Rs. 4.77 crore (under
adversely affected these plans is and mapping of projects, under SCSP. the Head 4059-60-789). Clearly,
the approach taken by the Narendra These interventions clearly do not construction of jails, building for
Jadhav Task Force. The Narendra promote empowerment of SCs or police or fire stations does not lead to
Jadhav Committees roadmap for address their specific developmental the development of SCs or accrue any
implementation of SCSP and TSP has needs. Inclusion of such interventions benefit to them.
not addressed the core issue pertaining under SCSP does cast doubts over the
to misplaced rationale underlying reporting under SCSP in the state. Example from Gujarat State
the interventions being reported. In Budget:Similarly, Gujarat State Budget
Use of SCSP Funds in Madhya has reported certain interventions
several schemes, the nodal Ministries
are reporting a part of their Plan Pradesh in 2010-11 (BE) under TSP which do not have any
allocations as a proportion of funds l In the Department of Medical specific provision for the development
meant for benefiting SCs/STs even Education, Rs. 22 lakh have been of the STs, as shown below. Reporting
though the schemes/component(s) booked for purchase of furniture general schemes which do not
may not target the specific needs and and equipment for establishing have specific provisions for STs or
challenges of SCs/STs. Reporting Homeopathy and Ayurvedic reporting allocations on celebrating
under SCSP over the years has been clinics. a birth anniversary cannot be seen
more in the nature of retrospective as programmes addressing specific
l Under Higher Education
budgeting where allocations for SCs concerns of STs.
department, there is a provision
are earmarked after the Plan budgets
of Rs. 1 crore for construction of Use of Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) Funds
of the ministries are finalised in the
staff room. in Gujarat in 2012-13 (BE)
process of formulation of the Union
Budget, without any special measure l Water Resources Department has l Under Minor Head 796, Sub
taken for formulating SCSP and TSP allocated Rs. 6.4 crore for the Head: 07 - Celebration of
during the budget preparation phase. construction of channels. Swami Vivekanands 150th Birth
Secondly, a scrutiny of the Table: 2 Excerpt from the Detailed Demand for Grant for Home
programmes /schemes across several Department in Odisha (in Rs. Crore)
such ministries also indicates that
they are merely assuming that a Schemes 2009-10 BE 2010-11 BE
certain proportion of funds in a certain Construction of Building for Jails 2.30 4.77
scheme would benefit SCs / STs based
on the share of SC / ST population Construction of Building for Fire Services 3.32 4.11
in the countrys total population, Construction of Building for Police Welfare
giving rise to the debate on notional (37062- Construction of Office building
allocation of funds under the SCSP through O.S.P.H &W Corporation) 7.49 1.70
and TSP.Moreover, in some cases Source: Data compiled by National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights (NCDHR), a
the interventions reported under the Delhi based NGO, from Detailed Demands for Grants in the State Budget of Odisha
statements are not SC/ST specific; (2010-11)

Anniversary for which an amount Annexure 1: Assessment of Fund Allocation through Statement 21 in
of Rs. 5 crore is allocated for the Union Budget 2013-14 (In Rs. Crore)
year 2012-13. S. Ministry/Department 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14
l Under Minor Head 796, Sub No. RE RE RE BE
Head: 08-UDP- Swarnim Jayanti 1 Department of Animal 0 160.11 291.59 328.05
Mukhya Mantri Shahari Vikas Husbandry, Dairying and
Fisheries
Yojana for which an amount of
Rs. 170 crore is allocated for 2 Department of Agriculture and - 1401.98 1533.71 1888.11
Cooperation
the year 2012-13. This scheme
3 Department of Commerce - 90 94 100
is meant to provide assistance
for basic social infrastructure 4 Ministry of Civil Aviation 0.1 - - -
to ULBs, e.g. construction/re- 5 Police 2.66 - - -
strengthening school buildings, 6 Ministry of Labour and 9.8 210.6 352.59 408.89
creating facilities in urban Employment
health centers, kindergartens, 7 Ministry of New and Renewable 0 42 40.25 53.23
e-Libraries, play grounds, Solid Energy
& Liquid Waste Management, 8 Department of Science and 3 31.52 25.97 69.43
e-Governance, Parking and Public Technology
Toilets, facilities for Vegetable & 9 Department of Biotechnology 3.5 - - -
Seasonal Venders Markets, etc. 10 Ministry of Social Justice and 3434.76 4019.1 3888.93 4755.8
Empowerment
(Source: State Budget Documents
11 UT of Chandigarh 10.41 - - -
(2012-13), Govt. of Gujarat)
12 UT of Daman and Diu 0.56 - - -
Such practices of use of funds for
13 Ministry of Agriculture 272.5 - -
general purposes defy the purpose of
14 Department of Industrial Policy 30.73 30.01 5.8 42
initiating strategies like SCSP and TSP. and Promotion
Projects meant for SCs and STs should
15 Department of Information 53.2 45.08 51.74 60
have a beneficiary oriented approach Technology
as far as possible and cover SC and 16 Ministry of Environment and 0 51 43.36 53.46
ST dominated hamlets in projects Forest
related to infrastructure and basic 17 Department of Health and 2163 3137.61 3712.88 4433.08
amenities, ensuring development of Family Welfare
these groups with planned interventions 18 Department of AYUSH - 32.5 33.5 53.45
for addressing their specific concerns 19 Department of AIDS Control 0 228 267.45 271.32
Thirdly, the Narendra Jadhav Task 20 Ministry of HUPA 0 234.91 162.5 328.5
Force has exempted a number of 21 Department of School Education 5881.83 7791.4 8545.8 9931.8
and Literacy
ministries / departments from reporting
22 Department of Higher Education 2175.67 1922.85 2076.91 2431.51
under these statements primarily on
the grounds of indivisibility of these 23 Ministry of Micro, Small and 276.26 186.09 309.69 357.24
Medium Enterprises
sectors. But, it needs to be noted here
24 Ministry of Panchayati Raj 11 14.01 23.78 75.49
that no sector is indivisible and the
Ministries can identify some specific 25 Ministry of Power - 502.23 390.76 800
challenges confronting SCs/STs in their 26 Department of Rural 7492 4375.06 3819.74 6358.37
Development
respective sectors and then formulate
27 Department of Land Resources 0 279.75 491.69 933.85
a new intervention / a new scheme to
address such challenges, even if the 28 Department of Drinking Water 0 2200 2860 3358
and Sanitation
allocations may be small as compared
29 Ministry of Textiles 139.2 265.16 225 231.55
to the total budget of the Ministry.
30 Ministry of Women and Child 2349 2530 3700 4070
Such concerns do stress the need Development
for rethinking the plan strategies of 31 Ministry of Youth Affairs and 204.98 136.55 137.4 168
SCSP and TSP on how to make them Sports
more responsive to the needs of the SCs Total Allocation 24514.16 29917.52 33085.04 41561.13
and the STs respectively. Source: Statement 21 from Expenditure Budget Volume 1, Union Budget various years

Annexure 2: Assessment of Fund Allocation through Statement 21A in Union Budget 2013-14 (in Rs. Crore)
S. No. Dept./Ministry 2010-11 RE 2011-12 RE 2012-13 RE 2013-14 BE

1 Ministry of Agriculture 139.3 692.33 - -
2 Dept. of Agricultural Research & Education 100.8 86.4 123
3 Dept. Agriculture and Cooperation 757.3 932.5

4 Ministry of Coal 27 31.01 31.6
5 Dept. of Telecommunications 0 5.02 5.99 14.5
6 Dept. of Information Technology 0 196.2 138.46 201
7 Dept. of Food & Public Distribution 0 1.96 3.44 6.28
8 Ministry of Culture 7.4 16.1 17.28 28.7
9 Ministry of Environment & Forests 15 14.51 16
10 Dept. of Health & Family Welfare 1167 1683.7 1804 2391.53
11 Dept. of AYUSH 8.21 13 13.4 21.38
12 Dept. of AIDS Control 0 123 144.28 146.37
13 Ministry of Housing & Urban Poverty 0 25.06 17.32 35.04
Alleviation
14 Dept. of School Education & Literacy 3441.06 4168.4 4572 5313.52
15 Dept. of Higher Education 621.29 961.33 1021.53 1219.59
16 Ministry of Labour and Employment 0 106.6 169.01 206.95
17 Ministry of Micro, Small & Medium 147.32 133.96 211.11 244.21
Enterprises
18 Ministry of Mines 8.12 8.72 9.72
19 Ministry of Panchayati Raj 11 7.08 12.27 37.55
20 Ministry of Road Transport & Highways 375 500 800
21 Ministry of Rural Development 0 3081.94 2778.87 4452.03
22 Dept. of Land Resources 0 246.42 302.4 576.45
23 Dept. of Drinking Water & Sanitation 0 1000 1300 1526
24 Dept. of Science & Technology 3 32.75 21.86 69.43
25 Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment 0 46
26 Ministry of Textiles 27.6 63.63 54.75 55.57
27 Ministry of Tourism 0 27.5 23.75 32.05
28 Ministry of Tribal Affairs 3203.3 3723.01 3100 4279
29 Union Territories (Andaman & Nicobar 2.71 2.94 2.94
Islands)
30 Union Territories (D&D) 1.16 1 1
31 Ministry of Water Resources 0 10.4 17.5 19.5
32 Ministry of Women and Child Development 0 1037.3 1517 1668.7
33 Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports 75.9 72.55 73.23 90.28

34 Ministry of Civil Aviation 0.05
35 Department of Biotechnology 1.75
36 UTs of Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Dadra 367.13
and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu and
Lakshadweep
Total Allocation 9221.31 17959.03 18721.33 24598.39
Source: Statement 21A, 2013-14, Expenditure Budget Volume-I, Ministry of Finance, Government of India

Suggested Roadmap
The objective of SCSP / TSP should not be to merely
capture the assumptions / perceptions of Ministries with
regard to incidental benefits accruing to SCs / STs
from their general schemes, but to ensure availability
of adequate budgetary resources with Ministries for
providing direct policy-driven benefits to SCs / STs in
their respective sectors. The main objective of SCSP and
TSP should not be to just report/show that 16 or 8 per cent
of the total plan budgets of all ministries are for benefiting
SCs and STs, because such an objective pushes several
ministries to focus merely on retrospective reporting. The
main objective of the sub plan should be to encourage all
ministries to (i) identify what could be the additional
difficulties /challenges confronting SCs / STs in their
sectors of concern, (ii) what kind of measures could
be taken by them to address those special difficulties/
challenges, and (iii) how much additional resources would
be required for such special measures. These additional
resources devoted for the special measures for SCs/STs
should then be reported under SCSP / TSP.
Clearly, it would be neither feasible nor necessary for
all ministries to meet the 16 / 8 per cent benchmark for
SCSP /TSP. But if the ministries make serious efforts along
these lines, the combined Plan allocations reported for all
ministries is quite likely to be higher than the benchmarks
- if not in the first year itself, then over a span of a few
years. q
(E-mail : saumya@cbgaindia.org)
Five Fundamental Principles

of Tribal Development
(1) People should develop along the lines of their own genius and
we should avoid imposing anything on them. We should try to
encourage in every way their own traditional arts and culture.
(2) Tribal rights in land and forests should be respected.
(3) We should try to train and build up a team of their own people
to do work of administration and development. Some technical
personnel from outside will, no doubt, be needed, especially in the
beginning. But we should avoid introducing too many outsiders
into tribal territory.
(4) We should not over-administer these areas or over-whelm
them with multiplicity of schemes. We should rather work
through, and not in rivalry to, their own social and cultural
institutions.
(5) We should judge results, not by statistics or the amount of money
spent, but by the quality of human character that is evolved.
New Delhi,
9th October, 1958 Jawaharlal Nehru
YE-223/2013
(From the Foreword to the Second Edition of the book 'A Philosophy
for NEFA' by Verrier Elwin)

structural transformations
insight
Evidence from some Least Developed States
Archana Prasad
f the f i v e s t a t e s and rural farmers to national and
O
described as least global markets. Third party industry
developed by the agreements in joint forest management
Report of the Raghuram projects (in states like Andhra) and
Rajan Committee on the promotion of export and industry
Evolving a Composite oriented agricultural produce like
Developmental Index, safed musli (for example in Bastar,
four have a considerably large Chhattigarh), soya bean (through the
scheduled tribe population. It is also ITC in Madhya Pradesh) and floriculture
significant that all these states boast in large parts of Chhattisgarh has
a robust annual growth rate and have fundamentally changed the agrarian
the status of the pursued aggressive policies which relations within the tribal regions.
have resulted in the changing class This article shows that it has also led
scheduled tribe is differentiation within tribal people. to growing inequities within the tribal
This differentiation is also a result society as revealed in the available
getting consolidated of the forms of adverse integration sources of data for the scheduled
as a rural and urban of tribal workers into rural and urban tribes.
labour markets. The increasing labour
worker and not as a mobility amongst the scheduled tribe Forms of Land Dispossession
population is reflected in the growing
farmer. In this situation trends of urbanisation and changing
Ownership and control of land,
particularly cultivated land, is one of
the slow implementation intensity of dispossession amongst the the basic characteristics of the growing
tribal people. The root cause of these inequities within tribal societies. The
of the Unorganised changing patterns of mobility and rising decadal changes in the land ownership
Sector Workers Social inequities within tribal communities is patterns of four least developed states
the continuing structural changes in with tribal population reveal a growing
Security Act, 2008 the agrarian economy, both in terms landlessness amongst tribal people in
of the consolidation of land holdings
and Forest Rights Act, and the penetration of big capital into
these states in three different periods
between 1999-2000 and 2010-11 (a
2006 will only further export led commercial agriculture. decade that is temporally comparable
This is particularly true of states like with the census data enumeration in
hurt the interests of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh 2001 and 2011)
where contract and corporate farming
the scheduled tribes in in tribal lands has been a result of table-1 shows that the decedal
contemporary India sustained policy initiatives that are increase in landlessness amongst the
consistently linking tribal farmers scheduled tribes has been the highest in
The author is Professor at the Centre for Informal Sector and Labour Studies, JNU, New Delhi. She is a historian whose main
publications and work focus on the political economy of adivasi survival. Currently, she is working on the oral history of the warli
struggle in Maharashtra as well as the contemporary history of social protection and transformations in adivasi politics, work and labour.
Her main publications are Against Ecological Romanticism: Verrier Elwin and the Making of an Anti-Modern Tribal Identity (2003),
Environmentalism and the Left: Contemporary Debates and Future Agendas in Tribal Areas (2004), Environment, Development and
Society: An Introduction (2008), The Political Economy of Maoist Violence in Chhattisgarh (2010).

Table: 1 per centage Changes Access to Cultivated Land by Scheduled Tribes, 1999-2010
Change: 1999-2000 to 2010-11 Change: 2004-05-2010-11
0 0.01-0.40 0.41-1 1.01-2 2.01-4 Above 4 0 0.01-0.40 0.41-1 1.01-2 2.01-4 Above 4
Chhattisgarh* -0.8 14.7 6.7 -3.3 -15.8 -1.5
Jharkhand* 8.2 -4.9 3.2 -7.7 0.9 0.3
Madhya 23.1 -3.5 -13.2 -4.6 -0.2 -1.4 17.9 1.1 -10.9 -3.6 -1.8 -2.5
Pradesh
Odisha 4.7 -0.2 -5 -0.3 1 -0.2 1.5 8.8 -7.5 -1.4 -0.6 -0.7
All India 5.1 -2.2 -1.6 4.6 1.1 0 3.6 1.1 -1.7 5.4 -1.2 -0.1
Calculated from NSSO Report, 469, p. 49, NSSO Report 516, 2004-05, p.70 and NSSO Report 543, 2010-2011, p.74.
*Specific data for the newly formed states of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh was not collected in 1999-2000. The Chhattisgarh figures
have been included Madhya Pradesh.
Madhya Pradesh in the period between proletarisation of the tribal people. It Compensatory Afforestation scheme
2000-2011. While the increase in is even more interesting to note that in India, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,
landlessness is lower than the all India the rate of decline of large and medium Madhya Pradesh and Odisha account
average in all states except Jharkhand, land holdings within scheduled tribes for about 51 per cent of the diversion
percentage of marginal holdings below is considerably less than that of small of forest lands for corporate projects.
one hectare has registered a significant and marginal holdings. At an all India If Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and
rise in all the four states. This clearly level, the picture emerges in a more Rajasthan are added to this list then
indicates that medium size land holdings complex form. The rate of decline of these seven states account for about
are getting fragmented and the loss of large land holdings is much slower than 70 per cent of the land diverted for
land amongst the adivasis may not be marginal and sub-marginal holdings. non-forestry purposes. However, this
absolute in its character. This means This indicates that the tribal people fact is also accompanied by the lack
that those with larger land holdings are with larger land holdings are able to of recognition of land rights under
losing a significant part of their land but retain their ownership whereas the the Forest Rights Act. The scenario
not all their land so as to be classed as marginal farmers were becoming for the least developed states is the
landless. Chhattisgarh is especially dispossessed, increasing the inequities following:
significant in this regard since there between the landholders and the Of the four least developed states,
seems to be an unusual increase landless tribal workers. Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Madhya
in medium adivasi land holders, a Pradesh have a poor record in the
phenomena that has possibly arisen The importance of the enactment settlement of claims under the Forest
out of the Chhattisgarh government's and implementation of the forest Rights Act. Chhattisgarh and Madhya
contract farming initiative where rights act has to be considered in Pradesh also have the highest rate
adivasi peasants are directly linked to this context and perspective. At the of diversion of forest lands for non-
corporate houses. This rise in marginal time of its enactment, the advocates forestry purposes. Most of this diversion
and medium land holdings, at the of tribal rights anticipated that this is for the purposes of private mining
same time, indicates a fundamental Act could be an antitode to both projects which have a big impact in
change within the class structure of displacement and dispossession. But its the displacement of tribal livelihoods.
the Chhattisgarh adivasis and can implementation, when compared with This is clearly seen in the decedal
explain the spurt in urban growth the diversion of forest lands for other changes in land ownership as shown
rates of adivasis in the state. The projects, serves as a grim reminder previously. In fact, in Madhya Pradesh,
secular rise in marginal land holdings of the reality. According to the CAG landlessness has increased by 23.1 per
has to be seen as a part of the larger Report on the Implementation of the cent in the decade of 2000-2011, and in
Table 2: Diversion of Forest Lands (2010-13) and Implementation of Forest Rights Act, 2013
State/India Forest Land Claims received Percentage of Percentage Percentage

Diverted (ha) under FRA 30 Claims accepted Rejected Pending
September 2013
Chhattisgarh 20,461.70 7,56,062 41.5 56 3.5
Jharkhand 8328.45 42,003 36.4 40.3 23.2
Madhya Pradesh 20,795.72 481,128 37.3 57.8 4.9
Odisha 8820.77 5,41,800 59.8 25.8 14.4
All India 1,14,877.26 35,39,793 39.7 47.2 13.0
Diversion Figures are taken from CAG Report No 21, 2013, pp.20-21
FRA per centages Calculated from Progress Report of Implementation of FRA as of 30.9.2013, Ministry of Tribal Affairs

Chhattisgarh by 8.2 per cent between Madhya Pradesh, whose decline in marginal work is higher than that of
2005 and 2011. This clearly indicates the main rural workforce is lower than males. Significantly, the decline of
that the class position of the adivasi as that of the all India workforce. This female marginal workers in the urban
a rural worker rather than as a peasant figure becomes especially significant areas is replaced by a corresponding
has been further reinforced ever since when we consider the fact that the increase in the main female urban
the post-economic reform period. But main work participation rate of women workers. Once again, this indicates that
today, most adivasis are unable to find has increased in the state. This is schedule tribe women are shouldering
gainful employment opportunities in stark contrast to the decline in greater responsibility to meet the daily
in agriculture. Such a conclusion is the work participation rates of the needs of urban survival.
only reinforced by the Census data marginal female workforce in the
of 2011. state in the same period. But, overall, In this context, further probe into the
the secular increase in marginal tribal nature of occupational changes reveals
Tr a n s f o r m i n g O c c u p a t i o n a l rural workforce (that people working a rather interesting scenario of working
Structures Amongst Tribals for less than six months a year) is class formation and consolidation
reflective of the larger rural crisis that amongst the scheduled tribes. The
The long term impact of the forms decedal changes in the industrial
and patterns of dispossession are has fundamentally impacted tribal
livelihoods. In contrast, there is a classification of main workers reflects
reflected in the Census of India, 2011. the land dispossession that is taking
The following picture emerges when generalised increase in the main female
urban workforce in all cases except place amongst the tribals.
compared with the Census of India,
2001: for Chhattisgarh, and the decline in Given the figures for increasing
the urban male workforce in the same landlessness amongst the tribal people,
table 3 shows a secular decline in period highlights the gendered nature it is not surprising that the number
the number of main workers or workers of the changes in the occupational of tribal cultivators or peasants have
getting more than 180 day of regular structure. Further, even though there is declined by more than 10 per cent in
work in one year, even though there a general all India increase in the total all least developed states except for
is only a marginal decline or increase work participation rate for scheduled Odisha, where the rate of decline is
in the total work participation rates. tribes, it is largely a result of the less than the all India average of 10.31
What is more interesting to note is the increasing rates of marginal rural and per cent. As expected, most of this
fact that this decline is more drastic urban work. But even here, the rate decline is amongst the tribal farmers
in the rural areas of all regions except of increase in total and rural female of rural areas, but this decrease is also
Table 3: Decedal Changes in Scheduled Tribe Work Participation Rates, 2001-2011
Total Total Total Main Workers Total Marginal Workers
Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female
India -0.39 0.68 -1.31 -4.16 -7.33 -0.69 4.16 7.33 0.69
Jharkhand 0.64 0.42 0.98 -13.23 -18.58 -5.95 13.23 18.58 5.95
Odisha 0.73 0.90 0.73 -8.49 -11.31 -4.45 8.49 11.31 4.45
Chhattisgarh -0.58 0.49 -1.57 -7.13 -10.40 -3.98 7.13 10.40 3.98
Madhya Pradesh -0.52 -0.01 -1.08 -4.14 -9.19 1.51 4.14 9.19 -1.51

Rural Total Total Main Workers Total Marginal Workers
India -0.40 0.53 -1.28 -4.72 -8.02 -1.17 4.72 8.02 1.17
Jharkhand 0.44 0.07 0.82 -14.22 -20.01 -6.63 14.22 20.01 6.63
Odisha 0.69 0.84 0.70 -8.96 -11.88 -4.88 8.96 11.88 4.88
Chhattisgarh -0.12 0.53 -1.29 -7.73 -11.09 -4.52 7.73 11.09 4.52
Madhya Pradesh -0.73 -0.13 -1.26 -4.46 -9.76 1.29 4.46 9.76 -1.29

Urban Total Total Main Workers Total Marginal Workers
India 2.58 3.04 2.66 -1.04 -1.97 1.83 1.04 1.97 -1.83
Jharkhand 4.77 5.08 5.04 -2.39 -2.74 0.06 2.39 2.74 -0.06
Odisha 2.92 3.21 3.41 -2.83 -3.73 1.36 2.83 3.73 -1.36
Chhattisgarh 4.31 3.97 5.63 -3.45 -3.34 -0.68 3.45 3.34 0.68
Madhya Pradesh 2.73 2.72 3.31 0.29 -1.15 4.96 -0.29 1.15 -4.96
Data Computed from Census of India, 2001 ST01 and ST02; Census of India, 2011, ST Tables Online data.

Table 4: Decadal Changes in Industrial Classification of Main Tribal Workers, 2001-2011
State Cultivators Agricultural Labourers Other Workers
Total Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female
India -10.31 -8.84 -12.83 7.80 6.38 9.99 2.89 2.74 3.40
Jharkhand -12.81 -11.64 -15.19 4.66 3.24 7.05 8.99 9.27 9.04
Odisha -5.59 -3.88 -9.67 1.34 -0.60 6.16 5.10 4.66 6.36
Chhattisgarh -13.67 -11.72 -17.26 10.27 8.76 12.98 3.74 3.31 4.59
Madhya Pradesh -14.05 -12.79 -15.83 13.42 12.33 14.46 0.97 0.81 1.73
Rural
India -9.92 -8.29 -12.56 9.09 7.57 11.37 4.04 1.05 1.75
Jharkhand -11.69 -10.33 -14.26 5.69 4.11 8.32 6.86 7.12 6.85
Odisha -5.14 -3.31 -9.58 1.99 -0.18 7.44 4.10 3.77 5.04
Chhattisgarh -12.86 -10.82 -16.50 11.25 9.67 14.02 1.97 1.54 2.80
Madhya Pradesh -14.26 -12.97 -15.89 14.35 13.34 15.26 0.23 -0.02 0.94
Urban
India -0.67 -0.25 -1.91 1.41 1.45 0.61 -0.42 -1.20 2.63
Jharkhand -0.37 -0.45 -0.05 1.27 1.30 1.16 -0.85 -0.78 -0.90
Odisha 0.67 0.59 1.27 -0.21 -0.42 -0.18 -1.14 -1.41 0.43
Chhattisgarh 2.24 2.83 0.25 4.24 3.91 3.58 -6.00 -6.71 -1.41
Madhya Pradesh -1.29 -0.77 -2.90 2.96 2.85 1.37 -0.84 -1.62 3.59
Source: Calculated from the Census of India 2001, ST01 and STO2 and Census of India, 2011
gendered in its character. The rate of male worker participation rates (7.33 regions indicates the development of a
decline in female cultivators is higher per cent) as compared with female peri-urban workforce especially with
than that of male cultivators in the rural marginal work participation rates (0.69 the setting up of industrial townships
regions, indicating that female farmers per cent). The pattern of this trend is with the help of private corporate
and female headed households face more evident in the rural areas where capital. In case of Chhattisgarh and
a greater degree of vulnerability. An work participation rates of marginal Madhya Pradesh, the consolidation
interesting aspect of changes in work work have increased by 4.02 per cent of land holdings under the control of
patterns relate to the category of other overall and for male workers they have relatively large farmers is inspired by
workers. Here too, the rate of increase risen by 8.2 per cent in rural and 1.97 a governmental push towards contract
in female work participation rate is per cent in urban areas. In the four states farming and export-led agriculture
higher than that of males. Significantly, under consideration, the rural marginal through corporate support. Further, the
though there is a secular decline in work for male workers has risen by data also supports the argument that the
the category of other workers in almost 20 per cent in Jharkhand and rate of increase of the entry of female
urban areas, the female urban work more than 10 per cent in Odisha and tribal workers into the regular labour
participation rates in this period seem Chhattisgarh. In Madhya Pradesh, it has market is higher than that of the tribal
to be increasing at an all India level risen close to 10 per cent, a figure higher male workers in most cases. This clearly
and at least in two of the four least than the all India average. Almost all this shows that the work patterns within the
developed states. In states like Odisha, increase is in category of other workers scheduled tribes is in contrast with the
the rate of its decline is small and much in the case of Odisha and Jharkhand general decline in the female workforce
lower than the rate of decline of male and agricultural labour in the case of participation within the Indian labour
work participation. This leads us to Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. market. In all cases, however, it is clear
the conclusion that more women are that the status of the scheduled tribe
being forced into the non-agricultural The data presented above reveals the
different methods of the integration of is getting consolidated as a rural and
workforce as far as regular work is urban worker and not as a farmer. In
concerned. the tribal worker into labour markets
and the larger neo-liberal political this situation the slow implementation
This picture contrasts with the economy. In the case of states like of the Unorganised Sector Workers
decedal changes in the character of Odisha and Jharkhand, the sharp rise Social Security Act, 2008 and Forest
marginal work. The data shows that in the male and female rural other Rights Act, 2006 will only further hurt
though the number of tribal marginal workers is more a result of private the interests of the scheduled tribes in
other workers have gone up in both mining and construction works in contemporary India. q
urban and rural areas (Table 3) the legally demarcated rural areas. But the (E-mail :aprasad2@jmi.ac.in , archie.
increase is much higher in the case of changing economic geography of these prasad11@gmail.com)

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regional perspective
ground report
Reflections on Marginalization of
Tribes in South India
Ritambhara Hebbar
tudies on tribes in the reasons being that tribes of south
S
India have largely focused India constitute a small percentage
on central India, mainly of Indias total scheduled tribe (ST)
on tribes inhabiting the population. A large concentration,
Chotanagpur region and almost 85 per cent of Indias tribal
Chhattisgarh, to the neglect population is concentrated in central
of tribes in other regions India. North-east India accounts for
such as south India. South India is about 11 per cent of the total tribal
known to be relatively more developed population and the rest 4 per cent are
than most parts of north India, with dispersed over north and south India.
a better record of governance and However, as per the census of India,
public action. Ironically, in the process, 2011, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka
tribes and tribal issues have taken a scheduled tribe population constitutes
backseat and never really been in the 7 per cent of the states population,
forefront of social justice concerns which by no means, is insignificant.
Biodiversity is integral to in the region. The paper reflects Tamil Nadu and Kerala constitute 1.1
the livelihood strategies on why this is the case. In the first per cent and 1.5 per cent respectively.
section, I present some of the anomalies Interestingly, all the four states have
of tribes in south India. within the classification of tribes in a large number of scheduled tribe
Their dependence on south India that hides, more than it groups when compared to its total ST
reveals, the cultural and economic population. Karnataka has 49; Andhra
forests have contributed to interconnectedness of tribes across Pradesh has 33, while Tamil Nadu
the vast knowledge of the states. The second section focuses on and Kerala have 36 and 35 scheduled
local biodiversity, which is the recent developments in the Western tribes respectively. Karnataka has the
Ghats and the ensuing politics that second largest number of tribal groups
critical to their survival and has marginalised tribal livelihoods. In (with Odisha having the largest number
also of the ecosystem. There conclusion, I argue that the concern of 64) notified in any state within
over biodiversity conservation of the country. Some of the prominent
is an urgent need to reframe the Western Ghats cannot be at the tribes are the Naikda, Marati, Jenu
the terms of association cost of the tribal population and their Kuruba, Coorgi (Kodavaru), and the
knowledge systems that have thus, Gond in Karnataka; the Malayali,
with tribes on the issue of far contributed towards sustaining the Irula, Kattunayakan, Kurumans, and
biodiversity conservation biodiversity of the area. Kondareddi in Tamil Nadu; the Sugali,
in order to realise a more Koya, Yenadi, Yerukulas and the Gonds
Beyond Numbers- The Politics of
in Andhra Pradesh; and the Paniyan and
sustainable form of eco- Classification
Kurichchan in Kerala. Kerala is known
governance Number of reasons have been to have 11 tribes with a population less
attributed to the near absence of than 500 persons, of which the Kota,
tribal politics in south India, one of Kammara, Kochu Velan and Konda
The author is Associate Professor at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences in Mumbai. She has written several articles on tribes and has
also authored a book on Jharkhand titled Ecology, Equity and Freedom. Her current research is on tribes in South India.

Kapu have a population less than 50. like Rajasthan, have SC status in over tribal classification reveals the
Thus, despite the small per centage of Karnataka and Scheduled Tribe status lackadaisical attitude towards tribes
tribes in south India vis--vis the rest in Andhra Pradesh. Lambadas are and their welfare. It evidences the lack
of India, there are over 150 tribes in now a politically important group of systematic research on tribes, their
South India. in Andhra Pradesh, as compared to history and contemporary concerns.
other tribal groups such as the Konda Likewise, tribal administration is
These estimates are confusing as
Reddies and the Kolams. Similarly, in characterised by a colonial mentality
many of these tribes are found in more
Karnataka, communities like the Siddis and hackneyed style of functioning.
than one state. Tribal communities like
and Hallaki, who have been locally and The absence of tribal politics in the
Kattunaickan and Konda Kapus are
anthropologically recognised as tribes, region could be attributed to this
found in all the 4 states of south India.
were officially given the status of continued and somewhat conscious
Tribes such as Arandan, Eravallan,
scheduled tribes (with area restriction, neglect of tribes rather than to their
Kadar, Kannikaran, Kochu velan,
i.e. recognised as ST only within Uttara lesser numbers. There is a need to
Kurichan, Kurumbas, Malai Arayan,
Kannada district) only in 2003. Another reimagine tribal administration in
Malai Pandaram, Malai Vedan, Mala
example is of the Sholaga and Soliga, south India, along the cultural and
Kuruvan, Mannan, Muthuvan, Palleyan,
listed as two separate communities in ecological lines which extend beyond
Palliyar and Urali are found in Kerala
the Scheduled tribe list in Karnataka, state borders, so as to cater to the
and Tamil Nadu. Marati are recognised
but are two different names of the same specificities of the challenges faced by
as scheduled tribes in Karnataka as
community. In contrast, the Naikdas, tribes in the region.
well as Kerala. Tribal groups like
a numerically dominant community
Sholaga are found in Karnataka and B i o d i v e r s i t y a n d t h e Tr i b a l
and therefore, far more influential
Tamil Nadu while Koyas are found in Question
as compared to smaller tribes in the
Andhra and Karnataka. The Adiyan,
state, are a rather amorphous group. The Western Ghats is home to
Irular, Kammara, Koraga, Kota,
They collectively identify themselves many tribes, who primarily derive
Kudiya, Kuruman, Maha Malesar,
their livelihood from forests. Shifts
Malesar, Palliyan, Paniyan are found This confusion over tribal in land use patterns due to changes
in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. classification reveals the in forest laws have restricted access
The Yerava of Karnataka and the
Adiyan of Kerala are the same tribal
lackadaisical attitude towards of local tribal communities to forests.
group. Karnataka lists both these names tribes and their welfare. It However, there are still some tribes
who practice shifting cultivation
as two communities, while Kerala only evidences the lack of systematic such as the Jenu Kurumbas, Bette
recognises the Adiyans. Divided across research on tribes, their history Kurumbas, Uralis, Ulladans, Kannikar,
states, these tribal groups have been and contemporary concerns. Paliyans, Mannans, Muthuvans. The
reduced to a minority, who otherwise
are larger groups inhabiting an area. For Likewise, tribal administration role of these communities, living in and
instance, Wyanad in Kerala, Kodagu is characterised by a colonial around forests, towards maintaining
biodiversity has been significant, which
in Karnataka, and Nilgiris in Tamil mentality and hackneyed style of derive from the various forms of local
Nadu are adjoining districts that also functioning. The absence of tribal customary arrangements for resource
have a substantial tribal population. politics in the region could be use and conservation. State policies,
These three districts are also known
for their plantation economy. Tribes in attributed to this continued and however, have always focused on
somewhat conscious neglect of restricting their access to forests, even
these areas are culturally quite similar. as forests have been systematically
They have been primarily plantation tribes rather than to their lesser diverted for non-forest purposes-
labourers, who also regularly migrate numbers. i.e. for industrial and commercial
to neighbouring districts to work in utilisation, which has resulted in
the plantations. Landlessness and deforestation and loss of biodiversity.
as the Valmiki community, but have
indebtedness among them is high, different names such as Beda, Bedar, Due to continued exploitation of
as the influx of outsiders into these Nayaka and Valmiki across Karnataka. natural ecosystems, through large-
areas has led to land alienation. The Nayaka is also a title, found among scale commercial plantations, hydro
reorganisation of states in south various caste groups, even among and power projects, SEZs, mining, and
India has weakened tribal social and Dalits. Over the years, they have tourism, the Western Ghats was declared
cultural organisation and inhibited the emerged as an important group among as an ecological hotspot in the late
consolidation of tribal identity and tribes in Karnataka. Their status as 1980s, and was included in the World
politics in the region. scheduled tribes have been contested Heritage List in 2012. It has now been
A related issue that is typical to by other smaller tribal groups, who are declared as an ecologically sensitive
south India tribes is the politics of now trying to organise themselves to zone. An ecologically sensitive zone
tribal classification. For example, collectively address this discrepancy refers to ecological zones which would
Lambadas, a nomadic tribe found not within the enumeration of scheduled serve as shock absorbers or transition
just in the south, but also in states tribes in the state. This confusion zones between high protection to

less protected areas (Ministry of However, the evocation of the FRA resistance from the forest department
Environment and Forests guidelines has not helped matters. Gudalur, Tamil to the implementation of the Act. This
for declaration of eco-sensitive zones Nadu is located within the elephant was in any case expected, given that
around national parks and wildlife corridor and is also the buffer zone the forest department has been on an
sanctuaries, 9 February 2011). for the proposed tiger reserve, both eviction spree since 1996 to reclaim
Recently, the Ministry of Environment of which would lead to displacement forest land from tribal and other forest
and Forests, through a notification of the local inhabitants that include dwellers. There have also been cases
under Section 5 of the Environmental tribes such as the Kota, Kurumba and against the Andhra Pradesh forest
Protection Act, 1986, has issued a the Paniya. The local organization had department for using Joint Forest
notification dated 13 November 2013 hoped to challenge the creation of the Committees to claim community rights
prohibiting development activities/ buffer zone for the proposed tiger over forest land. The dominance of the
projects within the Western Ghats. reserve through FRA. However, cases forest department in the forest rights
These include mining, quarrying, and have been filed in the Madras High committees and the weak presence
sand mining, thermal power plants, Court by private forest owners and of the tribal welfare departments has
building and construction projects of by conservationists questioning the also been a significant factor for the
20,000 sq. m. area and above and/ implementation of the Act. FRA seems slow progress in the implementation
or with built up area of 1,50,000 to have intensified conflict in tribal of the Act.
sq. m. and above, and red category
areas. There have been reported cases Conclusion
industries (industries that the Ministry
of violence and intimidation against
identifies as highly polluting). The Any discussion on the
tribal forest dwellers from Andhra
notification also lists villages across six marginalisation of tribes, necessarily
states that fall within the ecologically ...the evocation of the FRA has has to address their interface with the
sensitive area. However, the fate of not helped matters. Gudalur, state apparatus as well as mainstream
the significant tribal population that society. Marginalisation of tribes is a
lives within this area is uncertain. The Tamil Nadu is located within the political process that implicates the
conservation drive has been misused elephant corridor and is also the establishment. Tribal departments in
by environmental groups and the buffer zone for the proposed tiger south India are perfunctory and forest
forest department to label tribal forest reserve, both of which would departments, high-handed. While
dwellers as encroachers. They choose most tribal communities are aware
to ignore the role of tribes in conserving lead to displacement of the local of the FRA, they are uninformed of
and protecting the biodiversity of inhabitants that include tribes their rights. Lack of transparency has
the region. This reproach has only such as the Kota, Kurumba and the characterised the implementation of
worsened the situation of tribes, as they Paniya. The local organization had FRA in south India, with local tribes
compete with various interest groups completely clueless on where to
such as land mafia, environmental
hoped to challenge the creation of
register their complaints of malpractice
lobby, the forest department, Non- the buffer zone for the proposed and neglect. Local tribal struggles
Governmental Organisations, and tiger reserve through FRA. However, and movements are crying foul over
private commercial interests, for their cases have been filed in the Madras development and environmental
survival in the forest. Environmental High Court by private forest owners projects that are marginalizing tribal
concerns only camouflage the larger livelihoods and habitats. Development
politics over forests, as well as the and by conservationists questioning and environment projects have
exclusionary and colonial vision that the implementation of the Act. FRA presented tribal rights on forests and
it espouses. seems to have intensified conflict in forestland as part of the problem. Tribes
T h e S c h e d u l e d Tr i b e s a n d tribal areas. are, in fact, victims of a long standing
politics in south India that marginalises
Other Traditional Forest Dwellers
Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. them economically, politically and
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Act,
Claims made by forest dwellers within intellectually. Biodiversity is integral
2006, also known as FRA, brought
national parks, wildlife sanctuaries to the livelihood strategies of tribes
hope to the large number of tribal forest
and reserves have been shelved. in south India. Their dependence on
dwellers in Western Ghats, as it sought
These projects have directly violated forests have contributed to the vast
to regularize land holdings of tribal and
tribal rights on land and disregarded knowledge of the local biodiversity,
other forest dwellers on forest land, by
the provisions of FRA. Number of which is critical to their survival and
giving them legal titles on the same. It
organisations particularly in Andhra also to the ecosystem. There is an
also gave them the right to collect and
urgent need to reframe the terms of
use Minor Forest Produce, besides Pradesh and also Tamil Nadu have been
association with tribes on the issue
making them responsible for protecting actively working with local tribes to
of biodiversity conservation in order
and conserving the forest. It recognizes challenge random and undemocratic
to realise a more sustainable form of
community rights on grazing in the acquiring of land for development and eco-governance. q
forests, use of water bodies and MFPs, environmental projects. One of the
and other resources for daily use. issues that has come up regularly is the (E-mail :rhebbar@tiss.edu)

the north east
people & ecology
Economic sustainability of the Himalayan

ecosystem
B K Konwar
he H imalayan steep, rugged and inaccessible peaks
T
ecosystem covers over of Arunachal Pradesh, rising beyond
51 million people, it is 6,000m above msl with temperate
vital for the ecological to cold climate and on the other, the
security of the north and enormous flood plain of Brahmaputra
north eastern regions of (Luit) River, covering 90,000 kms with
the country, providing forest cover, sub-tropical climate and supporting
feeding perennial rivers that are the large population with agricultural
sources of drinking water, irrigation and yields. The southern scarp of the
hydropower, conserving biodiversity, Meghalaya upland (600-1800 m from
providing a rich base for high value msl), sandwiched between Bangladesh
agriculture and spectacular landscapes plains in the south and the Brahmaputra
valley in the north, is marked by
for sustainable tourism. This ecosystem
magnificent deep gorges with wide
is fragile and diverse. People in the
valleys at their head. The worlds
The projection of hilly parts of the ecosystem practice rainiest spot, Mawsynram is located
hill agriculture and remain vulnerable here. Rocks of diverse geological ages
Nagaland as a large to various eco-geographic risks. The from the Archaean to the Quaternary
Himalayas house one of the largest comprise the geology of the region.
scale producer of resources of snow and ice and its
flowers, fruits and glaciers which form a source of fresh
water for the perennial rivers such
Accessibility to the Region
Except for valley areas, major part of
as the Indus, the Ganga and the Luit
vegetables as well (Brahmaputra). Glacial melt may
the region is lacking in communication.
The airports, railway lines and most of
as vermin-compost impact their long-term lean season
flows with adverse impacts on the
the motorable roads are located in the
Brahmaputra and Barak valleys. There
for internal/external economy in terms of water availability are no railway lines in the hilly terrains
and hydropower generation. Recession and very few motorable roads connect
markets could give of Himalayan glaciers is due to the these areas with the valley plains. Such
rising global temperature and the lack of and deficiency in infrastructure
a big boost to the greenhouse effect poses danger to are the major constraints in the mineral
the country, more specifically to the and other industrial developments of
rural economy of region. the region.
the state. East-South Himalayan Region Areas of mineral deposits
The north eastern part of India is a North East India is rich in non-
land of extremes and undoubtedly one metallic mineral resources, especially
of the most picturesque parts. Within its in respect of high grade limestone
area of 2,55,997 kms, on the one hand, and coal containing high sulphur
The author is Vice Chancellor, Nagaland University.

and low ash. Significant deposits of Economy of the Region practiced mainly in the tribal dominated
dolomite, clay, low grade glass sands hilly, forest terrains of the north eastern
Forest products, river and forest states, including Nagaland. In Naga
and low grade graphite occur here. An eco-tourisms, cement industry,
enormous amount of construction raw tribal life, the village elders locate large
petroleum, coal mining, rice, vegetable
material e.g. gravel, sand, silt-clay and stretches of forests for jhum cultivation
and tea cultivation are the major
soft rock aggregates also exist. The and are distributed among the families
economic enterprises in Assam. In
of the village. The thick forest canopy
terrain conditions like inaccessibility, the case of mountainous states of
is slashed in the pre-monsoon period
rugged topography, deep weathering North-Eastern region comprising
and is usually allowed to dry for some
profile and thick vegetation, etc of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
time. Meanwhile, the large tree trunks
pose problems in locating metallic Mizoram, Nagaland and Sikkim,
forest products, coal mining (except may be cut and removed after this, the
deposits by traditional methods of entire area having the fallen canopy
Meghalaya, no organized sector in the
ore search. along with the ground vegetation and
other states), slash and burn agriculture,
fruits cultivation, construction materials the remaining tree trunks, are set on
Petroleum fire. Before the onset of monsoon,
(stone pieces) and tourism contribute to
The state of Assam is one of the some extent to north eastern states the terrain is prepared for sowing,
richest in respect of crude petroleum economy. according to the contour of the hillock.
production in the country. In fact, With the onset of monsoon, paddy and
Nagaland other crop seeds are put in the field. All
crude petroleum was first discovered
the labours rendered are community
at Digboi, Upper Assam and Asias Nagaland is located in the northern
activities. No fertilizers or insecticides
first oil refinery came in to existence extension of the Arakan-Yoma ranges.
are used. Watering is also not done but
there in 1892. Till the discovery of oil Almost the entire state is hilly, except
weeding is.
reserves at Gujarat basin and Bombay along the foothills flanking the Assam
high of Arabian Sea, Assam alone used plains. Due to its strategic location, the Vegetable and cash crops such as
State has a huge potential to develop beans, tomato, onion, ginger, aroids,
to produce almost 54 per cent oil of
into an international business and trade chilly, cucurbits, banana, pineapple,
the country. In the last 10-15 years, hub in the East Asian region. pear, passion fruit, etc are also cultivated
oil exploration has also been extended
Agriculture in Nagaland along the margins of the field. Maize,
to Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura and millet, etc. are also cultivated along
Nagaland. In India, shifting cultivation is being with paddy. Paddy harvesting is
Table 1. Basic Statistics of North Eastern Region and Nagaland
Parameters North East Region Nagaland

Road length 1,16,551 km 8,805 km
Population 3,65,47,314 19,79,000
Forest cover 1,66,270 km2 14,360 km2
Area 2,55,997 km2 16,527 km2
Total hard rock area 1,87,621 km2 15,700 km2
Population Density 124 persons/km2 75 persons/km2
Quaternary area 67,376 km2 827 km2
Villages 39,720 963
Literacy 47% 70 %
Major minerals Coal, dolomite, limestone, magnetite, natural gas, oil, Coal, limestone,
sillimanite and uranium. magnetite
Minor minerals Apatite, asbestos, building stones, clay, chromite, cobalt, Base metal sulphides,
copper, fireclay, Fullers earth, glass sand, gold, graphite, chromite, cobalt, nickel,
iron ore, kaolin, lead-zinc, lignite, marble, nickel, platinoids
phosphate, platinoids, rare earths, sillimanite, talc, tin
and tungsten

also a societal event usually done basic requirement of food, clothing and on the forests as the state has a huge
during September-October. Usually shelter are guaranteed to all members. forest cover (33 per cent forest area).
2/3 consecutive cropping is done in The population as a whole remain The sale of various products from the
the first 2 or 3 years of slashing in gainfully employed in productive forests to regional and national markets
the same field before shifting the activities and there is no surplus brings in revenue to the state. Nagaland
cultivation to another forest area. labour. There is a system of providing economy also gets its revenue from the
After 2 or 3 consecutive cropping, the communal labour as a group of men state's cottage industries. The cottage
yield decreases and hence the field is and women from the village. Every industry manufactures pottery, weaving
fallowed for several years (presently member of the group gets the benefit materials and woodwork. Weaving
jhum cycle is 4-5 years). In typical of labour by turn. products by the cottage industry are
practice in olden days, it ranged from sold in national and international
20 to 30 years. However, presently, the In tribal areas like Nagaland, the markets.
fallow period ranges from 3 to 8 years obstacles to economic development
only. Meanwhile, another forest area is generally arise out of the prevailing Horticultural crops of Nagaland
slashed and burnt for cultivation. In this geo-physical and socio-economic
conditions. The geo-physical conditions Till recently, for most farmers,
way, uncontrolled shifting cultivation horticulture has been mainly a backyard
is going on every year in thousands relate to the hilly terrain, dense forests
and difficult communications. The activity, as they are generally busy
of hectares of forest land leading to throughout the year in cultivation of
undesirable land use change patterns. social obstacles are lack of modern
information and primitive methods of food crops and have little time for
A remarkable feature of the production. The economic difficulties development of horticultural crops
economy is that there are no are the dearth of capital, absence of on a commercial basis. Besides, due
to the long gestation period involved
absentee landlords and there is marketing, and other similar factors.
in plantation and horticulture crops,
no class of landless peasants. The The total road length is about 9,315 the cultivation of these crops has
village society is so organised that kms. Dimapur has rail and air services. been generally confined to small
Forest area of the state is divided into backyard gardens developed by
the basic requirement of food, three categories: reserved, protected almost every household. It is only
clothing and shelter are guaranteed and private forests. The per centage of in the past decade that there has
to all members. The population as forest area to the total land area is about been a more focused attention to the
a whole remain gainfully employed 33 per cent. Extensive and intensive development of horticulture in the
mineral survey and investigation show State. The plantation and horticulture
in productive activities and there is an encouraging picture of the mineral sector plays an important role in the
no surplus labour. There is a system potential of the state. The important development of the rural economy of
of providing communal labour as a minerals include high-grade limestone,
The diverse agro-climatic
group of men and women from the coal, copper, chromium, slate, oil and
natural gas, etc. conditions, varied soil types and
village. Every member of the group abundant rainfall prevailing in the
gets the benefit of labour by turn. Agricultural Trade and Economy
State enables the cultivation of
The economy of Nagaland is also several plantation and horticultural
The area under jhum cultivation dependent on forestry, cottage industry,
is about 87,339 hectares and under and tourism. The gross domestic crops covering fruits, vegetables,
terraced cultivation is about 62,091 product of the state amounted to spices, flowers, mushrooms and
hectares. The jungle is felled and 9,288 crores in 2009. The remarkable medicinal and aromatic plants.
burnt, and the crops are sown on the feature of the economy is that there
soil fertilized by ashes. The complete are no landless peasants in the state.
The geographical conditions offer
rotation of plots may take between 4/5 The various kinds of crops cultivated tremendous scope for horticulture
years depending upon the acreage of in Nagaland are corn, pulses, oil development in the State.
the field. The longer this duration the seeds, sugarcane, colocasia (aroids),
more fertile the soil becomes and better tobacco, millets and rice. The internal the State. The diverse agroclimatic
are the crops. production being not sufficient, the conditions, varied soil types and
state has to import food items from abundant rainfall prevailing in the
Economy of the state State enables the cultivation of several
other states. This is due to the fact
Nagaland has basically an that people are mostly following the plantation and horticultural crops
agricultural economy. A remarkable old unsustainable jhuming practices covering fruits, vegetables, spices,
feature of the economy is that there causing loss of fertility due to surface flowers, mushrooms and medicinal
are no absentee landlords and there runoff, drainage and soil erosion. This and aromatic plants. The geographical
is no class of landless peasants. The has hampered the economic growth of conditions offer tremendous scope for
village society is so organised that the the state. The economy also depends horticulture development in the State.

Coverage of Horticulture Crops Potential Crops in Nagaland The number of small tea growers in the
state has been gradually increasing and
The total area covered by Fruits: Passion fruit, orange, more and more farmers are developing
horticulture crops has been about pineapple and banana. tea gardens. Other potential districts
36,177 ha which represents 9.95 per where tea cultivation can be promoted
cent of the gross cropped area (3.63 Vegetables: Bottle gourd, squash,
pumpkin, cabbage, potato, beans and are Wokha and Mon.
lakh ha). The State produces 1.57
lakh MT of fruits, 1.40 lakh MT onion. Rubber Cultivation: Rubber is
of vegetables and 0.08 lakh MT of Flowers: Gladioli, roses, lillium, a rain-fed crop and can thrive well
plantation crops. The State has about orchids and anthurium. even in marginal soils with suitable
58,370 ha under culturable wasteland agro-management practices. Rubber
and 1,57,210 ha under permanent Spices: Ginger, cardamom, turmeric cultivation is possible in the foot hills
fallow of which an estimated 29000 ha and black pepper. where the land is denuded on account
could be developed under horticultural of absence of tree cover and excessive
crops. In addition to this, with proper Medicinal and aromatic plants: jhumming practices and is left fallow
exploitation of potential surface Patchouli, neem, agar and ginseng. without any economic activity. A
water resources, about 10 per cent Plantation crops: Areca, coconut, group approach in the development of
of the additional area brought under tea and cashew. rubber plantation can be taken up in a
irrigation could be devoted to high compact area.
value horticultural crops, vegetables, Potential horticultural programs
etc. Based on the elevation, both Although fruits such as pineapples,
sub-tropical fruits such as pineapple, Fruit cultivation: Large scale guava, oranges, passion fruit,
cultivation of fruits like pineapple,
banana, citrus, guava, etc. and
orange, passion fruit, kiwifruit and etc. are produced in fairly huge
temperate fruits such as plum, peach,
pear, passion fruit and various nuts have banana on commercial scale is likely to quantities, the production period
a potential for exploitation. Important improve the economy of the state. is rather short and seasonal. The
among the vegetable crops grown are Spices Development: Among the lack of post-harvest technology
potato, cassava, colocasia, cabbage, spices, ginger, garlic, black pepper, and storage facilities; inadequate
cauliflower, peas and cucumber while cardamom and chillies are the main
ginger, chillies, cardamom, garlic, transport and communication
crops for development. The growth
of such crops are due to favourable and absence of proper marketing
Due to the fragmented nature agro-climatic conditions. Field surveys and infrastructure facilities has
of holdings, tea plantation in indicate that farmers are cultivating further hampered the growth of
Nagaland is basically a small ginger and chillies on a large scale
due to their commercial value and
this potential sector. These factors
planters' crop. Tea cultivation shall guaranteed markets. often result in localized gluts and
be taken up on a community basis consequent price falls/distress sales
Tea Cultivation: The State has
over a cluster of villages. This proven potential for production of high by growers.
may solve the problem of labour quality tea grown on different altitudes
Mushroom Cultivation:
shortage and help in processing on commercial basis both in the hills
Recognizing the potential for the
of green leaf by installation of a and foothill areas adjoining Assam. Due
to the fragmented nature of holdings, development of this activity on
factory and allied facilities on a tea plantation in Nagaland is basically account of the favourable agro-
cooperative basis. a small planters' crop. Tea cultivation climatic conditions prevailing and
shall be taken up on a community basis the availability of an assured market,
black pepper make up the major over a cluster of villages. This may mushroom spawns are produced by
spice crops. Amongst the plantation solve the problem of labour shortage the Department and made available to
crops, areca, coconut, tea and rubber and help in processing of green leaf interested growers at nominal rates.
offer the best potential for cultivation by installation of a factory and allied Processing and Value Addition
on a commercial scale. Among the facilities on a cooperative basis. Till
fruit crops, pineapple, mandarin sufficient production is achieved Although fruits such as pineapples,
orange and passion fruit are already to establish a full-fledged factory, guava, oranges, passion fruit, etc. are
being produced on a commercial the producers may dispose off the produced in fairly huge quantities,
scale. Based on climatic suitability, green leaves to the nearest tea estates the production period is rather short
topography and market potential, the in Assam. The lack of processing and seasonal. The lack of post-
Horticulture Department has identified facilities, high cost of labour, absence harvest technology and storage
the following crops in Nagaland for of skilled manpower and the existing facilities; inadequate transport and
commercial development: land ownership system pose constraints. communication and absence of proper

marketing and infrastructure facilities farmers for commercial cultivation of these crops on commercial scale can
has further hampered the growth of this this grass. transform the lives of the people.
potential sector. These factors often Till a few years back, Nagaland was
result in localized gluts and consequent Patchouli Cultivation: The agro- importing flowers, the state now can
price falls/distress sales by growers. climatic conditions of Nagaland are take pride in the fact that the high
The best option available is to process favourable for cultivation of Patchouli. quality home grown flowers are finding
and produce value added products like The oil of Patchouli is used in high a market outside the State.
juice concentrates, canned juice, slices, grade perfumes. It has strong fixative
properties and thus promotes tenacity Vermi-composting could be a
dehydrated products, jams, etc.
of a perfume. This high value plant potential industry in the state for the
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants: species has been introduced into the very cause of organic farming. The
The State is rich in bio-diversity. The State as an alternative commercial crop. projection of Nagaland as a large
peculiar climate of the region with This crop has generated a lot of interest scale producer of flowers, fruits and
gradations from humid alluvial valley amongst the local farmers mostly from vegetables as well as vermin-compost
through evergreen forests to the snow Dimapur district. Distillation plants for internal/external markets could
line produces an immense variety of are also some of whom have taken up give a big boost to the rural economy
flora and fauna. There are evergreen commercial cultivation of this crop of the state.
forests with dense floor cover of herbs coming up as commercial ventures in
a number of locations. Action Plan on Climate Change
and shrubs. Many of these herbs and (APCC)
shrubs have medicinal or essential
Ornamental Plants/Floriculture:
oil bearing properties, which are The State Action Plan on Climate
Floriculture has emerged as a major
inadequately utilized. Change (SAPCC) has to be formulated
diversification option in the agri-
in line with the NAPPC for sustaining
C u l t i v a t i o n o f C i t ro n e l l a : business in recent years. The product
the Himalayan ecosystem. The plan
Citronella is an important medicinal wise groupings under floriculture are
shall attempt to address matters like:
and aromatic plant. It is being extracted cut-flowers (fresh), bulbs and tubers,
on a commercial scale in the State. live potted plants, dried plants, dried a) Biodiversity and wild life
Java citronella is the best source of flowers, etc. Floriculture has the conservation and protection;
citronella oil. Production of geranium potential to contribute substantially b) Traditional knowledge societies
oil, citronella oil, hydroxyl citronella to the growth of the agriculture sector and their livelihood and;
are other similar. high value perfumery in the state. The State Horticulture
department has identified a few flowers c) Planning for the sustainment of
bases is also done. The oil is widely
for commercial production with an the Himalayan Ecosystem;
used as a starting material for various
aromatic chemicals in scented soaps, eye on the export market. Lillium, d) Eco-friendly agriculture and
sprays, deodorants, detergents, polishes anthurium, carnation and roses are industry;
and in mosquito repellant creams. The the identified flowers. Commercial
e) Land and soil conservation;
oil is in great demand in the country. production of rose and lillium has since
CSIR-NEIST (RRL), Jorhat, Assam was started and the same are being exported The approaches to be adopted for
the first agency to initiate the process to both domestic and foreign markets. building various capacities are:
of citronella cultivation in the State There is good potential for a) Building peoples Knowledge
after it set up an experimental-cum- establishment of commercial nurseries Capacities;
demonstration unit at Yaongyimsen for production of planting materials for b) Building Institutional Capacities
village in Mokokchung district in the horticulture crops, plantation crops,
early seventies. Farmers find it to be an i) better coordination among such
flowers, medicinal and aromatic plants
attractive and remunerative alternative knowledge institutions and;
and decorative plants. One of the major
to shifting cultivation and brought constraints in horticulture development ii) to build new institutions in areas
more and more areas under citronella in the State is inadequate quality of knowledge gaps in a time
cultivation. plant material especially for fruit and bound manner and;
Cultivation of Lemongrass : plantation crops. Commercial nursery iii) to build institutional capacities in
units are viable and highly profitable the areas of traditional knowledge
Oil from lemongrass is the main
and private entrepreneurs in the State systems;
source of synthesizing Vitamin A. The
can promote such units.
technology was released by RRL to iv) H i m a l a y a n a g r i c u l t u r e ,
farmers in the State in 1980 and within The formation of Producer ecotourism, biodiversity etc.
a short span, a number of farmers have Companies and Farmers Associations c) Building capacities for continuous
taken to cultivation of this grass. RRL for handling, sorting, grading, packing, learning and pro-active designing
has launched promotional activities transportation and selling of fruits, of development strategies. q
for cultivation of this plant species flowers and vegetables need to be
in Nagaland and has motivated more explored. Large-scale cultivation of (E-mail :vicechancellornu@yahoo.com)

YE-220/2013

economics of food security
cross-current
The Need, Costs and

Alternatives to the Food Security Bill
Surjit S Bhalla
he Food Security Bill program, and worked out on the
T
(FSB) is a continuation basis of the existing program, is
of the food subsidy Rs. 14,000 crores a year.
system that has been 4) There is a buffer stock of about 25
in operation in India MMT that has to be maintained.
for more than 30 years. That is, an additional cost of Rs.
In this regard, India has extensive 50,000 crores a year assuming
experience with the administration of zero costs of interest. (At 10
the system, its likely costs, the proven per cent interest per year, this is
benefits and the likely benefits. an additional Rs. 5000 crores a
year).
Given the bills near identity with
Until recently, India spent an existing operation, the legitimate 5) So, before the system begins to
question is: why the controversy? operate, the costs of implementing
about 4 per cent of GDP on Some simple math facts about FSB the food security bill is Rs.
infrastructure investments suggest that the facts are plain and that 160,000 crores.
(today that fraction is close there should be no dispute about the Simple math suggests that the FSB
costs of the FSB, as per the letter and will cost a minimum of Rs.160,000
to 7 per cent). Spending spirit of the Bill. crores. Yet, government estimates that
half per cent of GDP 1) The bill is expected to provide 60 it will only cost Rs. 125,000 crores.
would have been a small kg of food-grains (primarily rice But the government has the option of
and wheat) per person per year. transferring costs to next years budget,
amount of investment per The grains are to be provided at and next years subsidy to the year after
se, but a large amount of an average price of Rs. 2.5 per that. While accounts can be juggled
investment for the poor. kg to two-thirds of the Indian and transferred, the simple reality of
population (800 million). The costs does not change. Indeed, a proper
This investment would have production cost of these grains accounting would entail an additional
borne benefits in terms of is approximately Rs. 23 per kg, cost to the exchequer of another Rs.
better nutrition, higher so in simple round numbers, the 3500 crores for transferring the subsidy
subsidy is Rs. 20 per kg. to the next fiscal year (Rs. 35,000
productivity, lower costs of 2) 60 kg of grain a year for 800 crores to the next year at 10 per cent
health care, higher incomes million individuals is 48 million interest).
and lower poverty. And with metric tonnes (MMT) of delivery A bare-bones annual subsidy level
every year. At a subsidy level of Rs. 160,000 crores assumes that
very little leakage and no of Rs. 20000 per tonnes, this there are no leakages in the program,
more than the normal quota amounts to Rs. 96,000 crores of and no corruption. These are extremely
of corruption for public subsidy per year. unrealistic assumptions. What is the
3) A conservative estimate of evidence on leakage and corruption
sector contracts administration costs of the in the PDS operation, something
The author is managing director of Oxus Research and Investments, a New Delhi-based economic research, asset management and
emerging-markets advisory firm.

India has experience with for more well-intentioned goals via leaky food, the cost of rotten food needs to
than 30 years? First, the cumulative government schemes and perhaps, acts be added to the total subsidy of Rs.
evidence is that approximately half of Parliament. Accounting suggests 240,000 crores, making Rs. 270,000
of the food that leaves the storage that the additional cost of theoretically crores as the cost of the food security
godowns of the Food Corporation implementing the FSB, given existing bill.
of India never reaches anybody, rich inefficiencies, is an additional 24
or poor. So, if the FSB operation MMT of foodgrains or Rs. 80,000 Is the Food Security Bill at an
had the same level of efficiency crores. expenditure level of Rs. 270,000
as the last thirty years, and 5 kg of crores, the right way to attack hunger
foodgrains had to be transferred to This extra Rs. 80,000 crores and poverty and nutrition in India?
800 million instead of the 2.5 kg cost can be reduced by improving
efficiencies and lowering corruption, What is the magnitude of hunger
presently being transferred, this would
but most advocates and supporters of in India today? There are various
mean an additional procurement of
the Bill are silent on this important estimates. In the main, however, the
24 MMT of foodgrains. Obviously,
dimension. Until some concrete ideas sources for such estimates are two.
this is not going to happen; there lies
the question of domestic supply and of reducing corruption are on the table, The first estimate is the answer to
world markets. one has to continue with the belief that a traditional hunger question in a
implementing the target of Rs. 5 kg. per household survey e.g. did any member
How can the government eliminate, person per month, will entail a total of your family not receive two square
or even reduce leakage, in the delivery subsidy level of Rs. 240,000 crores meals a day in the preceding week (or
of foodgrains to the ration shops? each year. month). This question was regularly
There is talk of eventually replacing asked in the National Sample Surveys.
the PDS system with cash transfers to One final addition that is
the targeted 800 million individuals. unplanned for by FSB costings What is the magnitude of hunger
But cash transfers would mean delivery rotten food. The Agriculture Minister in India today? There are various
of cash to the individual, but the himself has indicated that rotten
foodgrains amounts to a cost of Rs. estimates. In the main, however,
individual would still be required to
30,000 crores a year. This raises a the sources for such estimates
What is the evidence on leakage fundamental question how come are two. The first estimate is the
India has individuals capable of
and corruption in the PDS sending rockets to Mars, unable
answer to a traditional hunger
operation, something India has to store foodgrains efficiently? question in a household survey e.g.
experience with for more than The answer is that India has more did any member of your family not
30 years? First, the cumulative experience than any other country receive two square meals a day in
for storing foodgrains and it has been
evidence is that approximately half doing so for more than 30 years. It is the preceding week (or month).
of the food that leaves the storage (almost) inconceivable that India does
however, after the 2004-05 NSS survey,
godowns of the Food Corporation of not have the technical knowhow, or
this question has been eliminated for
land, to build additional silos. Which
India never reaches anybody, leaves open the distinct theoretical the simple reason that a very few
rich or poor. possibility that food actually does households (less than 2 per cent of
not rot in India, but perhaps is the Indian population) are responding
buy food from the ration shop. If not,
made to rot. What can be gained by that they are hungry. Three decades
then the FCI and the PDS system will
allowing food to rot? The alternative ago, this proportion was upwards of
have to be dismantled in its entirety.
While that might be a desirable future, use of rotten food, alternative to the 10 per cent.
it certainly is not something that is breeding of rats, is as input into the The second source of information
planned, or suggested, by the food production of liquor. on hunger is via calorie consumption
security bill. i.e. if consumption of calories falls
If this is a reality, then the neatness
So, under the assumption that of the scheme has to be admired. Rotten below a certain minimum level,
business will continue as usual, the food does not need to be accounted the individual can be presumed to
24 MMT of foodgrains will not be for in a financial sense. But it can be hungry. Calorie consumption is a
procured and will not be delivered accrued as costless inputs in alternative problematic indicator of hunger for
to the needy 800 million. But the uses and costless inputs mean extra several reasons it varies by age, sex,
spirit and intent of the lawmakers is profits. So perhaps food is not wasted work load, height, weight, political
that this food is needed by the poor in India in the strict sense of the word. ideology, etc. Nutrition experts have
and hungry 800 million. Accounting But rotten food does entail a cost to devised methods to glean information
economists and civil society, must the public, and the exchequer. Unless on nutrition, not hunger, from data
make an attempt to estimate the the implementation of the FSB has on calorie consumption, but these
theoretical costs of implementing provisions for elimination of rotten derivations remain suspect.

Perhaps the best, and near universal, bill provides subsidized food. The Indian policy makers is for them to
indicator of under or malnourishment second defence of the bill was that imagine, or estimate, what would have
remains the weight for height indicator a substantial number of Indians are been the status of poor, malnourished
for children below the age of 5. And poor and they need food to reduce individuals if money spent on welfare
according to this indicator, about 40 their poverty. But the most recent programs for the poor were spent on
per cent of children in India are mal- NSS 2011-12 survey results point to alternative programs? For several
nourished. only 22 per cent of the population of years now, India has spent upwards
India as poor. So if a program was of 2 per cent of GDP each year on
Intellectual origins of the Food devised to help the bottom third of
Security Bill "in the name of the poor" schemes.
the population, it would be credible, (This is before the advent of the FSB
It is worthwhile to discuss the but there seems little logic in starting and includes food programs like
ideological, political and economic a food rights program for two-thirds PDS, employment programs like
rationale behind the introduction of the population to help less than the NREGA, and subsidies for fertilizer
of the PDS system in India. As bottom one-third. to advance agricultural production).
discussed in detail in Bhalla (2013c), There remains the argument of Assume for a moment that half of this
the government involved itself at all money was to be spent on water and
levels of production of foodgrains, But the comic-tragic corruption sanitation projects. Until recently,
procurement and distribution.
Instead of providing food stamps (as story did not end there. The India spent about 4 per cent of GDP
on infrastructure investments (today
done in the US and Sri Lanka), the government wanted more domestic that fraction is close to 7 per cent).
government set prices for the farmers, foodgrain production to make its Spending half per cent of GDP
procured grain from the farmers,
banned the inter-state movement of
number one anti-poverty program would have been a small amount
foodgrains (a draconian measure a success. So it allowed fertilizer of investment per se, but a large
amount of investment for the poor.
only removed in the last decade) and subsidies to explode. But along This investment would have borne
set up eligibility criteria for buying with fertilizer, the new technology
subsidized foodgrains. Predictably, benefits in terms of better nutrition,
there was a black market, and in needed an assured water supply. So higher productivity, lower costs of
some states, the number of ration card water was subsidized; but irrigation health care, higher incomes, and
lower poverty. And with very little
holders exceeded the population. needed power, so power was
leakage and no more than the normal
But the comic-tragic corruption subsidized. All this has added up quota of corruption for public sector
story did not end there. The government to possibly the most corrupt anti- contracts. That this did not happen is
wanted more domestic foodgrain
production to make its number one poverty program in the world. a tribute to the highly elitist system
of programs and schemes for the poor
anti-poverty program a success. So it malnourishment of children. The reality schemes, that as Rajiv Gandhi said,
allowed fertilizer subsidies to explode. of malnourishment of a substantial per do not benefit much the presumed
But along with fertilizer, the new centage of Indian children cannot be beneficiaries the poor.
technology needed an assured water denied or ignored. Indeed, statistics
supply. So water was subsidized; but suggest that the weight for height Readings
irrigation needed power, so power was of Indian children is worse than the Bhalla, Surjit S., 2013a, Manmonias
subsidized. All this has added up to poorest countries of sub-Saharan FSB: 3 per cent of GDP, Indian Express,
possibly the most corrupt anti-poverty
Africa. But it is not obvious how July 6
program in the world.
the FSB will help in decreasing the Bhalla Surjit S., 2013b, Rotting Food
Why the need for a Food Security malnourishment of children. Recent Rotten Arguments, Indian Express,
Bill? research (e.g. Spears(2012)) has Sept. 4.
shown that the major contributor to Bhalla Surjit S., 2013c, Dismantling
There were three arguments made malnourishment is the lack of water the Indian Welfare State, paper prepared
in favour of the Food Security Bill and absence of sanitation. India has the for Ashley Tellis and Bibek Debroy,
by the sponsors (politicians and largest proportion of open defecation edited,
academics) of the bill. The first and
(close to 50 per cent), and this explains Spears, Dean, 2012, The nutrition
most important defence of the bill was
high child malnourishment in India value of toilets: How much international
that it would substantially reduce, if
despite the fact that it is now a middle variation in child height can sanitation
not eliminate, hunger. However, as
income country. explain, mimeo, Center for Development
shown above, there is no statistical
Studies, Delhi School of Economics,
evidence to support the hypothesis Alternatives to Food Security Bill Dec. q
that even 5 per cent of the population expenditure
suffers from hunger problems, let (E-mail :admin@oxusinvestments.com,
alone 67 per cent for whom the An important counter-factual for ssbhalla@gmail.com)

YE-227/2013

Best practices
Cultivating self-reliance
Shailendra Sinha
ushila M urmu , While there is a considerable cultivate potato and had a good harvest
S a tribal woman in a decrease in the seasonal mass migration of 20 quintals. After selling the surplus
nondescript hamlet from the village now, its residents also produce, we repaid the borrowed
called Paharpur located enjoy a proportionate increase in their money. Today, we are self-reliant in
in the Kathikund Block, collective prosperity. Today, the village farming and are growing almost every
twenty seven kilometres is food and financially secure, like crop. Consequently, every woman in the
fromDumkain Jharkhand, was never before. Villagers maintain that village is earning a monthly income of
struggling hard,till three years ago, to migration prevented their children from Rs 1500 through agriculture and allied
change the mindset of the villagers. staying off from school. Now, self- activities. Some families were able to
reliance in farming has earned them
The only woman in the entire village to start their own small businesses, says
a livelihood, collectively farming the
have completed her school education, vast tracts of land which were earlier Sushila, listing the success stories of
Sushila, was upset at seeing people of left barren. her groups endeavours.
her community quit farming due to
heavy losses and, worse, being forced The zeal has taken these women
to migrate to other states in search of from their houses to the compound of
livelihood. She wanted to put a halt on the Panchayat Bhawan where, every
the trend. Soon, she was associated with Thursday, they gather information
a non profit organization called Lahanti related to government welfare
and started her own Self Help Group. schemes. In these meetings, they
She called it the BeliLahanti Self Help also table social development issues.
Group. Under the ambitious livelihood "Our group members are now more
programme of PACS, (Poorest Areas aware of the Forest Rights Act, for
Civil Society ) Programme, an initiative instance. They not only participated
of the UK Governments Department in the Panchayat Elections but also
Sushilas self-help group spread stood for and won the seats for
for International Development (DFID) awareness about MGNREGA and
aimed at the welfare of socially Panchayat Committee and Ward
procured job cards for all those looking
excluded groups, Sushila brought Member". Recognizing the efforts of
to enrol themselves. It launched a
together a group of women and gave movement against the middlemen the group, the district administration
them lessons in community farming. who had monopolized job cards and has handed over the implementation
Her sustained endeavours not only pass-books issued in the name of of the Public Distribution System to
empowered women but also encouraged villagers under the centrally sponsored them, thus bringing transparency to
the adivasi community to break the rural employment guarantee scheme. this beleaguered scheme.
cycle of poverty through concerted and Thereafter, the group started targeting Citing financial constraints as a
coordinated efforts. exploitative private money lenders major obstruction in the way of new
whose land- grabbing had devastated ventures, Suhasini Soren, a ward
Sharing her experiences, the the lives of poor villagers.
farmers role model proudly says, member of Kadma Panchayt rues,
Tribal women are believed to be We motivated the villagers Normally, the banks dont cooperate
backbone of their community. It was to reclaim their lands in Paharpur, with small and marginal farmers like us.
because of such an ethos that we Kodarchela, Lakhanpur, Kadma, We continue working as unrecognized
could infuse a sense of confidence Pakardeeh and Manjhdeeha. The farmers. If the cumbersome procedures
and community among Santaals who crooked moneylenders have been for availing loans under several self-
were struggling to survive. The results chased out of the agrarian business employment schemes are simplified,
today, says Sushila proudly. villagers will be in a better position to
are before everybody: how we turned
rocky and dry land into cultivable land reap all the benefits that are promised
Soon after the first evaluation of
through our collective efforts. by the government welfare schemes.
the self-help group, we took a loan of
Rs 25,000 from the bank. We used it to Charkha Features

government schemes
gender issue
Sabla: The road to empowerment and self esteem

for adolescent girls
Manisha Jain
dolescence is a situation of the adolescent girl.
A
phase during which
major physical and Adolescent girls in the 1019 age-
group constitute almost 47 per cent
psychological changes
of the total population of adolescents
take place in children,
in the country. But their development
along with changes
is fraught with varied problems.
in their social perceptions and
Almost 50 per cent of women marry
expectations. Adolescence is also
before the legal age of 18 verses
the stage when young people extend
10 per cent of young men. Overall,
their relationships beyond parents and
one in six women in the age group
family and are intensely influenced
of 15-19 have begun childbearing.
by their peers and the outside world.
Early childbearing is most common
This is the time that they need the
in rural areas and among women with
maximum understanding and caring.
no education. Around 41 per cent of
Through various There are nearly 1.2 billion all maternal deaths take place among
schemes including adolescents in the world, that is, those those aged 15-24 years. 56 per cent
aged between 10 to 19 years. adolescent girls are anemic (verses
Sabla, the government 30 per cent adolescent boys). Anemic
Studies show that millions of adolescent mothers are at a higher risk
is investing in the adolescents today do not enjoy access of miscarriages, maternal mortality
health, nutrition and to quality education, basic sexual and and still-births and low-weight babies.
reproductive health care, support for The drop-out rates among the girls are
development needs mental health issues and disability, quite high. 21 per cent adolescent girls
of adolescent girls to protection from violence, abuse and and 8 per cent adolescent boys have no
exploitation and forums for active education. Dropout rates among girls
advance their rights participation. are high largely due to distance from
to education, health Women constitute nearly half of schools, male teachers, sanitation
facilities at school, early marriage
and protection . This the population of the country, but
and early assumption of domestic
gender disparities in socio-cultural
will help them to build spheres have adversely affected a
responsibilities, etc.
a future of gender balanced equitable development. Adolescent girls are a core resource
These disparities get reflected for national growth. Investment
equality and justice in important social development in their health and development is
indicators such as health, nutrition, investment in the greater well-being of
literacy, educational attainments, skill the country. Considering that several
levels, occupational status and so of these girls are out of school, get
on. The same is also reflected in the married early, face discrimination in
The author is a journalist specialising in social sector issues. She has also written books on health issues.

accessing health, education and other tablets, supplementation and nutrition as a Sakhi on rotation basis. The
services, work in vulnerable situations, counselling, sexual and reproductive AGs also participate in day to day
and are influenced by peer pressure, health education and counselling, activities of AWC like Pre School,
they need special attention. The public skills in leadership, problem solving, Education, growth monitoring and
health challenges for adolescents, decision making and accessing public SNP and facilitate the AWW in other
which include pregnancy, risk of services. activities. They also accompany the
maternal and infant mortality, sexually AWW for home visits (2-3 girls at a
transmitted diseases, reproductive tract NGOs also provide counselling
time) which will serve as a training
infections, rapidly rising incidence of services under ARSH (adolescent
ground for future.
HIV, etc., require to be brought to the reproductive sexual health
attention of adolescent girls(AGs). counselling). Tamil Nadu is doing very well
They need to be looked at in terms in Sabla but Delhi has shown poor
In addition, older adolescent girls
of their needs both as a group as performance, evidence suggests. In
(16 - 18 year olds) are given vocational
well as individuals as they are the Delhi, they dont have enough Sabla
training to make them self reliant. The
productive members of the society kits and Sabla registers have not been
Scheme also emphasizes convergence
in future. Recognizing the unmet maintained. Publicity material has also
of services under various programmes
needs of AGs, Rajiv Gandhi Scheme not been printed. In some states , the
such as Health, Education, Youth
for Empowerment of Adolescent funds are available but they are not
affairs and Sports, and Panchayati
Girls Sabla has been launched as being properly absorbed. Whatever
Raj Institutions (PRI) to achieve the
a comprehensive intervention for little is there, is not being used.
programme objectives.
Adolescent girls in the age-group
of 11-18 years, with a focus on out With the support of community- Constant monitoring of the scheme
of school girls.The scheme is now based frontline workers (anganwadi is carried out by ASCI (Administrative
operational in 205 districts across the workers) and civil society groups, Staff Training College Institute),
country on a pilot basis. adolescent girls have been organized Hyderabad. Every three months,
in groups called Kishori Samoohs. a report is also sent by the state
The Sabla project has picked up governments. Evaluation is also
Each Samooh is led by a peer leader
in the last two years with a marked carried out by the National monitoring
(Kishori Sakhi) who meet at least 5-6
increase in community participation. and Co-ordination Committee.
This has been achieved by mobilizing hours a week to receive programme
the public and making them aware services and function as a peer support There is a need to educate the
of the rights and needs of adolescent group. community and the girls. Pamphlets
girls. There is an effective co-ordination are distributed so that they know
between the Anganwadi worker, their rights and entitlements.
Using the ICDS platform, this
(AWW) and the kishori samoohs, Advertisements are also put out in
scheme is reaching out to nearly
. One AWW can have one or two the media and state governments.
1crore adolescent girls between 11
18 years of age with an integrated samoohs under her care. A module has also been developed
package of services. Sabla aims at Every girl enrolled in Sabla is to prevent child trafficking by
all-round development of adolescent given a Kishori Card, an entitlement enlightening the girls through exposure
girls of 11-18 years (with a focus on tool to monitor girls access to and by NGOs and AWWs.
all out-of-school AGs) by making uptake of the services under Sabla.
them self reliant. At the Anganwadi Sabla endeavours to have
The non-nutrition services under the
Centre, supplementary nutrition adolescent girls with enhanced self
Sabla programme interventions also
providing 600 Kcal and 18-20 g of esteem and improved nutrition and
reach out to the non-school going
protein and micronutrients is provided health status. It aims to provide them
adolescent girls through adolescent
every day either as hot cooked meal or with enhanced skills and the capacity
groups i.e., Kishori Samooh meetings.
as take home rations to out of school to make informed choices. Through
Each adolescent group comprises
adolescent girls in 11-14 years age various schemes including Sabla, the
of 15 25 adolescent girls led by
group and all girls between 14-18 government is investing in the health,
peer leaders i.e., Kishori Sakhi and
years for 300 days in a year. nutrition and development needs of
their two associates i.e., Sahelis.
adolescent girls to advance their rights
In addition, out of school The Sakhis and Sahelis are imparted
training and serve as a peer monitor/ to education, health and protection .
adolescent girls are being provided
educator for adolescent girls. They This will help them to build a future
non- nutrition services which include
of gender equality and justice. q
life skills education, supervised serve the group for one year and each
weekly iron and folic acid (IFA) girl will have a term of four months (E-mail :majain51@yahoo.com)

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Regd. No.

RNI 949/57 ISSN -097 1-84 00

JANUARY 2014 A DEVELOPMENT MONTHLY ` 10

Tribal and Marginalized Communities

Actualising Adivasi Self-Rule

The Food Bill, Wild Foods and Adivasi People

Community Resource Person:

JANUARY 2014 A DEVELOPMENT MONTHLY ` 10

Tribal and Marginalized Communities

Actualising Adivasi Self-Rule

The Food Bill, Wild Foods and Adivasi People

Community Resource Person:

Chief Editor : Rajesh K. Jha

Let noble thoughts come to us from all sides

do you know?................................................................................13 Reflections on Marginalization of

YOJANA January 2014 1

2 YOJANA January 2014

Lest we Forget the Other Panchsheel....

YOJANA January 2014 3

Constitutional Provisions, Laws and Tribes

ribes in I n d i a leadership showed special concern for

4 YOJANA January 2014

YOJANA January 2014 5

6 YOJANA January 2014

Kindly Visit It, Like It and give us your valuable suggestions.

YOJANA January 2014 7

THE CONSTITUTION OF INDIA

GENERAL MENTAL ABILITY AND REASONING

A1079 A1086 A655 A1088 960

For Main Examination

For More information Call : +91 89585 00222 info@psagra.in www.psagra.in

8 YOJANA January 2014

The Limits to Law, Democracy and Governance

ribal to legislation such as the Panchayati

YOJANA January 2014 9

10 YOJANA January 2014

YOJANA January 2014 11

12 YOJANA January 2014

YOJANA January 2014 13

14 YOJANA January 2014

Climate Change and State Preparedness

limate is the sum the warmest years were 1998, 2005,

YOJANA January 2014 15

16 YOJANA January 2014

YOJANA January 2014 17

18 YOJANA January 2014

YOJANA January 2014 19

Yojana February 2014

20 YOJANA January 2014

YOJANA January 2014 21

Actualising Adivasi Self-RuleThe Only Panacea

searingly hot the enactment of PESA and its later

22 YOJANA January 2014

YOJANA January 2014 23

24 YOJANA January 2014

YOJANA January 2014 25

Hornbill Festival attracts more than 1.60 lakh visitors

Assam to get Upper House in Assembly

Arunachal Pradesh as religious tourism destination

Bamboo tiles for European markets

26 YOJANA January 2014

The Food Bill, Wild Foods and the Adivasi people

bout 60 kms from intention to provide for food and