Alemayehu Hotessa MSW Thesis

RADIANT INTERNATIONAL SEMINARY ETHIOPIA
THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES
A STUDY OF PARENTING STYLE AND CHILD SOCIALIZATION: THE
CASE OF GUJI ZONE, URAGA WOREDA, OROMIYA REGIONAL STATE
BY
ALEMAYEHU HOTESSA EDEMA
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE
REQUIREMTNT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS (MA) IN
SOCIAL WORK
MAY, 2015
ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA
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MA Thesis By Alemayehu Hotessa RISE May, 2015/2007
Radiant International Seminary Ethiopia
School of Graduate Studies
A Study of Parenting Style and Child Socialization: The case of Guji
Zone, Uraga Woreda, Oromiya Regional State
By
Alemayehu Hotessa Edema
A THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the
Degree of Masters of Arts (MA) in Social Work
Advisor: Prof. Samuel Tadesse
May, 2015
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

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Approval of Board of Examiners
___________________________ ___________________
Chairman, Department
Graduate Committee
___________________________ ___________________
Advisor
___________________________ ___________________
External Examiner
___________________________ ___________________
Internal Examiner
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DECLARATION
I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my original work, has not been presented for a
Degree in any other university and that all sources of materials used for the thesis have been duly
acknowledged.
Name: _______________________________
Signature: _______________________________
Date of Submission: _______________________________
This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as a university advisor.
Name: _______________________________
Signature: _______________________________
Date: _______________________________
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Acknowledgement
First of all, I would like to thank my Almighty God for His protection and for His miraculous
deed in my life. Words cannot describe the gratitude I have to my God!
I am also thankful to my advisor Prof. Samuel Tadesse for his constructive comments, ideas,
suggestions and commitment to help me. Thank you Professor for the timely response you made
whenever I need your support.
I am also thankful to the respondents, Uraga Woreda administration office, and Uraga High
School and Preparatory school personnel for their genuine help throughout my stay in the
Woreda for the purpose of data collection.
My heartfelt goes to the Radiant International Seminary Ethiopia community especially to Ato
Biniyam Seyoum and Mulu Birega for their uncountable support.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents (My mother W/ro Abebech Gemeda, my
father Ato Hotessa Edema, my brother Ato Desta, and sisters Aster and Meselech Hotessa) for
material and psychological support they made for me. I am also very much thankful for Engineer
Tariku Godana for his constructive advice! Finally, I would like to thank all my friends whose
names are not mentioned here.
May, 2015
Alemayehu Hotessa
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Dedication
This paper is highly dedicated to my Mother Abebech Gemeda and my father Hotessa
Edema who gave me the opportunity to attend school in my early age while most of my friends
were remain helping their parents. Mam! I would not be here without your help and commitment
to see my future. I am here today but it is not the final destination!
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Abstract
This study assesses the parenting style and the practices of child socialization of Guji zone
Uraga Woreda. The study aimed at assessing the practice and experience of this community on
parenting style and child socialization. One hundred and ninety (190) respondents were
participated in this study. Accordingly, the questionnaire was distributed to 81 respondents
(Parents) and 100 students, one Focus Group Discussion (FGD) and two case studies were
conducted.
The finding of this study shows that the type of parenting style of the Uraga community is neither
authoritative nor authoritarian rather it is permissive or neglectful though some characteristics
of authoritative and authoritarian types of parenting style exhibits in them. The finding also
shows that the parenting style practice of Uraga community is based on their values, cultures,
traditions, belief system and gender sensitive.
The strong facilitations of educational institutions, government enforcement of laws and policies,
timely based trainings for parents regarding parenting style and child- socialization, proper
counseling for those students who are victims of bad parenting style, different levels Social
Work intervention, and modeling of good parenting style to the area are recommended to shift
the practices and experiences of bad parenting style to the good ones.
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Table of content
Topics Pages
Chapter one1
1. Introduction .1
1.1.Background of the study..1
1.2. Statement of the problem5
1.3. Research questions ..10
1.4. Objective of the study...10
Chapter 2..11
2. Research Method...11
2.1. Significance of the study..11
2.2. Delimitation of the study..11
2.3.Limitation of the study...12
2.4.Research design and methodology.12
2.4.1. Methodology of the study12
2.4.2. Source of data..12
2.4.3. Sampling and sampling technique...12
2.4.4. Instrument of data collection...13
2.4.5. Method of Data Analysis13
2.4.6. Data analysis technique14

2.4.7. Organization of the paper.14
Chapter 3..15
3.1.Review of Available Literatures.15
3.2.The concept of Parenting style15
3.3.Typology of parenting style16
3.4.Theoretical models of Parenting Style18
3.5.Dimensions of Parenting Style19
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3.6. Determinants of Parenting Style21
3.7. Culture and Parenting Style26
3.8. Parenting Styles in Ethiopian Cultural context31
3.9. Parenting Style in different Ethnic groups34
3.10. Parenting Style and Associated Behaviors of Children39
3.11. Family as Socialization agents...41
3.12. Factors that affect the Parenting style exercised in family42
3.13. Relationship between Parenting style and Childrens outcomes...48
3.13.1. The Relationship between Parenting style and Academic Achievement of
Students..49
3.13.2. The Relationship between Parenting Style and Psychosocial
Adjustment.53
3.13.3. The Mediating Role of Psychosocial Adjustment in the Relationship
between Parenting Style and Academic Achievement..........54
Chapter 4..56
4.1.Data presentation (Finding).56
4.2. Background information of the respondents (Parents)..56
4.3.Students' and parents' Responses in the Focus - Group Discussions. 79
4.4.Information gathered from case studies.83
Chapter 5..85
5.1. Data Analysis and Discussion 85
Chapter 6..96
6.1. Summary and Conclusion, Social Work implication, and Recommendation96
6.2. Summary and Conclusion...96
6.3. Social Work Implication98
6.4. Recommendation ..99
References ..105
Appendices I
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List of tables
Table 1: Background information of the respondents (Parents)56

Table 2: Educational background of the respondents (Parents)57
Table 3: Employment status of the respondents (parents).57
Table 4: Family structure of respondents (Parents)...58
Table 5: Household structure58
Table 6: The breadwinner in the family59
Table 7: Parents consistency in discipline.59
Table 8: Frequency of punishment during wrong doings and reward doing during good doings.60
Table 9: Behavior of students in the school..61
Table 10: Students response on Parents attitude and behaviors regarding Parenting style and
child socialization..62
Table 11: Parents response on their status regarding parenting style and child socialization...67
Table 12: Students Response concerning Factors Affecting Parenting styles..72
Table 12: Characteristics of the parenting styles of educated parents...73
Table 13: Characteristics of the parenting styles of uneducated parents...73
Table 14: Characteristics of parenting style of parents with few children (1-3) and with many
Children (more than 3)..74
Table 15: Characteristics of the parenting styles of parents with many children..74
Table 16: The parenting styles employed by different ethnic groups in the town you live..75
Table 17: Students who score high in academic achievement were brought up by parenting styles
that are characterized by76
Table 18: Students who score low in academic achievement were brought up by parenting styles
that are characterized by76
Table 19: Students with high level of self-confidence tend to have parents who employ Parenting
styles that are characterized by.77
Table 20: Students with good conduct are brought up by parenting style that is characterized
by77
Table 21: Parents expectation of their children.78
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Chapter one
1. Introduction
1.1.Background of the study
The issue related with children and their families is the worldwide matter which takes the
attention of so many authors, researchers and policy analysts nowadays than ever before.
Children are the one among many vulnerable groups of society. Throughout several decades, this
issue was not given due attention. Attitudes towards childhood differ historically and culturally.
These differences are due to changes in attitudes and philosophical orientations as well as
empirical research.
When children have grown up, they will have different personality and they will reflect
different behaviors which may be different from person to person and from time to time as well.
One of the most important factors for this is the environment they are grown in. This
environment could be either psychological, social and biological or the combination of the three.
This process is called parenting style.
One of the author defined Parenting style in the following ways. A parenting style is a
psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents use in their child rearing
(Baumrind 2006:78). It is the strategy or approach that parents use in disciplining their children.
On other hand, many authors defined parenting style in the following manner. Parenting style
refers to the normative patterns of behavior and tactics that parents use to socialize and control
their children.
Early work on parenting styles in the 1950s (e.g., Sears, Maccoby, & Levin, 1957)
documented that adults who were nurturing and able to exert control were especially influential
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on children's development of self-regulated and disciplined behavior. Others (Lewin, Lippitt, &
White, 1939) documented that adult leadership styles in classroom-like settings resulted in
different levels of engagement on the part of children, with relatively warm and egalitarian styles
resulting in greater task involvement, more self-regulated and autonomous behavior, and more
competent performance than either highly controlling or permissive styles.
From this work evolved a general approach to the study of parenting styles focused on
socialization strategies reflecting demandingness and responsiveness. Demandingness, or
control, refers to the degree to which parents attempt to integrate a child into the family social
system by enforcing family rules and standards for behavior, setting expectations that are
developmentally appropriate, and providing structure; responsiveness, or warmth, refers to
parental attempts to support the development of their child's individuality and self-assertive
tendencies by being attentive to the child's emotional well-being, special needs, and interests.
Different authors divide parenting style in different types or dimensions. These
dimensions were then used to develop a typology of qualitatively different parenting styles based
on levels of responsiveness and control. Following this early work, Diana Baumrind (1971:pp13-
15) conducted extensive observations of parents interacting with their children in their homes
and concluded that four dimensions of parent-child interactions reflecting types of
responsiveness and control could predict reliably children's social, emotional, and cognitive
functioning. Parental control reflected consistent enforcement of rules, provision of structure to
children's activities, and persistence in gaining child compliance; maturity demands reflected
expectations to perform up to one's potential, and demands for self-reliance and self-control;
clarity of communication reflected the extent to which parents solicit children's opinions and
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feelings, and use reasoning to obtain compliance; and nurturance reflected parental expressions
of warmth and approval as well as conscientious protection of children's physical and emotional
well-being.
There are four major types of parenting styles. These dimensions were then used to
develop a typology of qualitatively different parenting styles based on levels of responsiveness
and control: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive indulgent and permissive uninvolved
(Baumrind, 1971; Maccoby & Martin, 1983). All these have different meanings, rules and
regulations. Authoritative parenting is responsive and demanding in that parents communicate
high expectation, provide clear standards for behavior, monitor child behavior, and discipline
based on reasoning and explanation rather than power assertion or withdrawal of love.
Authoritarian parenting is similar to authoritative parenting in terms of being demanding;
however, parents are described as less responsive in that they are more likely to use power
assertive disciplinary techniques and rely on love withdrawal to gain child obedience. Permissive
indulgent parents display relatively high levels of responsiveness but low levels of control.
Specifically, this style is typified by low levels of control and maturity demands, but high levels
of solicitation and demonstrations of warmth. In contrast, permissive uninvolved parenting is
described as being relatively low on both warmth and control. At its extreme, this style is
considered to be rejecting or neglectful of children.
The quality of parenting is more essential than the quantity spend with the child. For
instance a parent can spend the entire afternoon with his or her child but the parent may be
engaging in a different activity and not demonstrating interest towards the child. Parenting styles
are the representation of how parents respond and demand to their children. Parenting practices
are specific behaviors, while parenting styles represent broader patterns of parenting practices.
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According to a literature review by Christopher Spera (2005), Darling and Steinberg (1993)
suggest that it is important to better understand the differences between parenting styles and
parenting practices: "Parenting practices are defined as specific behaviors that parents use to
socialize their children", while parenting style is "the emotional climate in which parents raise
their children.
Children go through different stages in life; therefore parents create their own parenting
styles from a combination of factors that evolve over time as children begin to develop their own
personalities. During the stage of infancy, parents try to adjust to a new lifestyle in terms of
adapting and bonding with their new infant.
A child's temperament and parents' cultural patterns have an influence on the kind of
parenting style a child may receive. The degree to which a child's education is part of parenting
is a further matter of debate.
Early research in parenting and child development found that parents who provide their
children with proper nurture, independence and firm control, have children who appear to have
higher levels of competence and are socially skilled and proficient. Additional developmental
skills result from positive parenting styles including: maintaining a close relationship with
others, being self-reliant, and independence.
Better parenting style brings children to part of the society by the process of socialization.
Socialization is crucial in preparing individuals to be productive members of society. Early
Socialization looks at how individuals come to be who they are. It deals with the way in which
early childhood experiences shape a persons psychological nature through the processes of
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sociability and attachment and shows how these processes relate to emotional and cognitive
development. It teaches children the behaviors, attitudes, beliefs and norms of the particular
society.
There are two preconditions for socialization. These preconditions are presented as
follows according to Terence (2014:244), the child must have the physical capacity to learn and
they must live in a society that has values, norms, statuses, roles, institutions
and a variety of social structures.
Infants begin interactions with parents and others who pass on patterns of thinking, feeling and
acting in society. The right socialization is the base for childrens future. Sociability is the
tendency to seek the company of others, to be friendly. Some people are more sociable than
others but pretty much everyone shows some signs of sociability.
1.2. Statement of the problem
A parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents
use in their child rearing. The quality of parenting is more essential than the quantity spend with
the child. For instance a parent can spend the entire afternoon with his or her child but the parent
may be engaging in a different activity and not demonstrating interest towards the child.
Parenting styles are the representation of how parents respond and demand to their children.
Parenting practices are specific behaviors, while parenting styles represent broader patterns of
parenting practices.
Children go through different stages in life; therefore parents create their own parenting
styles from a combination of factors that evolve over time as children begin to develop their own
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personalities. During the stage of infancy, parents try to adjust to a new lifestyle in terms of
adapting and bonding with their new infant.
A child's temperament and parents' cultural patterns have an influence on the kind of
parenting style a child may receive. The degree to which a child's education is part of parenting
is a further matter of debate.
Early research in parenting and child development found that parents who provide their
children with proper nurture, independence and firm control, have children who appear to have
higher levels of competence and are socially skilled and proficient. Additional developmental
skills result from positive parenting styles including: maintaining a close relationship with
others, being self-reliant, and independence.
The study on the parenting style show that there are four types parenting styles. The study
conducted by Baumrind (1971:143) put four types of parenting styles as follows. In her research,
she found what she considered to be the four basic elements that could help shape successful
parenting: responsiveness vs. unresponsiveness and demanding vs. undemanding. Through her
studies Baumrind identified three initial parenting styles: Authoritative parenting, authoritarian
parenting, permissive indulgent and permissive uninvolved.
According literature, parenting style shapes children towards either bad behavior or good
behavior based on the type of parenting style their parents are following. For example,
Authoritative parenting is characterized by a child-centered approach that holds high
expectations of maturity. Authoritative parents can understand how their children are feeling and
teach them how to regulate their feelings. Even with high expectations of maturity, authoritative
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parents are usually forgiving of any possible shortcomings. They often help their children to find
appropriate outlets to solve problems.
Authoritative parents encourage children to be independent but still place limits on their
actions. Extensive verbal give-and-take is not refused, and parents try to be warm and nurturing
toward the child. Authoritative parents are not usually as controlling as authoritarian parents,
allowing the child to explore more freely, thus having them make their own decisions based upon
their own reasoning. Often, authoritative parents produce children who are more independent and
self-reliant. An authoritative parenting style mainly results when there is high parental
responsiveness and high parental demands.
Authoritative parents will set clear standards for their children, monitor the limits that they
set, and also allow children to develop autonomy. They also expect mature, independent, and
age-appropriate behavior of children. Punishments for misbehavior are measured and consistent,
not arbitrary or violent. Often behaviors are not punished but the natural consequences of the
child's actions are explored and discussed -allowing the child to see that the behavior is
inappropriate and not to be repeated, rather than not repeated to merely avoid adverse
consequences. Authoritative parents set limits and demand maturity. However, when punishing a
child, the parent will explain his or her motive for their punishment.
Children are more likely to respond to authoritative parenting punishment because it is
reasonable and fair. A child knows why they are being punished because an authoritative parent
makes the reasons known. As a result, children of authoritative parents are more likely to be
successful, well liked by those around them, generous and capable of self determination.
Neglectful parenting is also called uninvolved, detached, dismissive or hands-off. The parents
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are low in warmth and control, are generally not involved in their child's life, are disengaged,
undemanding, low in responsiveness, and do not set limits.
Neglectful parenting can also mean dismissing the children's emotions and opinions. Parents
are emotionally unsupportive of their children, but will still provide their basic needs. Provide
basic needs meaning: food, housing, and toiletries or money for the aforementioned. Neglectful
parenting can stem from a variety of reasons, including the parents prioritizing themselves, lack
of encouragement on the parents' parts, financial stresses, lack of support and addiction to
harmful substances.
Children whose parents are neglectful develop the sense that other aspects of the parents
lives are more important than they are. Many children of this parenting style often attempt to
provide for themselves or halt depending on the parent to get a feeling of being independent and
mature beyond their years. Parents, and thus their children, often display contradictory behavior.
The parent and the child will never come to an agreement because the child will be resentful and
the parent will show a demanding, with great authority side.
Children become emotionally withdrawn from social situations. This disturbed attachment
also impacts relationships later on in life. In adolescence, they may show patterns of truancy and
delinquency. Children from this parenting style lack external structure and internal sense of
discipline. Children also lack of external expression of love so as a result children try to get love
from whatever sources they can.
A study done by Maccoby and Martin (1983) analyzed adolescents aged 14 18 in four areas:
psychosocial development, school achievement, internalized distress, and problem behavior. The
study found that those with neglectful parents scored the lowest on these tests, while those with
authoritative parents scored the highest.
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Good parenting style invites children to become sociable person in the future. In order to
reduce these and other problems that may be resulted from the type of parenting style children
are developing in, it is better to work on the early socialization of the children. Early
Socialization looks at how individuals come to be who they are. It deals with the way in which
early childhood experiences shape a persons psychological nature through the processes of
sociability and attachment and shows how these processes relate to emotional and cognitive
development.
Thus, parenting styles vary by social class, shaping children in different and crucial ways.
They contribute to the reproduction of class inequality. That is, middle-class children develop
traits that lead to success in school and later in jobs and the marketplace, whereas working-class
and poor children develop skills that, for most of them, replicate their parents class positions
(Hewlett and West, 1998: xvixvii).
However, the parenting style of Ethiopians is not this much satisfactory due to different
factors. There is also no much study conducted on this issue whether what literature say is
common to the culture of Ethiopia. The researcher concerned to see this gap and interested to
conduct this study.
The main purpose of this study was, therefore, to assess the parenting style and
socialization of children in Guji Zone Uraga woreda with respect to two kebels, Kebele 01 and
Kebele 02, to see what it looks like and to recommend for further improvement.
To do this, the study aims to answer the following basic research questions:
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1.3. Research questions
1. To what extent do the parents in these two local churches understand the type of
parenting style they are practicing and its effect on both childrens education and
development as well?
2. What do parenting style of these parents looks like in relation to the socialization of
their children?
3. What are the mechanisms to adjust the socialization of children and parents who are
practicing the type of parenting style which may influence the education and
development of these children?
1.4. Objective of the study
The general objective of this study was the assessment of parenting style and child
socialization.
1.4.1. Specific objectives
The specific objectives of the study are presented as follows;
a. To identify the types of parenting style being in practice by these parents.
b. To know the extent of parents understanding the effects of each parenting style on the
education and development of children.
c. To assess the impact of parenting style on the socialization of children.
d. To evaluate socialization of children in relation to the type of parenting style and
recommend for better work/improvement.
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Chapter 2
2. Research Method
2.1. Significance of the study
Parenting style is the one among so many social issues that need to be studied and understood
very well. It is the concern of all individuals and professionals because it affects the education
and development of children. The extent of parenting style also affects the socialization of
children. Therefore, assessing the parenting style and the child socialization is of a great value in
shaping and directing children towards the bright future. Thus, identifying, understanding and
evaluating the type parenting style being in practice helps to recommend for further
improvement and social work intervention.
This paper focused on assessing, identifying, and evaluation of parenting style and its effects
on the socialization of children. For this reason, this paper is very much helpful than other topics
because it contributes to the existing knowledge, and demonstrating the status quo. In addition to
this, the finding of this study helps both the Woreda and the concerned body to further work on
the issue of parenting style and childrens early socialization. It also initiates other researchers to
pay due attention to the issue of parenting style and childs early socialization.
2.2. Delimitation of the study
This study focused on one Woreda of Guji Zone Oromiya Regional states. To make the
study manageable or convenient, it was delimited to two Kebeles found in Haro Wachu (the
current name of Sollemo town). Haro Wachu, the capital city of Uraga Woreda comprises two
Kebeles, Kebele 01 and Kebele 02.
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2.3.Limitation of the study
This study was conducted on one Woreda of Guji Zone, Oromiya Regional state. On the
other hand, it focused only on two kebeles and the participants of this study were 190
respondents and, therefore, cannot be representative for other woredas of the zone and cannot
also be generalized for other areas. Finally, the shortage of time due to other course load was
another limitation.
2.4.Research design and methodology
2.4.1. Methodology of the study
To achieve the stated objective, the researcher employed the qualitative research method
but was not purely qualitative because it was not employed statistical summary or analysis.
Qualitatively, the information was gathered from informants using case study which is an in-
depth examination of the selected participants, FGD, interview and questionnaire. The
information gathered using the above methods was described in words and their meanings were
studied.
2.4.2. Source of data
The primary source of data was parents who have a child or children. The outstanding
information was collected using questionnaire, and FGD guides. Basically, the information they
give was their experience. During selection of subjects, it was believed that those parents were
key informants and they were sources of the information. The necessary documents related with
the background of those parents were reviewed carefully.
2.4.3. Sampling and sampling technique
Two Kebeles were selected for the purpose of this study. These Kebeles were the best
site for this study. The size of the sample was 190 respondents; questionnaire was distributed to
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81 individuals (parents) from two Kebeles and 100 high school students, two case studies one
from each Kebele and an FGD with seven members. The results were presented accordingly and
categorized using the measurable variables.
The sampling technique that was used in the study was random sampling for all target
population. Random sampling technique was given equal chance for all respondents because it is
more convenient for large samples.
All the parents who are getting services from different governmental and nongovernmental
organizations found in both Kebeles were included in the sampling process for the convenience
of the study.
2.4.4. Instrument of data collection
In order to collect data for the study, open ended and close ended questions were used. The
closed and questionnaires included yes or no answer, and open ended questionnaires were given
opportunity to the respondents to express their feelings, perceptions, problems and intentions
related to the parenting style and child early socialization.
Interview guide for both Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) and cases were developed. The
questionnaires and interview guide were prepared by English language and translated into Afan
Oromo to clarify and avoiding confusion.
2.4.5. Method of Data Analysis
The data collected was tallied, tabulated, analyzed, interpreted, computed and interpreted by
using simple percentage with verbal explanation. Finally, based on the results of summary,
conclusion and recommendations was drawn.
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2.4.6. Data analysis technique
Data analysis was started during data collection. The information of respondent was analyzed
word by word and the process was continued until the end. Appropriate coding of the
information was applied to ensure the confidentiality of the information. Before starting analysis,
the information gathered was first separated into variables and also coded accordingly. In the
presentation of the information or result, simple statistics like tables and percents were used.
2.4.7. Organization of the paper
This study was organized into six chapters: chapter one is about the introduction of the paper
and the study, chapter two is about methodology, chapter three is about review of available
literatures, while chapters four, five and six respectively are about presentation of the
data/results, discussion and analysis; and summary, conclusion, social work implication and
recommendation.
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Chapter 3
4. Review of Available Literatures
In this section, a general survey of empirical studies related to parenting styles was made.
The section has dealt with twelve major issues: parenting style-the concept, typology of
parenting style, theoretical models of parenting style, dimensions of parenting style, determinants
parenting style, culture and parenting style, parenting styles in the Ethiopian cultural context,
parenting style in different ethnic groups, parenting styles and associated behaviors of children,
family as socialization agents, factors that affect the parenting style exercised in the family, and
relationship between parenting style and childrens outcomes.
4.1.The concept of Parenting style
It is important to note that the theoretical model accepted by many investigators to
represent the possible styles of parenting has undergone some changes. It is also important to
note that in the past, different styles of parenting were advocated by different theorists. Initially,
the main issue regarding child rearing practices had been whether parents should employ
restrictive or permissive child rearing practices. In the years between 1913 and 1910, which were
the heyday of American behaviorism, child rearing experts regarded the infant as an object for
systematic shaping and conditioning. Consequently, desirable social behavior could be attained if
the child's antisocial behaviors were always punished and never indulged. Thus, according to
behaviorists and popular opinion of the time, restrictive methods in styles of parenting are by far
better than permissive styles (Hetherington & Parke, 1979).
A shift toward a more permissive attitude in which the parent was advised to be
concerned with the feelings and capabilities of the child emerged in the years between the early
1930s, until the mid-1960s. This shift was due in part to the influence of Freudian Psychology
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and its focus on the role of early deprivation and restrictions in the development of inhibitions
which could serve as the foundation of many emotional problems.
Additional influence toward permissive style also came from writings of humanistic
psychologists (such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers) and progressive educators such as
John Dewey. These people believed that individuals have an innate capacity to realize their
potential abilities if they are free to explore and develop in an open and accepting environment.
But again since the mid-1960s the virtue of the authoritative style has been highly praised
(Hetherington & Parke, 1979).
Generally, this controversy appeared to attract researchers' attention. As a result, a
number of studies were conducted on child rearing practices in general and as to which style of
parenting is more beneficial for children's healthy development in particular.
4.2.Typology of parenting style
According to Baumrind (1967, 1973) and Maccoby and Martin (1983), the four types of
parenting styles and their typical characteristics are as follows:
(1) Authoritative Parenting Style: A parenting style characterized by an optimum balance of
responsiveness and demandingness; and directing children in a rational, issue-oriented,
disciplined manner by clarifying the reasoning behind rules. It is high in all four dimensions of
family functioning. As noted by Maccoby (1992), authoritative parents know and understand
childrens independence, encourage verbal communication, allow children to participate in
decision making of the family, and want the children progressively undertake more responsibility
for reacting to the needs of other people in the family within their abilities. This type of parenting
style consists of a constellation of parental characteristics of high standards, such as high
emotional attachment and support to children, encouragement of a two-way communication
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between parents and children, and consistent implementation of the rules established by parents
(Baumrind, 1991).
According to Baumrind (1971, 1991), the authoritative parenting style is positively
correlated to different developmental outcomes (e.g., academic achievement and social
behaviors) of children. In addition, Holmbeck (1996) noted that authoritative parenting style is
the most beneficial for children and adolescents because it is positively correlated to numerous
positive outcomes (e.g., self-esteem and self-reliance).
(2) Authoritarian Parenting Style: A parenting style marked by parental behaviors that are
highly restrictive and very demanding. It is high in control and maturity demands, but low in
nurturance and bi-directional communication between parents and children. Authoritarian
parents constrain their childrens independence and they want their children to follow strict
parental rules and orders without any question by threatening severe punishment if children
violate these rules and orders. As noted by Baumrind (1967, 1971) children with authoritarian
parents tend to be anxious, socially withdrawn, and unhappy.
(3) Permissive (Indulgent) Parenting Style: A parenting style, at the other extreme,
characterized by non-restrictiveness and high levels of responsiveness. It is high in nurturance
but low in maturity demands, supervision, and bi-directional communication between parents
and children. According to Baumrind (1989), the permissive parenting style is a careless style in
which parents make few demands, encourage their children to express their feelings, and barely
use power to gain control over their behavior; and tend not to need mature behavior from their
children, but encourage their childrens independence instead.
As noted by Hetherington and Parke (1986), children with indulgent parents are low in
self-reliance, achievement orientation, and self-control.
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(4) Neglecting or Uninvolved Parenting Style: The style of parenting low in both dimensions
(i.e., the degree of responsiveness and demandingness) and which is believed to be the most
detrimental of the four types of parenting styles on childrens and adolescents development
(Maccoby & Martin, 1983). Specifically, children with neglectful parents have several negative
developmental outcomes (i.e., they are impulsive, aggressive, non-compliant to rules and orders,
moody, and low in self-esteem, in general). As noted by Hetherington and Parke (1986), children
from the families of neglectful parents are more likely to have alcohol problems, spend most of
time on streets with their peers from similar parents, and are more likely to be truant and
precociously sexually active, with records of arrest.
Research has documented that children and adolescents from the families of authoritative
parents are more competent and efficient socially and academically compared to those whose
parents are non-authoritative (Baumrind, 1991; Maccoby & Martin, 1983; Miller et al., 1993;
Weiss & Schwarz, 1996). Generally, in the past three decades, much of the research has
examined the effect of parenting on the different developmental outcomes of children,
adolescents, and young adults by employing a three or four typological approach, in which the
influences of the main dimensions of parenting behavior are aggregated to form the four types of
parenting styles (i.e., authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful parenting styles) or
specific dimensions of parenting behavior approach. These studies have yielded consistent
evidence that parenting plays a crucial role in enhancing or mitigating optimal developmental
outcomes in children and adolescents.
4.3.Theoretical models of Parenting Style
Parenting styles refer to a global construct reflecting the parental behaviors and attitudes
towards their children and the qualities of interactions and relationships among parents and
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children and used to categorize parents typologically, whereas parenting practices refer to the
specific behaviors and attitudes which are shown by parents in rearing their children.
The first theoretical tripartite model of parenting style was postulated by Baumrind
(1966, 1967, and 1973). She identified that parenting styles fall into three main categories (i.e.,
authoritarian- firm but not warm, permissive- warm but not firm, and authoritative- warm and
firm), which focus on four important aspects of family functioning, namely, nurturance or
warmth, firmness and clarity of control, level of maturity demands, and degree of
communication between parent and the child. Later, by analyzing Baumrinds conceptualization
of parenting styles, Maccoby and Martin (1983) elaborated and revised her typologies. They
proposed a variation of Baumrinds categorization in which parents are classified based on two
dimensions. These are the degree of demand and control and the degree of acceptance/rejection.
According to Maccoby and Martin, these two dimensions jointly create four types of parenting
styles, three of which are quite similar to Baumrinds original classification and
conceptualization of parenting styles. Their conceptualization adds the fourth type, the
neglecting or uninvolved parenting style (i.e., neither warm nor firm).
4.4.Dimensions of Parenting Style
Because of differing methods, theoretical approaches and developmental foci, there has
been no general consensus on the most significant axes along which to compare parents
(Gronlick & Ryan, 1989). Despite this, the most popular work in delineating parenting
dimensions has been that of Schaeffers (Schaeffer, 1965).
Schaeffer (as cited in Schaeffer,1965) identified two major dimensions of parenting style.
The first one refers to the degree of love versus hostility or acceptance versus rejection, or loving
versus rejecting. The positive terminal of this dimension refers to parenting behavior which is
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characterized by acceptance, affection, approval, understanding and frequent use of explanations,
extensive use of reasons in discipline, and limited use of physical punishment. At its negative
terminal, the dimension refers to parenting behaviors like hostility, rejection or punitiveness.
The second dimension pertains to autonomy versus control or permissiveness versus
restrictiveness. At its restrictive or controlling end, this dimension refers to parental behaviors
that involve strict enforcement of demands including rigid instance on neatness, orderliness,
obedience and inhibition of aggression towards parents, siblings or peers. On the autonomy or
permissiveness end, the dimension refers to democratic and encouraging nature of parents.
Becker cited in Duncan (1971) also proposed the existence of the two dimensions as parenting
behaviors.
Studies on child and adolescent socialization processes have applied this model to explain
variations in child development. Among the studies that adopted the two dimensions model of
parenting style are Dornbusch et al. (1987) and Steinberg et al. (1994). However, it appears that
current studies are including other dimensions that can explain parenting style. For example,
Steinberg et al. (1992) found out that a factor analysis of items pertaining to parenting behaviors
yielded three distinct parenting dimensions. These were 1) parental acceptance / involvement, 2)
parental strictness / supervision and 3) psychological autonomy. These researches compared
parents along the three dimensions to classify them in to authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent
and neglectful. However later, Steinberg et al. (1994) used only parental acceptance and parental
control dimensions for delineating parenting styles. In the study, the authors proposed that
though psychological autonomy defines parental authoritativeness it is not powerful in
differentiating among authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent and neglectful families.
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All in all, reviews of parent child interaction effects of parenting styles reveal that
majority of the studies use the two dimensions (i.e., parental acceptance and parental control)
models to classify parents in to distinct parenting styles.
4.5. Determinants of Parenting Style
Child rearing practices can be influenced by a number of factors such as parental
adaptation to children, age and sex of the child. With regard to parental adaptation, in fact, what
matters is parents perception of their childrens personalities. For instance, when hyperactive
children are successfully treated with the drug Ritalin, their hyperactivity diminishes
substantially and mothers modify their parenting style accordingly and become less controlling
(Traver-Behring & Barkley cited in Ambert, 1997:46).
In another study, mothers of normal and difficult- oppositional children were paired in an
experimental situation with a difficult child (not their own) and then with a normal child (not
their own). Both types of mothers exhibited more controlling and intrusive behavior with the
oppositional child than with the cooperative on ( Brunk & Hengeller cited in Ambert, 1997: 46).
Similarly, Ambert (1997: 46) notes that when adolescents disobey, talk back, threaten to run a
way, fail to return home, and be disrespectful, parents may become more forceful. Patterson,
Reid & Dishon as cited in Ambert (1997:47) documented that it is difficult to monitor the
whereabouts of an adolescent who is extremely coercive. Thus, all in all, it is possible to say that
under normal circumstances parents change or adapt their parenting styles to fit their childrens
temperament or personality.
Personality of the parent also determines whether he/she is going to be authoritative or
non authoritative. For instance, a man who is easily frustrated, impatient, and impulsive is more
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likely to become an authoritarian even harsh, rejecting parent rather than an authoritative one
(Ambert, 1997:48).
Apart from personality factors, age of the child plays an important role. This is especially
true in families that have siblings. Evidences supporting this come from a study by Dunn &
Plomin as cited in Ambert (1997:82) documenting that in UK and North America mothers favor
younger children more than the older ones.
Sex of the child also seems to influence the way parents treat the child. For example, the
study by Sigal & Barclay (1982) came up with the finding that boys generally evaluated fathers
more favorably than did girls; particularly in the use of physical punishment in situations of
simple disobedience and physical harm to self. The results also indicated that parental control
was greater for daughters. In contrast, Lau et al. (1990) documented that in China, fathers were
more controlling and less warm toward sons than toward daughters. In other studies, Russel &
Russel (1987) reported that there is no interaction between the sex of the parent and the sex of
the child in Australia. These findings imply that whether parents treat boys and girls
differentially are culture specific and need to be to be investigated in different cultures.
In addition to personality and organismic factors, environmental factors such as, parental
occupation, family structure, parental education and socioeconomic status have been found to
determine patterns of child rearing practices. Nearly 25 years ago, sociologist Melvin Kohn as
well as subsequent research by Kohn and others as cited in Greenberger, ONeil & Nagel (1994)
have documented evidences that differences in adults social realities have implications for their
child rearing values and for their behavior in the role of parents. The results indicated that men in
white collar and entrepreneurial jobs tend to value self-direction in their children and use
disciplinary techniques aimed at increasing the childs capacity for reasonable self-governance.
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For example, they employ techniques that emphasize the reasons why certain behaviors are
undesirable and the withdrawal of social rewards in response to misbehavior. This implies that
men in white collar and entrepreneurial jobs tend to adopt more of authoritative parenting style.
In contrast, men in blue collar jobs more highly value childrens conformity and obedience
which is a characteristic of authoritarian parents. They focus on what their child has done, more
than why, and are more likely to use power assertive physical discipline-an approach that
underscores the importance of adherence to authority (Gecas & Nye; and Kohn cited in
Greenberger, ONeil & Nagel, 1994).
Other researches (for instance, Grossmal et al.; ONeil; Parcel & Menaghan; and Rogers,
Parcel & Menaghan cited in Greenberger, ONeil & Nagel, 1994) have documented that there
exists a relationship between nature of parental job and child rearing practices. For instance,
Grossman et al.(cited in Greenberger, ONeil & Nagel, 1994) have shown that fathers who are
more satisfied with their jobs are more responsive toward and supportive of their childrens
autonomy and affiliative behavior. Similarly, Parcel & Menaghan; and Rogers, Parcel &
Menaghan (cited in Greenberger, ONeil & Nagel, 1994) reported a positive significant
correlation between the extent to which parents jobs are cognitively and interpersonally
challenging and a composite measure reflecting parental warmth and parental cognitive
stimulation.
Studies have also found a relationship between socioeconomic status and certain child
rearing practices and attitudes (DeBaryshe et al., 1993 and Trickett et al., 1993). These studies
uncovered that greater use of authoritarian punishment, lower parental involvement and
nurturance and lower emphasis on independence are related to families with lower
socioeconomic status. Similarly, McLoyd (1990) observed that in USA poor parents, regardless
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of their ethnic backgrounds, are likely to emphasize obedience in their children, to use power
assertion and physical punishment as disciplinary techniques, are less likely to express affection,
and are less likely to discuss problems with their children. Explaining why poor parents are more
of authoritarian McLoyd (1990) proposed that poor parents, responding to the stress of poverty
and its attendant problems, may not possess the psychological energy necessary to respond to
their children in non-authoritarian fashion.
Focusing on a specific parental characteristic of disciplining, Middlemiss-Ross (cited in
Carter & Middlemiss, 1992) asked lower socioeconomic status African American mothers to
indicate how they respond to a given problem behavior of typical of 4 year old children. Only
27% of the mothers reported that they would respond in a consistent fashion. This means 73% of
the respondents are inconsistent in their disciplinary techniques, which is a typical characteristic
of authoritarian parents. The findings discussed above seem to confirm that parenting styles vary
as a function of socioeconomic status. However, in some cultures the notion that parenting styles
go along with socioeconomic status seems to be challenged. For example, in Puerto Rico, in
studies by Vazquez-roderiguez et al (cited in Archilla, 1992) no parenting style difference was
observed among parents from different socioeconomic status (upper, middle, lower).
However, the researchers observed that in Puerto Rico better educated parents preferred
the authoritative style for control of aggression or for handling modesty. Empirical studies seem
to support the notion that parenting styles differ as a function of parental educational level. For
example, in Dornbusch et al. (1987) it has been observed that within each sex, families with
higher parental education tended to be somewhat lower in authoritarian and permissive parenting
styles and higher in authoritative parenting style.
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This was consistent with findings of Laosa (1981) and Valencia et al. (1981). Findings
are also reporting that the type of family structure present at home is an important determinant of
the type of parenting style. This means single parents, step parents and intact families exercise
different parenting styles when dealing with their children (Dornbusch et al., 1987; Vuchinich et
al., 1991).
Dornbusch et al. (1987) compared the parenting styles exercised by two natural parents,
single mother, mother and stepfather, single father and father and stepmother. Results indicated
that single mothers showed a higher level of permissive parenting than did two natural parents.
For their sons only, single mothers showed lower levels of authoritarian parenting when
compared to households containing both natural parents. Single fathers were also more
permissive for both sexes, while they were less authoritarian for females and less authoritative
for males than families containing both natural parents. It was also observed that stepfamilies
compared to families with two natural parents, tended to be more authoritarian and more
permissive, and for males only, less authoritative.
On the other hand, in the study by Vuchinich et al. (1991) (n=26 families intact and step
families) findings indicated that biological fathers in intact families were more likely to oppose
their children, more likely to command their children, less likely to be pro-social to their children
and less likely to talk to their children than were residential stepfathers. Stepfathers were also
found to be more responsive to children in overall talk, pro-social behavior and question-answer
sequences.
According to the researchers stepfathers were less involved with discipline and control
but more involved with positive social behavior with children than fathers in intact families.
Thus based on the parenting typology adopted by recent researchers like Steinberg and his
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associates and others one can say that stepfathers exercise indulgent parenting. In contrast,
earlier studies by Bray and by Furstenberg (both cited in Vuchinich et al., 1991) had indicated
that stepfathers employ disengaged parenting more often than biological fathers. In Vuchinich et
al. (1991), it was further reported that both fathers and stepfathers oppose daughters more often
than sons and mothers behavior in stepfamilies was more negative toward children.
To sum up, the above paragraphs denote that parenting styles can be influenced by a
number of factors both natural and environmental. However, these factors were not found to
act consistently from situation to situation. Therefore, when one wants to know what factors
influence parenting styles in his/her area he/she has to look for studies done on the setting one is
in or make a research on his / her local area.
4.6. Culture and Parenting Style
A clear knowledge of the cultural context in which parents socialize their children is very
much helpful to recognize the differences in parenting styles that are commonly practiced in that
cultural context and to know the reasons why these differences occur (Keshavarz & Baharudin,
2009). Keshavarz and Baharudin noted that there are fundamental differences in the behaviours
of parents in parenting their children and children's developmental outcomes across different
cultures. Since a major goal of parenting is to socialize the child to adapt to the society in which
he/she lives, that is, to support the child in successfully adapting to the conditions of its society
and culture, in order for the child to become a functioning member of the society (LeVine, 1977;
Trommsdorff & Kornadt, 2003), then parenting is influenced by cultural norms and values.
These cultural norms and values are partly reflected in the child-rearing goals of the
parents and their views of the development of their children (Schwarz, Schafermeier, &
Trommsdorff, 2005). Different cultures may have different child-rearing practices in accordance
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with their cultural traditions, beliefs, norms, and values. Consequently, the standards, goals, and
methods of socialization may vary among societies, within subgroups in the same society, and
between different societies because behaviors regarded as desirable and encouraged in one
society would be regarded as undesirable or even pathological in another. Even within the same
culture, there might be dramatic differences in the goals of socialization and the methods used to
shape the values and behaviors of children (Hetherington & Parke, 1993).
Furthermore, Belsky (1984) noted that although the development of parents
philosophies about rearing (parenting) their children is determined by individual and family
experiences, personality, their own childs characteristics, social context and their cultural
background, the culture in which parents rear their children plays a crucial role in affecting the
parenting styles that parents employ. Tamminen (2006) also documented that the values, belief
systems, and socialization goals of parents in rearing their children are the products of the
cultural context in which they live. Therefore, as noted by some authors (e.g., Goodnow, 1988;
Miller, 1988), parents from diverse cultural back grounds, both within a single country and
across-nations, differ in their implicit philosophies of parenting and child development.
When parents live in an individualist or collectivist culture, their child rearing goals and
behaviors are greatly influenced by the traditions, beliefs, norms, and values of that culture. This
is due to traditions, norms, beliefs, attitudes, and values are usually different among individualist
and collectivist cultures (Rhee, Uleman, & Lee, 1996; Triandis, 1991). As a result, culturally
learned traditions, norms, beliefs, attitudes, and values provide standards which parents usually
employ to direct their own interactions with their children. Several studies have demonstrated
that individualistic and collectivistic cultures differ in their child-rearing goals and parenting
behavior (Greenfield, 1994; Triandis, 1995a; Trommsdorff, 1999; Trommsdorff & Kornadt,
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2003) because collectivistic cultures emphasis integration into the social group and the hierarchy,
while in individualistic cultures a person should be rather self-responsible and pursue his/her
own goals.
More specifically, in collectivist cultures, parents encourage values such as helpfulness,
conformity, adherence to social conventions and interdependence with their in groups such as
family and nation in socializing their children (Greenfield & Suzuki, 1998). This type of
parenting style is more akin to an authoritarian parenting style and, based on the developmental
outcomes of children valued in collectivist cultures, authoritarian parenting may be more
preferred compared with other parenting styles (Grusec, Rudy, & Martini, 1997). On the other
hand, in individualistic societies, authoritarian parenting represents a negative style of parenting
because it is not in agreement with its culture, traditions, beliefs, norms, and values (Keshavarz
& Baharudin, 2009).
That is, since individualistic societys emphasis emotional independence, assertiveness,
autonomy, distinctiveness, self-containment, and the need for privacy, an authoritative parenting
style is the most predominantly practiced and socially desirable parenting style in individualistic
societies. With regard to cultural differences in parenting styles, research has demonstrated that
many Latino or Hispanic families (i.e., collectivistic culture) use an authoritarian parenting style
because Latino parents assume that by being strict in rearing their children they will grow up to
be accountable adults (Julian, McKenry, & McKelvy, 1994).
Another study reported that African-American parents, who are also described as being
more collectivistic, believe in using an authoritarian parenting style because parents want to
socialize their children to manage the realities of racism and discrimination (Taylor, Chatters,
Tucker, & Lewis, 1990). Moreover, Dornbusch et al. (1987) found that Asian, Black (African
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American), and Hispanic families (i.e., collectivists) were higher on the authoritarian parenting
style for both male and female children than were white families (i.e., individualists). Keshavarz
and Baharudin (2009) in their study, which examined parenting style in a collectivist culture,
Malaysia, also revealed that Malaysian parents from the three main ethnic groups (i.e., Malay,
Chinese, and Indian) were more authoritarian in their parenting style, and they did not consider it
as a negative style of parenting.
On the other hand, a study by Kim and Chung (2003) with a sample of Korean American
college students found that authoritative parenting style was the most commonly practiced
parenting style in Korean-American families (i.e., collectivists), followed by authoritarian
parenting style.
There are fewer consensuses regarding the effects of different types of parenting styles on
developmental outcomes of children, adolescents, and young adults in different cultural contexts.
Specifically, although the positive influences of authoritative parenting have been repeatedly
documented, there are some researchers who raise questions regarding the universality of the
findings in different cultures, ethnicities, and socioeconomic status groups (Baumrind, 1972).
This is because of a paradox in the research findings regarding the parenting style of Asian
countries, particularly Chinese parenting style (Chao, 1994). That is, Chinese parenting has often
been described as authoritarian and this style of parenting has been found to be predictive of poor
school achievement among European-Americans, and yet the Chinese, as immigrants and in their
home country, perform quite well in school (Chao, 1994). Generally, studies conducted in
individualistic cultures have demonstrated that adolescents and young adults benefit most if their
parents are authoritative and least if their parents are authoritarian or permissive (Elmen, &
Mounts, 1989).
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Numerous studies, therefore, have revealed that an authoritative parenting style has a
significant and positive effect on the different developmental outcomes of children and
adolescents in individualistic cultures, which emphasis individual achievement and autonomy
(for review, see Baumrind, 1971; Dornbusch et al., 1987; Lamborn et al., 1991), whereas an
authoritarian parenting style plays a crucial role in significantly and positively affecting the
different developmental outcomes of children and adolescents in collectivistic cultures, which
emphasis social group achievement (Szapornik & Kurtines, 1993). As a result, some
investigators noted that parenting styles reflect, at least in part, cultural value systems (Chao,
1994).
Even though the conceptualization of Western-derived parenting styles and the beneficial
effects of authoritative parenting style in different cultural contexts are controversial, there are
studies which show that the trend of findings regarding the effects of parenting styles in an
individualistic culture like the U.S.A or Canada has similarity for childrens and adolescents
developmental outcomes in a collectivistic culture like China (Chen et al., 2000a, 2000b). Some
other researchers (e.g., Chang et al., 2003, 2004) have also demonstrated that the functions of
parenting and the dimensions of parenting styles (i.e., warmth, empathy, and support) for
Chinese children and adolescents are similar to that of European American children and
adolescents. Moreover, Wang, Pomerantz, and Chen (2007) reported that parenting styles had
similar effects in China and the U.S.A.
In a similar vein, Sorkhabi (2005) argued against claims that authoritarian parenting is
more beneficial in collectivistic cultures and authoritative parenting is the most beneficial in
individualistic cultures. Sorkhabi also noted that Baumrind s (1966, 1967, 1973) parenting
styles have similar functions in both collectivistic and individualistic societies. Consequently,
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this investigator has suggested that more research should be conducted before conclusions can be
made about the extent to which the cultural construct of individualism-collectivism accounts for
the effects of parenting styles on the development of children. In addition, Steinberg (2001)
revealed that the beneficial influences of authoritative parenting style have been supported with
samples from different countries around the world, such as China, Pakistan, Hong Kong,
Scotland, Australia, and Argentina, which are very diverse in their cultural traditions, beliefs,
norms, and value systems. Thus, Steinberg concluded that, as a common trend, irrespective of
their ethnic or racial groups, social backgrounds, or cultural contexts, adolescents are
advantageous if they have authoritative parents.
In sum, as is evident from the above mentioned reviews, the generalizability of the type
of parenting style predominantly practiced in different cultural contexts is still in question.
Moreover, the generalizability of the effects of authoritarian and authoritative parenting styles on
the developmental outcomes of children and adolescents in collectivistic cultures (i.e.,
authoritarian parenting is not detrimental or authoritative parenting is not beneficial in
collectivistic cultures to the developmental outcomes of children and adolescents) is not yet fully
answered. Consequently, this calls for a further research, and therefore this is one of the prime
aims of the current study to investigate the issues in question in a collectivist African country,
Ethiopia, where there is a dearth of research in this area.
4.7. Parenting Styles in Ethiopian Cultural context
As discussed earlier, it is evident that parents in all cultures (i.e., in both individualistic
and collectivistic cultures) are the primary socialization agents responsible for transmission of
cultural values, beliefs, traditions, and norms which are necessary for the attainment of cultural
standards of competence to their children. Ethiopia is no exception, and thus Ethiopian parents
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employ child-rearing practices in socializing their children in accordance with their cultural and
religious beliefs, traditions, norms, and value systems.
There is a dearth of research literature on parenting styles and their effects on childrens,
adolescents , and young adults development in Ethiopia. However, there are a few studies
which can provide some insights into the issue (Yekoyealem, 2005). Some of these studies
reported that an authoritarian parenting style was predominantly employed among the families of
Ethiopia (Abrahm, 1996). However, in other studies it has been consistently found that the type
of parenting style predominantly practiced in the families of the country was authoritative
(Seleshi & Sentayehu, 1998).
Some studies have also shown that the most commonly practiced parenting style in
Ethiopian families differs as a function of childrens sex. For instance, studies with a sample of
junior secondary school students have demonstrated that parents were authoritative for their
daughters, but authoritarian for their sons (Seleshi, 1998). Another study with a sample of high
school students reported that an authoritative parenting style was the most commonly employed
parenting style for daughters whereas neglectful parenting style was the most predominantly
adopted parenting style for sons (Kassahun, 2005). On the other hand, this researcher, in the
same study, with a sample of elementary school students revealed that irrespective of childrens
sex, an authoritative parenting style was the most commonly employed parenting style in the
families of Ethiopia.
Kassahun explained the predominance of neglectful parenting style for high school aged
males by saying that when males enter high school the parents may believe that their sons can
manage themselves, and thus they reduce their control as well as their close relationships.
However, this explanation may not be justifiable when Ethiopian cultural beliefs regarding
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childrens development are concerned. This is because, as demonstrated by some empirical
studies in Ethiopia (Teshome, 1976), parents attach very high values to their children, and thus
they are not expected to use a neglectful parenting style, which is detrimental for the
developmental outcomes of their children, in rearing their sons.
Therefore, it is premature to conclude that Ethiopian parents employ a neglectful
parenting style for their sons; and to accept that there are traditions and customs in the Ethiopian
culture that foster more distant parenting for sons. A probable explanation for the findings of the
early studies which documented that an authoritarian parenting style was the most commonly
practiced parenting style could be the then socio-political system which adhered to
authoritarianism in every realm of human endeavors. On the other hand, a likely reason for the
findings of the studies in the last two decades which reported that an authoritative parenting style
was the most predominantly employed parenting style could be, as noted by numerous
researchers (e.g., Atsede, 1994).
Ethiopian parents attach very high values to their children in the hope that they will
provide social, economic, and psychological support for their parents especially when they
become older, and to ensure the continuity of family lineage. Another possible explanation could
be that the rapid socio-political changes that have been induced in the country in the drive for
modernization and globalization may have resulted in some cultural changes including child-
rearing practices. This is why some investigators affirmed that a change in the sociopolitical
system is accompanied by cultural changes (Laosa, 1981; Pauswang, 1970). For these reasons,
parents may employ more accepting, firm, and democratic child rearing practices (i.e.
authoritative parenting style).
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Even so, if we evaluate the findings of the studies which have been conducted after 1995,
we find that there are mixed findings regarding the type of parenting style predominantly
practiced in the families of Ethiopia. For instance, Abraham (1996) in his study on child-rearing
practices in Siltigna-speaking community (i.e., Silte ethnic group) found that an authoritarian
parenting style was the most common. In addition, some other studies (Kassahun, 2005)
documented differences in the most commonly practiced parenting styles as a function of the
childrens sex, although the findings regarding the most commonly practiced parenting style for
sons are equivocal. In contrast, some of the remaining studies after 1995 reported that an
authoritative parenting style was the predominantly practiced parenting style in the families of
Ethiopia (Birhanu, 1996).
Consequently, the studies conducted so far do not provide clear evidence to conclude
which parenting style (i.e., authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, or neglectful parenting style) is
commonly adopted in the families of Ethiopia. This calls for further study, which uses a large
sample of diverse ethnic groups of the country, to fully understand which type of parenting style
is dominantly practiced in the families of Ethiopia. Therefore, the current study will try to assess
which parenting style is the most commonly adopted parenting style in the families of Ethiopia.
4.8. Parenting Style in different Ethnic groups
Studies that examined parenting-style differences among ethnic groups appear to be
scant. The few studies that are available offer findings that are not clear. These studies suggest
that no one ethnic group employs exclusively a particular parenting style. Instead, a parenting
style may be most common in one ethnic group and least common in another.
In one such study by Steinberg and his associates (cited in Bee, 1994), a sample of
roughly 107000 ninth through twelfth grade students were chosen so as to be representative of
Page | 44
four different ethnic groups in the United States of America-white, black Hispanic, and Asian.
The study revealed that an authoritative pattern is most common among white families and least
common among Asians.
Other researchers also studied ethnic variations in child rearing in a wide range of
cultures around the world. Rohner and Rohner (cited in Berk, l99l), for example, rated
descriptions of parental behavior in 186 societies. The study revealed the existence of cross-
cultural variability in child-rearing practices. The study also showed, however, that the most
common pattern of child rearing in the culture studied is the authoritative parenting style. The
above (two) - studies seem to indicate the existence of ethnic differences, though not clear-cut, in
styles of parenting. In other words, members of different ethnic groups may commonly employ a
particular parenting style. This interpretation seems to imply the existence of other concomitant
variables which are responsible for ethnic differences (and similarity as well) in styles of
parenting.
One these variables seem to be social-class difference. After -reviewing the parenting -
style literature' Berk (1991) concluded that consistent social-class difference in child - rearing
practices exist in the United States and other western nations. According to Berk, the studies
asked parents about qualities they would like to encourage in their children.
The studies found out that parents who work in semiskilled manual occupations (e.g.,
machinists, truck drivers, and custodians) place a high value on external characteristics, such as
obedience, neatness, and cleanliness. In contrast, white-collar, and professional parents more
often emphasize internal psychological dispositions, such as curiosity, happiness, and self-
control. In short, middle-class parents tend to be authoritative whereas low-income and working-
class parents tend to be authoritarian. Consistent with this finding, the study by Steinberg and his
Page | 45
associates (cited in Bee, 1994) already mentioned above revealed that in all ethnic groups studied
(white' black, Hispanic, and Asian), authoritative parenting is more common among the middle
class than the working class.
On the other hand, studies conducted in the Ethiopian context to examine ethnic
differences in styles of parenting are rare. The few studies that claim to have studied the issue
had a limited number of subjects who came from a wide cross section of Ethiopian subcultures
(to study in A.A.IJ). Besides, the studies did not provide specific information regarding the
property of the proportion employing a certain method. Ranginess and Gander's (1974) study is a
case in point. According to them, many students reported that child-rearing practices differ from
one subculture to another and from one community to other Students from different areas of the
country have also reported practices which were identical or similar.
Ranginess and Gander (1974j concluded that the following practices are exercised i~~ a
wide cross-section of Ethiopian subcultures (although some diffidences in child rearing,
methods do exist). T here is lack of stimulation in early childhood, There is lack of verbal
interaction with adults throughout childhood, Children are considered inferior to adults and have
duties similar to those of servants, Respect for parents and other adults is essential, Children who
displease their parents may be harshly punished, and Fear is also used as a means of control.
Indicating that these findings are true of traditional, rural Ethiopian families, the authors
urged that the findings are not applicable to the more educated modern urban families. Ringness
and Gander (1974) further compared child-rearing practices of rural Ethiopians with that of the
very poor American families. They concluded that like rural Ethiopians, poor American families
are authoritarian and tend to give harsh, inconsistent, physical punishment. This latter conclusion
Page | 46
seems to suggest the social class difference along with level of education may possibly
differentiate parenting styles more fundamentally than culture or ethnicity.
Likewise, using 137 A.A.U. students of different ethnic composition, Cox (1967) found
that the dominant parenting style in Ethiopia is authoritarian. Authoritarian parenting style was
also found to be predominant in Amhara culture of the Menze (Levin, 1965) and in Oromo
tenants (Pauswang, 1970). Among others, Ringness and Gander's (1974) study is an attempt to
survey the dominant parenting style in rural Ethiopia regardless of the differences that may exist
among ethnic groups. In the effort to examine ethnic differences in parenting styles, such studies
provide little useful information. Thus, we need to examine other studies which were conducted
in some specific places in our country. Since these places are dominantly inhabited by one ethnic
group or another, comparing funding of these studies may give better- information than the
former ones.
Habtamu ( 1979), for instance, conducted a survey study at Bahir Dar (predominantly
inhabited by Amhara) and found the following. A quiet child is preferred over a talkative one,
Children are not allowed to participate in adults' discussions at home, Hiding of faults is
common with children due to fear of corporal punishment, Children should not argue (have
disagreements) with parents, Parents are not expected to accept mistakes in front of their
children, and Children are not allowed to ask Personal questions'.
Findings revealed that the dominant parenting style at Bahir Dar was authoritarian. Based
on his experience, casual observations, and this and other studies, Habtamu (1995) further
generalized (in a recent paper) that the dominant parenting style in Ethiopia is authoritarian. A
recent study that was conducted in stigma-speaking community also revealed that child-rearing
practices are authoritarian and restrictive (Abraham, 1996). According to Abraham, parents are
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of the opinion that children are not supposed to do things on their own. He further noted that it
was generally unacceptable for children to ask questions and to express their views.
In sum, studies reviewed thus far indicate that the authoritarian style is the predominant
parenting style exercised in the Amhara, Oromo, and Siltigna-speaking ethnic groups and in
Ethiopia in general. More recent studies, however, found consistent findings in different ethnic
groups Kefficho (Berhanu, 1996), Tigre (Yiarkos, 1996), and Amhara and Wolayta (Abesha,
1997). More specifically, these studies consistently found that the predominant parenting style
(in each ethnic group studied) is authoritative.
Comparing findings of studies conducted in the 1 960s and h the 1970s with those
conducted more recently one can observe that there is remarkable difference in the predominant
parenting style exercised in Ethiopia. An obvious question may be raised at this point what is the
reason for the differences in the findings of these two groups of studies? Some possibilities seem
to exist. First, while most of the former studies had subjects from rural areas the subjects in the
latter studies were from somewhat sub -urban and urban areas. Thus, the latter subjects, but not
the former' are exposed to modern life and as a result changes in values may occur. These may in
turn necessitate changes in child-rearing practices.
Second and more appealing is the possibility that the results of the two groups of studies
may differ because of the time elapsed in between. More specifically, the former studies dealt
with conditions that existed about two decades ago and it is likely that the rapid socio-cultural
and political changes which have taken place in the country since then have resulted in some
cultural changes.
In sum, studies conducted about two decades ago appear to suggest that authoritarian
style is predominantly exercised in Ethiopia. More recent studies, in contrast, seem to reveal that
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the predominant parenting style exercised in each ethnic group studied is authoritative. Overall,
since these findings are inconsistent, one could not draw firm conclusions regarding the
predominant parenting style exercised in Ethiopia. These points to the need for conducting a well
controlled study to find out whether ethnic groups differ in the parenting styles they employ.
4.9. Parenting Style and Associated Behaviors of Children
In this review, it is repeatedly stated that various positive outcomes are associated with
authoritative style of parenting. More specifically, according to Maccoby and Martin (1984),
youngsters who are raised in authoritative homes score higher than their peers from permissive
or authoritarian homes on a wide variety of measures of compete achievement, social
development, self-esteem, and mental health. Particularly, many studies (e.g., Baumrind &
Black, 1967) underline the importance of consistency in parents behavior toward their children.
According to Baumrind and Black, parents' consistent discipline was associated with
independence and assertiveness.
On the other hand, many studies have also shown that parental inconsistency and conflict
are linked to maladjustment in children, especially to aggression and delinquency (Morgan,
King, Weisz & Scloper, 1986). In addition to being consistent, it is also important that parents be
willing to grant independence. In one study, parents destructiveness and refusal to grant
sufficient independence were associated with dependent and passive behavior. Children whose
parents did not permit them to explore the environment who placed restrictions upon their
initiative, and who expected a high level of conscience development tended to be stereotyped in
their thinking and dependent while children whose parents encourage independence were more
likely to be independent, active, and non-conforming (Baumrind Black, 1967}. Others (e.g.,
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Fischer & Lazerson, 1984} also believe that children of authoritarian-restrictive parents are
likely to be dependent and submissive.
Furthermore, it is important that parents be willing to offer justification for directives and
to listen to the child. These parental behaviors were associated with competent behavior on the
part of the child. Generally, while the use of coercive power without reason was associated with
maladaptive behavior in children, use of reasoning and willingness to engage in verbal debate
was associated with adaptive, competent behavior (Baumrind & Black, 1967).
One can observe from the above studies that parents consistency in their behavior their
willingness to grant independence for their children, and their willingness to give justification for
their rules and measures are important parental behaviors which contributed positively to
children-en's independent thickly, and action as well as assertiveness. One can also see that these
behaviors are characteristics of authoritative parents.
Other investigators attempted to examine the behavior of children or adolescents from
authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful l homes Lamborn et.al. (199l), for example,
compared behaviors of adolescents who were reared in these homes. The study revealed that
adolescents from authoritative homes showed significantly lower levels of problem behavior
(involvement in drug and alcohol use, school misconduct, and delinquency) and significantly
higher levels of psychosocial development (social competence, work orientation, and self-
reliance) than adolescents from authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful households. Those from
neglectful homes showed the poorest outcomes across the above sets of dependent measures.
Those from authoritarian and indulgent households tended to score between the authoritative and
neglectful groups.
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The study further revealed that adolescents from authoritarian homes reported less school
misconduct, less drug use, and a more positive orientation toward school than those from
indulgent homes. Moreover, on measures of problem behavior and school competence,
adolescents from indulgent homes were no better off than those from neglectful homes (Lamborn
et.al., 1991). Other investigators also support the hypothesis that authoritative parenting
enhances youngsters psychosocial development (Steinberg et.al., 1989).
In sum, a number of studies revealed that authoritative parenting produces children who
tend to be competent, self-controlled, independent, assertive, inquiring (Coon, 1986), socially
active, responsible, and high in self-esteem (Irwin & Simons, 1994). Some investigators also
believe that many adolescents from permissive homes feel rejected and confused and a sizeable
portion of them have emotional and behavioral problems (Irwin & Simons, 1994). Others (e.g.
Hurlock, 1980) indicate generally that children from either permissive or authoritarian homes
tend to have poor personal and social adjustments.
4.10. Family as Socialization agents
Parents influence on the healthy development of children starts as early as they project
some kind of attitude on the conception of the new child. This means the more positive parents
attitude is toward a childs conception, the more favorable will be the development of the child
(Hurlock, 1980:41).
Right after the child is born and has become a social being; among the social factors it
will be more or less only the family that influences the childs development. However, when the
social environment of the child grows, the influence of elements (for example, peers, teachers,
neighbors, media) in his/her social environment comes into play. However, parents influence
continues as long as the child is under the roof of the family (Hetherington & Parke, 1986:486).
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There seems to be a debate among scholars with regard to parental influence on the development
of adolescents or junior high school students. For instance, Bannet as cited in Brown et al. (1993)
indicated that during junior and high school ages, susceptibility to peer pressure increases while
reliance upon parents opinion and advice seems to decline.
Similarly, Eccles et al. (1993) have documented increased conflict between parents and
their sons during early and middle adolescent years. In contrast, Damon: Irwin; Maccoby &
Martin cited in Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde (1998) suggest that parental qualities like love and
discipline are still important for adolescent development. Similarly, Cooper, Grotevant, &
Condon as cited in Csikszentmihalyi & Rathunde (1998) found out that the combination of
connection (i.e., listening and coordinating views) and individuality in family interaction (i.e.,
expressing individual options) were related to adolescents identity achievement and role taking
skills.
Therefore, it seems logical to say that quality of adolescents-parents relationship has a
vital role in the adolescents acquisition of skills that are important for their healthy development
and survival. Despite the general fact that parents socialize their children throughout infancy to
adolescence, parents socialization varies as function of many factors among which the major
ones are type of subsistence (Barry, Child & Bacon as cited in Lee 1982: 247), type of work
parents are engaged in (Kohn; Pearlin both cited in Lee, 1982: 252), ethnicity or cultural
differences(Steven, Chen & Lee, 1992; Koopnaire & Carter, 1992; Hess, Kashwagi, Azuman,
Price, & Dickson 1980).
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4.11. Factors that affect the Parenting style exercised in family
According to a number of investigators (e.g., Dornbusch et.al.7 l 987; Hetherington &
Parke, 1979), parents' way of upbringing children is determined or influenced by several factors.
Some of these factors are family status, family size (or number of children in the family),
parents' education, the presence of additional adults in the family, and socioeconomic status (of
the parents).
The status of a family is usually identified as either intact or broken. The former is a
family in which both biological parents are present whereas the latter encompasses various
family arrangements-step-parent families, single-parent families, and children living with other
guardians. This may occur usually because of death of spouse, separation, or divorce. Many
researchers seem to agree that living in an intact family characterized by constant friction and
conflict causes greater emotional stress and lower self- esteem in children than a supportive
single-parent family.
Others feel that the fragmentation and lack of intimate exposure to both parental figures
at the same time may lead to negative consequences. A study by Conyers (cited in Lindgren &
Suter, 1985), for instance, showed that children who are not living with both parents (in contrast
to other children) are more likely to become truants, to drop out, to be expelled from school, and
to have lower grade-point average which is in keeping with their attendance record. Research has
also shown that boys in father-absent homes are more aggressive, anxious, and emotionally
dependent.
There are also contradictory findings regarding the effect of single-parent families on
parents way of raising children. According to Hetherington and Parke (1979), single parent
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families tend to be permissive7 they communicate less with their children, are less consistent,
make fewer demands on them for mature behavior, and have less control over them.
In contrast, according to Weiss (cited in Lamanna & Riedmann, 1985), single parent
families offer their children an opportunity for real responsibility, often listen more attentively to
them, discuss a wide range of matters with them, and become emotionally closer. Children of
single-parent families share authority in both minor and major matters and may make decisions
about their own lives earlier. Weiss defends single-parent families and the child's independence
and authority from attacks by those who label the family style as permissive. According to
Weiss, the typical two-parent family might rather be labeled overprotective.
Furthermore, Dornbusch et.al (1987) found that step-parent families show higher levels
of authoritarian and lower level of authoritative child rearing styles. They also found that
children from step-parent families have lower school grades and higher rates of delinquency than
do children in two-natural-parent families.
Another important factor that is hypothesized to influence the kind of parenting style
employed in a family is the number of children in the family. Many studies show that parents'
way of raising children systematically changes as more children are added to the family.
According to Wagner, Schubert, and Schubert (cited in Berk, 1991), for example, disciplinary
practices become more authoritarian and punitive as family size increases. Furthermore,
according to these investigators, antisocial behavior and delinquency appear more often among
children with many siblings. According to Carter and Welch (cited in Papalia & Olds, 1982), the
more experienced parents-those who had two or more children- are more likely to be
authoritarian.
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Whether a family is a nuclear family or an extended one is said to have an elect on
parents way of raising children. Nuclear families consist of only father, Mother and children
Extended families, on the other hand, are those in which grandparents. Cousins, aunts, and
uncles as well as parents and children live together.
According to Wilson and Tolson (cited in Berk. 1991), extended family living
arrangements are associated with more give-and-take in adult-child interaction, better school
achievement, and improved psychological ad3ustment. Furthermore, the presence of additional
adults in the home promotes parental control and lessens children's tendency to become involved
in deviant behavior (Dornbusch et.al.'l987). This seems to suggest that extended families are
likely to employ authoritative style in child rearing.
Others also believe that nuclear family arrangement creates isolation and emotional
tension. The negative feelings of the emotionally disturbed mother are much more likely to be
expressed in the way she cares for the child if she is alone than living together with aunt, cousin,
or other adults. Thus, extended families help care of the child and also offer child rearing advises
(Papalia & Olds, 1982).
A number of investigators (e.g., Kohn, 1965; Laosa, 1981) believe that parents rear their
children in line with their beliefs and values while social classes are often related to particular
beliefs and values. It should also be noted that socio -economic status of a family may be related
to (or may be determined by) one or more of the following variables family income, parents'
educational level, and parents' occupation. Studies generally indicate that parenting styles would
differ as a function of the family's socio - economic status.
Middle class parents-persons with a comfortable income, a high level of education and
frequently professionals often employ authoritative child rearing methods. They pay attention to
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children and spend time with them, listen to children's views and give children a voice in family
decisions, and demand more maturity, achievement, and independence (Steinberg et.al., 1992 a).
Lower class parents on the other hand' live with the difficulties of limited income' lack of other
support, and even limited space. They tend to value obedience, conformity, and politeness in
shaping their children onward these goals. They tend to be more power assertive and restrictive
(Hetherington & Parke, 1979).
In other words, lower class parents are more likely to be authoritarian than authoritative.
It should be noted that not all middle class parents are authoritative and that not all lower class
ones are authoritarian in their child rearing practices. Some characteristics related to one group
may be present in some individuals in the other group. Finally, it is important to see whether the
same parental behavior will have deferential effects for boys and girls. For example, in Baumrind
and Black's (1967) study, paternal consistent discipline was associated with independence and
assertiveness in boys but not in girls. In girls, paternal consistency was associated with well-
socialized, friendly, and dependable behavior. Besides, girls whose parents accept power
conflicts with their children were responsible and conforming while boys were autonomous and
confident.
Furthermore, the study revealed that independent, assertive behavior in girls was
associated positively with parental demands and negatively with high acceptance. However, the
negative association between independent and assertive behavior on the one hand and high
acceptance from parents on the other does not hold true for boys.
Other investigators (Steinberg et.al., 1989) also suggested that parental acceptance had a
more positive impact among girls than among boys whereas the positive impact of behavioral
control is stronger among boys than among girls. The investigators did not present detailed
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analysis, however. Somewhat similarly, Baumrind (cited in Berk, l99l) found that the link
between permissive parenting and passive, dependent, non-achieving behavior held for boys but
not for girls.
In a later study, Baumrind's (cited in Fischer & Lazerson, 1984) findings support the
hypothesis that parental style often affects boys and girls differently. For example, girls whose
fathers were punitive tended to be more independent and less conforming than girl whose
fathers were warm and accepting. Boys with punitive fathers had trouble farming close
friendships and were often unpopular with other children.
It is also important to note that various studies have revealed effects that were similar for
boys and girls. For example, Steinberg et.al. (1992b) found that parental authoritativeness
enhances achievement of both high school boys and girls. Similar positive outcomes were also
found by other investigators for both boys and girls (Steinberg et.al., 1989; Dornbusch et.al.,
1987, Lamborn et.al., 1991). On the other hand, a number of studies do show that there are sex
differences in child rearing practices and this variation result in differences in school
performance and behavior of children.
According to many studies, parents are more strict and punitive toward boys than girls;
boys are targets of physical punishment more often than girls and fathers generally deliver the
punishment (Maccoby & Martian, I983). Furthermore, Dornbusch et.al. (1987) found
considerable sex differences in the parenting styles reported by youngsters. That is, females,
compared to males, reported a lower level of authoritarian parenting.
Apart from their greater Permissiveness with females and rougher handling of males,
Parents treat younger children in a remarkably similar fashion. For example, there are no
consistent findings regarding differential treatment of aggressive behavior in spite of the fact that
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sex differences along this dimension are clear. Extensive studies in England and United States
made by Newson and Newson and Sars, Rau, & Alpert cited in Birren et.al. 198 l) found no
deference in how parents treated aggressive behavior of boys and girls.
Some studies also found that boys misbehave more often than girls. For example,
according to a large survey conducted in Canada by Offered, Boyle and Racine (cited in Bee,
1994), boys were found to be more aggressive than girls. In this same study, 6.S percent of boys
but only 1.8 percent of girls were diagnosed with a conduct disorder.
4.12. Relationship between Parenting style and Childrens outcomes
Maccoby and Martin (cited in Lamborn et al., 1991) denoted that the literature on various
socialization practices and their effects provides consistent evidence that parental warmth,
inductive discipline, non punitive punishment practices, and consistency in child rearing are each
associated with positive developmental outcomes in children.
Maccoby & Martin (cited in Lamborn et al., 1991) also observed that youngsters who are
raised in authoritative homes score higher than their peers from permissive or authoritative,
homes on a wide variety of measures of competence, achievement, social development, self-
esteem and mental health. Similarly, a number of studies investigated the relationship between
parenting styles and childrens self-esteem. For instance Gecas & Schwalbe (1986) investigated
the relationship between parenting dimension and adolescents self-esteem in a sample of high
school students. The results indicated that both parental control and parental acceptance are
positively related to adolescents self-esteem. Similar results were obtained by Coppersmith; and
Patterson (both cited in Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986), Rosenberg; and Backman (both cited in
Isbergetal, 1989).
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Several studies have observed the relationship between parenting style and academic
achievement (Steinberg, 1992) and psychosocial adjustment (Lamborn, 1991). These studies
mainly reported that authoritative parenting style is positively related with childrens academic
achievement and psychosocial adjustment.
Other studies have also revealed that there exists a relationship between parenting style
exercised at home and tendency of adolescents to be delinquents. One such study (Duncan, 1971)
investigated attitudes and interactions of parents of two types of delinquent (individual
delinquent and social delinquent) and normal adolescent girls. Results indicated that parents of
non delinquents were more accepting, less rejecting, less punitive and more controlling than
those of delinquents. Similar results were obtained in a study conducted by Elias (1999) in
Ethiopian context.
There are also evidences linking parenting styles and independence and social
responsibility. For instance, Baumrind (cited in Dornbusch et al., 1987) found out that female
children of authoritative parents in her preschool sample were more socially responsible and
more independent than other children. Male children were found to be as independent as other
children were, and they appeared to be socially responsible. On the other hand, a similar study
conducted by Abraham (1996) in Siltegna speaking community- Ethiopia revealed that
authoritarian parenting discourages independence and social responsibility on the part of
children.
4.12.1. The Relationship between Parenting style and Academic Achievement
of Students
Hess and Holloway as cited in Dornbusch et al. (1987) identified five processes linking
family and school achievement: (1) verbal interaction between mother and children, (2)
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expectation of parents for achievement, (3) positive affective relationship between parents and
children, (4) parental beliefs and attributions about the child and (5) discipline and control
strategies. Among the processes identified discipline and control strategies appeared to have a
major influence on school achievement (Dornbusch et al., 1987).
As a matter of fact, studies interested in investigating the relationship of parenting
behaviors to childrens school achievement are decades old. For instance, Morrow and Wilson
(1961) investigated family relations of bright achieving and under achieving high school boys.
The results revealed that parents of high achievers gave their children more apprise and approval,
showed more interest and understanding, were closer to their children and made their children
feel more attached to the family. On the other hand, parents of underachievers were characterized
as more domineering, over restrictive, and more punitive (in terms of both severity and
frequency of punishment).
Instead of focusing on specific parents behaviors studies by Dornbusch et al. (1987) and
Steinberg et al. (1992) tried to define generalized types of parenting into three or more distinct
types and see how they relate to academic achievement of children. By adopting a threefold
model suggested by Baumrind, Dornbusch et al. (1987) investigated the relationship between
parenting style and adolescents school achievement.
The major source of data for the study was a questionnaire completed by 7,836
adolescents enrolled in six high schools in San Francisco bay area. The subjects were diversified
in terms of ethnicity (Asian, Black, Philippine, and other) parental education and family
structure. The results indicated that authoritative parenting predicted better grades and
authoritarian and permissive parenting styles predicted lower grades. Steinberg et al. (1992)
approached the relationship between parenting styles and school achievement of students in
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somewhat different manner. Instead of dividing parents into four typologies: authoritarian,
authoritative, neglectful and permissive, they divided parents in terms of degree of
authoritativeness as definitely authoritative, somewhat authoritative, and definitely non-
authoritative.
The study had the purpose of identifying how parental authoritativeness relates to school
achievement. The subjects were 6,357 students (diverse in terms of sex, ethnicity, family
structure, grade level and parental education) drawn from the student population of nine high
schools in Wisconsin and northern California.. The results indicated that adolescents from
definitely authoritative homes scored higher than their peers from homes that are somewhat
authoritative, who in turn score higher than students from definitely non-authoritative homes.
In addition to this, the study conducted by Alemayehu Hotessa stated in its major finding
that poor children developed the feelings of inferiority, self-isolation and neglect, lack of self-
confidence, feelings of backwardness, incompetence, disappointment, and feelings of shame, low
self-esteem, fear, self-defaming and inattentiveness. These feelings affect their current and future
living conditions and resulted in poor academic performance (Alemayehu, 2012, p 67).
Similar results have also been found in some studies conducted in Ethiopian context
(Markos, 1996). In a study conducted by Markos /(1996) at Makalle, 454 (229 males and 225
females) students participated. Results indicated that students who characterized their parents as
authoritative exhibited significantly higher school performance than students who characterized
their parents as authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful. In this study it was also reported that
even though no statistically significant achievement difference was observed among students
from authoritarian, indulgent, and neglectful homes, the trend was that students from indulgent
families achieve better than those from authoritarian families who in turn do better than students
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from neglectful ones. With regard to the moderating effect of students sex, family structure and
parental education, the findings showed that the relationship between parenting style and
academic achievement of students did not vary as a function of sex, family structure and parental
education.
In contrast to the above findings, Chao (1994) indicated that Chinese mothers were more
authoritarian than the European-American mothers. Yet Chinese children are performing well in
school and even better than the European-American children and suggested that the notion of
authoritativeness and authoritarianism are ethnocentric. This has been clearly shown in studies
by Kim &Shun; Rohner & Pettengill (both cited in Chao, 1994). These studies have indicated
that the concepts authoritarian and restrictive are not very relevant for Asians and are more
pertinent to American parenting values in which strictness is sometimes equated with
manifestations of Parental hostility, aggression, mistrust, and dominance. For Asians, parental
obedience and some aspects of strictness may be equated with parental concern, caring, or
involvement.
In Dornbusch et al. (1987), it has also been found out that for Asian-Americans, parental
authoritarianism was a better predictor of school achievement than parental authoritativeness
was. In the same study and in Steinberg et al. (1992) no parenting style was associated with
school performance for Africa-American students.
Quite recently, Abesha (1997) conducted a study in Ethiopian context focusing on the
school performance effects of parenting styles in Wolayta and Amhara cultures. The study
included 335 eleventh grade students (diverse in terms of sex, parental education, and Family
structure) attending two comprehensive secondary schools, one from each of Wolayta Soddo and
Bahir Dar town. The results indicated that male students who characterized their parents as
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authoritative scored higher in school than their counterparts who characterized their parents as
non authoritative. However, this was not the case for female students. Female students school
achievement did not vary as a function of parenting styles. So this study revealed that the
achievement effect of parenting styles was moderated by sex of the student.
In contrast to Abeshas findings, Stewart et al. (2000) in their study on 214 adolescents in
Bangladesh indicated that girls but not boys perception of their parents parenting styles
predicted academic achievement.
4.12.2. The Relationship between Parenting Style and Psychosocial
Adjustment
Several recent studies (for instance Kurdek & Fine, 1993; Lamborn et al., 1991;
Steinberg et al., 1989 and Steinberg et al., 1994) have applied the four fold model of parenting
styles to explain variations in patterns of psychosocial adjustment. On their longitudinal study on
120 families constituting different socioeconomic status, family structure and ethnicity,
Steinberg et al. (1989) explored how psychosocial adjustment varies as a function of differential
treatment of children by parents and found out that authoritative parenting contributes to
psychosocial adjustment on the part of children.
Similarly, in a study in which 1120 subjects having different ethnic, age, sex, grade and
family structure differences participated, Kurdek and Fine (1993) found both parental acceptance
and parental control to be related to psychosocial adjustment. In a study on 10000 subjects
diverse in terms of ethnicity, family structure, socioeconomic status, and type of community,
Lamborn et al. (1991) found out that adolescent who characterized their parents as authoritative
scored highest on measures of psychosocial adjustment. However, they reported that with respect
to self-reliance and social competence, there was no difference between authoritatively reared
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and indulgently reared adolescents as was the case between adolescents reared in authoritarian
homes and those in neglectful homes. And adolescents reared in indulgent homes were reported
to be greater in social competence than those reared in authoritarian homes.
On the other hand, Steinberg et al. (1994) examined the overtime changes in psychosocial
adjustment among adolescents coming from different homes as a function of differences in
parenting styles. In the study, 2353 subjects coming from the high schools of Wisconsin and
California and constituting variety of ethnicity and socioeconomic strata participated. Results
indicated that whereas authoritatively reared adolescents' self-reliance scores improved slightly
over one year period, those of youth from indulgent and authoritarian remained unchanged,
while those of youth from neglectful homes declined.
On the other hand, whereas the work orientation scores of adolescents from neglectful
and authoritarian homes declined over the year, those of adolescents from authoritative or
indulgent homes remained more or less stable. In this study however it was reported that
parenting style interacted with ethnicity in predicting self-reliance. Accordingly, among Asian-
American youth, those who are raised by indulgent parents had better self-reliance mean scores.
However, this was not the case among students from the other types of ethnicities. In addition,
authoritarian parenting was found to be more deleterious for European- American youth.
4.12.3. The Mediating Role of Psychosocial Adjustment in the Relationship
between Parenting Style and Academic Achievement
Several studies indicated that there is a relationship between parenting styles and
academic performance of students. However, a recent research suggests the relationship is
mediated by the effect of parenting styles on psychosocial adjustment of students. With regard to
this, Steinberg et al. (1989) found out that both parental acceptance and parental control enhance
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psychosocial adjustment of adolescents which in turn fosters academic performance.
Specifically, they found out that work orientation was the most direct psychosocial mechanism
through which authoritative parenting may encourage school success. Surprisingly, the results
indicated that when the effect of work orientation was parted out the relationship between
parenting style and academic achievement came to be insignificant.
Even though the results of Steinberg and his associates revealed the only psychosocial
mechanism related to school achievement is work orientation, findings are uncovering that social
competence (the other index of psychosocial adjustment) is also related to school achievement.
In relation to this, Wentzel (1991) examined the relationship between social competence and
academic achievement in early adolescence on 423 sixth and seventh grade students ( both males
and females) coming from different ethnicity. Results indicated that adolescents who are socially
competent perform at school better than those who are less socially competent (Wentzel, 1991).
To sum up, all the above studies indicate that beyond childrens internal factors, parenting style
and other parental factors are related to several child outcomes. Thus, it can be said that when
explaining child outcomes, it is important to look into family variables.
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Chapter 4
4.1. Data presentation (Finding)
This chapter deals with the data presentation. It comprises information gathered by in-
depth interview (case studies), questionnaire, and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs).
4.5. Background information of the respondents (Parents)
Table 1: Background information of the respondents (Parents)
Age category Number of respondents Total Percent (%)
Male Female
15-20 0 4 4 4.9
21-25 4 2 8 9.8
26-30 9 8 17 20.9
31-40 9 8 17 20.9
41-45 8 7 15 18.5
46-50 6 4 10 12.3
51-55 1 1 2 2.5
56-60 4 1 5 6.2
61-65 2 0 2 2.5
66+ 0 1 1 1.2
The parents who took part in this study categorized in the above table. As it is shown in
the above table, 4.9% are found to be categorized under 15-20 years of age. This means that
there is marriage rate in this age category. On the other hand, 41.8% reported that they are found
in the age category of 26-40 years.
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Table 2: Educational background of the respondents (Parents)
Education level Number of respondents Total Percent (%)
Male Female
Illiterate 10 12 22 27.2
Grades 1-6 14 11 25 30.8
Grades 7-8 5 6 11 13.5
Grades 9-10 3 6 9 11.1
Grades 11-12 4 2 6 7.4
Grade 12+1 5 0 5 6.2
Diploma 1 1 2 2.5
Degree 1 0 1 1.2
The above table depicts that 30.8 % of the respondents (parents) were those who attended
up to grade six (6) while 27.2% (22) were illiterate. The percent decreases when we go from
illiterate to higher education. Only one person (1.2%) was a degree holder. 7.4% of the
respondents were attended grades 11-12 during the old policy of past government.
Table 3: Employment status of the respondents (parents)

Employment Number of respondents Total Percent (%)
status of parents Male Female
Farming 13 12 25 30.8
Trade 13 9 22 27.2
Private work 6 5 11 13.5
Employed by 5 2 7 8.6
government
Employed by 2 1 3 3.7
NGO
No job 2 4 6 7.4
Others, 2 5 7 8.6
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As it is portrayed in the above table, 30.8 (25) of the respondents (parents) dealt with
farming activities as their source of income while 27.2% (22) respondents engaged in trade by
which they lead their livelihood. Only 8.6% (7) responded that they are government employers.
7.4% respondents reported that they had no job at the time of this study. On the other hand, 8.6%
(7) did not specify their job and they put it under the category of Others.
Table 4: Family structure of respondents (Parents)
Number of children Number of respondents Percent (%)
0-2 8 9.8
3-5 26 32.1
6-9 40 49.4
10+ 7 8.6
Nearly half of the respondents (49.4%) responded that they have 6-9 children while
32.1% (26) of then reported that they have 3-5 children. However, 8.6% responded that they
have more than ten (10+) children.
Table 5: Household structure
Number of household Number of respondents Percent (%)
1-4 12 14.8
5-7 45 55.5
8-10 20 24.6
11+ 4 4.9
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As it is shown in the table 5, more than half of the parents (55.5%) reported that they live
with 5-7 household or family members. There are also parents (24.6%) who live with family
members of 8-10. On the other hand, 4.9 % reported that they live more than eleven (11+) family
members.
Table 6: The breadwinner in the family
Breadwinner in the family Number of respondents Percent (%)
Father only 47 58
Mother only 24 29.6
Both of them 7 8.6
Others 3 3.7
As it can easily be seen from the above table, the father is breadwinner for most of the
respondents (parents) i.e. 58% while 29.6% reported that mother is the breadwinner in the
family. However, few of them (8.6%) reported that the breadwinner in their family is both father
and mother. There are also respondents who reported that none of the above is their breadwinner
rather their breadwinner is children because of various reasons.
Table 7: Parents consistency in discipline

Behavior Number of respondents Total Percent (%)
Male Female
Blind obedience 20 13 33 40.7
Respecting rules 12 16 28 34.6
and resolving
differences
through
discussion
Doing and taking 11 9 20 24.7
whatever you
want
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The above table shows that 40.7% of the respondents (parents) discipline their children
through blind obedience while 34.6% through respecting rules and resolving differences through
discussions. However, the table also shows that 24.7% discipline their children through doing
and taking whatever they want.
Table 8: Frequency of punishment during wrong doings and reward doing during good
doings
Types of Yes Total % No Total %
behavior Male Female Male Female
Always 29 25 54 66.7 14 13 27 33.3
similar
punishment
for similar
wrong
doings
Always 31 30 61 75.3 12 8 20 24.7
similar
types of
reward for
similar
good
doings
Misbehaved 43 29 72 88.9 6 3 9 11.1
child
should be
punished
According to the above table, 66.7% believe that similar punishment should be
administered always to similar wrong doings while 33.3% believe that similar punishment
should not be administered always to similar behavior or wrong doings. Unlike this, 75.3%
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responded that they believe that similar reward should administered always to similar good
doings while 24.7% reported that they believe that similar reward should not be administered
always to similar good doings. On the other hand, almost all respondents (88.9%) believed that
misbehaved child should be punished while 11.1% reported that they do not prefer that
misbehaved child should be punished.
Table 9: Behavior of students in the school

Behavior Responses Total % Responses Total %
Yes No
Male Female Male Female
Insulted 24 11 35 35 32 33 65 65
teacher
Jumped 16 15 31 31 40 29 69 69
over
school
fence
Attempt 33 31 64 64 23 13 36 36
to cheat
during
exam
Quarreled 41 31 72 72 15 13 28 28
with
students
Repeated 25 20 45 45 31 24 55 55
in the
same
grade
Absent 36 32 68 68 20 12 32 32
from
school
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Regarding the behaviors of the students in the school, the above table depicts that 35%
insulted their teacher while 65% did not. In addition to this, 31% of the respondents (students)
reported that they jumped over the school fence while 69% of them did not jump over the school
fence. On the other hand, 64% reported that they attempted to cheat during exam whereas 36%
reported that they did not attempt to cheat during exam. Among 100 high school students
participated in this study, 72% (72) reported that they quarreled with other students whereas only
28% reported that they did not quarrel with other students. Similar to this, 45% of the
respondents reported that they repeated in the same grade whereas 55% reported they did not
repeat in the same grade. Finally, more than half (68%) of those students who participated in this
reported that they absent from school while 32% of them did not.
Table 10: Students response on Parents attitude and behaviors regarding Parenting style
and child socialization
Attitudes and behaviors Responses
Agree Disagree
Male Female Total % Male Female Total %
Parents often speak of good 31 23 54 54 25 21 46 46
things children do
Parents enjoy talking and 15 10 25 25 41 34 75 75
playing with me
Relationship of parents and 29 22 51 51 27 22 49 49
children is based on love
and respect
Parents enjoy staying with 34 27 61 61 22 17 39 39
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their children more than
going out with friends
Parents respect their 13 8 21 21 43 36 79 79
childrens interest and view
Parents listen to their 16 4 20 20 40 40 80 80
childrens ideas and
opinions
Parents love their children 33 27 61 61 22 17 39 39
more than anything else
Parents retreat their children 42 36 78 78 16 8 22
Parents reward their 6 4 10 10 50 40 90 90
children for their good
doings
Parents exert firm control on 15 10 25 25 41 34 75 75
their children in order to
accomplish their demands
Parents set rules and laws 29 16 45 45 27 28 55 55
which they have to follow
Parents administer corporal 41 34 75 75 15 10 25 25
punishment if children fail
to obey rules and
regulations
Parents administer 46 39 85 85 10 5 15 15
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punishment for wrong doing
Parents do not punish 10 5 15 15 46 39 85 85
children if they make
mistakes
Parents do not high value on 26 6 32 32 30 38 68 68
blind obedience
Because of fear of parents 41 39 85 85 10 5 15 15
punishment I hide my
wrong doings
Parents allow discussion to 13 12 25 25 43 32 75 75
identify reasons for my
failure to accomplish
parental expectations
Parents allow me to pick my 14 10 24 24 42 34 76 76
own friends
Parents allow me to 9 6 15 15 47 38 85 85
participate in establishing
rules and laws
Parents allow me to 7 5 12 12 49 39 88 88
participate in family
discussions
Parents allow me to ask any 1 3 4 4 55 41 96 96
questions
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Parents punish me if I get a 6 4 10 10 50 40 90 90
poor grade in school
My parents dont care 50 41 91 91 6 3 9 9
whether I get bad or good
grades in school
The above table (Table 10) deals with the responses of students on parents attitude and
behaviors regarding parenting style and child socialization. Accordingly, it depicts that 54% of
respondents agree that their parents often speak of good things their children do while 46% do
not agree. On the other hand, only 25% of the respondents agree that their parents enjoy talking
and playing with them whereas 75% of the respondents do not agree that their parents enjoy
talking and playing with them.
Regarding the relationship of parents with their children, 51% of the respondents agree
that relationship of parents and children is based on love and respect while 49% do not agree on
the issue. On the other hand, only 21% of the respondents reported that their parents respect their
childrens interest and view while 79% do not agree that their parents respect their childrens
interest and view. The table also depicts that only 20% of the respondents reported that parents
listen to their childrens ideas and opinions whereas 80% of the respondents do not agree on it.
The above table also shows that 78% of the respondents reported that their parents retreat their
children while only 22% of them disagree on the idea. Similar to the above idea, only 10% of
the respondents reported that their parents reward their children for their good doings whereas
90% of them reported that their parents do not reward their children for their good doings.
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The above table also depicts that only 25% of the respondents reported that their parents
exert firm control on their children in order to accomplish their demands while 75% of the
respondents do not agree with it. On the other ways, 45% of the respondents agree that their
parents set rules and laws which they have to follow whereas 55% of them do not agree that their
parents set rules and laws to be followed by them.
Regarding corporal punishment, the above table depicts that 75% of the respondents
agree that their parents administer corporal punishment if children fail to obey rules and
regulations whereas only 25% of them disagree with the idea. In addition to this, 85% of the
respondents agree with the idea that their parents administer punishment for wrong doing
whereas only 15% of them disagree with the idea. On the other hand, only 15% of the
respondents agree on the idea that their parents do not punish children if they make mistakes
while 85% of them reported that their parents punish children if they make mistakes. Among 100
respondents 68% of them agree that their parents do highly value on blind obedience while 32%
do not agree.
The above table also depicts that 85% of the respondents hide their wrong doings because
of the fear of the parents whereas only 15% of them reported that they do not hide their wrong
doings because of the fear of their parents. On the other hand, only 25% of the respondents agree
that parents allow discussion to identify reasons for childrens failure to accomplish parental
expectations while 75% do not agree that their parents allow discussion to identify reasons for
childrens failure to accomplish parental expectations. Even 76% of the respondents do not agree
that their parents allow them to pick their own friends but only 24% reported that their parents
allow them pick their own friends.
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Table 10 also shows that 96% of the respondents agree that their parents do not allow
them to ask any questions while only 4% of them reported that their parents allow them to ask
any questions. On the other hand, 90% of the respondents do not agree with the idea that their
parents punish them if they get a poor grade in school whereas only 10% reported that they agree
with the idea that their parents punish them if they get poor grade in school. In addition to this,
91% of the respondents reported that their parents dont care whether they get bad or good
grades in school whereas only 9% of them reported that their parents do care about their grade in
school.
Table 11: Parents response on their status regarding parenting style and child socialization
Attitudes and behaviors Responses
Agree Disagree
Male Female Total % Male Female Total %
I enjoy talking and playing 14 12 26 32.1 29 26 55 67.9
with my children
The relation with my children 17 14 31 38.3 26 24 50 61.7
is based on love and respect
I enjoy staying home with my 14 10 24 29.6 29 28 57 70.4
children more than going out
with friends
I respect my children's 16 11 27 33.3 27 27 54 66.7
interests and views
I listen to my children's ideas 13 12 25 30.9 30 26 56 69.1
and opinions
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I take into consideration my 7 5 12 14.8 36 33 69 85.2
children's ideas and opinions in
establishing rules and laws
I mistreat my children 27 26 53 65.4 16 12 28 34.6
I reward my children for good 13 9 22 27.2 30 29 59 72.8
doings
I exert firm control on my 30 30 60 74.1 13 8 21 25.9
children so that they
accomplish my demands
I hardly punish my children 31 27 58 71.6 12 11 23 28.4
My children should obey my 43 32 75 92.6 0 6 6 7.4
rules and laws without
questioning
I dont allow my children to 43 36 79 97.5 0 2 2 2.5
express their opinions in the
presence of their elder brothers
and sisters
I allow my children to pick 19 16 35 43.2 24 22 46 56.8
their own friends
I prefer a timid child to a child 31 29 60 74.1 12 9 21 25.9
who expresses his opinion
openly
I allow children to participate 7 5 12 14.8 36 33 69 85.2
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in family discussions
I punish my children if they 14 9 23 28.4 29 29 58 71.6
get poor grades in school
When my children get poor 17 10 27 33.3 26 28 54 66.7
grades in school, I encourage
them to try harder
I don't care whether my 24 21 45 55.6 19 17 36 44.4
children get bad or good
grades in school
The punishment that I 33 28 61 75.3 10 10 20 24.7
administer fits the wrong doing
The punishment that I 36 34 70 86.4 8 4 11 13.6
administer corresponds to the
age of the child
I give similar rewards for 25 19 44 54.3 18 19 37 45.7
similar good doings
I administer similar 28 27 55 67.9 15 11 26 32.1
punishment for similar wrong
doings
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The above table (Table 11) deals with the parents response on their status regarding
parenting style and child socialization. Accordingly, out of 81 parents who participated in this
study, 32.1% agree with the idea that they enjoy talking and playing with their children while
67.9% of them do not agree with the idea. 61.7% of the respondents responded that their relation
with their children is not based on love and respect but authoritative relationship in which
parents order everything children have to do while 38.3% of them agree that their relationship
with their children is based on love and respect.
On the other hand, 70.4% of the respondents reported that they do not enjoy staying
home with their children more than going out with friends whereas 29.6% reported that they
enjoy staying with their children than going out with friends. Out of 81 respondents who took
part in this study, 33.3% reported that they respect their children's interests and views whereas
66.7% reported that they respect their childrens interests and views. In addition to this, 30.9%
reported that they listen to their children's ideas and opinions while 69.1% reported that they do
agree with the idea that parents need to listen their childrens ideas and opinions.
The above table also depicts that only 14.8% of the respondents reported that they take
into consideration their children's ideas and opinions in establishing rules and laws while 85.2%
reported that they do not take into consideration their childrens ideas and opinions in
establishing rules and laws. On the other hand, 65.4% reported that they mistreat their children
while 34.6% do not agree with the idea. Similarly, 72.8% of the respondents reported that they
reward their children for good doings while 27.2% reported that they reward their children for
their good doings.
The above table also shows that 74.1% of the respondents reported that they exert firm
control on their children so that they accomplish their demands while 25.9% reported that they
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do not exert firm control on their children so that they accomplish their demands. Similar to this,
71.6% of the respondents reported that they hardly punish their children whereas 28.4% of them
reported that they do not punish their children. On the other hand, 92.6% of the respondents
reported that their children should obey their rules and laws without questioning while only 7.4%
of them do not agree with the idea.
The table also depicts that almost all, 97.5%, of the respondents reported that they dont
allow their children to express their opinions in the presence of their elder brothers and sisters
while only 2.5% reported that they allow their children to express their opinions in the presence
of their elder brothers and sisters. The table also depicts that 42.3% of the respondents reported
that they allow their children to pick their own friends while 57.7% of them reported that they do
not allow their children to pick their own friends.
The table shows that 74.1% of the respondents reported that they prefer a timid child to a
child who expresses his opinion openly while 25.9% of them reported that they do not agree with
the point. On the other hand, only 14.8% reported that they allow children to participate in
family discussions whereas 85.2% reported that they do not allow their children to participate in
family discussions.
The above table also depicts that only 28.4% of the respondents reported that they punish
their children if they get poor grades in school whereas 71.6% of them reported that they do not
punish their children if they get poor grades in school. Opposite to this, only 33.3% of the
participants reported that when their children get poor grades in school, they encourage them to
try harder, while 66.7% of the participants reported that they do not encourage their children to
try hard when they get poor grades in school. In addition to this, 55.6% of the respondents
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reported that they don't care whether their children get bad or good grades in school whereas
44.6% of them reported that they do care about the grade of their children.
On the other hand, 75.3% of the respondents reported that the punishment that they
administer fits the wrong doing while 24.7% of them do not agree that the punishment they
administer fits the wrong doings. In congruent to this, 86.4% of the participants reported that the
punishment that they administer corresponds to the age of the child while only 13.6% do not
agree that the punishment they administer corresponds to the age of the child. On the other hand,
54.3% of the respondents reported that they give similar rewards for similar good doings while
the rest of them do not agree with the point.
Table 12: Students Response concerning Factors Affecting Parenting styles
Parenting Styles employed by educated and Students response Total Percent (%)
non-educated parents Male Female
Different 45 30 75 75
Similar 15 5 20 20
Others 4 1 5 5
Regarding factors affecting parenting style, the above table shows that 75% of the
respondents agree that parenting styles employed by educated and non-educated parents are
different whereas 20% of them reported that parenting style employed by educated and non-
educated parents are similar.
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Table 12: Characteristics of the parenting styles of educated parents
Characteristics of the parenting styles of Responses Total Percent
educated parents Male Female (%)
Punishment, less warm and excessive control 4 2 6 6
Love, respect, control and national agreement 54 28 82 82
Lax discipline and excessive autonomy 8 2 10 10
Others 1 1 2 2
Table 12 depicts that 82% of the respondents believe that the parenting styles of educated
parents is characterized by love, respect, control and national agreement whereas 10% of them
responded that the parenting styles of educated parents are characterized by lax discipline and
excessive autonomy. On the other hand, 6% of the respondents believed that the parenting styles
of educated parents are characterized by punishment, less warm and excessive control.
Table 13: Characteristics of the parenting styles of uneducated parents
Characteristics of the parenting styles of Responses Total Percent
uneducated parents Male Female (%)
Others 0 0 0 0
The above table (Table 13) shows that 65% of respondents reported that parenting styles
of uneducated parents is characterized by punishment, less warm and excessive control whereas
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19% of them reported that the parenting style of uneducated parents is characterized by lax
discipline and excessive autonomy. However, it is also been reported by 16% of the respondents
that parenting style of uneducated parents is characterized by love, respect, control and national
agreement.
Table 14: Characteristics of parenting style of parents with few children (1-3) and with
many Children (more than 3)
Parenting Styles employed by parents with Students response Total Percent (%)
few (1-3) children and with more than 3 Male Female
children
Similar 14 5 19 19
Others 2 1 3 3
It is been reported in the above table (Table 14) that 78% of the respondents reported that
parenting styles employed by parents with few children (1-3) and with more than 3 children is
different whereas 19% of them reported that both parents with few children and with more than 3
children employ similar types parenting styles.
Table 15: Characteristics of the parenting styles of parents with many children
Characteristics of the parenting styles of parents Responses Total Percent
with many children Male Female (%)
Others 1 0 1 1
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Table 15 shows that 69% of the respondents reported that parenting style of parents with
many children is characterized by punishment, less warm and excessive control while 18% of
them also reported that parenting styles of parents with many children is characterized by lax
discipline and excessive autonomy. However, 18% of the respondents reported that parenting
styles of parents with many children is characterized by love, respect, control and national
agreement.
Table 16: The parenting styles employed by different ethnic groups in the town you live
Parenting styles employed by different ethnic Responses Total Percent
groups Male Female (%)
Similar 8 4 12 12
Others 1 0 1 1
The above table (Table 16) depicts that 87% of the respondents reported that parenting
styles employed by different ethnic groups live in the town they live is different whereas only
12% of the respondents reported that parenting styles employed by ethnic groups in their town is
similar.
Table 17: Students who score high in academic achievement were brought up by parenting
styles that are characterized by
Characteristics of parenting styles of parents Responses Total Percent
whose children score high in academic Male Female (%)
achievement
Others 0 0 0 0
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It is been reported in the table 17 that 79% of the respondents reported that students who
score high in academic achievement were brought up by parenting styles that are characterized
by love, respect, control and national agreement whereas 12% of them reported that students who
score high in academic achievement were brought up by parenting styles that are characterized
by punishment, less warm and excessive control. On the other hand, 9% of the respondents
reported that students who score high in academic achievement were brought up by parenting
styles that are characterized by lax discipline and excessive autonomy.
Table 18: Students who score low in academic achievement were brought up by parenting
Characteristics of parenting styles of parents Responses Total Percent
whose children score low in academic Male Female (%)
achievement
Punishment, less warm, threat and excessive control 49 31 80 80
Love, respect, control and mutual agreement 8 4 12 12
Others 0 0 0 0
Table 18 depicts that 80% of the respondents reported that students who score low in
academic achievement were brought up by parenting styles that are characterized by punishment,
less warm, threat and excessive control whereas 12% of them reported that students who score
low in academic achievement were brought up by parenting styles that are characterized by love,
respect, control and mutual agreement. Nonetheless 8% of them reported that students who score
low in academic achievement were brought up by parenting styles that are characterized by lax
discipline and excessive autonomy.
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Table 19: Students with high level of self-confidence tend to have parents who employ
Parenting styles that are characterized by
Students with high level of self-confidence tend to Responses Total Percent
have parents who employ parenting styles that
Male Female (%)
are characterized by
Others 0 0 0 0
According to the information given in the above table (Table 19), 82% of the respondents
reported that students with high level of self-confidence tend to have parents who employ
parenting styles that are characterized by love, respect, control and mutual agreement, however,
10% and 8% of them respectively reported that students with high level of self-confidence tend
to have parents who employ parenting styles that are characterized by punishment, less warm,
threat and excessive control, and lax discipline and excessive autonomy.
Table 20: Students with good conduct are brought up by parenting style that is
characterized by
Students with good conduct are brought up by Responses Total Percent

parenting style that is characterized by
Male Female (%)
Others 0 0 0 0
Page | 87
The above table (Table 20) depicts that 84% of the respondents reported that students
with good conduct are brought up by parenting style that is characterized by love, respect,
control and mutual agreement while only 9% of the reported that students with good conduct are
brought up by parenting style that is characterized by punishment, less warm, threat and
excessive control. However, 7% of the respondents reported that students with good conduct are
brought up by parenting style that is characterized by lax discipline and excessive autonomy.
Table 21: Parents expectation of their children
Parents expect their children to Responses Total Percent
Male Female (%)
Blindly obey rules. 46 32 78 78
Follow rules and resolve differences through 14 6 20 20

discussion
Do and talk whatever they want 1 1 2 2
Others 0 0 0 0
Regarding the expectation of parents, the above table (Table 21) shows that 78% of the
respondents reported that parents expect their children to blindly obey rules whereas 20% of
them reported that parents expect their children to follow rules and resolve differences through
discussion while 2% of them reported that parents expect their children to do and talk whatever
they want.
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4.6. Students' and parents' Responses in the Focus - Group
Discussions.
In each Kebeles, the students (M=4& F=3) participated in the focus - group discussion.
The discussion was carried out in a classroom. The responses of students in the discussion are
summarized below.
Asked to describe the chief rearing practices employed at home, most students answered
that parents try to take care of their health, clothing and education, that sometimes parents advise
them to work hard and get good results, and that parents control them especially not to involve in
wrong doings.
In contrast to the aforementioned positive responses some students answered that
sometimes their parents severely punish them, that they force them to engage in household
activities as soon as they are back from school as a result of which they cannot have enough time
for study and that they are not allowed to participate in discussions nor are they allowed to
express their ideas freely.
From the above responses, one can see that even in the positive responses of students,
some external behaviors (such as cleanliness) are emphasized by parents. According to students,
parents control their children not to involve in wrong doings. But, parents did not go beyond
advising children to work hard in schools. They should not only advise but also support the
students' hard work so as to be competent academically. Such parents seem generally to be either
authoritarian or indulgent.
On the other hand, if we examine the aforementioned negative responses of students, we
can clearly see that parents of these children are authoritarian. As can be seen from the
Page | 89
responses, physical punishment is used. In addition, obedience of children is also considered to
be important.
Asked as to what we mean when we say children are reared in a good way, children
emphasized the importance of food, health, clothing, and education. That is, if parents provide
food, clothing, and education to their children, child rearing practices are considered to be good.
Child rearing practices are also considered good if parents train their children to respect other
people including their friends and teachers.
Once again one can see from these responses that such internal qualities as self-
confidence, independence, and assertiveness of children are not emphasized. Actually, food,
clothing, health, and education are important and should be provided to children. But parents
should also encourage their children to be independent and assertive.
They were also asked if their parents and other parents in their surrounding are
authoritarian or power assertive. The following answers were given by some students: There are
many such families, our parents want us to be obedient without question, they also want us to do
things that should be done by them, they do not show any willingness to accept our ideas and we
are not allowed to go out as we wish.
In contrast, some other students answered as follows: parents are not so much
dominating, our relation is based on understanding and even when we disagree they try to advise
us rather than resorting to punishment.
On the other hand, focus- group discussion was also conducted with parents. In each
Kebeles, the number of participants ranged from six to eight. Like Students, parents were asked
to describe the parenting style they used to employ and are now employing. Most of them said
that they used to employ child rearing practices in which parents dominate their children and are
Page | 90
not responsive to children kneels They also said that nowadays, they are changing:, and that with
time they are trying to give the chance to their children so that they can make decisions
independently and be self confident. They further said that they are trying to help children be
obedient, exert effort in their education, and keep themselves away from problems.
Asked to identify the advantages and disadvantages of the parenting styles they employ,
parents said that if parents dominate their children, certainly this has a negative influence on
children's behavior. According to parents, children reared in such homes are timid, they lack self
confidence, and they tend to develop feelings of inferiority. Parents further indicated that the
parenting style they are employing now, however, helps children not to feel inferior, not to be
timid, and to develop self confidence.
According to parents, children are said to be reared in a good way if parents take care of
children's food, clothing, and health; children respect their parents and elderly people; children
are obedient; children keep themselves away from problem; children get good education and
become high achievers and children keep themselves away from gossiping.
In the focus-group discussion, parents also indicated that in Kebeles, parents are step by
step, giving up the belief that being authoritarian on parents' part is helpful for children. In
Kebeles, according to them, parents are becoming less and less power assertive. They indicated,
however, that this is still a major problem in the rural areas. They went on saying that even in
Kebeles; one cannot say that parents are no more dominating.
According to parents, what one can say is that the number of authoritarian parents is
becoming remarkably lower.
Asked \whether their children are victims of the authoritarian style of parenting, most,
parents said no, their children are not victims. They admitted, however, that their older children
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are victims because they used to be authoritarian. They also stated that they know many children
who are victims and that they are observing timid, silent, fearful children, and children who are
not self - confident as a result of this power - assertive style. All in all, most parents agreed that
authoritarian style of parenting has more disadvantages than advantages.
It is important to note from parents' responses that parents especially in towns used to be
dominating and/or power assertive and that they are now becoming less and less so. On the other
hand, parents, like their children, emphasize external behaviors such as neatness and obedience
and not internal qualities such as independence and assertiveness. Even if they know that
authoritarian style of parenting is harmful to children's all - rounded development, they still
attach higher importance to obedience and respect.
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4.7. Information gathered from case studies
The following cases deal with parenting style and child socialization in Guji zone, Uraga
Woreda, Haro Wachu town. Two individuals were selected for this study. One of them is from
parents and the other from the student. The researcher tried to give a fictious name for each case
to keep the anonymity of the participants.
Case one
Name: Beriso Gelgelo
Age: 45
Religion: Christian (Protestant)
Educational level: Illiterate
My name is Beriso Gelgelo. I am 45 years old. I was born in rural part of Uraga Woreda and
came here 25 years ago. I am the father of eight children (five males and three females). I have
no knowledge in child rearing methods I simply adopt the child rearing methods my parents
employed. They taught me to obey and respect them, I have also learned from my own childhood
to view children as requiring physical punishment.
I believe that the child rearing technique I employ at home have many advantages for my
children. The firm control I exerted on my children helped them to develop a good working habit
at home and school. My children respect me, their mother, and elders. They do what I and their
mother told them to do.
I have not noticed the negative impact of the child rearing method I use on my children's
development. Children should accept their parents' word in an unquestionable manner and should
confirm to whatever standards set by parents. Children should be punished if they act contrary to
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parents' standards.
I know some students who display certain types of undesirable behaviors and repeat in the same
grade year after year. However, parents should not be blamed for children's problems. The sole
cause of their problems is the school because the school should have to give appropriate
counseling and guidance for those who show an odd behavior.
Case two
Name: Hussein Baneta
Age: 19
Sex: Male
Education level: Grade 8
Religion: Muslim
My name is Hussein Baneta. I am 19 years old. I have three brothers and six sisters. Currently, I
am grade 8 student. I have repeated for three years in grade eight. I was caught once attempting
to steal school property. I frequently fight with my friends. I am from a single parent family. My
father has died long ago. I was brought up by my mother.
My mother sets no rules and makes few demands on me. She hardly ever punishes me She does
not initiate me to study at home and do homework. She pays little attention to me. She was
occupied with her own activities (small trade) and does not have time to be with me. She does
not have interest in me, either. Therefore, she prefers to go out than staying with us at home.
As a result of her behavior, I exposed to various problems. Most of my friends dropped out of
school. Most of them frequently engage in certain types of undesirable behaviors (smoking,
chewing chat, theft). They always ask me to steal money and give them. My friends have
tremendously influenced my behavior and school performance.
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Chapter 5
5.1. Data Analysis and Discussion
This chapter deals with the analysis and discussion of literature with the information
gathered directly from participants of this study through questionnaire distribution, in-depth
interview (case study) and Focus Group Discussion (FGD). Accordingly, the parenting style and
child socialization of the Woreda are presented hereby and discussed in relation to the literature.
The study conducted by Maccoby (1992) and (Baumrind, 1991) states that, authoritative
parents know and understand childrens independence, encourage verbal communication, allow
children to participate in decision making of the family, and want the children progressively
undertake more responsibility for reacting to the needs of other people in the family within their
abilities. This type of parenting style consists of a constellation of parental characteristics of high
standards, such as high emotional attachment and support to children, encouragement of a two-
way communication between parents and children, and consistent implementation of the rules
established by parents.
However, the finding of this study depicts that 40.7% of the respondents (parents)
discipline their children through blind obedience while 34.6% through respecting rules and
resolving differences through discussions. That means there are less/no specified rules and
regulations for their children. The finding also shows that parents use their authority than
discussion to discipline their children. There is also less emotional attachment between parents
and their children according to the finding of this study. The study conducted by Baumrind
(1991) states that there is a two-way communication between authoritative parents and their
children. But the finding of this study shows that parents prefer to stay with their children rather
than staying with their children and they command their children to do what they want them to
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do rather than what their children want to do. This also shows that there is no two-way
communication between them.
The study conducted by Baumrind (1967, 1971) also stated that authoritarian parenting is
a parenting style marked by parental behaviors that are highly restrictive and very demanding. It
is high in control and maturity demands, but low in nurturance and bi-directional communication
between parents and children. Authoritarian parents constrain their childrens independence and
they want their children to follow strict parental rules and orders without any question by
threatening severe punishment if children violate these rules and orders. As noted by Baumrind
(1967, 1971) children with authoritarian parents tend to be anxious, socially withdrawn, and
unhappy.
Incongruent with this study, the finding of this study depicts that parents do not put high
control over their children and 75% of the respondents do not agree that their parents enjoy
talking and playing with them. This shows that the relationship or the communication between
the children and parents is not bi-directional. As a result of this, parents strictly keep their
boundary. On the other hand, 80% of the respondents reported that parents do not listen to the
ideas and opinions of their children. Similar to what the above literature said, the finding of the
study shows that the parents constrain their childrens independence and they want their children
to follow strict parental rules and orders without any question by threatening severe punishment
if children violate these rules and orders.
According to Baumrind (1971, 1991), the authoritative parenting style is positively
behaviors) of children. In addition, Holmbeck (1996) noted that authoritative parenting style is
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the most beneficial for children and adolescents because it is positively correlated to numerous
positive outcomes (e.g., self-esteem and self-reliance).
Similar to what this literature states, the finding of this study portrays that most of the
respondents (students) reported that they exposed low educational achievement because of their
parents violent behavior. This clearly shows that the authoritative parenting style is positively
behaviors) of children. In addition to this, the case of Hussein Baneta also depicts that due to his
mothers harsh punishment, he exposed scored low grade in the school, became friends with out-
side school children, and repeated in the same grade.
According to Baumrind (1989), the permissive parenting style is a careless style in which
parents make few demands, encourage their children to express their feelings, and barely use
power to gain control over their behavior; and tend not to need mature behavior from their
children, but encourage their childrens independence instead. It is a parenting style, at the other
extreme, characterized by non-restrictiveness and high levels of responsiveness. It is high in
nurturance but low in maturity demands, supervision, and bi-directional communication between
parents and children.
Similar to what the above literature says, the finding of this study shows that most of the
parents do not take appropriate care for their children. It is important to note from parents'
responses that parents especially in towns used to be dominating and/or power assertive and that
they are now becoming less and less so. On the other hand, parents, like their children,
emphasize external behaviors such as neatness and obedience and not internal qualities such as
independence and assertiveness. Even if they know that authoritarian style of parenting is
harmful to children's all - rounded development, they still attach higher importance to obedience
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and respect. This means that they exert power and high in nurturance but low in maturity
demands, supervision, and bi-directional communication between parents and children.
As noted by Hetherington and Parke (1986), children with indulgent parents are low in
self-reliance, achievement orientation, and self-control. In this case, the finding of this study
portrayed that those students whose parents do not give appropriate care have high probability of
being exposed to the pressures come from their parents. Accordingly, the finding also showed
that some of the respondents exposed to anti-social behavior like chewing Chat, smoking, and
drinking alcohol.
The study conducted by Maccoby & Martin, 1983 revealed that children with neglectful
parents have several negative developmental outcomes (i.e., they are impulsive, aggressive, non-
compliant to rules and orders, moody, and low in self-esteem, in general). As noted by
Hetherington and Parke (1986), children from the families of neglectful parents are more likely
to have alcohol problems, spend most of time on streets with their peers from similar parents,
and are more likely to be truant and precociously sexually active, with records of arrest.
Similar to the above literature, the finding of this study also shows that those students
from neglectful parents exposed to cheating during exam, insulting other students in the class,
and being aggressive to others. From this, we can see that those students are found in several
negative developmental outcomes such as impulsiveness, aggressiveness, non-compliant to rules
and orders, being emotional and low self-esteem. In addition to this, the finding shows that
children from such families are more likely to have alcohol problems, spend most of the on
streets (as the case of Hussein) with their peers from similar parents, and are more likely to be
truant and precociously sexually active, with records of arrest.
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The study conducted by Schaeffer identified two major dimensions of parenting style.
The first one refers to the degree of love versus hostility or acceptance versus rejection, or loving
versus rejecting. The positive terminal of this dimension refers to parenting behavior which is
characterized by acceptance, affection, approval, understanding and frequent use of explanations,
extensive use of reasons in discipline, and limited use of physical punishment. At its negative
terminal, the dimension refers to parenting behaviors like hostility, rejection or being punitive
(Schaeffer, 1965).
In general speaking, the finding of this study shows respondents categorized the behavior
of their parents as good or not good. It shows that some parents exhibit hostile behavior towards
their childrens action. The finding also demonstrates that some students faced rejection from
their parents.
On the other hand, the second dimension according to Schaeffer pertains to autonomy
versus control or permissiveness versus restrictiveness. At its restrictive or controlling end, this
dimension refers to parental behaviors that involve strict enforcement of demands including rigid
instance on neatness, orderliness, obedience and inhibition of aggression towards parents,
siblings or peers. On the autonomy or permissiveness end, the dimension refers to democratic
and encouraging nature of parents (Schaeffer, 1965).
In congruent to what the above literature says, 66.7% believe that similar punishment
should be administered always to similar wrong doings while 33.3% believe that similar
punishment should not be administered always to similar behavior or wrong doings. Unlike this,
75.3% responded that they believe that similar reward should administered always to similar
good doings while 24.7% reported that they believe that similar reward should not be
administered always to similar good doings. On the other hand, almost all respondents (88.9%)
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believed that misbehaved child should be punished while 11.1% reported that they do not prefer
that misbehaved child should be punished. This shows that the parents are strict towards their
childrens behavior.
The literature states that in addition to personality and organismic factors, environmental
factors such as, parental occupation, family structure, parental education and socioeconomic
status have been found to determine patterns of child rearing practices (Greenberger, ONeil &
Nagel (1994).
Similarly, the finding of the study demonstrates that family structure is the one factor
which affects the child rearing practices of the family. On the other hand, the finding also shows
that parents education highly affects that child rearing practices of the family. On this regard,
the parenting style of educated families is different from that of uneducated families.
Studies have also found a relationship between socioeconomic status and certain child
rearing practices and attitudes (DeBaryshe and Trickett, 1993). These studies uncovered that
greater use of authoritarian punishment, lower parental involvement and nurturance and lower
emphasis on independence are related to families with lower socioeconomic status. Similarly,
McLoyd (1990) observed that in USA poor parents, regardless of their ethnic backgrounds, are
likely to emphasize obedience in their children, to use power assertion and physical punishment
as disciplinary techniques, are less likely to express affection, and are less likely to discuss
problems with their children. Explaining why poor parents are more of authoritarian McLoyd
(1990) proposed that poor parents, responding to the stress of poverty and its attendant problems,
may not possess the psychological energy necessary to respond to their children in non-
authoritarian fashion.
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In congruent to what the above literature states, the finding of this research also confirms
that those who are in low socio-economic status give little time to their children, show little love
and respect to their children, use power to discipline their children, and 75% of the respondents
reported even that their parents retreat them.
The literature also states that cultural norms and values are partly reflected in the child-
rearing goals of the parents and their views of the development of their children (Schwarz,
2005). Different cultures may have different child-rearing practices in accordance with their
cultural traditions, beliefs, norms, and values. Consequently, the standards, goals, and methods
of socialization may vary among societies, within subgroups in the same society, and between
different societies because behaviors regarded as desirable and encouraged in one society would
be regarded as undesirable or even pathological in another. Even within the same culture, there
might be dramatic differences in the goals of socialization and the methods used to shape the
values and behaviors of children (Hetherington & Parke, 1993).
The finding of this study also shows that the child rearing practices of the respondents is
based on their cultural traditions, beliefs, norms, and values. For instance, the finding from Focus
Group Discussion (FGD) shows that Uraga Woreda community used the saying (proverb) that
gives less/no attention to children. This saying is Ijoollee fi fuulli hin boojjatan! in Afan
Oromo. This saying literally means that Children and face do not feel cold!. In this area,
children are considered as the gift of God that is why they have more children. This experience
of child rearing is different from time to time and from place to place.
The study conducted by Yekoyealem stated that it is evident that parents in all cultures
(i.e., in both individualistic and collectivistic cultures) are the primary socialization agents
responsible for transmission of cultural values, beliefs, traditions, and norms which are necessary
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for the attainment of cultural standards of competence to their children. Ethiopia is no exception,
and thus Ethiopian parents employ child-rearing practices in socializing their children in
accordance with their cultural and religious beliefs, traditions, norms, and value systems
(Yekoyealem, 2005).
Similar to what the above literature says, the finding of the study also shows that Ethiopia
has its own cultural and religious beliefs, traditions, and norms due to which Uraga parents
employ child-rearing practices in socializing their children accordingly. According to the finding
of this study, Uraga community has distinct child-rearing practices. Culturally, children do not
eat with their elders and do not sit with guests as well. Traditionally, it has been said that
Maatiin fuula isaanii ijoolleetti mulisuu hin qaban yookiin ijoollee hagaa olitti kookkisuu hin
qaban which literally translated as Parents do not have to show their faces to children nor they
give them excessive care. Regarding the care which has to be given to the children, traditionally
the community says that Ijoolleen kennaa Waaqayyooti kanaafuu, Waaqumatu isaan guddisa
which literally meant that Children are the gift of God; therefore God can make them grow.
The studies conducted by Seleshi and Kassahun have also shown that the most commonly
practiced parenting style in Ethiopian families differs as a function of childrens sex. For
instance, studies with a sample of junior secondary school students have demonstrated that
parents were authoritative for their daughters, but authoritarian for their sons (Seleshi, 1998).
Another study with a sample of high school students reported that an authoritative parenting style
was the most commonly employed parenting style for daughters whereas neglectful parenting
style was the most predominantly adopted parenting style for sons (Kassahun, 2005). On the
other hand, this researcher, in the same study, with a sample of elementary school students
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revealed that irrespective of childrens sex, an authoritative parenting style was the most
commonly employed parenting style in the families of Ethiopia.
Similar to what the above literature says, the finding of this study also confirms the
literature that the parenting style of the Woreda differs based on the gender of the child. During
Focus Group Discussion (FGD), respondents reported that the child-rearing style of their Woreda
community is different for female children and male children. For instance, they told their male
children that male is hero and have to control everything his family. Especially, when they
(male children) cry, their parents tell them that male does not have to cry. On the other hand
and common to Ethiopian females, the tradition does not allow them to have inheritance of their
parents property. Even when a child is born, neighbors first ask the mother whether the new
born child is male or female. Accordingly, male children are more favored than their
counterparts in Uraga community in particular and in Ethiopian community in general.
The study carried out Seleshi and Kassahun stated that Ethiopian parents attach very high
values to their children in the hope that they will provide social, economic, and psychological
support for their parents especially when they become older, and to ensure the continuity of
family lineage. Another possible explanation could be that the rapid socio-political changes that
have been induced in the country in the drive for modernization and globalization may have
resulted in some cultural changes including child-rearing practices. This is why some
investigators affirmed that a change in the sociopolitical system is accompanied by cultural
changes (Laosa, 1981; Pauswang, 1970). For these reasons, parents may employ more accepting,
firm, and democratic child rearing practices (i.e. authoritative parenting style).
In congruent with the above literature says, the finding of the study confirms the idea that
Ethiopian parents give high value to male children. Likewise, during the FGD, respondents
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reported that parents give high value for male children than female children. In each and every
household, parents expect male child/children for the purpose of inheritance. In certain
household, if they do not have a male child, for instance, the parents or relatives advise the
husband so that he can take another wife what is now known as polygamous marriage.
Accordingly, he can marry more than two wives. During the FGD, the participants reported that
there was a man who, throughout his life time, married twelve wives and begot 44 children.
On the other hand, studies conducted in the Ethiopian context to examine ethnic
differences in styles of parenting are rare. According to them, many students reported that child-
rearing practices differ from one subculture to another and from one community to other
Students from different areas of the country have also reported practices which were identical or
similar. Ranginess and Gander (1974) concluded that the following practices are exercised in a
wide cross-section of Ethiopian subcultures (although some diffidences in child rearing,
methods do exist).
There is lack of stimulation in early childhood, There is lack of verbal interaction with
adults throughout childhood, Children are considered inferior to adults and have duties similar to
those of servants, Respect for parents and other adults is essential, Children who displease their
parents may be harshly punished, and Fear is also used as a means of control.
Similar to what the above literature says, the finding of the study also confirms it.
According to the finding, 66.7% believe that similar punishment should be administered always
to similar wrong doings while 33.3% believe that similar punishment should not be administered
always to similar behavior or wrong doings. Unlike this, 75.3% responded that they believe that
similar reward should administered always to similar good doings while 24.7% reported that they
believe that similar reward should not be administered always to similar good doings. On the
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other hand, almost all respondents (88.9%) believed that misbehaved child should be punished
while 11.1% reported that they do not prefer that misbehaved child should be punished. The
finding clearly shows that children should be punished for their misbehavior. Parents threaten
their children by punishment. Even the finding depicts that some parents punish their children
harshly to discipline them.
Indicating that these findings are true of traditional, rural Ethiopian families, the authors
urged that the findings are not applicable to the more educated modern urban families. Ringness
and Gander (1974) further compared child-rearing practices of rural Ethiopians with that of the
very poor American families. They concluded that like rural Ethiopians, poor American families
are authoritarian and tend to give harsh, inconsistent, physical punishment. This latter conclusion
seems to suggest the social class difference along with level of education may possibly
differentiate parenting styles more fundamentally than culture or ethnicity.
Similar to the idea of the above literature, the finding of this study goes in line with the
idea i.e. regarding corporal punishment, the finding depicts that 75% of the respondents agree
that their parents administer corporal punishment if children fail to obey rules and regulations
whereas only 25% of them disagree with the idea. In addition to this, the finding of this study
shows that 85% of the respondents agree with the idea that their parents administer punishment
for wrong doing whereas only 15% of them disagree with the idea. On the other hand, only 15%
of the respondents agree on the idea that their parents do not punish children if they make
mistakes while 85% of them reported that their parents punish children if they make mistakes.
Among 100 respondents 68% of them agree that their parents do highly value on blind obedience
while 32% do not agree. From this, we can clearly see that parents administer harsh punishment
during the wrong doing.
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Chapter 6
6.1.Summary and Conclusion, Social Work implication, and Recommendation
6.2.Summary and Conclusion
The objective of this study is to assess the parenting style and child socialization in Guji
zone, Uraga Woreda. The experience of the parents on the issue of parenting style and child-
socialization tried to be assessed. To achieve the above objective, the following research
questions were developed. These research questions are;
1. To what extent do the parents in these Kebeles understand the type of parenting
style they are practicing and its effect on both childrens education and
development as well?
2. What do parenting style of these parents looks like in relation to the socialization
of their children?
3. What are the mechanisms to adjust the socialization of children and parents who
are practicing the type of parenting style which may influence the education and
development of these children?
The method employed to conduct the study was qualitative research method though it is
not pure qualitative. Some parts of the finding of this study were summarized using simple
statistical descriptions like table and percentage.
The questionnaire was designed to collect data from respondents. The respondents were
81 parents and 100 students. They were asked to fill questionnaire in a structured manner. There
was also a Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with seven participants. In addition to this, there were
two case studies which deal with their personal experience.
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The analysis was made by taking into consideration the literature previously reviewed
and the response of the respondents. Thus, the overall parenting style and child-rearing practices
and experiences of the Woreda were carefully analyzed. In addition to this, the relationship of
students with their parents and the outcome of the relationship were also analyzed. Accordingly,
the result of the study is presented under chapter five. Finally, recommendation was made to the
concerned body regarding the issues to be improved and that needs further work for further
improvement.
Based on the findings, it is possible to conclude that the parenting style of Guji zone
Uraga Woreda is not either authoritarian or authoritative. The finding shows that the type of
parenting style of this Woreda inclines towards indulgent/permissive type of parenting style.
Accordingly, parents use power to discipline their children rather than using bi-directional
communication. In this view, the finding also depicts that the permissive parenting style is a
careless style in which parents make few demands, encourage their children to express their
feelings, and barely use power to gain control over their behavior; and tend not to need mature
behavior from their children, but encourage their childrens independence instead.
However, the finding also shows that one can find the characteristics of authoritarian and
authoritative parenting style throughout their child-rearing practice. These characteristics do not
encourage us to judge that the type of parenting style of this area is authoritative or authoritarian.
The finding shows that parents encourage punishment for the misbehaved child. They do not
follow-up their children in the school whether they are attending the school very well or not.
Therefore, the finding depicts that some of the students have negative outcome and engaged in
different behavioral problems.
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6.3. Social Work Implication
The issue of parenting style and child socialization has direct implication to Social Work.
In its definition, social work profession included promotion of social change, problem solving in
human relationship, and the empowerment and liberation of people to enhance well-being.
Utilizing theories of human behavior and social systems, social work intervenes at the points
where people interact with their environments. Its primary goal is to help people in need and
address social problems. And it focuses primarily on the issues of poverty, unemployment,
discrimination, and other forms of social injustices because there are vulnerable sections of the
society such as children, elderly, women, and people with various types of disabilities. These
groups of people are the one who are disadvantaged socially, economically, politically, and
psychologically.
Therefore, parenting style is the point where Social Work intervention must be made.
Social Work intervention can be made at various levels; micro level, mezzo level and macro
level intervention. The micro level intervention focuses on the intervention at individual level
whereas mezzo level intervention deals with group/family level intervention. But macro level
intervention, as its name indicates, deals with an intervention at mass level.
The mezzo level intervention is the Social Work intervention where Social Work
intervenes at family issues such as parenting style and child-rearing practices. At this level,
Social Work intervenes between the points where people (parents) interact with their
environment. The relationship of parents with their children is very important point Social Work
must take into consideration.
Therefore, the issues of parenting style are the direct concern of social work practice. In
their social settings, they always interact with their social environments like peers, schools,
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families, neighborhood, church, and other recreational centers. Parents can also develop their
own standard which may collide with the environment of their children. During their interaction,
they either form social cohesion or collide with the system (parents). When this happens, Social
Work intervenes at the point and reconciles the disagreement.
6.4.Recommendation
The results of the study do not indicate any major variation in parenting style among
educated and uneducated parents and parents with few and many children. However, the findings
suggest that some measures solve be taken in light of the parenting styles which may have some
negative effects on children. To this effect, the following recommendations are made which can
serve as a starting point for future interventions. But it should be noted that whatever
interventions may be planned have to consider the need for additional information and
investigation
According to the findings of this study many parents raise their children the way they
themselves were brought up. That is, for many parents traditional beliefs and their own memories
of childhood were major sources of guidance for child rearing. This indicates the need for
helping parents in their child rearing tasks. Thus, the investigators suggest that parent - education
programs be developed which would provide modern concepts regarding child rearing. The
educational programs should begin at the earliest possible time. If educational programs reach
young people before they actually become parents, they right have greater chances of being
effective with their children. Thus, governmental organizations (GOs), non - governmental
organizations (NGOs), and schools should hold this responsibility.
Such a recommendation (of parent- education programs) is also supported by children
and parents themselves. Asked to suggest some measures that should be taken to change parents'
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authoritarian attitudes and behaviors in the focus group discussion children underscored the
importance of educating parents. According to children, the school can play a significant role in
this regard.
Likewise, parents noted that the problem can be minimized by educating parents.
According to them, forum should be created whereby parents become aware of the negative
consequences of their child rearing practices. They also suggested that this can be done in Kebele
meetings, in schools, and through mass media.
The objectives of the parent -education programs should be directed towards a broad
based understanding of children. Here, parents and would - be parents get information which is
helpful in living with children and understanding and managing them. Through these educational
programs, parents and would-be parents will be taught about the physical and psychological
needs of children and the importance of warm, controlling, and demanding families for the
healthy development of children.
On the other hand, parent- education programs should also be concerned with the training
of parents and would - be parents in specific skills. Here, parents and would- be parents will be
taught how to be warm, supportive, and consistent in their child raising methods, and how to
actively listen to children and respond to them and other important communication s kills. Junior
and senior secondary schools, women and youth associations, and Kebeles may serve as forums
for conducting the parent- education programs.
Finally, a coordinating body that can bring the organizations together for planning and
designing action programs is indispensable. NGOs who are involved in advocacy (e.g., FSCE)
could play this role jointly with governmental organizations. Besides, in implementing the
parent- education program, each organization must take its share of responsibilities according to
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its area of interest and field of specialization. For instance, schools could focus on the would- be
parents as well as formal and informal sensitization programs addressed to parents. Nevertheless,
the parent- education program that could be exercised in schools are limited in its outreach to
parents since the focal target are parents of their students. The same is true of child - focused
NGOs that are not directly involved in advocacy but can include educational component in their
program that can be given for their own target group. Thus, NGOs who are mainly focusing on
advocacy are expected to play the major role of materializing the educational program jointly
with the concerned GOs.
Religious institutions could also play an important role in educating;, their; followers in
general and parents in particular. Thus, to prepare these institutions for the task, sensitization
program needs to be launched to raise their awareness.
Community leaders and elders could also contribute in the campaign since they are most
influential people in the community. Their involvement in matters like settling marital disputes
and other communication problems will give them the opportunity to counsel parents on proper
handling and treatment of the children during critical moments like marital problems. Therefore,
they can have substantial input in educating and sensitizing parents both informally and formally.
Nevertheless, these prominent members of the community may not be aware of the issue. Thus,
there is obviously a need to raise or create awareness among these people in order to use them as
change agents.
According to the results of this study many parents are not conscious of the impact of the
child rearing techniques they use on all - round development of their children. This indicates the
need for raising the awareness of parents regarding the influence of the child training methods
they employ on children's overall development. Thus, the investigators suggest that
Page | 111
governmental and nongovernmental organizations conduct seminars, workshops, and
conferences the aim of which are acquainting parents with the different types of parenting styles
and associated outcomes. The Kebeles, women, and youth associations may serve as forums. The
organizations can also use the Ethiopian Television and the Ethiopian Radio as forums for this
purpose. The latter forums may even be preferred given the fact that they can reach many people.
Using these media, parents' awareness can be raised through dramas.
According to the results of this study, some parents blame schools for childrens low
academic achievement and high level of problem behaviors. This may be because parents expect
the school as the main socializing agent. Parents' Consideration of the school to be the main
socializing agent can emanate from the fact that parents are not very sensitive or to some extent
not aware of their parental roles and responsibilities to follow up and give guidance to their
children concerning school performance, behavior, etc. It should be noted, however, that both
parents and schools are equally responsible for empowering the future generation.
However, both parents and schools are equally responsible for empowering the future
generation. Therefore, it is extremely important that both parents and schools work closely in
order to fully accomplish their tasks of upbringing productive citizens. To this end, schools
should arrange regular meetings with parents and identify ways and means that help both parents
and schools meet their common goal of promoting children's positive development.
The present study indicates that parents who have fewer children tend to be authoritative.
That is, all other things being equal, parents who have fewer children tend to rear their children
properly. Thus, along with raising parents' awareness on parenting styles and associated
outcomes, it is important that governmental and nongovernmental organizations exert additional
effort in providing family planning education and services.
Page | 112
It is well known that governmental and nongovernmental organizations are trying their
best to make the public aware of the convention on the rights o f the child and to promote the
good upbringing of children. This attempt, however, seems to be limited to easily accessible
places such as Addis Ababa. The investigators believe that the effort should be maximized so as
to include rural areas where the problem is considered by many to be serious.
The results of the present study seem to indicate that many youngsters were reared by
non - authoritative parents and that they are suffering from the consequences. Thus, family -
based counseling is recommended for those youngsters who are already victims.
The present study revealed some gender- specific findings. For example, more males than
females tend to have authoritarian parents and more females than males seem to have
authoritative parents. This suggests that the education program should give special emphasis on
gender issues. However, it is important to note that the information gathered from respondents is
limited because the questions raised to them were not gender specific that may reflect the bias or
gender variation. Thus, future research should focus on gender issues in parenting styles by
making use of data- gathering instruments (such as questionnaires) that contain gender - specific
questions.
The investigators believe that children should participate at least in matters affecting their
lives. Although undermining children's capacity is deep - rooted in the minds of many
Ethiopians, organizations involved in protecting and safeguarding the rights of children should
work hard in promoting children's participation. For example, in regard to the sensitization
campaign to educate parents and the public at large, children's contribution to such endeavors
will be valuable. There can be different ways in which they can participate such as student clubs
or through organizing different programs such as dramas.
Page | 113
In the present study, it was very difficult to get a heterogeneous sample (in terms of such
factors as income' occupation, education level, and the presence or absence o f elderly people in
the family). Thus, it was very difficult to see the influence of these factors, if any, on parenting,
styles in the present study Future research should, therefore, focus on the impact of these
variables on parenting, styles by having heterogeneous sample in terms of the aforementioned
variables
Page | 114
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Page | 120
Appendices
Consent form
Introduction: (Good morning). My name is Alemayehu Hotessa. I am second year
Masters Student at Radiant International Seminary Ethiopia, School of Graduate Studies,
Social Work department. I am interviewing students, teachers, and parents on the issue of
parenting style and child socialization. This research is designed for the partial fulfillment of
Masters Degree in Social Work and does not have connection with any agencies, be it
governmental or NGOs work.
I would like to thank you all for taking your time to participate in this interview. While
you are engaging in this interview, you have the right to interrupt the interview at any time. You
have also the right to omit/skip any question you do not like to answer. However, please do not
hesitate to ask me to elaborate any question that you do not clearly understand.
In order to be authentic in presenting the information, I would like your willingness to
allow me to take notes. The information you are going to provide will be transcribed and
presented to school in a compiled form. Your identity will always be kept strictly confidential. I
believe that your true and honest information you will give me is very much valuable to achieve
my research objectives. I appreciate your cooperation!
Are you willing to participate in this interview?
Yes _____________________________ No _____________________________
Page | 121
PART ONE: Parents Background Information
Direction: Here are some items regarding parents' background information. In some of the items
you are required to write the necessary information in the space provided. When the questions
are in the form of choice, you are required to indicate your response by encircling the number of
your choice.
1. Is your father alive? 1. Yes 2. No
2. Age of your father_____________
3. Does your father have a job? 1. Yes 2. No If yes, specify the type of your father's
job__________________
4. Your fathers estimated income in Birr_______________________
5. Is your mother alive? l Yes 2. No
6. Age of your mother______________________________
7. Does your mother have a job? 1. Yes 2. No If yes, specify: the type of your
mothers job. _________________________
8. Mothers' estimated monthly income in Birr
9. Family type 1. Intact 2. Broken
10. Under which one of the following categories is your parents' or guardians'
educational level grouped?
A. Father
1. Illiterate 2. 1-6, 3. 7-8, 4. 9-12, 5. 12+1 6. Diploma 7. Degree
B. Mother
1. Illiterate 2. 1-6 3. 7-8 4 .9-12 5.12+1 6. Diploma 7. Degree
C .Relative
1 Illiterate 2 1-6 3. 7-8 4 9-12 5. 12+1 6. Diploma 7. Degree
11. Number of male children in the family________________________
12. Number of female children in the family______________________
13. Total number of Children in the family_______________________
14. Breadwinner of the family_________________________________
1. Father 2. Mother 3. Others please Specify__________________
Page | 122
PART TWO. Concerning Parents consistency in discipline
Direction, Here are items dealing with parents' consistency in discipline'. (Choose the one
that best describes your parents' behavior.
1. Among the following alternatives to which one do you think your parents attach
high value?
1. Blind Obedience
2. Respecting rules and resolving differences through discussion
3. Doing and talking whatever you want
2. Do your parents always administer similar punishment for similar wrong doing?
1 Yes 2 No
3. Do your parents always administer similar type of reward for similar good doing?
1. Yes 2 No
4. Does a misbehaving student get punishment?
1. Yes 2 No
PART THREE. Concerning Problem Behavior
Direction:- Here are items dealing with problem behavior. You are required to indicate
your response by encircling the number of your choice.
1. Have you ever insulted your teacher?

1. Yes 2 No
2. Have you ever jumped over your school's fence?
1 Yes 2 No
3. Have you ever attempted to cheat during exam?
1 Yes 2.NO
4. Have you ever quarreled with students?
1 Yes 2 No
5. Have you ever experienced the in and outside school?
1. Yes 2. No
6. Have you ever repeated in the same grade?
1 Yes 2 No
7. Have you ever been absent from school?
Page | 123
1. Yes 2. No
If yes, for how many days-
PART FOUR. Concerning Parenting Styles
Direction:- Please read each of the following statements carefully and for each item, think about
your parents' attitudes and behaviors in treating and handling you and then check whether you
agree or disagree and put a check mark (x) on the alternative which you believe best describes
your parents' attitudes and behaviors.
No Item Agree Disagree
1. My parents often speak of the good things I do. A. Agree B.
Disagree
2. My parents enjoy talking and playing with me. A. Agree B.
Disagree
3. The relation with my parents is based on love and respect. A. Agree B.
Disagree
4. My parents enjoy staying home with me more than going out with friends
A. Agree B. Disagree
5. My parents respect my interest and view. A. Agree B. Disagree
6. My Parents listen to my ideas and opinions. A. Agree B. Disagree
7. My parents take into consideration my ideas and opinions in establishing.
8. My parents love me more than anything else. A. Agree B. Disagree
9. My parents mistreat me. A. Agree B. Disagree
10. My parents reward me for good doings. A. Agree B. Disagree
11. My parents exert firm control on me in order to accomplish their demands.
12. My parents set rules and laws which I have to follow. A. Agree B. Disagree
13. My parents administer corporal punishment if I fail to obey rules and regulations.
14. My parents administer- punishment for wrong doings. A. Agree B. Disagree
15. My parents do not punish me if I make mistakes. A. Agree B. Disagree
16. My parents do not high value on blind obedience. A. Agree B. Disagree
Page | 124
17. My parents do not allow me to express my ideas and opinions. A. Agree B. Disagree
18. Because of fear of parents punishment I hide my wrong doings. A. Agree B. Disagree
19. My Parents exert firm control so that I develop appropriate behavior. A. Agree B.
Disagree
20. My parents allow discussion to identify reasons for my failure to accomplish parental
expectations. A. Agree B. Disagree
21. My parents allow me to pick my own friends. A. Agree B. Disagree
22. My Parents allow me to participate in establishing rules and laws. A. Agree B.
Disagree
23. My parents prefer a timid child to a child who expresses his ideas freely. A. Agree B.
Disagree
24. My parents allow me to participate in family discussions. A. Agree B. Disagree
25. My parents allow me to ask any questions. A. Agree B. Disagree
26. My parents admit that I sometimes know more than they do. A. Agree B. Disagree
27. My parents allow me to participate in preparing plans. A. Agree B. Disagree
28. My parents expect me to achieve certain tasks. A. Agree B. Disagree
29. My parents establish demands that are beyond my capacity. A. Agree B. Disagree
30. My parents punish me if I get a poor grade in school. A. Agree B. Disagree
31. When I get poor grades in school, my parents encourage me to try harder. A. Agree B.
Disagree
32. My parents dont care whether I get bad or good grades in school. A. Agree B.
Disagree
33. My parents are interested to know the reason that leads them to punish me. A. Agree B.
Disagree
34. My parents try to make known the reasons that lead them to punish me and the
appropriateness of the punishment. A. Agree B. Disagree
35. The punishment that my parents administer is developmental. A. Agree B. Disagree
PART FIVE. Concerning Factors Affecting Parenting styles

Direction: Here are items dealing with factors affecting parenting styles. Choose the one you
consider right and encircle your choice.
Page | 125
1. The parenting styles employed by educated and non-educated parents are
1. Similar
2. Different
3. Others, please specify
2. The parenting styles of educated parents are characterized by
1. Punishment, less warm and excessive control
2. Love, respect, control and national agreement
3. Lax discipline and excessive autonomy
4. Others, please specify__________________________
3. The parenting style of non-educated parents are characterized by
1. Punishment, less warmth & excessive control
2. Love, respect, control and mutual agreement
4. Others please specify.
4. The Parenting style of parents with few children ( 1-3) and with many Children
(more than 3) are
1. Similar
2. Different
5. Parents with many children employ parenting styles that are characterized by
1. Punishment, less warmth, excessive control
6. Parents who have few children employ parenting styles that are characterized by
1. Punishment, less warmth, and excessive control
4. Others (please specify).
7. The parenting styles employed by different ethnic groups in the town you live are
1. Similar
Page | 126
2. Different
3. Others please specify. _ _
8. Students who score high in academic achievement were brought up by parenting
1. Punishment, threat and excessive control
4 Others please specify.
9. Students who score low in academic achievement are brought up by parenting
1. Punishment, threat, and excessive control
4. Others (please specify).
10. Students with high level of self-confidence tend to have parents who employ
Parenting styles that are characterized by
4. Others, Please specify-
11. Students with good conduct are brought up by parenting style that is characterized
by:-
12. Parents expect their children to
1. Blindly obey rules.
2. Follow rules and resolve differences through discussion
3. Do and talk whatever they want
4. Others please specify. _ _
Page | 127
13. Parents employ similar type of punishment for similar wrong doing.
1. Yes
2 No
14. Parents give similar reward for similar acceptable behavior
1. Yes
2. No
3. Others, please specify-
PART SIX. Concerning Parenting Styles
Direction. Please read each of the following statements carefully and for each item, think about
the attitudes and behaviors of parents in your locality in treating and handling their children and
check whether you agree or disagree. And put a check mark (X on the alternative which you
believe best describes the attitudes and behaviors of parents in your locality.
Items Agree Disagree

1. Parents enjoy talking and playing with their children. A. Agree B. Disagree
2. The relationship between parents and their children is based on love and respect.
3. Parents respect their children's interest and ideas. A. Agree B. Disagree
4. Parents take into consideration the ideas and opinions of their children in establishing
rules and laws. A. Agree B. Disagree
5. Parents reward children for good doings. A. Agree B. Disagree
6. Parents exert firm control on their children for the accomplishment of demands. A.
Agree B. Disagree
7. Parents administer corporal punishment if their children dont obey rules and achieve
their demands. A. Agree B. Disagree
8. Parents hardly punish their children for wrong doings. A. Agree B. Disagree
9. Parents expect their children to blindly obey rules and laws. A. Agree B. Disagree
10. Parents allow children express their ideas and opinions. A. Agree B. Disagree
11. Because of fear of parents' punishment children hide their wrong doings. A. Agree B.
Disagree
Page | 128
12. Parents exert from control so that their children develop appropriate behavior. A. Agree
B. Disagree
13. Parents allow children to pick their own friends. A. Agree B. Disagree
14. Parents allow children ask anything they want to know. A. Agree B. Disagree
15. Parents allow children participate in discussions. A. Agree B. Disagree
16. Parents admit that their children sometimes know more. A. Agree B. Disagree
17. Parents allow children participate in preparing a plan. A. Agree B. Disagree
18. Parents punish their children if they got poor grade in school. A. Agree B. Disagree
19. Parents set high standards which are difficult to achieve. A. Agree B. Disagree
20. Parents don't care whether their children get bad or good grades in school. A. Agree B.
Disagree
21. Parents encourage their children to try hard when they get poor grades in school. A.
Agree B. Disagree
22. Parents are interested to know the reason that leads them to punish their children. A.
Agree B. Disagree
23. Parents try to make known the reason that leads them to punish their children and the
24. Parents employ punishment which corresponds to the child's age. A. Agree B. Disagree
25. Parents administer punishment that fits the wrong doing. A. Agree B. Disagree
PART SEVEN: Parents status regarding parenting style and child socialization
Item Agree Disagree
1. I enjoy talking and playing with my children. A. Agree B. Disagree
2. The relation with my children is based on love and respect. A. Agree B.
Disagree
3. I enjoy staying home with my children more than going out with friends. A.
Agree B. Disagree
4. I respect my children's interests and views. A. Agree B. Disagree
5. I listen to my children's ideas and opinions. A. Agree B. Disagree
6. I take into consideration my children's ideas and opinions in establishing rules
and laws. A. Agree B. Disagree
Page | 129
7. I mistreat my children. A. Agree B. Disagree
8. I reward my children for good doings. A. Agree B. Disagree
9. I exert firm control on my children so that they accomplish my demands. A.
Agree B. Disagree
10. I set rules and laws which my children should obey. A. Agree B. Disagree
11. I administer corporal punishment if my children fail to obey rules and achieve my
demands. A. Agree B. Disagree
12. I hardly punish my children. A. Agree B. Disagree
13. My children should Invent obey my rules and laws without questioning. A.
Agree B. Disagree
14. I dont allow my children to express their opinions in the presence of their elder
brothers and sisters. A. Agree B. Disagree
15. I allow my children to pick their own friends. A. Agree B. Disagree
16. I allow my children to participate in establishing rules and laws. A. Agree B.
Disagree
17. I prefer a timid child to a child who expresses his opinion openly. A. Agree B.
Disagree
18. I allow children to participate in family discussions. A. Agree B. Disagree
19. I allow children to ask any question they want to know. A. Agree B. Disagree
20. I admit that my children sometimes know more. A. Agree B. Disagree
21. I allow children to participate in preparing plans. A. Agree B. Disagree
22. I set demands that are beyond my children's capacity. A. Agree B. Disagree
23. I punish my children if they get poor grades in school. A. Agree B. Disagree
24. When my children get poor grades in school, I encourage them to try harder. A.
Agree B. Disagree
25. I don't care whether my children get bad or good grades in school. A. Agree B.
Disagree
26. I am interested to know the reason that leads me to punish my children. A. Agree
B. Disagree
27. I try to make known the reason that leads me to punish my children and the
Page | 130
28. The punishment that I administer fits the wrong doing. A. Agree B. Disagree
29. The punishment that I administer corresponds to the age of the child. A. Agree B.
Disagree
30. I administer similar punishment for similar wrong doings. A. Agree B. Disagree
31. I give similar rewards for similar good doings. A. Agree B. Disagree
Thank you all!
Page | 131

Alemayehu Hotessa MSW Thesis

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RADIANT INTERNATIONAL SEMINARY ETHIOPIA

THE SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

A STUDY OF PARENTING STYLE AND CHILD SOCIALIZATION: THE

CASE OF GUJI ZONE, URAGA WOREDA, OROMIYA REGIONAL STATE

ALEMAYEHU HOTESSA EDEMA

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE

REQUIREMTNT FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS (MA) IN

ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

School of Graduate Studies

A Study of Parenting Style and Child Socialization: The case of Guji

Zone, Uraga Woreda, Oromiya Regional State

Alemayehu Hotessa Edema

A THESIS Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirement for the

Degree of Masters of Arts (MA) in Social Work

Advisor: Prof. Samuel Tadesse

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Date of Submission: _______________________________

deed in my life. Words cannot describe the gratitude I have to my God!

whenever I need your support.

Woreda for the purpose of data collection.

Biniyam Seyoum and Mulu Birega for their uncountable support.

names are not mentioned here.

to see my future. I am here today but it is not the final destination!

participated in this study. Accordingly, the questionnaire was distributed to 81 respondents

authoritative nor authoritarian rather it is permissive or neglectful though some characteristics

traditions, belief system and gender sensitive.

2.4.5. Method of Data Analysis13

2.4.6. Data analysis technique14

Table 1: Background information of the respondents (Parents)56

1.1.Background of the study

This process is called parenting style.

competent performance than either highly controlling or permissive styles.

socialization strategies reflecting demandingness and responsiveness. Demandingness, or

developmentally appropriate, and providing structure; responsiveness, or warmth, refers to

Different authors divide parenting style in different types or dimensions. These

and concluded that four dimensions of parent-child interactions reflecting types of

functioning. Parental control reflected consistent enforcement of rules, provision of structure to

develop a typology of qualitatively different parenting styles based on levels of responsiveness

and control: authoritative, authoritarian, permissive indulgent and permissive uninvolved

regulations. Authoritative parenting is responsive and demanding in that parents communicate

Authoritarian parenting is similar to authoritative parenting in terms of being demanding;

of solicitation and demonstrations of warmth. In contrast, permissive uninvolved parenting is

considered to be rejecting or neglectful of children.

adapting and bonding with their new infant.

is a further matter of debate.

others, being self-reliant, and independence.

Socialization is crucial in preparing individuals to be productive members of society. Early

and a variety of social structures.

others but pretty much everyone shows some signs of sociability.

1.2. Statement of the problem

A parenting style is a psychological construct representing standard strategies that parents

adapting and bonding with their new infant.

is a further matter of debate.

others, being self-reliant, and independence.

parenting, permissive indulgent and permissive uninvolved.

Authoritative parenting is characterized by a child-centered approach that holds high

appropriate outlets to solve problems.

responsiveness and high parental demands.

Children are more likely to respond to authoritative parenting punishment because it is

undemanding, low in responsiveness, and do not set limits.

the parent will show a demanding, with great authority side.

from whatever sources they can.

authoritative parents scored the highest.

(Hewlett and West, 1998: xvixvii).