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Family Holidays: A Research Review and Application

to New Zealand
a a a
Heike A. Schnzel , Karen A. Smith & Adam Weaver
a
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand
Version of record first published: 14 Jan 2013.

To cite this article: Heike A. Schnzel , Karen A. Smith & Adam Weaver (2005): Family Holidays: A Research Review and
Application to New Zealand, Annals of Leisure Research, 8:2-3, 105-123

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 Annals of Leisure Research Vol. 8 No. 2-3 ANZALS 2005

Family Holidays: A Research Review

and Application to New Zealand
Heike A. Schnzel, Karen A. Smith and Adam Weaver
Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand

Abstract to make something unimportant

Holidays with children have largely been marginalised in research that examines leisure
travel. This paper is a critical review of the available literature and presents a summary
of themes relevant for the study of family holidays. Most tourism work is market-driven
and from an adult perspective, with children treated as passive members of the family.
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Neglected areas include the social and cultural dimensions of the family holiday
experience, such as social interactions and relationships, and the tangible and intangible
benefits of holidays for family members. This discussion is contextualised within the
current trends and issues relating to families in New Zealand. A research agenda is
proposed that seeks to address the gaps in the tourism and travel literature, and particularly
the need to lend a voice to children themselves, and recognise the experiences of all
family members.

Introduction
The American humorist Nathaniel Benchley once wrote 'there are two classes of
travel first class, and with children (cited in Rosenblatt and Russell, 1975). While
research that addresses leisure travel has focused on the 'first class holiday, very
little is known about holidays with children, which are deemed to be a more
'mundane and trivial type of tourism (Brenholdt, Haldrup, Larsen and Urry,
2004). Despite the social and cultural importance of holidays to family members,
this is a marginalised research area. This paper aims to address this gap in the
tourism and travel literature by drawing together and critically reviewing a
disparate range of literatures and presenting a summary of themes relevant for the
study of family holidays. Market-driven consumer behaviour studies have
dominated: these are contrasted with the lack of research on the social and cultural
aspects of the holiday; in particular the experiences of and outcomes for the family.
Research approaches are also reviewed, and the paper explores the marginalisation
of the child's perspective, and the lack of research on the experiences of all family
members.
This is a pertinent time for a comprehensive consideration of the family
holiday. The concept of the 'family' is itself in question. First, there is recognition
of plurality of family forms, to the effect that many would refer to families rather
than to the family (Dumon, 1997; Shaw, 1997). Nevertheless, despite the diversity
of family forms, a common denominator is that 'they all serve as person-supporting
networks' (Dumon, 1997: 181). Second, is the recognition that there is even a
plurality of families within the family; that is, different family members are likely
 106 Annals of Leisure Research Vol. 8, No. 2-3, 2005

to perceive the composition of their families in different ways. This recognises

subsystems within the family and the growing disparity between family and
households (Dumon, 1997). As such, finding a definition of family is a complex
undertaking not only for researchers but also one that confronts society with new
challenges.
Researching the family holiday must be considered within this context of
changing family structures and societal values, and wider political and economic
policies and trends. Given the contested debates on the notion of family, it is not
surprising that the literature gives no clear definition of a family holiday or even
family travel. Whilst the aim of this paper is not to explore or evaluate definitions,
it is important to frame the boundaries of this concept. Broadly speaking, family
holidays involve leisure travel away from home for more than one day taken within
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the context of a family group. As will be discussed, family members may engage
in a range of activities in different settings; their experiences will vary as well as
the positive and negative outcomes they derive from travel.
These contested concepts of the family have implications for the study of
travel and tourism, yet few studies have attempted to link research on the family
with leisure travel. Figure 1 presents a summary of themes relevant for the study
of family holidays. It draws together a number of disparate literatures, and this
paper considers each of these in turn. The wider context is briefly considered in
terms of trends and changes affecting family holidays, such as demographic,
economic, social, health and technological variables that may enable or constrain
family travel. The bulk of previous tourism research on the family holiday has been
market driven. Various studies have examined the purchasing behaviour of families
on holiday. Also, sector-based research has focused on how visitor attractions and
transport providers serve the family market. In contrast, few researchers have
considered the importance of the family holiday as a social activity that has certain
outcomes. This paper recommends such an approach and encourages researchers
to explore the satisfaction that is derived from family travel, how parents and
children experience their family holidays, and the outcomes of family travel to
different family members. New Zealand provides a context in which to explore the
consequences of the conflicting pressures on the family holiday, and the paper
concludes by highlighting gaps in current tourism research. Recommendations are
made for future research and an application to New Zealand illustrates how this
field can move forward.

Contextual trends and constraints affecting family holidays

In Western societies, the structure of families has changed considerably in recent
years, with marked increases in both solo and multi-generational living
arrangements (Jackson and Pool, 1994 cited in Thompson et al., 2002). These
changes lead to more diverse and complex relationships between parent(s) and
child(ren) over the life-course (Allen, Blieszner and Roberto, 2000). Demographics
 Schnzel, Smith & W eaver ! Family holidays 107

reflect recent social trends, such as cohabitation and delayed childbearing, fewer
total births and women's increased involvement in the paid workforce (Thompson
et al., 2002), as well as the growth of non-family households (individuals living
together but unrelated biologically or legally) (Gottfried and Gottfried, 1994). Even
in the 1990s, the 'traditional' family (e.g. a two-parent family in which the father is
the sole economic provider and the mother is the primary care-giver) was the
minority family among those with children in the USA (Gottfried and Gottfried,
1994).
These shifts in demographics and lifestyles, and the broadened definition of
families, have important consequences for travel and leisure behaviour. Travel by
non-traditional family groupings has already been documented:
grandparent/grandchild travel, multigenerational travel, travel with members of the
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extended family (such as aunts and uncles taking trips with their nieces and
nephews), and solo-parent travel. Researchers have yet to examine the travel that
same-sex parents undertake with their children. Significantly, in the United States,
'grandtravel', as it is referred to in the industry, represented a fifth of all trips taken
with children in 2000 (Gardyn, 2001). A growing 'third age' might also be a factor
in the growth of 'grand travel', with more active older people having the time and
income to travel.
Working women, dual-career families and changes in family structures
appear to be the catalysts for change. This has brought about a new focus in
balancing work and family with serious implications for leisure travel. With both
parents often working, people are finding their free time is taken up with family and
household chores (Nickerson and Black, 2000). This work-life collision, which
involves finding a balance between work and family holiday time, has been raised
in recent literature (e.g. Edgar, 2005; Pocock, 2003). As such, the changing family
and work situation requires tourism planners, policy makers and marketers to
understand all of their users' various needs (Nickerson and Black, 2000).
Within the above context holidays need to be considered as offering relief
from time and place, two of the key constraints of everyday life. In terms of quality
of life, therefore, holidays can be argued to play a crucial role. Holidays can
provide health and social benefits like physical and mental rest, and thereby reduce
family stress. As such, it is not surprising that holidays have increasingly come to
be seen as a social right forming an essential part of everyday life (Richards, 1999).
The ability to take family holidays is still constrained by a variety of factors.
Lack of time or holiday entitlement, income or available finances, work
commitments, vehicular mobility, school holidays and truancy legislation (which
affects families travelling outside of the school holidays), personal health
(Pennington-Gray and Kerstetter, 2002), cohort/life stage (Peterson and Lambert,
2003), and care-giving obligations (Gladwell and Bedini, 2004) may all limit
people's ability to take advantage of the opportunities offered by the tourism
industry. A Spanish Family Expenditure Survey found that the main variable that
 Figure 1. A summary of themes relevant for the study of family holidays (after Thompson et al., 2002: 129)
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 Schnzel, Smith & W eaver ! Family holidays 109

influences the probability of travel is income. However, the higher the income level
or the household's level of education, the lower the income elasticity (Legre and
Pou, 2004). This implies that at the lower end of the income scale, a small
difference in income has a large impact on holiday expenditures (Davies and
Mangan, 1992). As such, income inequalities can create holiday inequalities.
A significant contemporary topic for family holiday research, and
particularly research involving children, is the influence of technology (e.g. iPods,
cell phones, the internet, computer games, television, DVDs) on holidays. There is
research on television-induced 'toddler tourism' by Connell (2005), but how the
holiday experience is mediated by technology has yet to be addressed. While there
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is some research on the technological transformation of the leisure experience

(Bryce, 2001) and the use of mobile media such as the iPod in a daily urban
experience (Bull, 2005), there is a lack of research regarding technological
entertainment in the context of a family holiday.

Researching the family holiday

These identified trends and constraints affect the motivation and ability of families
to take holidays. It is perhaps not surprising that much of the previous research on
the relationship between travel and the family has been driven by marketing
interests and tends to view family members as potential consumers. Two
approaches that have a predominantly commercial orientation will be reviewed. The
first approach conceptualises family members as consumers who make purchasing
decisions that interest tourism marketers. The second approach is focused around
market research undertaken by different sectors with the tourism industry namely
the attractions and transport sectors. While useful and worthwhile, these two
approaches ultimately do not say enough about family travel as a holiday that
produces satisfying and memorable experiences and promotes wellbeing.

Family Members as Travel Consumers

Family holidays are one of the few fields of buying behaviour where all members
share in its consumption. In the tourism literature, two theories inform many of the
studies that explore family purchasing behaviour: role taxonomy and family life
cycle theory. Both have tended to focus more on purchase decisions than outcomes
(Seaton and Tagg, 1995), and can be applied to the decisions surrounding the
purchase of a family holiday.
Role taxonomy involves the empirical measurement of the relative influence
of family members on purchases through conceptualising five kinds of role-related
decisions: husband dominant, wife dominant, autonomic (eventual decision by one
spouse), syncretic (equal husband/wife), and paedonomic (child influence). For
marketers, the issue of who influences purchasing is of great significance as parents
are usually the primary purchasers and the role of children in determining adult
buying behaviour shows considerable market potential. As such, it can be argued
 110 Annals of Leisure Research Vol. 8, No. 2-3, 2005

that children increasingly influence household decision-making, such as choice of

holiday destination (Connell, 2005). Initially, the taxonomic approach privileged
the husband and wife and marginalised the child (Seaton and Tagg, 1995). Only
more recently has increasing attention been paid to the potential of children to act
as influences on holiday decision-making. Ryan (1992), for example, found that
children act as catalysts to visit attractions. Thornton et al. (1997) argued that while
children possess the ability to make suggestions about holiday choice, the ultimate
decision appears to remain with the parents. In terms of how much influence
children exert on parental holiday choice, research appears to indicate that children
wield a high amount of influence in problem recognition (Wang et al., 2004), the
first step of decision-making, rather than at later stages, such as information search
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and final purchase (Connell, 2005). Further, Jenkins (1978) found that children
were considered by parents to exert significant influences on holiday decision-
making whether to go on holiday, the timing of a trip, in terms of the kinds of
activities selected and the destination. Tagg and Seaton (1994) found that 74% of
Scottish and 63% of English children (aged 1218 years) had been asked about
holiday choice and felt that they played an appreciable part in the choice of
destination
Seaton and Tagg's (1995) study also highlights an important methodological
element of family holiday's research that has a strong marketing focus. Whilst there
is some acknowledgement that children have a role to play in decision-making,
'studies that have attempted to include the influence of children on general
purchases and tourism behaviour have mainly done so from data gathered from
parental responses, rather than through asking children' (their italics) (1995: 4).
Children are thus being marginalised both theoretically and methodologically by
some of the more market oriented research. This research, in particular, has either
ignored or sidelined children's opinions, or they are voiced through adult
gatekeepers. The marginalisation of children, however, is not specific to market-
oriented research, but is also a challenge in some social research, as will become
more evident later in the paper.
The family life cycle model (FLC) has been deployed in studies that address
the consumer behaviour of family members who are on holiday. This model
hypothesises that individuals pass through stages in their life and that each stage is
associated with distinct purchase patterns. Changes between stages are mainly
caused by the birth and rearing of children, the departure of children from the
household when they are older, and the retirement of parents as they enter old age.
The stages involving families with children are referred to as 'full nest 1 & 2'. Tribe
(1999) has applied the FLC model to the availability of leisure income and time,
and highlighted the consequences this may have for travel and leisure behaviour
(Table 1). However, the changing family structures discussed above cast serious
doubt on the future utility of this concept because when the traditional family life
cycle scheme is applied, it tends to result in classification problems (Oppermann,
1995). In a study of tourists in New Zealand, 40% of survey respondents were
 Schnzel, Smith & W eaver ! Family holidays 111

unclassifiable (Lawson, 1991). However, Lawson (1991) also found clear evidence
of the constraints on travel imposed by young children at full nest 1 (preschool
children), and to a lesser extent at full nest 2 (school-age children). Mitchell (1984)
points out that an individual's progression through successive stages of the life
cycle is, for that individual, social change because the life cycle stages are largely
defined in social terms. Thus the same individual's activities are substantially
altered in terms of purpose, form and location as a result of the changing social
conditions imposed by the life-cycle stages. That the same occasion (e.g. a family
holiday) may have different meanings to children than it does for parents is worthy
of investigation. As such, it is important for researchers to capture the social
dimension that involving children would bring to the research process.
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The above discussion has focused on consumer behaviour related to the

family holiday. However, a holiday is made up of a range of different components,
such as accommodation, attractions and activities at the destination, transport
linkages, and the intermediaries that bring elements of the tourism system together.
Certain sectors of the tourism industry, namely transport providers and attraction
operators, have undertaken market research focused on family groups. However,
very little is known about the meanings family members derive from the diverse
experiences they have while on holiday.

Table 1: Family life stage characteristics and leisure income/ time

Life Stage Characteristics Leisure Leisure
Income Time
Child Leisure decisions generally taken by parent Low High
Single High propensity for leisure pursuits and travel. Medium Medium
Independence asserted, budget travel popular,
social aspects sought
Partnered High leisure and tourism propensities underpinned High Medium
by high income and free time
Full Nest 1 & 2 Children become key preoccupation. Leisure and Medium Low
tourism must meet children's requirements. Cost
per person important
Empty Nest Children have left home. Opportunities for leisure High Medium
and tourism increase. Exotic destinations and
meaning of life sought
Old Age May lack partner, may suffer from infirmity. Safer Low High
leisure and travel pursuits sought, package
holidays popular
Source: Tribe 1999: 208

Transport-based research
There has been some research on transportation that includes a family component.
Van Middelkoop et al. (2003) found that the deciding factors for choice of transport
mode include price, comfort, party size, privacy, safety, accessibility and travel
 112 Annals of Leisure Research Vol. 8, No. 2-3, 2005

time (in the case of long-distance holidays). They concluded that with the presence
of children there is an increase in travel by car. McWhirter and Brookes (2001)
evaluated child-friendly deals from airlines, train operators and hotels, mainly in
Europe. Among their findings was that at the time not one of the low-cost carriers
offered any sort of discount for children. Morin (1984) looked at the mobility of
families on holiday in France; here family travel seems to be characterised by a
process of repetition, thus tending towards the same destination over successive
years. He also found that a great majority of family trips end up at parents' or
friends' homes. However, most of the transport-related research is concerned with
the management of traffic systems and transportation planning, thereby largely
failing to provide an understanding of the experiences gained from different
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transport modes.

Attractions-based research
There has been extensive market research carried out at particular attractions that
has included families as part of the sample (e.g. Serrell, 1980); however, in most
instances, families and children did not form the focus of the research but only a
sub-group of visitors. This is despite the importance of children in generating
economic effects: 'firstly, they directly swell the numbers of visitors, and respond
to the retail opportunities that exist, whilst second, they are a catalyst in generating
a family visit to an attraction' (Ryan, 1992: 135). As such, attractions like heritage
sites, museums, wildlife and theme parks have a vested interest in capturing the
family market, and thus maximising their economic potential. One reason non-
visitors indicated they do not visit zoos is that they do not have children (Turley,
2001). At many attractions, activities are often designed with families in mind and
marketing strategies emphasise the range and newness of activities on offer to
family groups (e.g. Braun and Soskin, 1999), despite very little or nothing being
known about the experiences and benefits gained by the family visitors (Sterry,
2004).
Children's visits to attractions, particularly in organised educational visits,
have received little attention. Cooper and Latham (1988) found that children need
special provision because they have different needs, attention spans, energies and
interests compared to other groups of visitors. Alan Smith of Heritage Projects in
the UK remarked, 'children are a vital consideration in the design of modern
museums. In many ways, they are the most discerning customers, and least
prepared to accept exhibitions that are boring and mediocre' (cited in Ryan, 1992:
138). While it is encouraging to find more research focusing on families and
children (e.g. Sterry, 2004), specific attractions only make up a small component
of the family holiday. There is a need to consider the family holiday in a wider
context, and to examine how parents and children derive satisfaction from their
holidays, experience the holiday as they travel with other family members, and
benefit from their time away from the home environment.
 Schnzel, Smith & W eaver ! Family holidays 113

Researching satisfaction
Very little research into satisfaction with family holidays has been carried out to
date. When research has been undertaken, it is mostly market driven. The most
comprehensive studies are by Tagg and Seaton (1994), who compared the
responses of children in England and Scotland to a family travel survey, and by
Thomas Cook (1983) looking at English children's attitudes to holidays. Tagg and
Seaton (1994) found that Scottish children who completed their survey more
frequently endorsed the 'very much' response to overall enjoyment of the holiday,
while the English children endorsed the 'quite a lot' category. The Thomas Cook
study (1983) found that 64% of 812 year-old children interviewed found their last
holiday to be 'very' to 'fairly' exciting. A visit to Disneyland was ranked as the most
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fun holiday by respondents. It can be concluded from both studies that most
holidays make for happy children, and happy children often make for happy
parents. As Alan Smith notes within the context of heritage attractions, 'satisfying
the children generates a satisfactory visitor experience for the parents' (cited in
Ryan, 1992: 135). Meeting the needs of the child, therefore, also accounts for the
satisfaction levels of adults, although this has not yet been explored empirically. By
moving the focus of research to an examination of the experiences of the individual
participants on a family holiday, a better understanding of the benefits gained
would ultimately lead to a more satisfying holiday. However, the market oriented,
mostly quantitative research has not provided the depth needed in answering what
constitutes a satisfying family holiday. An approach to the study of family holidays
that is more sensitive to the experiences of all family members is therefore needed.

Researching experiences
In the field of leisure studies, considerable attention has been given to the social
and cultural dimensions of family leisure. A reason for this is the increased
recognition that leisure experiences provide the context in which most family
members establish, maintain and develop relationships with each other (Journal of
Leisure Research, 1997; Siegenthaler and O'Dell, 2000). Orthner and Mancini
(1990) contend that leisure and recreational experiences within the family have a
great influence on family bonds in general. Indeed, 'the family that plays together
stays together' underlies much of the writing on family and leisure (Freysinger,
1994). Yet despite this adage, there is increasing research evidence that family
leisure activities may not always be a positive experience for all family members
(Larson, Gillman and Richards, 1997). Several studies found that mothers reported
a less positive leisure experience than fathers (e.g. Freysinger, 1994; Larson et al.,
1997), which introduces the need for a gendered examination of leisure. These
studies have mainly examined leisure in the context of day-to-day life and not in
the context of a holiday away from home. It also needs to be acknowledged that
there are studies that explore children's leisure and the past-times and life
experiences of children. These studies examine activities such as play, sport and
camping, for example James and Embrey (2002) and Coatsworth et al. (2005) have
 114 Annals of Leisure Research Vol. 8, No. 2-3, 2005

explored the leisure activities of adolescents. However, these studies were not
undertaken in the social, temporal and spatial context of family holidays.
Family holidays get some mention in historical reviews of vacation travel
(e.g. Davidson and Spearritt, 2000; Lofgren, 1999). This provides context rather
than an understanding of the family travel experience. There is, however, research
that looks specifically at experiences and meanings gained from family holidays.
The majority are focused on particular attractions like theme parks (Johns and
Gyimthy 2002, 2003), but there are others that focus on mother's/women's
experiences (Cerullo and Ewen, 1984; Davidson, 1996; Fitzgerald, 1993), social
psychology (Rosenblatt and Russell, 1975; Stringer, 1984), family photography
(Haldrup and Larsen, 2003), and second homes (Brenholdt et al., 2004; Haldrup,
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2004; Jaakson, 1986). Most relevant to this paper is work that has explored
children's holiday experiences (Cullingford, 1995; Small, 2005) and the experiences
of parents and children on holiday (Gram, 2005). This research is less motivated by
economic interests but instead aims to offer a broader social and cultural
understanding of leisure travel undertaken by families.
Johns and Gyimthy's (2002, 2003) research at the Legoland attraction in Denmark
found that there is a possible dichotomy between the 'fun' experienced by children
and the perceived penance or self-sacrifice of the parent. Thus, while the park is
meeting the needs of children quite well, it does not achieve the parents' ideal
perceptions of holidaying together with the family. This research demonstrates
potential differences within the family unit, again suggesting there is scope for
future research into the individual and collective experiences of families and family
members. Johns and Gyimthy (2003) argue for more studies of how family groups
experience an attraction, a notion supported by Sterry (2004) in relation to
museums.
A number of studies are informed by a feminist research perspective and are
therefore focused on mothers and their holiday experiences. Cerullo and Ewen
(1984) looked at family camping holidays as a way for women to escape from
housework and other daily responsibilities. The camping holiday was an
opportunity to 'be together' and to 'be a family'. Fitzgerald (1993) found that the
primary considerations for the women was not to go on holiday to get a break from
work, which was perceived as an impossibility, but to maintain and develop
relationships within the family. Davidson's (1996) study on women with small
children suggests that work and leisure are not separate entities and that holidays
offer an experience that is defined as much by relationships and the shaping of self-
identity as it is by reduced pressure and increased pleasure. However, while these
studies shed light on women's leisure, they do not illuminate the experiences of the
fathers and children respectively, nor do they consider the joint parenting
experience.
From a social psychology perspective, Rosenblatt and Russell (1975) found
that family travel is seen as providing opportunities for revitalisation and creative
change, as well as a possible cure for serious interpersonal difficulties. Jaakson
 Schnzel, Smith & W eaver ! Family holidays 115

(1986) argued that at the second home the smaller physical space and the immediate
outdoors facilitate a closer family togetherness and an emotional bond. However,
neither study sheds light on how children perceive the holiday experience. Research
on family holiday photography by Haldrup and Larsen (2003) found that the
experience largely revolves around producing social relations (e.g. fostering social
bonds between family members) rather than 'consuming places' (Urry, 1990). It
represents a feminised gaze as it stresses social interactions, relationships and active
embodied use of space and time. Indeed, the authors argue that tourist studies have
struggled to account for the thick sociality of most tourism forms. Instead, it has
been drawn to the spectacular and exotic, thus excluding more 'mundane' and trivial
types of tourism such as family holidays at campgrounds and second homes
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(Haldrup and Larsen, 2003; Brenholdt et al., 2004; Haldrup, 2004). Also
Brenholdt et al. (2004) argue that temporality may be a key aspect neglected in
tourist studies. However, deliberate attempts to slow down time and step outside
of everyday time flows are crucial aspects of contemporary tourism.
A study by Cullingford (1995) is notable in that it focuses solely on children,
arising from a larger survey of children's attitudes towards different environments,
including other countries. Cullingford (1995) found that children's views of the
world depend on their experiences and that the experience of overseas travel is
crucial in such attitude formation. However, because this study is not focused on
the tourism field, but instead comes from the educational sector, there is scope to
expand on it. A study by Small (2005) that is currently in progress investigates the
holiday experiences of middle-class 12-year-old girls in Australia and is a valuable
step in the right direction. However, the limited age and gender of the study's
participants means that it cannot shed light on the holiday experiences of entire
families.
A Northern European study by Gram (2005) identified an inherent dilemma
in family holidays in that parents seek togetherness but seem to find this strenuous
in practice, and also primarily enjoy rest and relaxation, whereas children seek
activities. Thus, children and adults have different perceptions of what a good
experience is. The definition of a good family holiday that came out of that study
was that the good atmosphere is upheld, which demands that the children are
engaged and absorbed by activities, and do not get bored alone or with their
parents. However, the parents' wishes for children to be creative and active could
be linked to cultural ideals for upbringing that relate to imagination, creativity and
independence prevalent in Northern European countries (Malpas and Lambert,
1993 cited in Gram, 2005). Therefore, it would be very important to explore family
holiday experiences in other contexts, such as New Zealand, and not only focus on
different experiences between parents and children, but also differences between
mothers and fathers and individual children (if there is more than one child in the
family). However, one notion that becomes evident when looking at family holiday
experiences is the importance of maintaining relationships (or even the strain it can
put on them) and taking an 'interactionist approach' (see Wearing and Wearing,
 116 Annals of Leisure Research Vol. 8, No. 2-3, 2005

1996), which is also reflected in the definition of families given earlier.

Nonetheless, while most existing studies have been concerned with adult members
of the family, very little is known on how children respond to contemporary
tourism situations. Even less is known about the positive or negative outcomes of
family holidays, as discussed in the next section.

Researching the outcomes of family holidays

In the field of family-related leisure research, there has been a focus on the
beneficial outcomes of family activities, such as improved communication among
family members and enhanced family cohesiveness (e.g. Orthner and Mancini,
1990). Indeed, the outcomes of family activities are often conceptualised as
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'benefits' (Shaw, 1997). On the other hand, there can also be negative outcomes to
family activities such as increased family conflict or family workload stress (e.g.
Shaw, 1992). There is, however, very little research in the tourism literature on the
actual outcomes or even the potential benefits of family travel/holiday, which
seems very surprising given the important positive benefits attributed to holidays
in the medical and business literatures (e.g. Richards, 1999). Only a few leisure and
tourism studies have looked at benefits sought or the anticipation of holidays.
Henderson (1990) suggested that women tend to be 'caretakers' and, as a result,
seek very different benefits from their travel pursuits than do men. Gilbert and
Abdullah (2002) found that those who are waiting to go on a holiday are happier
with both their life as a whole and their family, experience less negative or
unpleasant feelings and therefore enjoy an overall net positive effect. However,
almost nothing is known about the actual outcomes for the women, men and
children who go on a family holiday. Even within the family leisure literature there
is almost no data on the outcomes, beneficial or otherwise, of family activities on
children and adolescents (Shaw, 1997). An exception to this is Brenholdt et al.
(2004) who found that families on holiday are drawn to photography in order to
accumulate memories that can be shared later. Photographed tourism experiences
then become a vital part of their life-stories and spaces of everyday life, but there
is a lack of tourism research that focuses on possible psychological and
physiological benefits to health, stress relief and improved interpersonal
relationships. This would tie in with the work/life balance and quality of life
literature mentioned earlier, and could focus on the benefits gained for the
individual members in families and its effect on inter-family relationships. It is
important that the negative outcomes of family holidays are also addressed in
research. To simply focus on either the positive or negative aspects of the family
holiday provides a partial understanding of this complex type of interaction (Shaw,
1997). This also invites the exploration of contradictory outcomes of family
holidays for different family members and makes it imperative that all members of
the family have a voice.
 Schnzel, Smith & W eaver ! Family holidays 117

Conclusions and recommendations for future research

The summary of themes relevant for the study of family holidays (Figure 1)
demonstrates previous research approaches and gaps in current understanding. By
critically reviewing the literature, it can be seen that the mundane world of
travelling with children has received relatively little attention in the tourism and
travel literatures, and previous studies are somewhat dispersed, with little
integration between approaches. What is known about family holidays is mainly
from consumer behaviour research or sector based research with a focus on family
purchasing behaviour and the subsequent marketing implications. Few researchers
have considered the more social and cultural dimensions of family holidays or the
tangible and intangible outcomes of family travel opportunities. Therefore, more
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attention could be devoted to the diverse range of social interactions and practices
that occur during the family holiday. In particular, possible outcomes of spending
a holiday together as a family, like psychological and physiological benefits to
health, enhanced quality of life, and improved interpersonal relationships, as well
as increased family conflict and stress have largely been overlooked.
The increased diversity and fluidity of family forms, and thereby travel
habits, as children move through childhood should impel researchers to study the
accounts and experiences of children, rather than assuming that we can
automatically know them from demographic information about families (Mahon,
Glendinning, Clarke and Craig, 1996). Most market-orientated research has been
conducted from adults' perspectives, with minimal attention being given to the
children themselves. The most likely reason for the lack of research focusing on
children is, according to Small (2005), the perceived passivity of the child in
decision making and, consequently, the child's low economic value to the tourism
industry. As such, very little voice is given to children by tourism researchers.
Whilst there are methodological and ethical issues involved in undertaking research
with child participants (Matthews et al., 1998), social science researchers have
conducted a range of studies involving children. This focus has not been carried
over into the tourism field, although recent research activities seem to be more
inclusive of children (e.g. Gram, 2005). It appears that a more interdisciplinary
approach is needed, as there are valuable lessons from other disciplines for actively
giving a voice to children. These can be used to open the door to new research
opportunities. This may shed new light on what constitutes a family holiday for all
the members involved. Very little, in fact, is known about the actual experiences
and benefits gained when on a family holiday, other than based on specific
attractions that cater for family groups. However, most family holidays are more
than just visiting specific attractions or a collection of different attractions. This
also highlights an often-neglected aspect of contemporary tourism the temporality
and more mundane nature of family holidays. It would be appropriate to carry out
research at the accommodation where most families stay and probably interact the
most, rather than daytrips.
 118 Annals of Leisure Research Vol. 8, No. 2-3, 2005

In order to take these points forward, research in specific countries could be

undertaken. Given the strong Australasian focus of this special issue, the New
Zealand context is particularly relevant because it provides an exemplar for the
convergence of potentially conflicting and politically charged trends. The family
holiday is an important ritual for many New Zealanders. Enjoyment of New
Zealand's outdoors, and particularly its extensive coastal areas, is an essential part
of the Kiwi lifestyle, with access to it considered as a birthright (Barnett and Wolfe,
1993). But there are changes that seem to be slowly eroding traditions that have
perhaps been taken for granted. One is the increasing financial difficulty for many
families to take part in leisure travel experiences. As a result, children may not have
access to the same opportunities as their parents. The unrestricted sale of coastal
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properties to developers has increasingly restricted access to New Zealand's

beaches and campgrounds for example, Opoutama Beach (Hodge, 2005) and
Riversdale Beach (Katterns, 2005) - thereby endangering the traditional family
camping holiday (Larson, 2005) and an iconic part of Kiwi culture and lifestyle
(Taylor and Beston, 2005). Rising coastal property values have caused at least 20
commercial campgrounds to close, or consider closure, in the past three years
(Taylor and Beston, 2005; McLoughlin, 2005). Also, holiday homes or cottages,
which are called 'baches' or 'cribs' in New Zealand, have become more expensive
as property values increase (Barber, 2005).
Recent political and legal developments have also addressed the rights of
New Zealand's children and their status within the family. The first Commissioner
for Children was appointed in 1989 and the Families Commission/Kmihana -
Whnau was launched in 2004. The Commission's primary function, mandated in
legislation, is to speak up for all families, and to raise awareness of issues that
affect parents and children (Families Commission, 2004). As yet, the Commission
has not addressed issues relating to leisure travel and holiday time despite its
important implications for families in New Zealand. Within the context of New
Zealand it is also important to note the different cultural concepts of the family, for
example the concept of Maori whnau.
To conclude, this review leads to a number of recommendations for scholars
in terms of a future research agenda and possible approaches to exploring the
family holiday as a leisure and tourism experience, as follows.
The summary of themes (Figure 1) illustrates the breakdown of literature
pertaining to family holidays and travel. The outcomes of family travel, in
particular, deserve more research.
Tourism research needs to provide a better understanding of social and
cultural perspectives, such as experiences and benefits gained, rather than
focusing mainly on economic or commercial considerations.
Family holidays are more than the sum of different attractions visited, and
wider research is needed that includes other aspects of the tourism system,
such as transportation, accommodation and activities.
Tourism is not just a quest for out-of-the ordinary experiences; more
 Schnzel, Smith & W eaver ! Family holidays 119

research is needed into more 'mundane' and seemingly trivial tourist

practices and settings, such as second homes and family camping holidays.
An interdisciplinary approach to research is needed that draws knowledge
from a range of associated disciplines, including education, family studies,
sociology, leisure, tourism, human geography and psychology.
Extending the recommendation by Shaw (1997), researchers have to
recognise the diversity of family forms in their research.
Families are all about relationships and social interactions; any research
process needs to take that into consideration and encompass all individual
participants on a family holiday.
Methodological considerations would seem to suggest qualitative research
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approaches, including participant observations and interviews.

Researchers need to actively involve children in the research process, as
already done in other academic disciplines which have set ethical and
methodological precedents.
An untapped contemporary topic for research is the influence of
entertainment and communication technology on the family holiday
experience.
In New Zealand there is an ongoing debate about access families have to
affordable campgrounds. More research is needed into the long-term implic-
ations that the closure of private campgrounds due to rising land prices
will have on the family holiday.

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