Unit - V Measurement of Power, Flow and Temperature

Unit V - Course Material SPRX1003 Metrology & Instrumentation
UNIT V
MEASUREMENT OF POWER, FLOW AND TEMPERATURE
Force.
The mechanical quantity which changes or tends to change the motion or shape of a body
to which it is applied is called force.
Load cells
Load cells are devices used for force measurement through indirect methods.
Principle of working of load cells.
Force applied to the elastic member of the cell results in a proportional displacement or strain is
sensed by calibrated mechanical or electromechanical means.
Principle of working of load cells.
Force applied to the elastic member of the cell results in a proportional displacement or strain is
sensed by calibrated mechanical or electromechanical means.
Devices used to measure force
1. Scale and balance

a. Equal arm balance
b. Unequal arm balance
c. Pendulum scale
2. Elastic force meter Proving ring
3. Load cell
a. Strain gauge load cell
b. Hydraulic load cell
c. Pneumatic load cell
Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering Sathyabama University Page 1

Basic principle of elastic force meter.
When a steel ring is subjected to a force across its diameter, it deflects. This deflection is
proportional to applied force when calibrated.
Basic principle of equal arm balance.
It works on the principle of moment comparison. The beam of the equal arm balance is in
equilibrium when clockwise rotating moment is equal to anticlockwise rotating moment.
Basic principle of hydraulic load cell.
When a force is applied on a liquid medium contained in a confined space, the pressure of
the liquid increases. The increase in pressure of liquid is proportional to the applied force.
Instruments used for the measurement of torque.
1.Optical torsion meter

2.Electrical torsion meter
3.Strain gauge torsion meter
4.Mechanical torsion meter
Basic principle of Mechanical torsion meter.
When a shaft is connected between a driving engine and driven load, a twist occurs on the
shaft between its ends. This angle of twist is measured and calibrated in terms of torque.
Types of strain gauges.
1.Unbonded strain gauge

2.Bonded strain gauge
3.Fine wire strain gauge
4.Metal foil strain gauge
5.Piezo-resistive strain gauge
unbonded strain gauge.
These strain gauges are not directly bonded on to the surface of the structure under study.
Hence they are termed as unbonded strain gauges.

bonded strain gauge.
These strain gauges are directly bonded on to the surface of the structure under study.
Hence they are termed as unbonded strain gauges.
Gauge factor.
It is the ratio of change in resistance to the change in length.
Few materials used in binding of strain gauges.
1.Ceramic cement
2.Epoxy resin
3.Nitrocellulose.
Need for using strain gauge in wheatstone network circuits.
The need for the strain gauge in wheatstone network circuit is that the change in resistance
due to strain in the gauges can neither be measured or made to give an output which can easily
displayed or recorded.
Strain gauge rosettes
The arrangement of strain gauges in the shape of rose is referred to as a strain gauge rosette.
Purpose of temperature measurement
1. It is one of the most common and important measurements.

2. In process industries which involve chemical operations.
3. In studying the temperature of molten metal in foundries.
Instruments used to measure temperature.
1. Bimettalic thermometers
2. Resistance thermometers
3. Thermistors
4. Thermocouples
5. Pyrometer

Thermistor
It is a bulk semiconductor resistance temperature sensor.
Two distinct instruments commonly referred to as pyrometers.
1. Total radiation Pyrometers.

2. Optical pyrometers.
Applications of bimetallic thermometer.
1. Bimetallic thermometer is used in control devices.

2. Used for process applications such as refineries, oil burners, tyre vulcanizers, etc.
Principle of pressure thermometer
When liquids, gases or vapours are heated they expand and when they are cooled they
contract. This is the basic behind the construction of pressure thermometers.
Principle of bimetallic thermometer.
When a bimetallic helix fixed at one end free at the other end is subjected to temperature
changes, the free end of the bimetallic helix deflects proportional to change in temperature. This
deflection becomes a measure of change in temperature.
Advantages of bimetallic thermometer.
1. Their accuracy is between 2% to 5% of the scale.

2. Simple, robust, inexpensive.
Basic principle of resistance thermometers
When an electric conductor is subjected to temperature change the resistance of the

conductor changes. This change in resistance of the conductor becomes a measure of the change in
temperature when calibrated.
Advantages of thermistors
1. Fairly good operating range (100C to 300C).

2. Have ability to withstand electrical and mechanical stresses.
Metal used for thermocouple wire.
1. Chromel - constantan
2. Iron constantan
3. Chromel Alumel
4. Copper constantan
5. Platinum Rhodium
Quantity meter and flow meter.
Quantity meter measures the rate of flow by measuring the total quantity of fluid over a
period of time and dividing it by the time considered.
Flow meter measures the actual flow rate.
Advantages of venturimeter.
1. Low head loss about 10% of differential pressure head.

2. High co-efficient of discharge.
3. Capable of measuring high flow rates in pipes having very large diameter.
4. Characteristics are well established so they are extensively used in process and other industries.
Two types of hot wire anemometer.
1. Constant current type

2. Constant temperature type.
Pyrometer
Three definitions
Any instrument used for measuring high temperatures by means of the radiation emitted
by a hot object
A thermometer designed to measure high temperatures
A device measuring the temperature of an object by means of the quantity and character
of the energy which it radiates
Types of pyrometers
There are two types of pyrometers

(i)Optical Pyrometer
1892 introduced by Lechatelier, which it measured radiation from dull red to white hot Used for
measuring kiln and furnace temperature
Today an optical pyrometer is used in which the color of an electrically heated filament is matched
visually to that of the emitted radiation. Based on the principle of using the human eye to match
the brightness of the hot object to that calibrated inside the instrument
It is made from a small magnifying optical device. Filters that reduce wavelength to 0.65-0.66 and
other filters reduce intensity. These restrictions prevent the device from measuring object that are
glowing (700 C)
(ii)Radiation Pyrometer
Non-contact temperature sensors measure temperature from the amount of thermal

electromagnetic radiation received from a spot on the object of measureMeasures the rate energy
emission per area unit.
Absolute, gauge and differential pressures - zero reference
Although pressure is an absolute quantity, everyday pressure measurements, such as for tire
pressure, are usually made relative to ambient air pressure. In other cases measurements are made
relative to a vacuum or to some other ad hoc reference. When distinguishing between these zero
references, the following terms are used:
Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge
pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute
pressure minus atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted.
Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.
The zero reference in use is usually implied by context, and these words are only added when
clarification is needed.
Atmospheric pressure is typically about 100 kPa at sea level, but is variable with altitude and
weather. If the absolute pressure of a fluid stays constant, the gauge pressure of the same fluid
will vary as atmospheric pressure changes. For example, when a car drives up a mountain, the tire
pressure goes up. Some standard values of atmospheric pressure such as 101.325 kPa or 100 kPa
have been d, and some instruments use one of these standard values as a constant zero reference
instead of the actual variable ambient air pressure. This impairs the accuracy of these instruments,
especially when used at high altitudes.

Use of the atmosphere as reference is usually signified by a (g) after the pressure unit e.g. 30 psi g,
which means that the pressure measured is the total pressure minus atmospheric pressure. There
are two types of gauge reference pressure: vented gauge (vg) and sealed gauge (sg).
34. What are the different units of pressure
Pressure Units
pound-force
technical
per
pascal bar atmosphere atmosphere torr
square inch
(Pa) (bar) (at) (atm) (Torr)
(psi)
1 Pa 1 N/m2 105 1.0197105 9.8692106 7.5006103 145.04106
1 bar 100,000 106 dyn/cm2 1.0197 0.98692 750.06 14.5037744
1 at 98,066.5 0.980665 1 kgf/cm2 0.96784 735.56 14.223
1 atm 101,325 1.01325 1.0332 1 atm 760 14.696
1 Torr;
1 torr 133.322 1.3332103 1.3595103 1.3158103 19.337103
1 mmHg
1 psi 6.894103 68.948103 70.307103 68.046103 51.715 1 lbf/in2
Static and dynamic pressures
Static pressure is uniform in all directions, so pressure measurements are independent of direction
in an immovable (static) fluid. Flow, however, applies additional pressure on surfaces
perpendicular to the flow direction, while having little impact on surfaces parallel to the flow
direction. This directional component of pressure in a moving (dynamic) fluid is called dynamic
pressure. An instrument facing the flow direction measures the sum of the static and dynamic
pressures; this measurement is called the total pressure or stagnation pressure. Since dynamic
pressure is referenced to static pressure, it is neither gauge nor absolute; it is a differential
pressure.
While static gauge pressure is of primary importance to determining net loads on pipe walls,
dynamic pressure is used to measure flow rates and airspeed. Dynamic pressure can be measured
by taking the differential pressure between instruments parallel and perpendicular to the flow.
Need of calibrating a pressure gauge
Pressure gauges are either direct- or indirect-reading. Hydrostatic and elastic gauges measure
pressure are directly influenced by force exerted on the surface by incident particle flux, and are
called direct reading gauges. Thermal and ionization gauges read pressure indirectly by
measuring a gas property that changes in a predictable manner with gas density. Indirect
measurements are susceptible to more errors than direct measurements.
Various direct methods of measurement of force.
Force is very basic engineering parameter the measurement of which can be done in many
ways as follows:
(i) Direct Methods: Involves a direct comparison with a known gravitational force on a
standard mass, say by a balance.
(ii) Indirect Methods: Involves the measurement of effect of force on a body, such as
acceleration of a body of known ma subjected to force.
(i) Direct Methods
(a) Use of Analytical Balance
Analytical balance consists of an arm that rotates about a pivot. Two forces W 1 W2 (or)
weights are added at the two ends as shown in figure.
Let W1 be the know force and W2 be the unknown. Let G be the gravity center of the arm
and WG be its weight. When W1 = W2, the arm is unbalanced. This unbalance is indicated by angle
the pointer making with the vertical.
For equilibrium, the requirement is
WG.XG = W1 W1 W2 W2

(b) Use of Pendulum Scale
This uses the Principle of multiple leverage. The input, a direct force or a force Proportional
to weight is transmitted from a suitable agency and applied to the lord rod. As the load is applied,
the sectors rotate about A (Figure) moving the counter weights outward. This movement increases
the counterweight effective moment until the load and balance moments are equalized. Motion of
the equalizer bar is converted to indicator movement by a rack and pinion.
Indirect methods of measurement of force (i) Acceleration method (ii) Using elastic loaded
members (iii) Using cantilever elastic member.
(a) Use of Acceleration
A force will make a body accelerate. By measuring the acceleration, the force may be
determined, from the equation F=ma, when m mass of the body used. To measure acceleration,
accelerometers are used.

(b) Use of Elastic Loaded Members
This uses the principle of finding strain produced in a body to measure the force applied.
For measuring displacement, strain gauges are mounted as shown in figure. The body is subjected
to a force and the gauges measure the strain so produced.
Fl
From basic mechanics of materials, force F produces a displacement
AE
Where
l Length of the specimen

A Cross-sectional area
E Youngs modulus
F
And strain 1, 2
AE
F
2 , 4
AE

being poisons ratio. If the output of the circuit is e, it is given by
V.GF
e= (1 2 3 4 )
4
V.GF F
e= (l )
2 AE
(c) Use of Cantilever Elastic member
In a cantilever beam, if the point of application of load is known, the bending moment
caused by it can be interpreted as force applied.
It is established that due to force, F, deflection of a cantilever at a length l from the point of
application of force, is given as
W I3
3 EI
where E Youngs modulus of beam material,
bd3
I Moment of inertia of beam section =
12
From bending equation,
Moment at section x Mx x x z (z-section modulus)
bd2
Mx x x
6

x
Strain x is given by x
E
6.Fl1
i.e., x
E.bd2
Gauges R1, R3 measure tensile strain and
R2, R4 measure compressive strain.
Indirect methods of measurement of force (i) Using proving Rings (ii) Using load cells.
(i) Use of proving Rings
Proving rings are steel rings used for calibration of material testing machines in situations
where, due to their bulkness, dead weight standards cannot be used.
P ring is a circular ring of rectangular section and may support tensile or comprehensive force
across its diameter.
the change in radius in the direction of force, is given by
4 F.d
3
K

16 2 EI
where d is the outer diameter of the ring and
K is stiffness.
Deflection of the ring is measured using a precision micrometer. To get precise measurements,
one edge of the micrometer is mounted on a vibrating reed which is plucked to obtain a vibratory
motion. The micrometer contact is then moved forward until a noticeable damping of the
vibration is observed.

Maximum deflection is typically of the order of 1% of the outside diameter of the ring. Proving
rings are normally used for force measurement within the range of 2 kN to 2 mN.
(ii) Use of Load Cell
Force transducers intended for weighing purposes are called load cells. Instead of using total
deflection as a measure of load, strain gauge load cells measure load in terms of unit strains. A
load cell utilizes an elastic member as the primary transducer
and strain gauges as secondary transducer. Figure
shows one such load cell arrangement.

Working of a DC Dynamometer for the measurement of torque.
Mechanical Dynamometer:
These come under the absorption type. An example for this kind is prony brake.
In Prony brake, mechanical energy is converted into heat through dry friction between the
wooden brake blocks and the flywheel (pulley) of the machine. One block carries a lever arm. An
arrangement is provided to tighten the rope which is connected to the arm. Rope is tightened so as
to increase ht frictional resistance between the blocks and the pulley.
If F Load applied and

2NT 2NFr
Power dissipated P
60 60
r - Lever arm
N Speed of flywheel (rpm)
Torque T = F.r
The capacity of Prony brake is limited because:
1. Due to wear of wooden blocks, friction coefficient varies. So, unsuitable for large powers
when used for long periods.
2.To limit temperature rise, cooling is to be ensured.
D.C. Dynamometer
D.C. dynamometer is usable as an absorption as well as transmission dynamometer. So, it

finds its use in I.C. Engines, steam turbines and pumps. A d.c. dynamometer is basically a d.c.
motor with a provision to run it as a d.c. generator where the input mechanical energy, after
conversion to electrical energy, can either be dissipated through a resistance grid or recovered for
use. When used as an absorption dynamometer it acts as d.c. generator. (figure) Cradling in
trunnion bearings permits the determination of reaction torque.

The torque is measured by measuring a balancing force (by means of a load cell, for
example) at a fixed known torque arm. When used as a transmission dynamometer it performs as
a d.c. motor. It then measures the torque and power input to the machine, for example, a pump
that absorbs power.
Its good performance at low speeds and ease of control makes it an efficient means of torque
measurement.
Working of a eddy current or inductor dynamometer for the measurement of torque.
Eddy Current or Inductor Dynamometers:
This is an example for absorption type dynamometers.

Principle: When a conducting material moves through a magnetic flux field, voltage is generated,
which causes current to flow. If the conductor is a wire forming a part of a complete circuit will be
caused to flow through that circuit, and with some form of commutating device a form of a.c. or
d.c. generator may result.

An eddy current dynamometer is shown in figure. It consists of a metal disc or wheel

which is rotated in the flux of a magnetic field. The field if produced by field elements or coils
excited by an external source and attached to the dynamometer housing which is mounted in
trunnion bearings. As the disc turns, eddy currents are generated. Its reaction with the magnetic
field tends to rotate the complete housing in the trunnion bearings. Water cooling is employed.
Measuring instruments used for temperature measurement and the working of bimetallic
thermometers.
Temperature measuring instruments may be classified on the basis of:
1. Nature of change produced in the temperature sensing elements.

2. Electrical and non-electrical operation principle.
3. Temperature range of the instrument.
Classification based on the Nature of Change Produced.
1. Glass thermometers
2. Pressure gauge thermometers
3. Differential expansion thermometers
4. Electrical resistance thermometers
5. Thermo couples
6. Optical pyrometers

7. Radiation pyrometers
8. Fusion pyrometers
9. Calorimetric pyrometers
Based on Electrical and non-electrical Principles
1. Primarily electrical or electronic in nature

2. Not primarily electrical or electronic in nature.
Bimetallic Thermometers:
Principle Involved : These use the principles of metallic expansion when temperature changes.
A bimetallic strip is shown in figure which is straight initially. When temperature changes,
its shape also changes into an arc.
Fig. Deformation of bimetallic Strip
The displacement of the free end can be converted into an electric signal through use of
secondary transducers like variable resistance, inductance and capacitance transducers. Figure
shows a strip of bimetal in the form of a spiral. The curvature of the strip varies with temperature.
This causes the pointer to deflect. A scale is provided which has been calibrated to show the
temperature directly.
This kind of spiral is mostly used in devices measuring ambient temperature and air-
conditioning thermostats.
Advantages of Bimetallic Thermometers
1. Simple
2. Inexpensive

3. Accuracy of 0.5% to 2%
Limitations
1. Not usable above 400C because of possibility of warping
Application Areas of Bimetal Thermometers
1. Refineries
2. Vulcanizers
3. Oil burners, etc.
Working of thermocouples and thermistors
i) Thermocouples
Principles Involved : When heat is applied to the junction of two dissimilar metals, an e.m.f. is
generated. (Figure)

The e.m.f. produced E can be written as,

E = k.
Where - Difference in temperature of two junctions
This means that the e.m.f. produced is directly proportional to the temperature difference.
So, if the conjunction is maintained at constant temperature the thermocouple reading will be a
direct measure of temperature. (figure)
ii) Thermistors:
Thermistor is a temperature sensitive variable resistor made of a ceramic like

semiconducting material. They are made of metal oxides and their mixtures like oxides of cobalt,
copper, nickel, etc. Unlike metals, thermistors respond negatively to temperature. They behave as
resistors with a high negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Typically, for each 1 C rise in
temperature, the resistance of a thermistor decreases by about 5%. This high sensitivity to
temperature changes makes the thermistor useful in precision temperature measurements. The
resistance of thermistors vary from 0.5 to 0.75M . Variation of resistivity with temperature is
shown in figure.

The temperature vs resistance relation is given by

l 1
R R0e
T T0
Where R Resistance at temperature TK

R0 - resistance at temperature T0K
B Constant (3400 K to 4600 K)
Thermistors come in different configurations some of which are shown in figure.
Application Area of Thermistor
1. Measurement of thermal conductivity

2. Measurement of gas composition
3. Measurement of flow and pressure of liquids.

Flow is measured using Orifice meter and Venturi meter.
i) Orifice Meter:
Let a1 Area at section I-I

a0 Area of orifice
Cd Discharge coefficient
Cd a1 a0
Then, Flow rate Q
A 21 a2o
ii) Venturimeter:
This is just like an orifice meter. It has three distinct parts, namely convergent cone, throat
and divergent cone. A manometer measures the pressure difference between two sections as
shown in figure.
Let a1 - Area at the inlet (1-1)

A2 - Area at the section (2-2)
x - Pressure head difference
Cd - Discharge coefficient
Cd a1 a2 2 g x
Then, Q =
a21 a22

Flow is measured using Rotameter and Pitot tube.
i) Rotameter:
A rotameter is a variable area type flow meter. It consists of a vertical tapered tube with a
float which is free to move within the tube. The fluid goes from the bottom to the top. When no
fluid flows, the float rests at the bottom of the tube. The float is made of such a diameter that it
completely blocks the inlet. When flow starts in the pipeline and fluid reaches the float, the
buoyant effect of fluid makes the float lighter. The float passage remains closed until the pressure
of the flowing material plus the buoyance effect exceeds the downward pressure due to the float
weight. Thus, depending on flow, the float assumes a position. Thus the float gives the reading of
flow rate.
ii) Pitot Tube:
Principle: Transformation of kinetic energy of a liquid into potential energy in the form of a static
head.
Figure shows a pitot tube installed in a pipeline where it acts like a probe. The tube consists of two
concentric tubes, the inner tube with its open ends faces the liquid.

The outer tube has a closed end and has four to eight holes in its wall. The pressure in the outer
tube is the static pressure in the line. Total pressure is sum of static pressure and the pressure due
to the impact of fluid.
If P - Pressure at inlet (Stagnation pressure)

Ps - Static pressure
- Density, then
Velocity v = 2 / (P P0 ), from which flow rate is determined.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic systems for the measurement of force.
Hydraulic and Pneumatic Systems:
If a force is applied to one side of a piston or diaphragm, and a pressure, either hydraulic or
pneumatic, is applied to the other side, some particular value of pressure will be necessary to
exactly balance the force. Hydraulic and pneumatic load cells are based on this principle.
For hydraulic systems, conventional piston and cylinder arrangements may be used.
However, the friction between piston and cylinder wall and required pickings and seals is
unpredictable, and thus good accuracy is difficult to stain. Use of the floating piston with a
diaphragm-type seal practically dominates this variable.

Figure shows a hydraulic cell in section. This cell is similar to the type used in some materials-
testing machines. The piston does not actually contact a cylinder wall in the normal sense, but a
thin elastic diaphragm, or bride ring, of steel is used as the positive seal, which allows small piston
movement. Mechanical stops prevent the seal from being overstrained.
When force acts on the piston, the resulting oil pressure is transmitted to some form of
pressure sensing system such as the simple Bourdon gage. If the system is completely filled with
fluid, very small transfer or flow will be required. Piston movement may be less than 0.002 in at
full capacity. In this respect, at least, the system will have good dynamic response; however,
overall response will be determined very largely by the response of the pressure sensing element.
Very high capacities and accuracies are possible with cells of the type. Capacities to
5,000,000 Ibf (22.2MN) and accuracies of the order of % of reading or 1/10% of capacity.
Whichever is greater, have been attained. Since hydraulic cells are somewhat sensitive to
temperature change, provision should be made for adjusting the zero setting. Temperature
changes during the measuring process cause errors of about % per 10F change.
Pneumatic load cells
Pneumatic load cells are quite similar to hydraulic cells in that the applied load is balanced
by a pressure acting over a resisting area, with the pressure becoming a measure of the applied
load. However, in addition to using air rather than liquid as the pressurized medium, these cells
differ from the hydraulic ones in several other important respects.
Pneumatic load cells commonly use diaphragms of a flexible maternal rather than pistons
and they are designed to regulate the balancing pressure automatically. A typical arrangement is
shown in figure.

Air pressure is supplied to one side of the diaphragm and allowed to escape through a
position controlling bleed valve. The pressure under the diaphragm, therefore, is controlled both
by source pressure and bleed valve position. The diaphragm seeks the position that will result in
just the proper air pressure to support the load, assuming that the supply pressure is great enough
so that its value multiplied by the effective area will at least support the load.
We see that as the load changes magnitude, the measuring diaphragm must change its
position slightly. Unless care is used in the design, a nonlinearity may results, the cause of which
may be made clear by referring to figure.

As the diaphragm moves, the portion between the load plate and the fixed housing will alter
position as shown. If it is assumed that the diaphragm is of a perfectly flexible material, incapable
of transmitting any but tensile forces, then the division of vertical load components transferred to
housing and load plate will occur at points A or A, depending on diaphragm position. We see
then tat the effective area will change, depending on the geometry of this portion of the
diaphragm. If a complete semicircular roll is provided, as shown in figure (b) this effect will be
minimized.
Since simple pneumatic cells may tend to be dynamically unstable, most commercial types
provide some form of viscous damper to minimize this tendency. Also additional chambers and
diaphragms may be added to provide for tare adjustment. Single-unit capacities to 80,000 Ibf (356
kN) may be obtained, and by use of paralleled units practically any total load or force may be
measured. Errors as small as 0.1% of full scale may be expected.
Working of pressure thermometers with a neat sketch.
Pressure Thermometers:
Figure shows the essentials of the practical pressure thermometer. The necessary parts are
bulb A, tube B, pressure sensing gage C, and some sort of filling medium. Pressure
thermometers are called liquid-filled, gas filled, or vapor filled, depending on whether the filling
medium is completely liquid, completely gaseous, or a combination of a liquid and its vapour. A
primary advantage of these thermometers is that they can provide sufficient force output to
permit the direct of recording and controlling devices. The pressure-type temperature sensing
system is usually less costly than other systems. Tubes as log as 200ft may be used successfully.

Expansion (or contraction) of bulb A and the contained fluid or gas, caused by temperature
change, alters the volume and pressure in the system. In the case of the liquid-filled system, the
sensing device C acts primarily as a differential volume indicatory, with the volume increment
serving as an analog of temperature. For the gas-or vapour-filled systems, the sensing device
serves primarily as a pressure indicator, with the pressure providing the measure of temperature.
In both cases, of course, both pressure and volume change.
Ideally the tube or capillary should serve simply as a connecting link between the bulb and
the indicator. When liquid or gas-filled systems are used, the tube and its filling are also
temperature sensitive, and any difference from calibration conditions along the tube introduces
output error. This error is reduced by increasing the ratio of bulb volume to tube volume.
Unfortunately, increasing bulb size reduces the time response of a system, which may introduce
problems of another nature. On the other hand, reducing tube size, within reason, does not
degrade response particularly because, in any case, flow rate is negligible. Another source of error
tht should not be overlooked is any pressure gradient resulting from difference in elevation of
bulb and indicator not accounted for by calibration.
Temperature along the tube is not a factor for vapour-pressure systems, however, so long
as a free liquid surface exists in the bulb. In this case, Daltons law for vapours applies, which
states that if both phases (liquid and vapour) are present, only one pressure is possible for a given
temperature. This is an important advantage of the vapour-pressure system. In many cases,
though, the tube in this type of system will be filled with liquid, and hence the system is
susceptible to error caused by elevation difference.

Principle and working of thermistors.
Resistance elements sensitive to temperature are made of metals generally considered to be

good conductors of electricity. Examples are nickel, copper, platinum and silver. A temperature
measuring device using an element of this type is commonly referred to as a resistance
thermometer, or a resistance temperature detector, abbreviated RTD. Of more recent origin are
elements made from semiconducting materials having large and usually negative resistance
coefficients. Such materials are usually some combination of metallic oxides of cobalt, manganese,
and nickel. These devices are called thermistors.
One important difference between these two kinds of material is that, whereas the
resistance change in the RTD is small and positive (increasing temperature causes increased
resistance), that of the thermistor is relatively large and usually negative. In addition, the RTD
type provides nearly a linear temperature resistance relation, whereas that of the thermistor is
nonlinear. Still another important difference lies in the temperature ranges over which each may
be used. The practical operating range for the thermistor lies between approximately - 100 C to
275C (-150F to 500F). The range for the resistance thermometer is much greater, being from
about - 260C to 1000C (-435 F to 1800F). Finally, the metal resistance elements are more time
stable than the semiconductor oxides; hence they provide better reproducibility with lower
hysteresis.
Resistance Thermometers (RTDs)
Evidence of the importance and reliability of the resistance thermometer may be had by
recalling that the International Temperature Scale of 1990 specifies a platinum resistance
thermometer as the interpolation standard over the range from -259.35C to 961.78C (-484.52F to
1763.20F).
Certain properties are desirable in material used for resistance thermometer elements. The
material should have a resistivity permitting fabrication in convenient sizes without excessive
bulk, which would degrade time response. In addition, its thermal coefficient of resistivity should
be high and as constant as possible, thereby providing an approximately linear output of
reasonable magnitude.
The material should be corrosion resistant and should not undergo phase changes in the
temperature range of corrosion resistant and should not undergo phase changes in the
temperature range of interest. Finally, it should be available in a condition providing reproducible
and consistent results. In regard to this last requirement, it has been found that to produce
precision resistance thermometers, great care must be exercised in minimizing residual strains,
requiring careful heat treatment subsequent to forming.

As is generally the case in such matters, no materials is universally acceptable for resistance-
thermometer elements. Undoubtedly, platinum, nickel, and copper are the materials most
commonly used, although others such as tungsten, silver and iron have also been employed. The
specific choice normally depends upon which compromises may be accepted. The temperature
resistance relation of an RTD must be determined experimentally. For most metals, the result can
be accurately represented as

R(T) R0 1 A T To B T T0 2
where
R(T) = the resistance at temperature T,
R0 = the resistance at a reference temperature T0
A and B = temperature coefficients of resistance depending on material.
Over a limited temperature interval (perhaps 50C for platinum) a linear approximation to
the resistance variation may be quite acceptable.
R(T) = R0 (1+ A(T T0))
But for the highest accuracy, a high order polynomial fit is required.
The resistance element is most often a metal wire wrapped around an electrically insulating
support of glass, ceramic or mica. The latter may have a variety of configurations, ranging from a
simple flat strip, as shown in figure to intricate bird-cage arrangement (3). The mounted element
is then provided with a protective enclosure. When permanent installations are made and when
additional protection from corrosion or mechanical abuse is required, a well or socket may be
used, such as shown in figure.

More recently, thin films of metal-glass slurry have been used as resistance elements. These films
are deposited onto a ceramic substrate and laser trimmed. Film RTDs are less expensive than the
wire RTDs and have a larger resistance for a given size; however, they are also somewhat less
stable (4). Resistance elements similar in construction to foil strain gages are available as well. The
resistance grid is deposited onto a supporting film, such as Kapton, which may then be cemented
to a surface. These sensors are generally designed to have low strain sensitivity and high
temperature sensitivity. Table describes characteristic of several typical commercially available
resistance thermometers.
The use of a pyrometer, its working principle and Applications
A pyrometer is a non-contacting device that intercepts and measures thermal radiation, a process
known as pyrometry. This device can be used to determine the temperature of an object's surface.
The word pyrometer comes from the Greek word for fire, "" (pyro), and meter, meaning to
measure. Pyrometer was originally coined to denote a device capable of measuring temperatures
of objects above incandescence (i.e. objects bright to the human eye).
Principle of operation
A pyrometer has an optical system and detector. The optical system focuses the thermal radiation
onto the detector. The output signal of the detector (Temperature T) is related to the thermal
radiation or irradiance j* of the target object through the StefanBoltzmann law, the constant of
proportionality , called the Stefan-Boltzmann constant and the emissivity of the object.
This output is used to infer the object's temperature. Thus, there is no need for direct contact
between the pyrometer and the object, as there is with thermocouple and Resistance temperature
detector (RTDs).
Applications
Pyrometer are suited especially to the measurement of moving objects or any surfaces that can not
be reached or can not be touched.
In Industry: Temperature is a fundamental parameter in metallurgical furnace operations.
Reliable and continuous measurement of the melt temperature is essential for effective control of
the operation. Smelting rates can be maximized, slag can be produced at the optimum
temperature, fuel consumption is minimized and refractory life may also be lengthened.
Thermocouples were the traditional devices used for this purpose, but they are unsuitable for
continuous measurement because they rapidly dissolve.
Over-the-bath Pyrometer: Continuous pyrometric measurement from above the bath surface is
still employed, but is known to give poor results because of emissivity variations, interference by
gases and particulate matter in the intervening atmosphere, and dust accumulation on the optics.

Tuyre Pyrometer: The Tuyre Pyrometer is an optical instrument for temperature measurement
through the tuyeres which are normally used for feeding air or reactants into the bath of the
furnace.
Different types of pressure measuring instruments
Many instruments have been invented to measure pressure, with different advantages and
disadvantages. Pressure range, sensitivity, dynamic response and cost all vary by several orders of
magnitude from one instrument design to the next. The oldest type is the liquid column (a vertical
tube filled with mercury) manometer invented by Evangelista Torricelli in 1643. The U-Tube was
invented by Christian Huygens in 1661.
Hydrostatic Gauges
Hydrostatic gauges (such as the mercury column manometer) compare pressure to the hydrostatic
force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge measurements are
independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear
calibration. They have poor dynamic response.
Piston Gauges
Piston-type gauges counterbalance the pressure of a fluid with a solid weight or a spring. Another
name for piston gauge is deadweight tester. For example, dead-weight testers used for calibration
or tire-pressure gauges.
Liquid column
The difference in fluid height in a liquid column manometer is proportional to the pressure
difference.
Liquid column gauges consist of a vertical column of liquid in a tube whose ends are exposed to
different pressures. The column will rise or fall until its weight is in equilibrium with the pressure
differential between the two ends of the tube. A very simple version is a U-shaped tube half-full of
liquid, one side of which is connected to the region of interest while the reference pressure (which
might be the atmospheric pressure or a vacuum) is applied to the other. The difference in liquid
level represents the applied pressure. The pressure exerted by a column of fluid of height h and
density is given by the hydrostatic pressure equation, P = hg. Therefore the pressure difference
between the applied pressure Pa and the reference pressure P0 in a U-tube manometer can be
found by solving Pa P0 = hg. If the fluid being measured is significantly dense, hydrostatic
corrections may have to be made for the height between the moving surface of the manometer
working fluid and the location where the pressure measurement is desired.
Based on the use and structure following type of manometers are used
1. Simple Manometer
2. Micromanometer
3. Differential manometer
4. Inverted differential manometer
McLeod gauge
A McLeod gauge isolates a sample of gas and compresses it in a modified mercury manometer
until the pressure is a few mmHg. The gas must be well-behaved during its compression (it must
not condense, for example). The technique is slow and unsuited to continual monitoring, but is
capable of good accuracy.
Useful range: above 10-4 torr (roughly 10-2 Pa) as high as 106 Torr (0.1 mPa),
0.1 mPa is the lowest direct measurement of pressure that is possible with current technology.
Other vacuum gauges can measure lower pressures, but only indirectly by measurement of other
pressure-controlled properties. These indirect measurements must be calibrated to SI units via a
direct measurement, most commonly a McLeod gauge.
Aneroid Gauges
Aneroid gauges are based on a metallic pressure sensing element which flexes elastically under
the effect of a pressure difference across the element. "Aneroid" means "without fluid," and the
term originally distinguished these gauges from the hydrostatic gauges described above.
However, aneroid gauges can be used to measure the pressure of a liquid as well as a gas, and
they are not the only type of gauge that can operate without fluid. For this reason, they are often
called mechanical gauges in modern language. Aneroid gauges are not dependent on the type of
gas being measured, unlike thermal and ionization gauges, and are less likely to contaminate the
system than hydrostatic gauges. The pressure sensing element may be a Bourdon tube, a
diaphragm, a capsule, or a set of bellows, which will change shape in response to the pressure of
the region in question. The deflection of the pressure sensing element may be read by a linkage
connected to a needle, or it may be read by a secondary transducer. The most common secondary
transducers in modern vacuum gauges measure a change in capacitance due to the mechanical
deflection. Gauges that rely on a change in capacitances are often referred to as Baratron gauges.
Bourdon Gauges
A Bourdon gauge uses a coiled tube, which, as it expands due to pressure increase causes a
rotation of an arm connected to the tube. In 1849 the Bourdon tube pressure gauge was patented
in France by Eugene Bourdon.

The pressure sensing element is a closed coiled tube connected to the chamber or pipe in which
pressure is to be sensed. As the gauge pressure increases the tube will tend to uncoil, while a
reduced gauge pressure will cause the tube to coil more tightly. This motion is transferred through
a linkage to a gear train connected to an indicating needle. The needle is presented in front of a
card face inscribed with the pressure indications associated with particular needle deflections. In a
barometer, the Bourdon tube is sealed at both ends and the absolute pressure of the ambient
atmosphere is sensed. Differential Bourdon gauges use two Bourdon tubes and a mechanical
linkage that compares the readings.
In the following illustrations the transparent cover face of the pictured combination pressure and
vacuum gauge has been removed and the mechanism removed from the case. This particular
gauge is a combination vacuum and pressure gauge used for automotive diagnosis:
the left side of the face, used for measuring manifold vacuum, is calibrated in centimetres of
mercury on its inner scale and inches of mercury on its outer scale.
the right portion of the face is used to measure fuel pump pressure and is calibrated in
fractions of 1 kgf/cm on its inner scale and pounds per square inch on its outer scale.
Diaphragm Gauges
A pile of pressure capsules with corrugated diaphragms in an aneroid barograph.

A second type of aneroid gauge uses the deflection of a flexible membrane that separates regions
of different pressure. The amount of deflection is repeatable for known pressures so the pressure
can be determined by using calibration. The deformation of a thin diaphragm is dependent on the
difference in pressure between its two faces. The reference face can be open to atmosphere to
measure gauge pressure, open to a second port to measure differential pressure, or can be sealed
against a vacuum or other fixed reference pressure to measure absolute pressure. The deformation
can be measured using mechanical, optical or capacitive techniques. Ceramic and metallic
diaphragms are used.
Useful range: above 10-2 Torr (roughly 1 Pa)
For absolute measurements, welded pressure capsules with diaphragms on either side are often
used.
Shape:
Flat
corrugated
flattened tube
capsule

Bellows Gauges
In gauges intended to sense small pressures or pressure differences, or require that an absolute
pressure be measured, the gear train and needle may be driven by an enclosed and sealed bellows
chamber, called an aneroid, which means "without liquid". (Early barometers used a column of
liquid such as water or the liquid metal mercury suspended by a vacuum.) This bellows
configuration is used in aneroid barometers (barometers with an indicating needle and dial card),
altimeters, altitude recording barographs, and the altitude telemetry instruments used in weather
balloon radiosondes. These devices use the sealed chamber as a reference pressure and are driven
by the external pressure. Other sensitive aircraft instruments such as air speed indicators and rate
of climb indicators (variometers) have connections both to the internal part of the aneroid chamber
and to an external enclosing chamber.

Unit - V Measurement of Power, Flow and Temperature

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Unit - V Measurement of Power, Flow and Temperature

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Unit V - Course Material SPRX1003 Metrology & Instrumentation

Principle of working of load cells.

Principle of working of load cells.

Devices used to measure force

1. Scale and balance

2. Elastic force meter Proving ring

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Basic principle of equal arm balance.

Basic principle of hydraulic load cell.

Instruments used for the measurement of torque.

1.Optical torsion meter

Basic principle of Mechanical torsion meter.

Types of strain gauges.

1.Unbonded strain gauge

unbonded strain gauge.

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bonded strain gauge.

It is the ratio of change in resistance to the change in length.

Few materials used in binding of strain gauges.

Need for using strain gauge in wheatstone network circuits.

Strain gauge rosettes

Purpose of temperature measurement

1. It is one of the most common and important measurements.

Instruments used to measure temperature.

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It is a bulk semiconductor resistance temperature sensor.

Two distinct instruments commonly referred to as pyrometers.

1. Total radiation Pyrometers.

Applications of bimetallic thermometer.

1. Bimetallic thermometer is used in control devices.

Principle of pressure thermometer

Principle of bimetallic thermometer.

Advantages of bimetallic thermometer.

1. Their accuracy is between 2% to 5% of the scale.

Basic principle of resistance thermometers

When an electric conductor is subjected to temperature change the resistance of the

1. Fairly good operating range (100C to 300C).

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2. Have ability to withstand electrical and mechanical stresses.

Metal used for thermocouple wire.

Quantity meter and flow meter.

1. Low head loss about 10% of differential pressure head.

Two types of hot wire anemometer.

1. Constant current type

There are two types of pyrometers

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Non-contact temperature sensors measure temperature from the amount of thermal

Absolute, gauge and differential pressures - zero reference

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Static and dynamic pressures

Need of calibrating a pressure gauge

Various direct methods of measurement of force.

(i) Direct Methods

(a) Use of Analytical Balance

For equilibrium, the requirement is

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(b) Use of Pendulum Scale

(a) Use of Acceleration

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(b) Use of Elastic Loaded Members

l Length of the specimen

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(c) Use of Cantilever Elastic member