Design Calculations,

Section VIII, Division 1

Pressure Vessel Design
Shall include the requirements of:
Introduction
Subsection A, General Requirements Subsection B, Methods of
Fabrication
Subsection C, Classes of Materials
Mandatory Appendices
Section II, V, and IX when reference
May include:
Code Cases
Nonmandatory Appendices
Other sources which do not conflict with mandatory requirements
 UG-16 General

(b) Minimum thickness of shells and heads is 1/16 in. (1.5 mm) excluding
corrosion allowance (C.A.), after forming & regardless of product form
except:
(1) Heat transfer plates of plate type heat exchangers.
(2) Inner pipe of double pipe heat exchangers and tubes in shell and tube
heat exchangers (where the pipe or tube is NPS 6 [DIN 150] or less.
(3) Unfired steam boilers shall be 1/4 in. (6mm) exclusive of corrosion
allowance.
(4) Compressed air, steam or water service vessels of UCS-23 materials
shall be 3/32 in. (2.5mm) excluding corrosion allowance.
 UG-16 General
(c) Mill Under tolerance
Plate material shall not be ordered thinner than the design thickness.
Vessels made of plate furnished with an under tolerance of not more
than the smaller of 0.01 in. (0.25mm) or 6% of the ordered thickness may
be used at the full design pressure for the ordered thickness. When the
material spec, allows a greater under tolerance, the ordered thickness shall
be increased so the material received is within these stated tolerances.
(d) Pipe Under tolerance
If pipe or tube is ordered by its nominal wall thickness, the material
specification manufacturing under tolerance on wall thickness shall be
taken into account (except for nozzle wall reinforcement area
requirements per UG-37).
UG-16 General
After determining the minimum t, the thickness shall be increased
by an amount sufficient to provide the manufacturing under tolerance
allowed in the material specification.
SCH SCH SCH SCH SCH SCH
NPS OD SCH 10 SCH 20
30 40 60 80 100 160
6 6.625 - - - 0.280 - 0.432 - 0.718
8 8.625 0.109 0.250 0.277 0.322 0.406 0.500 0.593 0.906
10 10.75 0.134 0.250 0.307 0.365 0.500 0.593 0.718 1.125

The decimal thicknesses listed for the respective pipe sizes represent their nominal or
average wall dimensions and include an allowance of 12.5% under the nominal thickness.
UG-16 General

(e) Corrosion Allowance In Design Formulas

All dimensional symbols used in all design formulas throughout
this Division represent dimensions in the corroded condition.
Therefore, material designated for corrosion purposes cannot
contribute to the strength of the vessel. Such material must be
deducted when determining design pressure, and added to the
required thickness to determine design thickness. (Definitions,
Appendix 3)
 UG-19 Special Constructions .'.

(b) Special Shapes

Vessels other than cylindrical or spherical and those for which no
design rules are provided in this Division may be designed under the
conditions set forth in U-2.
U-2(g) This Division of Section VIII does not contain rules to cover
all details of design and construction. Where complete details are not
given, it is intended that the manufacturer, subject to the acceptance
of the Inspector, shall provide details of design and construction
which will be as safe as those provided by the rules of this Division.
(c) No Design Rules
When no design rules are given and the strength of a vessel (or part)
cannot be calculated with a satisfactory assurance of accuracy,
Maximum Allowable Working Pressure shall be established in
accordance with the provisions of UG-101. (Proof testing)
UG-20 Design Temperature
(a) Maximum
Shall not be less than the mean metal temperature under operating
conditions for the part under consideration.
May be determined by computation or measurement from
equipment "in service" under equivalent operating conditions.
(b) Minimum
Is the lowest expected "in service",
Determined same as for maximum temperature,
Consideration includes:
Lowest operating temperatures,
Operational upsets,
Auto refrigeration,
Atmospheric conditions,
Any other source of cooling.
UG-20 Design Temperature

(c) Maximum
Design temperatures in excess of the maximum temperatures listed
in the tables referenced in UG-23 are not permitted.
In addition, design temperatures for vessels under external pressure
shall not exceed the maximum temperatures given on the external
pressure charts.

(d) The design of zones with different metal temperatures may be

based on their determined temperatures.
(e) Suggested methods for obtaining the operating temperatures of
vessel walls in service are given in Appendix C.
 UG-21 Design Pressure
When determining design pressure, consideration must include the
following.
At least the most severe condition if coincident pressure and
temperature expected in normal operation.

The operating and test

conditions including the
maximum difference in
pressure between
The inside and outside of the
vessel,
Any two chambers of a
combination unit.
UG-98 Maximum Allowable Working Pressure
(a) It is the maximum permissible pressure at the top of the
vessel in its normal operating position.

(b) The MAWP for a vessel is the maximum internal or

external pressure, including static head thereon as
determined by the rules and formulas of this Division,
together with the effect of any combination of loadings
listed in UG-22 which are likely to occur for the
designated coincident temperature, excluding any metal
specified as corrosion allowance (UG-25).
 UG-22 Loadings
The loadings to be considered in designing a vessel shall include
those from:
Internal or external design pressure (UG-21).
Weight of the vessel & normal contents under operating or test
conditions (this includes additional pressure due to the static head of
liquids).

- 1 cubic foot of water at 62F = 62.35 lb.

- 62.35 lb. /1728 cubic inches = 0.0361 lb. / cu. inch
- 0.0361 cu. inches x 12 inches = 0.433 lb./foot (for water)
UG-23 Maximum Allowable Stress Values

The maximum allowable tensile stress values permitted for

different materials are given in Subpart 1 of Section II, Part D.
A listing of these materials are included in Subsection C.
Materials meeting more than one specification and/or grade may
be used provided all requirements for the selected specification and/or
grade are met.
UG-25 Corrosion
(a) the user or his designated agent (see U-2) shall specify
corrosion allowances other than those required by this Division.
Where corrosion allowances are not provided, this fact shall be
indicated in the Data Report.
(b) vessels or parts subject to thinning by
Corrosion
Erosion
Mechanical abrasion
shall have provision made for the desired life of the vessel by a
suitable increase in the thickness over that determined by the design
formulas, or by using some other suitable method of protection. (See
Appendix E).
UG-25 Corrosion
(c) Material for these purposes need not be of the same thickness
for all parts of the vessel if different rates of attack are expected for
the various parts.
(d) No additional thickness need be provided when previous
experience in like service has shown that corrosion does not occur or
is of only a superficial nature.

(e) Telltale Holes

May be used to provide some positive indication when the thickness
has been reduced to a dangerous degree.
Shall not be used in vessels which are to contain lethal substances
[seeUW-2(a)], except as permitted by ULW-76 for vent holes in
layered construction.
UG-25 Corrosion

(e) Telltale Holes

(f) Openings for Drains

Vessels subject to corrosion shall be
supplied with a suitable drain opening at
the lowest point practicable in the vessel;
or a pipe may be used extending inward
from any other location to within 1/4 in.
(6mm) of the lowest point.
UG-27 Thickness of Shells Under Internal Pressure
(a) The minimum required thickness of shells under internal
pressure shall not be less than that computed by the following
formulas13 except as permitted in Appendix 32 (local thin areas). In
addition, provision shall be made for any of the loadings listed in UG-
22, when such loadings are expected.
The provided thickness of the shells shall also meet the
requirements of UG-16, except as permitted in Appendix 32.
UG-16(b) requires that minimum thickness be determined after
forming and exclusive of any c.a.
UG-16(c) Mill undertolerance
UG-16(d) Pipe Undertolerance
UG-16(e) Corrosion Allowance in Design Formulas
13 Formulas in terms of outside radius and for thicknesses and pressures beyond the limits
fixed in this paragraph are given in 1-1 to 1-3.
UG-27 Thickness of Shells Under Internal Pressure

(b) The symbols defined below are used in the formulas of this
paragraph.
t = minimum required thickness
P = internal design pressure
R = inside radius of the shell course under consideration
S = maximum allowable stress value (see UG-23 and the stress
limitations specified in UG-24
E = joint efficiency for, or the efficiency of, appropriate joint in
cylindrical or spherical shells, or the efficiency of ligaments
between openings, whichever is less For welded vessels: UW-12,
for ligaments: UG-53
UG-27 Thickness of Shells Under Internal Pressure
(c) Cylindrical Shells. The minimum thickness or Maximum
allowable Working Pressure of cylindrical shells shall be the
greater thickness or lesser pressure as given in (1) or (2) below.
(c)(l) Circumferential Stress (Longitudinal Joints)

(c)(2) Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential Joints15)

15These formulas will govern only when the circumferential joint efficiency is less than
one-half the longitudinal joint efficiency, or when the effect of supplemental loadings
(UG-22) are being investigated.
UG-27 Thickness of Shells Under Internal Pressure
(c)(l) Circumferential Stress (Longitudinal Joints)

(c)(2) Longitudinal Stress (Circumferential Joints)

UG-27 Thickness of Shells Under Internal Pressure

Example: Assume P = 150PSI S = 17, 500

R = 24 inches E=1.0

(c)(l) Circumferential stress (Longitudinal Joints)

(c)(2) Longitudinal Stress (CircumferentialJoints)

UG-32 Formed Heads and Sections, Pressure
on the Concave Side
(a) The required thickness at the thinnest point after forming of
ellipsoidal, torispherical hemispherical, conical and toriconical
heads under pressure on the concave side (plus heads) shall be
computed by the appropriate formulas in this paragraph, except
as permitted in Appendix 32 (Localized Thin Areas).
(a) In addition, provision shall be made for any of the loadings
listed in UG-22. The provided thickness of the heads shall also
meet the requirements of UG-16, except as permitted in Appendix
32.
(b) The thickness of an unstayed ellipsoidal or torispherical
head shall in no case be less than the required thickness of a
seamless hemispherical head divided by the efficiency of the head
to shell joint.
UG-32 Formed Heads and Sections, Pressure
on the Concave Side
(c) The symbols defined below are used in the formulas of this
paragraph.
t = minimum required thickness of the head after forming
P = internal design pressure
D = inside diameter of the head skirt; or inside length of a major
axis of an ellipsoidal head; or inside diameter of a conical head at the
point under consideration, measured perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis.
Dt = inside diameter of the conical portion of a toriconical head at
its point of tangency to the knuckle, measured perpendicular to the
axis of the cone. [ = D- 2r(l-cos a)]
UG-32 Formed Heads and Sections, Pressure
on the Concave Side
r = inside knuckle radius
S = maximum allowable stress value in tension as given in the
tables referenced in UG-23, except as limited in UG-24 and (e) below
E = lowest efficiency of any joint in the head; for hemispherical
heads this includes head-to-shell joint; for welded vessels, use the
efficiency specified in UW-12
L = inside spherical or crown radius. The value of L for elliptical
heads shall be obtained from Table UG-37
a = one-half of the included (apex) angle of the cone at the center
line of the head (see fig. 1-4)
UG-32 Formed Heads and Sections, Pressure
on the Concave Side
(d) Ellipsoidal Heads with t/L >0.002.
The required thickness of a dished
head of semi-ellipsoidal form, in
which half the minor axis (inside
depth of head minus head skirt) equals
one-fourth of the inside diameter of
the head skirt, shall be determined by:

NOTE: For ellipsoidal heads with t/L< 0.002, the rules of l-4(f)
shall also be met.
An acceptable approximation of a 2:1 ellipsoidal head is one with
a knuckle radius of 0.17D and a spherical radius of 0.90D.
UG-32 Formed Heads and Sections, Pressure
on the Concave Side
(e)Torispherical Heads with t/L >0.002.
The required thickness of a torispherical
head for the case in which the knuckle
radius is 6% of the inside crown radius and
the inside crown radius equals the outside
diameter of the skirt [see (j) below], shall
be determined by:

Note: For torispherical heads with t/l <0.002, the rules of 1 -4(f)
shall also be met.
UG-32 Formed Heads and Sections, Pressure
on the Concave Side

(f) Hemispherical Heads. When the

thickness of a hemispherical head
does not exceed 0.356L, or P does not
exceed 0.665SE, the following
formula shall apply:
UG-32 Formed Heads and Sections, Pressure
on the Concave Side

(g) Conical Heads and Sections

(Without Transition Knuckle).
The required thickness of conical
heads or conical shell sections
that have a half apex-angle a not
greater than 30 deg shall be
determined by:
UG-32 Formed Heads and Sections, Pressure
on the Concave Side

(h) Toriconical Heads and Sections

The required thickness of the
knuckle shall be determined by
formula (3)of l-4(d)in which:
UG-32 Formed Heads and Sections, Pressure
on the Concave Side
(i) When an ellipsoidal, torispherical, hemispherical conical or
toriconical head is of a lesser thickness than required by the rules of
this paragraph, it shall be stayed as a flat surface according to the
rules of UG-47 for braced and stayed flat plates.

(o) If a torispherical, ellipsoidal, or hemispherical head is formed

with a flattened spot or surface, the diameter of the flat spot shall
not exceed that permitted for flat heads as given in Formula (1) in
UG-34, using C = 0.25.

(p) Openings in formed heads under internal pressure shall

comply with the requirements of UG-36 through UG-47.
 UG-34 Unstayed Flat Heads and Covers

(a) The minimum thickness of unstayed flat heads, cover plates and
blind flanges shall conform to the requirements of this paragraph.
Some acceptable types of flat heads and covers are shown in Fig.
UG-34.
In this figure, the dimensions of the component parts and the
dimensions of the welds are exclusive of extra metal required for
corrosion allowance.
 UG-34 Unstayed Flat Heads and Covers
(c) The thickness of flat unstayed heads, covers and blind flanges
shall conform to one of the following three requirements.
(c)(l) Circular blind flanges conforming to the standards referenced
in Table U-3, when the blind flange is of the types shown in Fig. UG-
34 sketches (j) and (k).
UG-34 Unstayed Flat Heads and Covers
(c) Flat unstayed heads, covers and blind flanges shall be
calculated by the following formula:
(c)(2)Circular

(c)(3) square, rectangular, elliptical, obround, segmented or

otherwise noncircular
UG-36 Openings in Pressure Vessels
(c)(2)(a) Openings in Cylindrical or conical shells, or formed
heads shall be reinforced to satisfy the requirements of UG-37
except as given in (3) below.
(c)(2)(b) Openings in flat heads shall be reinforced as required by
UG-39.
(c)(3) Openings in vessels not subject to rapid fluctuation in
pressure do not require reinforcement other than that inherent in the
construction under the following conditions:
(a) welded, brazed or flued connections with a finished opening
not larger than:
3 1/2 in. (89mm) dia. in vessel shells or heads with a required
minimum thickness of 3/8 in. (10mm) or less
2 3/8 in. (60mm) dia. in vessel shells and heads over a minimum
required thickness of 3/8 in (10mm).
 UG-36 Openings in Pressure Vessels

UG-36(c) exemptions to reinforcement consideration, continued...

UG-36(c)(3)(b) threaded, studded or expanded connections in
which the hole cut in the shell or head is not greater than 2 3/8 in.
(60mm) dia.
UG-36(c)(3)(c) no two unreinforced openings, in accordance with
(a) or (b) above, shall have their centers closer to each other than the
sum of their diameters
example
 UG-36 Openings in Pressure Vessels
(d) Openings Through Welded Joints
Additional provisions governing openings through welded joints are
given in UW-14.
UW-14 (a) Any type of opening that meets the requirements for
reinforcement given in UG-37 or UG-39 may be located in a welded
joint.
UW-14(b) Single openings meeting the requirements given in UG-
36(c)(3) may be located in head-to-shell or Category B or C butt
welded joints, provided the weld meets the RT requirements of UW-51
for a length equal to three times the diameter of the opening with the
center of the hole at midlength.
Defects that are completely removed in cutting the hole shall not be
considered in judging the acceptability of the weld.
 UW-14 Openings in or Adjacent to Welds
UW-14(c) In addition to meeting the radiographic requirements of
(b) above, when multiple openings meeting UG-36(c)(3) are in line in
head-to-shell or Category B or C butt welded joints, the requirements
of UG-53 (ligaments) shall be met or the openings shall be reinforced
in accordance with UG-37 through UG-42.

UW-14(d) Except when the adjacent butt weld satisfies the

requirements for radiography in (b) above, the edge of openings in
solid plate meeting the requirements of UG-36(c)(3) shall not be
placed closer than 1/2 in. (13mm) to the edge of a Category A, B, or
C weld for material 1 1/2 in. (38mm) thick or less.
UG-37 Reinforcement Required For Openings in
Shells and Formed Heads
(b) General. The rules of this paragraph apply to all openings other
than:
Small openings, UG- 36(c)(3)
Openings in flat heads, UG-39
Openings designed as reducer sections, UG-36(e)
Large head openings, UG-36(b)(2)
Tube holes with ligaments, UG-53
Reinforcement shall be provided in amount and distribution such
that the area requirements for reinforcement are satisfied for all
planes through the center of the opening and normal to the vessel
surface.
Fig. UG-37.1
Design Review
Design parameters can be reviewed, such as
Code Edition and Addenda
Pressure and Temperature
Materials
Size
Loadings and Service Conditions
Based upon the design parameters, fabrication
requirements can be reviewed such as:
Welding
Nondestructive Examination
Heat Treatment
Impact Testing
Forming and Bending Limitations
Pressure Testing
Data Reports and Stamping
Design Review

Based upon a review of design parameters and fabrication

requirements, you are in a better position to determine meaningful
inspection involvements using documents such as:
Calculations
Drawings & Bills of Material
Purchase & Receiving Documents
Process Control Documents
Special Process Procedures (WPS, NDE, HT, etc.)
Design Review Tips
Has the correct construction Code Section been selected
and used?
Is the Code Edition/Addenda correct?
Have the required calculations been prepared?
Do the design documents include criteria as supplemented
by the QC system?
Are design documents reviewed/approved by appropriate
personnel?
Are you reviewing the latest revision to the design/fabrication
document?
If the design work is computer generated, have the computer
program capabilities and results been verified as accurate?