Team Behavior and Tools

Aluan, Asa, Dimaunahan

Chapter

3 TEAM BEHAVIOR AND TOOLS

3. 1 INTRODUCTION

- A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to
a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold
themselves mutually accountable

Differences between a working group and a team

Working Group
Strong, clearly focused leader
Groups purpose is the same as the
broader organizational mission
Individual work products
Runs efficient meetings
Measures its effectiveness indirectly by Measures performance directly by
its influence on others
Discusses, decides, and delegates
Team
Individual and mutual accountability
Specific team purpose that the team
itself develops
Collective work products
Encourages open-ended discussion
and active problem-solving meetings
assessing collective work products
Discusses, decides, and does not read
work together

3. 2 WHAT IT MEANS TO BE AN EFFECTIVE TEAM MEMBER

Take responsibility for the success of the team

Be a person who delivers on commitments
Be a contributor to discussions
Give your full attention to whomever is speaking and demonstrate this by asking helpful
questions
Develop techniques for getting your message across to the team
Learn to give and receive useful feedback

Characteristics of an effective team

Team goals are as important as individual goals
The team understands the goals and is committed to achieving them
Trust replaces fear and people feel comfortable taking risks.
Respect, collaboration, and open-mindedness are prevalent.
Team members communicate readily, diversity of opinions is encouraged.
Decisions are made by consensus and have the acceptance and support of the
members of the team

3.3 TEAM ROLES

Team Sponsor is the manager who has the need for the output of the team

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Team Leader convenes and chairs the team meetings using effective meeting
management practices

Three Styles of Leadership

- Traditional or autocratic leader
- Passive leader
- Facilitative leader

Traditional Leader Passive Leader Facilitative Leader

Directive and controlling Hands off Creates open environment
No questions just do it Too much freedom Encourages suggestions
Retains all decision-making Lack of guidance and Provides guidance
authority direction
Nontrusting Extreme empowerment Embraces creativity
Ignores input Uninvolved Considers all ideas
Autocratic A figurehead Maintains focus; weighs
goals vs. criteria

Facilitator a person trained in group dynamics who assist the leader and the team in
achieving its objectives by coaching them in team skills and problem-solving tools, and
assisting in data-collection activities.

Process observer a member of the team appointed on a rotating basis to observe the
process and progress of the meeting

3.4 TEAM DYNAMICS

Student of team behavior have observed that most teams go through five stages of
development.

1. Orientation (forming): The members are new to the team. They are probably both anxious
and excited, yet unclear about what is expected of them and the task they are to accomplish.
This is a period of tentative interactions and polite discourse, as team members undergo
orientation and acquire and exchange information.

2. Dissatisfaction (storming): Now the challenges of forming a cohesive team become real.
Differences in personalities, working and learning styles, cultural backgrounds and available
resources (time to meet, access to and agreement on the meeting place, access to
transportation, etc) begin to make themselves known. Disagreement, even conflict, may break
out in meetings. Meetings may be characterized by criticism, interruptions, poor attendance, or
even hostility.

3. Resolution (norming): The dissatisfaction abates when team members establish group
norms, either spoken or unspoken, to guide the process, resolve conflicts, and focus on
common goals. The norms are given by rules of procedure and the establishment of
comfortable roles and relationships among team members. The arrival of the resolution stage is

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characterized by greater consensus seeking and stronger commitment to help and support each
other.

4. Production (performing): This is the stage of team development we have worked for. The
team is working cooperatively with few disruptions. People are excited and have pride in their
accomplishments, and team activities are fun. There is high orientation toward the task, and
demonstrable performance and productivity.

5. Termination (Adjourning): When the task is completed, the team prepares to disband. This
is the time for joint reflection on how well the team accomplished its task, and the reflection on
the functioning of the team.

Psychosociological Conditions

Safety. Are the members of the team safe from destructive personal attacks? Can team
members freely speak and act without feeling threatened?

Inclusion. Team members need to be allowed equal opportunities to participate. Rank is

not important inside the team. Make special efforts to include new, quiet members in the
discussion.

Appropriate level of interdependence. Is there an appropriate balance between the

individuals needs and the team needs? Is there a proper balance between individual
self-esteem and team allegiance?

Cohesiveness. Is there appropriate bonding between members of the team?

Trust. Do team members trust each other and the leader?

Conflict Resolution. Does the team have a way to resolve conflict?

Influence. Do team members or the team as a whole have influence over members? If
not, there is no way to reward, punish, or work effectively.

Accomplishment. Can the team perform tasks and achieve goals? If not, frustration will
build up and lead to conflict.

Different behavioral roles found in groups

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Helping roles Hindering roles

Task roles Maintenance roles
Initiating: proposing tasks; Encouraging Dominating: asserting
defining problem authority or superiority
Information or opinion Harmonizing: attempting to Withdrawing: not talking or
seeking reconcile disagreement contributing
Information or opinion Expressing group feeling Avoiding: changing the
giving topic; frequently absent
Clarifying Gate keeping: helping to Degrading: putting down
keep communication others ideas: joking in
channels open barbed way
Summarizing Compromising Uncooperative: Side
Consensus testing Standard setting and conversations: whispering
testing: checking whether and private conversation
group is satisfied with across the table
procedures
3.5 EFFECTIVE TEAM MEETINGS

Effective meeting requires planning.

The optimum time to retain all members concentration is 90 min.
A meeting should have a written agenda, with the name of the designated person to
present each topic and an allotted time for discussion of the topic.
The team leader directs but does not control discussion.
Discussion begins only when it is clear that every participant understands what is
intended to be accomplished regarding that item.
Decisions made by the team in this way should be consensus decisions.

Simple Rules for Meeting Success

1. Pick a regular meeting location and try not to change it.

2. Pick a meeting location that:

a. is agreeable and accessible to all (unless your team is trying to get away),
b. has breathing room when there is full attendance plus a guest or two,
c. has a pad or easel on the room,
d. isnt too hot, too cold, or to close to noisy distractions.

3. Regular meeting times are not as important as confirming the time of the meeting. Once a
meeting time has been selected, confirm it immediately in writing (e-mail or memo).

4. Send an e-mail reminder to team members just before the first of several meetings.

5. If you send materials out in advance of a meeting, bring extra copies just in case people
forget to bring theirs, or it did not arrive. Do not send out agendas or reading materials in
advance unless you give people at least four business days to look things over.

6. Start on time or no later than 5 to 7 min from the started starting time.

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7. Pass out an agenda at the beginning of the meeting and get the teams concurrence to the
agenda.

8. Rotate the responsibility for writing meeting summaries of each meeting.

Content of the Summary

a. when did the team meet

b. what were the issues discussed (in outline form)
c. decisions, agreements, or apparent consensus on issues
d. next meeting date and time
e. homework for next meeting

In general, meeting summaries should not exceed one page, unless you are attaching results
from group brainstorming, list of issues, ideas, etc. Meeting summaries should be distributed by
the assigned recorder within 48h of the meeting.

9. Notice members who come late, leave early, or miss meetings.

10. Observe team members who are not speaking.

11. Occasionally use meeting evaluations (perhaps every second or third meeting) to gather
anonymous feedback on how group is working together.

12. Do not bring guests or staff support or add team members without seeking the permission of
the team.

13. Avoid canceling meetings.

14. End every meeting with an action check:

a. What did we accomplish/agree upon today?

b. What will we do at the next meeting?
c. What is everyones homework, if any, before the next meeting?

15. Follow up with any person who does not attend, especially people who did not give advance
notice.

For smooth team operation, it is important to:

Create a team roster. Ask team members to verify mailing addresses, e-mail addresses,
names, and phone numbers of administrative support staff. Include the information about
the team sponsor. Use e-mail addresses to set up a distribution list for your team.

Organize important material in the team binders. Include the team roster, team charter,
important background information, data, critical articles, etc.

3.6 PROBLEMS WITH TEAMS

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Characteristics of a Good Team Member

Respect other team members without question

Listens carefully to the other team members
Participates but does not dominate
Self-confident but not dogmatic
Knowledgeable in his or her discipline
Communicates effectively
Disagrees but with good reason and in good taste

Characteristics of a Disruptive Team Member

Shows lack of respect for others

Tends to intimidate
Stimulates confrontation
Is a dominant personality type
Talks all the time, but does not listen
Does not communicate effectively
Overly critical

Problem: Team member who dominates the team discussion

Solution: Acknowledge the important contributions from the person and then shift the
discussion to another member by asking them a question. If the domination continues, talk to
the member outside the meeting.

Problem: Member who is overly critical and constantly objects to point after point
Solution: The leader should continually insist that the comments be restated to be more
positive, and if the offender cant or wont do this, then the leader should do it. Again, a strong
talk outside of the meeting to point out the destructive nature of the behavior is called for, and if
there is no improvement, then this member should be asked to leave the team.

Problem: Disagreement focused on personalities or an unwillingness to reach consensus

Solution: Ask members to summarize the position they disagree with, to be sure they
understand groups position. Then, ask them to make positive recommendations to see whether
there is an area of agreement. If these steps fail, then change the subject and move on,
returning to the subject another time.

Problem: Team strays too far from the topic

Solution: Ask whether the current discussion is leading to the agreed-upon objective, as guided
by the agenda. The leader should introduce new material into the discussion that is more
closely related to the objective.

3. 7 PROBLEM SOLVING TOOLS

Many strategies for problem solving have been proposed. The one that have been used and
found effective is a simple three-phase process.

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Problem definition
Cause finding
Solution finding and implementation

This table lists the tools which are most applicable in each phase of the problem-solving
process.

Problem-solving tools
Problem definition Cause finding Solution planning and
Brainstorming Gathering data implementation
Affinity diagram Interviews Brainstorming
Nominal group Focus groups How-how diagram
technique Surveys Concept selection
Analyzing Data method
Check sheet Force field analysis
Histogram Implementation plan
Search for root causes
Cause-and-effect
diagram
Why-why diagram
Interrelationship digraph

Problem Definition

Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a group technique for generating ideas in a non-threatening,

uninhibiting atmosphere. It is a group activity in which the collective creativity of the group is
tapped and enhanced. Its objective is to generate the greatest number of alternative ideas from
the uninhibited responses of the group. It is most effective when it is applied to specific rather
than general problems.

There are four fundamental brainstorming principles.

1. Criticism is not allowed.

2. Ideas brought forth should be picked up by the other people present.
3. Participants should divulge all ideas entering their minds without any constraint.
4. A key objective is to provide as many ideas as possible within a relatively short time.

An alternative form of brainstorming, called brainwriting, is sometimes used when the topic is so
controversial or emotionally charged that people will not speak out freely on a group.

Affinity diagram. The affinity diagram identifies the inherent similarity between items. It is used
to organize ideas, facts, and opinions into natural groupings.

1. Record the ideas on post-it notes or file cards.

2. Each person will explain what they wrote on each card so that each team member
understands it. This often identifies more than one card with same thought, or reveals

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cards that have more than one idea on them. If this happens, additional cards are made
up
3. The notes or cards are sorted into loosely related groupings. If an idea keeps being
moved between two groups because of disagreement as to where it belongs, make a
duplicate and put it in both groups. Also, create a group called Other for ideas that do
not seem to fall in any other categories.

As the team becomes more comfortable with the organization, create a header card that broadly
describes the content of the group. This often shows that an idea has been put in the incorrect
group. This is a time when discussion is allowed, and people may be called upon to defend their
idea or where it is placed. When we do this for the brainstorming exercise, we get:

Time constraints
Faculty issues
Lack of interest
Lack of information

Nominal group technique (NGT). The NGT is a method of group idea generation and decision
making. The use of the term nominal in this method comes from the fact that it often starts out
with nominal, i.e., silent and independent idea generation, group activity and independent
evaluation by each team member.

If the number of choices generated by brainstorming is large, it may be useful to employ some
list reduction methods

The last step of the NGT involves decision making, with the members of the team acting
independently and anonymously. If the number of choices is relatively small, then each person
can rank order the choices.

A variation on decision making by ranking is rating by multivoting. Multivoting usually proceeds

in stages:

1. In the first round those choices with only a few votes are eliminated.
2. The number of votes per member is adjusted, and a second round of voting is held
3. The process is repeated until a clear favourite emerges.
4. If the list is reduced to only few choices with no clear favourite, then the multivoting
process should stop, and the team should discuss their options and make a decision by
ranking.

The advantage of NGT is that the team members with differing styles of providing input are
treated equally because the process imposes the same format requirement on each member.
The volume of the loudmouth is turned down while the soft-spoken voice is more clearly heard.

Cause Finding

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Pareto Chart. The results of the survey are best displayed by a Pareto chart. This is a bar chart
used to prioritize causes or issues, in which the cause with the highest frequency of occurrence
is placed at the left, followed by the cause with the next frequency of occurrence, and so on.

It is based on Pareto principle, which states that a few causes account for most of the
problems, while many other causes are relatively unimportant. This often stated as the 80/20
rule, that roughly 80 percent of the problem is caused by only 20 percent of the cause.

A Pareto chart is a way of analysing the data that identifies the vital few in contrast to the trivial
many.

Cause-and-effect diagram. The cause-and-effect diagram, also called the fish-bone diagram
(after its appearance), or the Ishikawa diagram (after its originator), is a powerful graphical way
of identifying the factors that cause a problem. It is used after the team has collected data about
possible cause of the problem. It is often used in conjunction with brainstorming to collect and
organize all possible causes and converge on the most probable root causes of the problem.

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Why-why diagram. To delve deeper into root causes, we turn to the why-why diagram. This is a
tree diagram, which starts with the basic problem and asks Why does this problem exist? in
order to develop a tree with a few main branches and several smaller branches. The team
continues to grow the tree by repeatedly asking why until the patterns begin to show up. Root
causes are identified by causes that begin to repeat themselves on several branches of the
why-why tree.

Interrelationship diagraph. This is a tool that explores the cause-and-effect relationships

among issues and identifies the root causes. The major causes identified by the cause-and-
effect diagram are laid out in a large circular pattern. The cause and influence relationships are
identified by the team between each cause or factor in turn.

Note that there will not be a causal relationship between all factors. For each cause or factor,
the number of arrows going in and coming out should be recorded. A high number of outgoing
arrows indicates the cause or factor is a root cause or driver. A factor with a high number of
incoming arrows indicates that it is a key indicator and should be monitored as a measure of
improvement.

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Solution planning and implementation

How-how diagram. A technique that is useful for exposing gaps in the causal chain of action is
the how-how diagram. The how-how diagram is a tree diagram and it starts with a proposed
solution and asks the question How do we do that? The how-how diagram is best used after
brainstorming has generated a set of solutions and an evaluation method has narrowed them to
a small set.

Force field analysis. It is a technique that identifies those forces that both help (drive) and
hinder (restrain) the implementation of the solution of a problem. In effect, it is a chart of the
pros and cons of a solution, and as such, it helps in developing strategies for implementation of
the solution.

This forces team members to think together about all the aspects of making the desired change
a permanent change, and encourages honest reflection on the root causes of the problem and
its solution.

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Implementation plan. The problem-solving process should end with the development of
specific actions to implement the solution. In doing this, think hard about maximizing the driving
force and minimizing the restraining forces.

The implementation plan:

Takes the specific actions listed on how-how diagram and lists the specific steps, in
order, that must be taken.
Assigns responsibility to each task, and gives a required completion date.
Gives an estimate of the resources (money, people, facilities, material) required to carry
out the solution.
Prescribes what level of review and frequency of review of the problem implementation
will be followed.
Lists the metrics that will measure a successful completion of the plan.

Plan-do-check-act (PDCA). The idea behind PDCA is that once a solution is arrived at we try it
out in a small way to see how it works. This is the do stage. Everything that preceded it in
problem solving is the plan stage. In the do stage we collect data to compare with the pre-
existing situation. In the check stage we compare the results with the new solution with the old
conditions (baseline date) to determine whether the change has produced the intended
improvement. If, indeed, the change is positive, then we act to standardize the change in
appropriate policies and procedures. If the change is not positive or if it is not as great as we
need, then we return to the plan stage. The PDCA cycle is a continuous process.

3.8 TIME MANAGEMENT

Time is an invaluable and irreplaceable commodity. An effective time-management is

vital to help you focus on your long-term and short-term goals.

Time-Tested Points to Achieve Time Management

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Start with written goals of what you want to accomplish for the year and for the month.
Find out where you spend your time. Classify each activity into one of four categories:
(1) important and urgent; (2) important but not urgent; (3) urgent but not important; and
(4) not important and not urgent.
Make a written plan for each day, with the tasks you want to accomplish in priority order.
Set personal deadlines, in addition to business-imposed deadlines, to inspire action and
avoid procrastination.
Learn to act immediately and constructively.
Avoid cluttered desk and office.
Schedule an entire block of time for a major subject.
Identify your best time of the day, in terms of energy level and creative activity, and try to
schedule your most challenging tasks for that time period.
Group like tasks into periods of common activity for more efficient performance.
Occasionally make appointments with yourself to reflect on your work habits, and think
creatively about the future,

3.9 PLANNING AND SCHEDULING

Planning consists of identifying the key activities in a project and ordering them in the
sequence in which they should be performed.

Scheduling consists of putting the plan into the time frame of the calendar.

The major decisions that are made over the life cycle of a project fall into four areas:

Performance
Time
Cost
Risk

3.9.1 Bar Chart

Bar or Gantt chart

The simplest scheduling tool.
The activities are listed in the vertical direction, and elapsed time is recorded horizontally

Bar chart for prototype testing a heat exchanger

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Network logic diagram for heat exchanger prototyping tests

Modified bar chary for heat exchanger tests.

Slack- the time by which an activity can exceed its estimated duration before failure to complete
the activity becomes critical

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3.9.2 Critical-Path Method

Developed by Du Pont and Remington Rand

Is a deterministic system that uses the best estimate of the time to complete a task
Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) developed for the U.S. Navy ,
uses probabilistic time estimates

The basic tool of CPM

- An activity time-consuming effort that is required to perform part of a project.

- An event the end of one activity and the beginning of another. A point of
accomplishment and/or decision

Logic restrictions in constructing network diagram

- An activity cannot be started until its tail event is reached.

- An event cannot be reached until all activities leading to it are complete.
- Sometimes an event is dependent on another event preceding it, even though the
two events are not linked together by an activity. A dummy activity requires zero
time and zero cost
- Earliest start time (ES) the earliest time an activity can begin when all preceding
activities are completed as rapidly as possible
- Latest start time (LS) latest time an activity can be initiated without delaying the
minimum completion time for the project.
- Earliest finish time (EF) EF=ES+D, where D is the duration of each activity
- Latest Finish time (LF) LF = LS +D
- Total Float (TF) The slack between the earliest and latest start time. TF = LS ES

Generally in a CPM problem we are interested in two classes of solutions:

1. The least-cost solution using costs associated with the normal time to complete
2. the activities.
3. The least-time solution in which crash costs are incurred to reduce the time by
employing, extra workers, or bringing in extra production equipment

PERT

Same ideas as CPM but it uses probabilistic estimate of time for completion of an activity
Optimistic time o if everything goes smoothly and pessimistic time p if everything goes
badly. Most likely time m is bracketed between those values.
The expected time is a mean value that divides the area under the frequency distribution
into equal two parts.
o +4 m+ p
t e=
6
Standard Deviation of expected time for each activity
po

6

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Standard Deviation along a path of PERT network

path = 2

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