Orientation Practical Guide of orientation to Celestial Sphere

I. Generalities

1. Celestial Sphere

Sky with its myriad of stars has ignite the imagination of people when they raised their eyes to
heaven conscious. Knowing the sky, one of the basic problems of observational astronomy, means first
of all knowing the constellations, star clusters designed from immemorial time. Ancient man imagined
the sky figures representing creatures and objects related to daily life, religious cults and various natural
phenomena that he could not explain at that time. Every nation, every civilization has built his own
vision of heaven, an image of the heavenly vault inevitably depended on where they looked toward the
sky and the degree of socio-economic development of the people concerned. For example, the Greek
interpretation of sky replete with heroes and deities and Romanian Sky have the largest share of
pastoral and agrarian constellations.

The appearance of the heavenly sphere is derived from several causes. The human eye, a
complex optical instrument, near to perfection, still has shortcomings, among which the most important
is that it cant distinguish and appreciate distances, especially when they are in different directions.
Therefore, from a certain distance limit, human eye places all objects at the same distance, so all the
visible stars and other heavenly bodies situated at huge distances appear to be projected on a sphere
whose center seems to be the observer. Celestial Sphere impression is emphasized even because of the
multiple scattering phenomenon of light (sunlight scattering by particles suspended in the opaque solid
and gaseous atmosphere), forming a perspective background in which the stars seems to be projected.
The diffusion phenomenon contributes also to the color of the firmament, and to the fact that in the
middle of the night we dont get a full darkness. Stars contribute to the natural light of the night with
just a few percent.

If the observer's eye is at a low height above the Earth, it does not perceive clearly the circular
shape of the earth's surface but only a tiny portion. Because of this, the illusion that the earth is flat
tricked the men for millennia. This circular border around observer is called horizon. Radius expressed as
mathematical horizon has the following value: R = 3.8 h, where h represented the height above the
ground observer's eye in meters. With this formula you can calculate the height of 1,75 m a man sees
flat horizon located at a distance of 5-6 km. So, on this tiny sphere (diameter of 10-12 km) compared to
the size of Earth, we see the whole accessible Universe for astronomy observations.

2. Diurnal Movement

If we observe the night sky for several hours, we feel that the celestial sphere rotates entirely as a solid
body, from east to west (this happens because the real movement of the Earth around its axis occurs at
west to east), making a complete rotation in 24 hours. This phenomenon is called diurnal rotation of the
celestial sphere or shorter, diurnal movement.

During diurnal movement, all the stars perform circles with the centers situated on a straight imaginary
line called the Axis Mundi which stinging the celestial sphere in both North and South pole (celestial
North Pole is situated closed to Polar Star for northern hemisphere and celestial South Pole is located in
Octans constellation for the Southern Hemisphere).

During his revolution movement around the Sun, the Earth performs an arch movement of 1 0 daily
(specifically: 0,9860). But we have the impression that the sun moves eastward with the same daily arch.
Therefore, the stars rose and set each day by nearly four minutes faster than the previous day (the
equivalent in time of 10 arch).

From simple observations on diurnal movement the following laws can be easily derived:
- Orb performs a movement from East to West or clockwise;
- Diurnal movement is uniform, so every celestial body describe equal arcs in equal time units;
- Heavenly movement is synchronous, been carried out like if the celestial sphere it would be solid and it
maintain relative distances between celestial bodies (except the Moon and planets);
- Diurnal movement is circular, all the stars having centers located on the Axis Mundi, describing parallel
circles relative with the celestial equator.

3. Constellations

In order to be more recognizable, the stars visible with naked eye were grouped into zones, so
the obtained drawn resemble figures of people, animals or objects. With time, the drawings have been
replaced with simple geometric figures that are obtained with straight lines joining some stars of the
constellation.

Currently, a constellation is associated most often with an area of the sky, expressed in square
degrees of sky, a group of apparent stars which, united by an imaginary line, resembles an object,
animal, god and so on.

Number constellations varied over time from 48 to 131. It's hard to say exactly who fired the
first constellations or where and when this happened. Surely we know who was the most meticulous
artisan of designing constellations. In II AD Century, Ptolemy in his "Megale Syntaxis" (which later
became more known as al-Majisti or Almagest due to a translation in Arabic) published among others a
catalog of 1022 stars and 48 constellations described. Of these, 47 are used nowadays, and the 48th,
Argo Navis, was divided in 4 constellation: Carina, Puppis, Pyxis and Vela. Southern Hemisphere
constellations appeared much later, only at the beginning of the sixteenth century, when the first sailors
who crossed the southern coast named the constellations identified in those areas. Through an
international agreement concluded in 1922 at a congress of the International Astronomical Union, the
number of constellations was set at 88 and at that time the figures of the constellations were replaced
with simple surfaces on the celestial sphere, surfaces traced by the specific rules that include old images
which constellations were likened.
 The Constellations visible from our country latitude could be can be classified according to their
position in the sky, in this manner: circumpolar constellations, zenithal constellations, equatorial
constellations equatorial, ecliptic constellations, and austral constellations.

Circumpolar constellations are those groups of stars that rotate around the North Celestial Pole
(located near the North Star), remaining always above the horizon. For northern latitudes between 45 0
and 500, these constellations are: Cassiopeia, Perseus, Camelopardalis, Lynx, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor,
Draco, Cepheus and Lacerta.

Zenithal constellations are called so because they pass during diurnal movement at the zenith
of the place (point in the sky located on the vertical of site). They spring up towards the North East and
sets in the Northwest direction. For this region, in this category can be grouped the following
constellations: Andromeda, Triangulum, Auriga, Leo Minor, Canes Venatici, Coma Berenices, Bootes (the
Herdsman), Corona Borealis, Hercules, Lyra, Cygnus (the Swan), Sagitta (the Arrow), Vulpecula,
Delphinus, Equuleus (the Foal), Pegasus.

Equatorial constellations are lined along the celestial equator. They pop up in the east and sets
in the west direction and is useful in guiding the Earth's surface, meaning to determine approximately
the compass direction (where we see the constellation near the horizon). Equatorial constellations
visible in this region are: Cetus (the Whale), Orion, Monoceros (The Unicorn), Canis Minor, Hydra,
Sextant, Ophiuchus, Serpens, Aquila (The Eagle).

Ecliptic constellations (or The Zodiac) are located on the ecliptic, the apparent Sun path on the
celestial sphere. Each of these constellations occupies an area of about 300 in width on the sky. They
are: Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricorn, Aquarius, Pisces.

Austral Constellations (southern constellations) can be seen only partially near the horizon.
Following are some of the constellations of the southern visible in these regions: Eridanus, Lepus (the
rabbit), Canis Major, Puppis (Stern), Crater (Cup), Corvus, Austral Fish, Sculptor, Pyxis (Compass), Antlia
(Pneumatic Pump), Centaurus, Fornax (the Furnace).
 II. Methods and ways for orientation across the heavens

1. Distances and angular dimensions

For an easy aiming through the sky is very useful to approximate distances between celestial
bodies, namely to can measure (in degrees) apparent distances between them. It may seem hard to
accomplish this, but it becomes relatively easy if we know a few tricks. As I mentioned earlier, the sky
seems to be like a sphere, the observer being in the center of this sphere. If a star is near the horizon,
the angle it is seen is almost zero, and if the star is directly overhead (the zenith), the angle between the
direction of Horizon-Observer and Observer-Star is 900. To measure any intermediate angle, we use the
palm or the Ursa Major constellation (the Big Dipper).

For most people, the ratio of arm length and hand diameter is constant, ie, for each of us, when
stretching the arm, hand or fist will occupy the same number of degrees in the sky.

Ursa Major is probably best known constellation in the world. It was mentioned by Ptolemy in
his Almagest, it appears in the literature in the works of Homer, Shakespeare or Tennyson and was
painted by Vincent van Gogh in his famous "The Starry Night" work.

This group of stars is also mentioned in the Bible. The main asterism of the constellation consists
of seven stars (the Big Dipper) and is visible throughout the year in the sky, because Ursa Major is a
circumpolar constellation at latitude of our region. If we know the angular distances of the main stars of
asterism, we can approximate well enough and other angular distance in the sky.

Here are some examples of angular size in the sky:

- Imaginary circle of the horizon line has an angular distance of 3600;
- Angular distance between two consecutive cardinal points (eg. E-S or S-V) have clearly 900;
- Height of Polar star, for this region is about 470 (height of Pole star coincide with the latitude
of the observation place);
- The apparent diameter of the Sun in the sky is about 31-32 minutes, or almost half a degree.
This means that the Sun could fit twice after the little finger of the hand stretched toward
the sky. Almost the same it happens with Moon, whose body apparent diameter on the sky
ranges from 29 to 34 minutes;
- - The apparent diameter of Jupiter, observed from Earth, is between 29.8 and 50.1 arc
seconds;

2. Learning the constellations and orientation on night sky

 There are various ways and methods for learning and easy identification of constellations on the
night sky. Whatever it is good for beginners to become familiar with the constellations names firstly and
then move to recognize them, starting on a sky map and then to the night sky. A good method for
finding constellations is the alignment method that can offer in the same time the identification of stars
or major points on the sky.

Winter Sky

Northern sky appearance, valid for December - at 11 PM, January - at 9 PM, February - 19 PM.

In order to identify the main constellations, we should start with Ursa Major, a well-known
constellation located in a less crowded area of the sky with stars. Tracing an imaginary line through the
rear wheels of the Big Dipper into drawbar (Line 1) and counting on this line five times the distance
between these wheels take as to the North Star. With a further extension of this line (Line 2) at a
distance of about 120 in the Cepheus constellation, will meet the Errai star and just above (Line 3), the
Caph star from Cassiopeia. This constellation has the shape of the letter M in the sky winter and
acquires a W-shape on summer sky. Between the two chariots winding the Draco constellation cu the
star Thuban, a former polar star of about 5,000 years ago. Extending the imaginary line passing through
the rear wheels of the Big Dipper (Line 4) to the North Star opposite direction, we go through Leo Minor,
reaching the northeastern part of the sky, in the well-known ecliptic constellation of Leo. Looking
overhead (towards the zenith - Line 5), we will distinguish the constellations of Camelopardalis (giraffe)
and Perseus, and in the northwestern part of the sky (Line 6) can be seen a good part of the
constellation Cygnus (the Northern Cross). Inside the curvature of drawbar of the Big Dipper, there are
two stars resembling the Constellation of Hunting Dogs, the star nearest to horizon, Cor Caroli being a
spectacular double star.
Eastern Sky Appeareance, valid for December - at 11 pm, January - at 9 pm and February - at 7 pm.

Castor and Pollux stars from Gemini constellation are among the brightest stars in the eastern sky
winter. They can be easily recognized by their colors, with orange tint of Pollux and the blue-white of
Castor. On clear nights, under Gemini may be observed a diffuse spot very tough perceptible, a place
known as Praesape's Cluster, located in the Cancer constellation. Going farther to the horizon (line 1)
we will find the Hydra`s head. In the southeastern part of the sky can be observed the brightest star of
the entire celestial spfere, Sirius from Canis Major. Line 2 connects the stars Pollux from Gemini,
Procyon from Canis Minor and Sirius passing through Licorne (Monoceros). Imaginary line between
Castor (Gemini) and Dubhe (Ursa Major), cut the constellation of Lynx (line 3). In the opposite part to the
Big Dipper, relative to the Castor star, crossing the Gemini constellation star we reach the Betelgeuse
star from Orion constellation (line 4). In the eastern part of the Hydra constellations, above the horizon
makes its appearance the constellation `Leo the Great` (line 5).

The appearance of sky looking to the south, valid for December - at 11 pm, January - at 9 pm and February - 7
pm
The most beautiful constellation of the southern part of winter sky is Orion. It can be easily recognized
after the three stars aligned from the Hunter`s belt (1). Under Orion constellation is the Rabbit, and in
the left side of this constellation can be easily identified Sirius star from Canis Major, because it is the
brightest star of the entire night sky. To the right of Orion constellation, towards southwest, there are
the Whale and Eridanus constellations (line 2), and at left of hunter, above the Great Dog, we identify
the Unicorne and the Procyon star from Canis Minor (line 3). Just to the south, in front of the hunter
constellation is Taurus, with Aldebaran as the brightest star. At that time (December 15 2013, 11:00
pm), the Moon was only at 30 to the right of Aldebaran star. To the left of Taurus, we identify the Gemini
and Cancer constellations (line 4), and the Taurus horn from zenith direction ends in Alnath star (line 5),
a star which is shared by the constellations of Taurus and Auriga (Auriga). In the western part of Auriga,
we meet the Perseus constellation. Extending the line starting from Aldebaran and passes through the
Moon, we get the star cluster of Pleiades (M45), place more known to Romanians as the Hatching Hen
(6).

In the southeastern part of the sky above the Whale, in a clear night conditions we will find the Pisces
constellation (the constellation being formed does not have brilliant stars) and inside the rope connecting the two
fish tails can be recognized the great square of Pegasus. To the left of eastern fish there are two more small
constellations, Aries and Triangle.

The appearance of western sky, valid for December - at 11 pm, January - at 9 pm and in February at 7 pm