Sep 4 

 
Prof. Kayhan Gultekin (Gyool-teck-een) 
Prof. Douglas Richstone 
3 GSI’s 
Get a clicker 
Homeworks are due tuesday in general 
Expected to do readings before coming to the lecture 
Observatory lab project, angel hall student observatory thursday evenings 
HW will have lots of d=rt (x=vt)  
 
Sep 6 
 
Frequency CB on iclicker 
The local sky (the dome around you): 
Meridian=line passing through zenith and connecting north and south 
points on horizon (edge of a slice of the dome from north to south through 
zenith) 
Zenith=the point directly overhead 
Horizon=all points 90 degrees away from zenith 
Altitude=how far above horizon something is 
Direction(azimuth)=How far east from north  
(Direction,Altitude) are your local coordinates (both are in angles) 
 
We measure using angles because things are too far away to use 
distances 
 
Fist in front of you is about 10 degrees, finger is one, outstretched 
hand is about 20 
1 degree = 60’ = 60 arcminutes 
1’=1 arcminute=60”=60 arcseconds 
 
A constellation is a region of the sky 
88 constellations fill the entire sky 
 
The celestial sphere: 
Stars at different distances all appear to lie on the celestial sphere 
88 official constellations cover the entire celestial sphere 
Basically the distance-compressed map of stars such that the 
constellations link up to cover the sphere, as we would see from our 
perspective 
Earth spins west to east, so sky appears to spin east to west 
 North Celestial pole= projection of earth’s north pole onto the sphere. 
Doesn’t really move with other constellations. 
South celestial pole 
Celestial equator 
Ecliptic=diagonal line, path of sun throughout the year 
When we look in any direction into the galactic plane, we see the stars and 
interstellar clouds that make up the milky way 
Our view from earth: 
Stars near the north celestial pole are circumpolar and never set 
We cannot see stars near the south celestial pole 
All other celestial bodies rise in east and set in west 
Altitude of the celestial pole = your latitude 
 
Angular size/360deg = physical size / (2 times pi times distance to the object) 
Above thing is only valid if angular size is fairly small 
At midnight, the stars on our meridian are opposite the sun in the sky 
Seasons depend on how earth’s axis affects the directness of sunlight 
Sun’s altitude also changes with seasons 
Seasonal changes are more extreme at high latitudes 
Summer occurs in your hemisphere when sunlight hits it more directly; winter 
occurs when the sunlight is less direct 
Variation of earth-sun distance is only about 3% 
Equinox, axis is perpendicular to sun 
Solstice 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sep 11 
 
Planets known in ancient times: 
Mercury-Difficult to see, always close to sun in sky 
Venus-Very bright when visible, morning or evening ‘star’ 
Mars-Noticeably red 
Jupiter-Very bright 
Saturn-Moderately bright 
Planets usually move slightly eastward from night to night relative to the 
stars 
Sometimes they go westward relative to the stars for a few weeks in a 
process known as apparent retrograde motion-occurs when we “lap” other 
planets (or when mercury or venus laps us) 
Was difficult to explain when they thought earth was the center of the 
universe. In fact, ancient greeks considered but rejected the correct 
explanation. 
Their inability to observe stellar parallax was a major factor (the position of 
a nearby star appears to shift against the background of more distant stars) 
The Greeks knew that the lack of observable parallax could mean: Stars are 
so far away that stellar parallax is too small to notice with the naked eye, or 
earth does not orbit the sun, instead being the center of the universe. 
Because they didn’t think stars could be that far away, they decided earth is 
in the center of the universe 
Lunar phases are a consequence of the moon’s 27.3 day orbit around the 
earth 
Half of the moon is illuminated by sun and half is dark. We see a chanin 
combination of the bright and dark faces as moon orbits. The moon’s orbit 
around the earth is inclined by 5 degrees 
 
Phases of the moon-29.5 day cycle 
 
Waxing: moon visible in afternoon/evening, gets uller and rises later each day 
New->crescent->first quarter->gibbous 
 
->full 
 
Waning: moon visible in late night/morning, gets less full and sets later each 
day 
->gibbous->last quarter->crescent 
 
Waxing, shadow is on the left (from the northern hemisphere, opposite for 
southern) 
Waning, shadow is on the right (from the northern hemisphere, opposite for 
southern) 
 
Synchronous rotation: the moon rotates exactly once with each orbit, so the 
same side is pointed at the earth throughout the whole orbit 
 
Eclipses-The earth and moon cast shadows. When either passes through the 
other’s shadow, we have an eclipse 
 
Lunar eclipse 
Total lunar eclipse=moon passes entirely through umbra 
Partial lunar eclipse-Part of the moon passes through the umbra 
Penumbral Lunar eclipse-moon passes through penumbra 
Lunar eclipses can only happen at full moon 
 
Solar eclipses can only occur at new moon 
Solar eclipses can be partial, total, or annular 
Why don’t we hav3 an eclipse every new and full moon? The moon’s orbit is 
tilted 5 degrees to the ecliptic plane 
2 eclipse seasons each year 
2 conditions for an eclipse-the right phase of moon, and the moon must be at 
its nodes or the points where it crosses the ecliptic plane 
 
Day 4 Sep 13 
 
How is modern science rooted in ancient astronomy? 
Daily timekeeping 
Tracking the seasons 
Calendar 
Monitoring lunar cycles 
Monitoring Planets and stars 
Predicting eclipses 
Days of the week were named for the sun, moon, and visible planets 
Egyptian obelisk-shadow tells the time of day 
Stonehenge 
Machu Picchu-Structures aligned with solstices 
Greeks were the first people known to make models of nature 
They tried to explain patterns in nature without resorting to myth or the 
supernatural 
Eratosthenes measured the circumference of the earth in 240 BC 
Planetary motion: 
Underpinnings of the Greek geocentric model: 
-Earth at center of the universe 
 -Heavens must be perfect. The shape that embodies that is the 
circle. 
Made it impossible to explain retrograde motion of planets 
Made new model, Ptolemaic model-sufficiently accurate to remain in 
use for 1500 years 
Ptolemaic model explained retrograde motion by saying they really do 
go in retrograde motion, and the earth is still in the middle 
Copernicus, Tycho, and Kepler challenged the earth-centered model 
Copernicus (1473-1543), proposed a sun-centered model, used model to 
determine layout of solar system, with planets still in circular motion. Still 
less accurate that the Ptolemaic model. 
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), compiled most accurate naked eye measurements 
ever made of planetary positions. Still couldn’t detect stellar parallax, and 
thus still thought earth must be at the center of the solar system (but 
recognized that other planets go around the sun) 
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) Tried to match Tycho’s observations with 
circular orbit. An 8-arcminute discrepancy he found led him eventually to 
ellipses. 
 
Ellipse( 2 Foci, semimajor axis, minor axis, major axis, etc. Eccentricity 
describes how different an ellipse is from a circle. All points on the ellipse are 
the distance away from the foci such that the distance from each focus 
added together is the same for every point on the ellipse. 
Half of the long axis or semi-major axis = a 
Semi-minor axis = b 
Length from center to focus = c 
Long axis (one end of ellipse to another)=major axis 
Short axis (width of ellipse) = minor axis 
 
Kepler’s First law: The orbit of each planet around the sun is an ellipse with 
the sun at one focus 
Perihelion=Closest point to the focus (sun) 
Aphelion=Furthest point from the focus (sun) 
Distance from perihelion to focus = a(1-e) (e is eccentricity, not e as in log(e)) 
Distance from aphelion to focus = a(1+e) 
Kepler’s Second Law: As a planet moves around its orbit, it sweeps out equal 
areas in equal times 
Kepler’s Third law: more distant planets orbit the Sun at slower average 
speeds, obeying the relationship p^2=a^3, where p is the orbital period in 
years, and a is the average distance from the sun a AU. Only for planets 
around the sun, but doesn’t apply for outer solar-system objects 
Galileo (1564-1642)- Galileo overcame major objections to the copernican 
view. Three key objections rooted in Aristotelian view were: 
 1-Earth could not be moving because objects in the air would be left behind 
2-Non-circular orbits are not ‘perfect’ as the heavens should be 
3-Still no Parallax 
First to use the telescope as an astronomical tool, found that Jupiter has 
moons 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Sep 18 
 
Need to know: D=rt, Psquared = acubed, F=ma, p=mv, L=pr=mrv 
Kepler’s three laws (ellipses, equal area swept out, Psquared = acubed) 
Motion(just standard kinematics) 
Rotational momentum is known as angular momentum 
Net force changes momentum because it changes velocity 
Force changes momentum, torque changes angular momentum (Torque = 
Fd=Fr) 
Mass is how much of something there is, and force is mass times gravity 
You are weightless in free-fall 
Newton would press on his eye with a stick to see different colors to study 
optics 
Conservation of momentum 
Energy makes matter move 
Energy is conserved, but it can transfer from one object to another, or 
change in form 
Temperature is average kinetic energy 
0 Celsius = 32 Fahrenheit = 273.15 K 
Thermal energy is a measure of the total kinetic energy of all the particles in 
a substance, and therefore depends on both temperature and density 
E=mc^2 
Concentrated energy can spontaneously turn into particles 
Speed of light in vacuum = 3x10^8 m/s 
 
Day 6 Sep 20 
 
F(of gravity)=Gm(1)m(2)/r^2 
G=6.67x10^-11 m^3/kgs^2 
Kepler’s laws apply to all orbiting objects-orbits can be bound (ellipses) or 
unbound (parabola or hyperbola) 
Orbiting objects orbit around their common center of mass (the center of 
mass of our sun-planet system is so weighted in favor of the sun that the 
COM is inside the sun, so planets orbit around the sun) 
  
 
Period squared = 4 (pi squared)(a cubed)/(GMm) 
Total orbital energy (gravitational + kinetic) stays constant if there is no 
external force 
Something can gain or lose orbital energy from (lose-friction or atmospheric 
drag) (gain/lose- a gravitational encounter) 
Moon’s gravity pulls harder on the near side of the earth than on the far side 
Size of tides depends on phase of moon (whether or not the sun and moon 
are working together or perpendicular, fighting each other) 
Spring tides are strong, neap tides are not 
Tidal forces cause friction which slowly slows Earth’s rotation (and makes the 
moon get farther from Earth) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Infrared light is what we refer to as heat 
Flow of energy in light- 1 Watt = 1 Joule/s 
Watt is unit of power 
Emission 
Absorption 
Transmission- 
Transparent objects transmit light 
Opaque objects block (absorb) light 
Reflection/scattering 
A mirror reflects light at the same angle it came in at 
Light can act either as a wave or like a particle (or both simultaneously) 
Particles of light are photons 
Photons carry oscillating electric and magnetic fields 
A wave is a pattern that can carry energy without carrying matter along with 
it 
Wavelength is the distance between two wave peaks (units = length) 
Frequency is the number of times per second that a wave vibrates up and 
down (units = 1/s = Hz) 
Wave speed = wavelength times frequency (m/s) 
A light wave is a vibration of electric and magnetic fields 
Light interacts with charged particles through these electric and magnetic 
fields 
Lambda = wavelength 
E=h(frequency) 
h=6.626x10^-34 joule x seconds 
Nucleus of an atom is nearly 100000 times smaller than the atom but 
contains nearly all of its mass 
Atomic number - number of protons in nucleus 
Atomic mass= number of protons plus neutrons 
Molecules consist of two or more atoms 
Isotope-same number of protons but different number of neutrons 
Electrons restricted to particular energy levels (like potential energy graph 
problems) 
 
Each type of atom has a unique set of energy levels 
Each transition corresponds to a unique photon energy, frequency, and 
wavelength determined by what energy level the electron is going to and 
from 
Downward transitions produce a unique pattern of emission lines 
Upward transitions produce a unique pattern of absorption lines 
Each type of atom has a unique spectral fingerprint 
Molecules have additional energy levels because they can vibrate and rotate 
(though they’re still quantized) 
Thin or low-density cloud of gas emits light on spectrum 
Thermal radiation-nearly all dense objects emit thermal radiation. An 
object’s thermal radiation spectrum depends on only its temperature 
Blackbody radiation;color-less object will emit only thermal radiation 
Hotter objects emit more light at all frequencies per unit area 
Hotter objects emit photons with a higher average energy 
Light intensity follows logarithmic scale 
intensity=stefan-boltzmann constant(5.7*10^-8)(Temperature in Kelvin to the 
fourth) 
Intensity = power/area=energy/time/area 
Wien’s law: 
Lambda (wavelength) max = 2,900,000 nm/T 
nm=10^-9 m, T is temperature measured in kelvin 
Doppler shift tells us only about the component of an object’s motion toward 
or away from us 
(lambda(shift)-lambda(rest))/lambda(rest) = v/c 
Positive velocity is moving away from us 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Refraction can cause parallel light rays to converge to a focus 
The focal plane is where light from different directions come into focus 
The image behind a convex lens is upside-down 
Refraction is the bending of light due to the material it’s passing through 
Two most important properties of a telescope: 
Light-collecting area; How much light it can collect in a given time 
Angular Resolution; How much detail. Telescopes that are larger are capable 
of taking images with greater detail.The minimum angular separation that 
the telescope can distinguish. The ultimate limit to resolution come from 
interference of light waves within a telescope. Larger telescopes are capable 
of greater resolution because there’s less interference. This limit is known as 
the diffraction limit. Diffraction limit depends on wavelength of light and the 
diameter of the telescope 
 
Theta (diffraction limit) is proportional to lambda divided by the diameter of 
the telescope 
 
A telescope’s diameter tells us its light-collecting area 
A=pi(diameter/2)^2 
 
Refracting telescope focuses light with lenses 
Reflecting telescope focuses light with mirrors 
 
Refracting telescopes need to be very long with large, heavy lenses 
 
Chromatic aberration is the effect in which refracting telescopes focus 
different wavelengths of light at different distances, meaning you can’t have 
a multi-color image in focus (only for refractors) 
 
Reflecting telescopes can have larger diameters without being as long 
Imaging-taking pictures of things 
Spectroscopy-breaking light into spectra 
Time monitoring-measuring how light output varies with time 
 
Adaptive optics-rapidly changing the shape of a telescope’s mirror 
compensates for some of the effects of turbulence 
 
Oct 4 
Use a calculator or at least a piece of paper for math 
Luminosity=power=energy/time 
Solar luminosity = 3.8x10^26 Joules 
Solar mass = 2x10^30kg 
Radius sun = 7x10^8 
Earth mass = 6x10^24kg 
Radius earth = 6.4x10^6 
Energy/power = time 
The sun-  
Weight of upper layers compresses lower layers 
Gravitational equilibrium; energy supplied by fusion maintains the pressure 
that balances the inward crush of gravity 
Energy balance; energy being released is the same as the energy being 
released from the surface 
Gravitational contraction; Provided energy that heated the core of the sun 
as it was forming 
High temperatures allow fusion to happen. Otherwise, particles will be unable 
to overcome electrostatic repulsion and will simply deflect. When close 
enough, string force drags them together. 
Sun fuses 4 H into 1 He (4 protons become 2 protons 2 neutrons) 
In; 4 protons 
Out; He nucleus, 2 gamma rays, 2 positrons, 2 neutrinos 
Total mass is .7% lower 
Decline in core temp causes fusion rate to drop, so core contracts and heats 
up 
Rise in core temp causes fusion rate to rise, so core expands and cools down 
Energy gradually leaks out of the radiation zone in the form of randomly 
bouncing photons 
Convection (rising hot gas) takes energy to the surface 
We learn about the inside of the sun by making mathematical models, 
observing solar vibrations, and observing solar neutrinos 
Patterns of vibration on the surface of the sun tell us what it is like inside 
Zeeman effect-we can measure magnetic fields in sunspots by observing the 
splitting of spectral lines 
Charged particles spiral along magnetic field lines 
Loops of bright gas often connect sunspot pairs 
Solar activity-  
Sunspots; cooler than other parts of the sun’s surface(roughly 4000k), 
regions with strong magnetic fields 
Magnetic activity causes solar flares that send out bursts of xrays and 
charged particles 
Coronal mass ejections send bursts of energetic charged particles through 
the solar system 
Charged particles streaming from the sun can disrupt electrical power grids 
and disable communications satellites 
Solar activity is periodic 
 
Oct 18 
Two types of star clusters 
Globular cluster-up to a million or more stars in a dense ball bound 
together by gravity 
Open Cluster- a few thousand loosely packed stars 
 
In the Milky Way, all the globular clusters are old; the open clusters go either 
way. As it turns out, there are galaxies wherein there are young globular 
clusters. 
 
More luminous stars have shorter lifespans 
 
A star cluster’s age roughly equals the life expectancy of its most massive 
stars still on the main sequence 
 
Stars form in dark clouds of dusty gas in interstellar space. The formation 
and survival of dust-grains depends on high density and low temperature. 
 
The gas between the stars is called the interstellar medium. The medium has 
dense regions and tenuous, warmer regions. Molecular clouds. 
 
Composition of elements in our region of Milky Way by mass; 70% H, 28% He, 
2% heavier stuff. Hydrogen is about 90% of the elements by number of atoms. 
 
Star-forming clouds are mostly in the form of molecules, most of which is H2, 
some of which is CO, and some of which is other. Molecular clouds have a 
temp of 10-30K and a density of about 300 molecules per cubic centimeter. 
 
Tiny solid particles of interstellar dust block our view of stars on the other 
side of a cloud. 
 
Gravity can create stars only if it can overcome the force of thermal 
pressure in a cloud 
 
A typical molecular cloud must contain at least a few hundred solar masses 
for gravity to overcome pressure 
 
A cloud must have even more mass if there are other opposing forces  
 
Coulomb repulsion keeps fusion from happening at low temperatures 
 
Increased temperature allows particles to overcome coulomb repulsion, as 
well as allowing them to hit more frequently 
 
When they get close enough, nuclear force overcomes coulomb repulsion and 
drags the protons together rather than apart (protons are small and can 
just miss each other even if they’re high enough energy-it takes precision and 
high energy) 
 
A life track illustrates the temperature of a star on the main sequence 
 
There is a range of masses that allows for star formation  
 
Fusion will not begin in a contracting cloud if some force stops contraction 
before core temperature rises above 10^7 Kelvin.  
 
Thermal pressure cannot stop contraction because the star is constantly 
losing thermal energy from its surface through radiation 
 
P=nkT  
 
Degeneracy Pressure; the laws of quantum mechanics prohibit two electrons 
from occupying the same state in the same place 
 
Degeneracy pressure halts the contraction of objects with less than .08 solar 
masses before core temperature becomes hot enough for fusion 
 
A starlike object not massive enough to start fusion are called brown dwarfs 
(unless it’s a planet) 
 
Most of the star-mass lies in low-mass stars, but most of the light comes 
from high-mass stars 
 
Helium fuses into Carbon later on at higher temperatures 
 
   
Big bang made helium and hydrogen-stars made everything else 
 
Massive stars function similarly to smaller stars 
 
Star pairs can undergo mass exchange 
 
Iron is a dead end for fusion because nuclear reactions involving iron do not 
release energy 
 
Elements with even numbers of protons are easier to make 
 
Measure age of supernova by speed of cloud as determined by doppler shift 
 
Everything after iron is made is supernovae 
 
If heavier things are made in supernovae, why did the big bang not make 
them?