Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Images
are formed either at the point where rays of light actually intersect or at the
point from which they appear to originate.

Images can be formed through either

reflection or refraction.

Virtual Image
formed by outgoing rays that appear to originate from the
image point, but the rays do not actually pass the image point.
Virtual images can be seen, but cannot be projected on to a
physical screen.

Real Image
Formed by outgoing rays that actually converge at the
image point. The rays actually pass the image point.
Real images can be projected on to a physical screen,
such as at a movie theater.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Images by a Plane Mirror

1. The image is as far behind the mirror as the object is in front.
Object distance s:
The distance from the object to the mirror
Image distance s’:
The distance from the image to the mirror.

2. The image is unmagnified, virtual and upright.

Lateral Magnification
image height y '
=m =
object height y
Upright or erect: m > 0, inverted: m < 0.
For plane mirrors: m = 1

3. The image has forward-back reversal, but not for

left-right or top-bottom.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Spherical Mirrors
Plane mirrors produces images of the same size, many applications require images
different sizes, this can be achieved using mirrors with curvatures or lenses.

Concave (converging) mirror:

Light is reflected from the inner, concave surface

Convex (diverging) mirror:

Light is reflected from the outer, convex surface.

Principal (optical) axis:

The line through the center of the curvature (C)
and the center of the mirror (V).

Parallel rays:
The light rays that are parallel and close to the principal axis. All such rays converge
at a point in front of the mirror for concave mirrors and diverges from a point behind
the mirror for convex mirrors.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Focal Point and Focal Length

For an object far away on the principal axis, the light rays
from the object are essentially parallel to the axis. After
reflection, all of them converges at a point half-way between
the center of the curvature and the center of the mirror.
Focal point F:
The image point formed by an object far away on the axis.
Focal length f:
The distance between the focal point and the center of
the mirror.
Light rays emitted by a point source at the focal point
will be parallel to the principal axis after the reflection.

For a convex mirror, the focal point

is behind the mirror and the light
rays appear to diverge from the focal
point after reflection.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Object and Image Relationship

From the trignometry:
φ = α + θ, β = φ + θ ⇒ α + β = 2φ

For small angles

h h h
α ≈ tan α ≈ , β ≈ tanβ ≈ and φ ≈ tanφ ≈
s s' R
Combining these leads to the object and image
relationship:
1 1 2
+ =
s s' R
This equation assumes that all rays make small angles with the principal axis. Such
rays are called paraxial rays. Rays from a point object do not form a precise image.
The images of spherical mirrors are generally fuzzy unlike those of plane mirrors.
This phenomena is called spherical aberration.
The object-image relation is only approximate for spherical mirrors, but is exact for
parabolic mirrors.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Sign Conventions
Though derived from a concave mirror, the relation also applies to convex mirrors
provided the following sign conventions are followed:
s>0 if the object is at the same side as the incoming light (real object)
s<0 if the object is at the opposite side as the incoming light (virtual object)
s' > 0 if the image is at the same side as the outgoing light (real image)
s' < 0 if the image is at the opposite side as the outgoing light (virtual image)

R > 0 if the center of curvature is at the same side as the outgoing light (concave)
R < 0 if the center of curvature is at the opposite side as the outgoing light (convex)

m > 0 if the image is upright and m < 0 if the image is inverted

1 1 2 1 1 1 R
+ = ⇒ + = with f=
s s' R s s' f 2
Special cases:
R= ∞ ⇒ s' = − s (plane mirror)
s= ∞ ⇒ s ' =f (parallel rays focus at the focal point)
s= f ⇒ s' = ∞ (image at infinity for an object at the focal point)
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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Ray Diagrams for Mirrors

A few special rays (called principal rays) can be used to determine the properties
of an image.
1) A ray parallel to the axis, after reflection, passes through the focal point F of a concave
mirror or appears to come from the focal point of a convex mirror;
2) A ray through (or proceeding toward) the focal point F is reflected parallel to the axis;
3) A ray through (or proceeding toward) the center of curvature C is reflected back along
it’s original path;
4) A ray to the vertex V is reflected symmetrically around the principal axis.

Images are only formed at the (apparent) intersection of outgoing rays.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Images of Concave Mirrors

1 1 1 R fs
+ = with f = > 0 ⇒ s ' =
s s' f 2 s− f
y y'
Also tan θ = = −
s s'
y' s' f
⇒ m = = − = −
y s s− f

The case for a real object ( s > 0 ) is complicated and interesting:

0 < s < f : s ' < 0 and m > 1 ⇒ virtual, upright and magnified
f < s < 2 f : s ' > 0 and m < −1 ⇒ real, inverted and magnified
2f < s: s ' > 0 and − 1 < m < 0 ⇒ real, inverted and reduced

For a real object (s>0), the virtual image (s’<0) is always upright and
the real image (s’>0) is always inverted.
For a virtual object ( s < 0, usually an image formed by others ) :
 f   f 
0<=
 s '  < f and 0 < =m  < 1 ⇒ real, upright and reduced
 1+ f s   s +f
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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Images of Convex Mirrors

The object and image relationship still applies,
but the radius of curvature and focal length
are negative:

1 1 1 R
+ = with f = < 0
s s' f 2
fs f
⇒ s' = = − For a real object ( s > 0 ) :
s− f 1+ f s
− f < s ' < 0 and 0 < m < 1
s' f s
⇒ m=− = ⇒ virtual, upright and reduced image
s 1+ f s

The case for a virtual object ( s < 0 ) is complicated and interesting:

f < s < 0 : s ' > 0 and m > 1 ⇒ real, upright and magnified
2 f < s < f : s ' < 0 and m < −1 ⇒ virtual, inverted and magnified
s < 2f : s ' < 0 and − 1 < m < 0 ⇒ virtual, inverted and reduced

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Images by Refraction

Images can be formed by reflection

as well as refraction.

Consider the refraction by a spherical

surface:

From trignometry: R>0

θa = α + φ and φ = β + θb

From Snell's law and paraxial approximation

na sin θa = nb sin θb ⇒ na θa = nbθb ⇒ na α + nbβ = ( nb − na ) φ

The small-angle (para-axial) approximations

h h h
α ≈ tanα ≈ , β ≈ tanβ ≈ and φ ≈ tanφ ≈
s s' R
lead to the object-image relationship for a spherical refracting surface
na nb ( nb − na )
+ =
s s' R

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Images by Refraction
To calculate the magnification, note that
y y'
θa ≈ tanθa ≈ and θb ≈ tan θb ≈ −
s s'
The image magnification is therefore
y' s'θ n s'
m= =− b= − a
y sθa nb s
The sign conventions are the same as we discussed for
spherical mirrors. Following the convention,
R < 0 for reflecting spherical convex mirror, but
R > 0 for refracting spherical convex surface, why?

Flat refracting surface (R=∞):

na nb n n s'
+ = 0 ⇒ − b s and m =
s' = − a = 1
s s' na nb s
An image formed by a flat refracting surface is virtual, upright, has the same
lateral size as the object and is at the same side as the object.
Question: why is it not a good idea to water your lawn at midday (in addition
to the quick water vaporization)?
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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Examples: Some phenomena of reflection and refraction

Images of two perpendicular plane mirror
four images are formed as shown.
Question: how many images are formed if the angle
between the two mirrors is 60 degree?

Proof: The ray reflected off two perpendicular plane

mirror is always parallel to the incoming ray.

Question: Why the pencil appears to be broken at water’s surface?

Answer: the refracted ray is shifted, the shift
depends on the viewing angle. The
pencil could be “broken” or “bent”
depending on the viewing angle.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

A lens is an optical system with two refracting surfaces.

Thin Lenses
Two spherical surfaces close enough together that the distance between them
can be ignored.
Converging Lens
A beam of rays parallel to the axis passes through the
lens, the rays converge to a point

Any lens that is thicker at its center than at its edges

is a converging lens with positive f.
There are two focal points, one on either side. The focal
lengths of two sides are always equal for a thin lens even
when the two sides have
different curvature.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Diverging Lenses
The beam of parallel rays incident on this lenses
diverges after refraction. The focal length of
a diverging lens is negative.

Any lens that is thicker at its edges than at its

center is a diverging lens with negative f.
(assuming the lens has a greater index of refraction
than the surrounding material.)
The focal lengths of both sides are the same even
if there are different curvatures on the two sides.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

The Lensmaker’s Equation

n=
a n=
c 1
nb = n

Apply object-image relations for both surfaces:

1 n n −1 n 1 1−n
= + ' and
= +
s1 s1 R1 s2 s2' R2

Note that the image of the first surface is the object for the second surface:
s2 = − s1' , eliminating s1' one gets a relation between s1 and s2' :
1 1 1 1
+ ' = ( n − 1)  − 
s1 s2  R1 R2 
Expressed in terms of the object and image distances of the lens
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = ( n − 1)  −  or as + = with = ( n − 1)  − 
s s'  R1 R2  s s' f f  R1 R2 
Lensmaker’s equation
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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Focal lengths of thin lenses

1 1 1
( n − 1)  − 
=
f  R1 R2 

R1 < 0 R1 > 0
R1 = ∞ R1 > 0 R1 = ∞ R1 < 0
R2 < 0 R2 > 0
R2 < 0 R2 < 0 R2 > 0 R2 > 0
R1 > R2 R1 > R2

All three cases lead to All three cases lead to

f > 0 (converging lens) f < 0 (diverging lens)
Converging lenses are thicker in the middle, Diverging lenses are thinner in the middle.
The focal lengths have the same sign whether the light incidents from left or right.
Question: if the lens is immersed in liquid transparent medium with index of
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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Object-Image Relationship
Two triangles with angles α are similar:
y y' y' s'
= − ⇒ = −
s s' y s
Two triangles with angle β are similar too:
y y' y' s '− f
= − ⇒ = −
f s '− f y f

Equating the two leads to the object-image relationship

1 1 1
+ =
s s' f
with the lateral magnification
y' s'
m= = −
y s

Identical to the relationships for spherical mirrors, many of the image properties
of spherical mirrors therefore apply for thin lenses as well.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Ray Diagrams of Thin Lenses

Like spherical mirrors, there are special rays that are useful to draw images
1) A ray parallel to the axis is refracted to pass (or appear to pass) through
one of the focal points;
2) A ray through the center of the lens is not refracted after passing through
the lens;
3) A ray through (or proceeding toward) one of the focal points is refracted
parallel to the axis.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Formation of Images
An object starting at far away, gradually moving towards the focal point,
The real and inverted image gets larger and moves away from the lens.
At s = 2f, the image is at s’ = 2f and has the same size as the object.
At s = f, the image is at infinite.
When the object is within the focal point, the image becomes virtual and upright.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Combination of Lenses
For a combination of lenses, the
image of the lens in front becomes
the object for the lens behind.
For the first lens:
1 1 1 f1 s
+ = ⇒ s '=
s s ' f1 s − f1
For the second lens:
If s ' < a , the image is in front of the lens ⇒ real object with the object distance a − s '
If s ' > a , the image is behind the lens ⇒ virtual object with the object distance − ( s '− a ) =a − s '
1 1 1
Regardless + =
a − s ' s '' f2 s '' = image distance of the 2nd lens

In particular, if the two lens are bundled together, i.e, a = 0 :

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = and + = ⇒ + = +
s s ' f1 − s ' s '' f2 s s '' f1 f2
equivalent to a single lens with a focal length f given by
1 1 1
= +
f f1 f2
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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Cameras
A typical camera consists of
- a converging lens
- film or photo sensor
The image formed is usually real,
inverted and reduced in size, i.e.,
s > 2f and f < s’ < 2f.
Three key parameters are the focal length f, the aperture D (the diameter of the lens)
and the size of the photo detector.
1 1 1 s' f s' s'
+ = ⇒ s= and m = − =− 1
s s' f s '− f s f
Many cameras (e.g. your cellphone camera) have small ranges of image distances
Large focal length: long distance, small object, narrow angular view
Small focal length: short distance, large object, wide angular view

f
f -number of a lens = , the light intensity the photo senor sees is inversely
D
proportional to the f -number square.

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 Chapter 33 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Eyes
Human eyes are nearly spherical with a diameter of about 2.5 cm. The optical
behavior is similar to that of a camera. Real, inverted and reduced images are
formed by a converging lens:
Crystalline lens
Retina as photo sensors

For an object to be seen sharply, the image has to

be formed exactly on the retina. Eyes have the ability
to adjust their focal lengths (changing the curvature
of the crystalline lens).
Human eyes have a typical focal length of ~2.0 cm for an object far away
and an aperture about 8 mm, corresponding to an f-number f/2.5.

The extremes of the range over which distinct vision is

possible are known as the far point and the near point.
The range gradually diminishes with age as eye’s ability
to adjust its focal length is lessened.

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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Vision Defects
For an object at infinity, a normal eye forms an image on the retina when the eye
is relaxed.

Nearsighted (myopic) eye:

The eyeball becomes too long and the image is
formed in front of the retina, sees near objects
better than far objects.
Can be corrected with a diverging eyeglass.

Farsighted (hyperopic) eye:

The eyeball is too short or not curved enough,
the image is formed behind the retina, sees far
objects better than near objects.
Can be corrected with a converging eyeglass.

Lenses for vision correction are usually described in

terms of power, defined as the reciprocal of the focal
length expressed in meters. The unit of power is diopter,
1 diopter = 1 /m.
A lens with f=0.5 m has a power of 2.0 diopters.
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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

The Magnifier
The apparent size of an object depends on
the angle subtended by the object at the eye.
The angle increases as the object is brought
closer to your eye, but your eye cannot focus
beyond the near point.

The angle can be magnified using a converging

lens by placing the object near the focal point.
Thus a lens is called magnifier.

The angular magnification M is therefore

θ'
M=
θ
For a typical near point distance 25 cm:
y y 25 cm
=
θ and = θ' ⇒ = M
25 cm f f

The smaller the focal length, the angular magnification. The magnification of a
single converging lens is limited by aberration to 3× or 4×. A combination of
lenses can greatly increase the magnification ⇒ microscope.
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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Compound Microscope
Of an objective and an eyepiece lenses, both converging
The object is placed just outside the focal point of the objective lens. the image
formed by the objective lens is just inside the focal point of
the eyepiece which serves as a simple magnifier.
Lateral magnification of the objective lens short f for the
objective lens:
s1' s1' L
m1 = − ≈ − ≈ − f1 < 1 cm
s1 f1 f1
L is the separation between the objective
and eyepiece lenses.
The eyepiece has the angular magnification
25 cm
M2 =
f2
Thus the overall magnification is
(25 cm) ⋅L
=M m1M2 ≈ −
f1 f2
Theoretically, the magnification can be very large, but other effects (e.g. aberrations)
limit the magnification of this simple combination to a few tens.
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 Chapter 34 Physics 340, Winter 2020

Telescopes
view large objects at
large distances

A simple telescope
- Objective lens
- Eyepiece
Both converging.

The separation between the two lenses are the sum of their focal lengths: f1 + f2 .
The objective lens forms a real and reduced image while the eyepiece forms a
virtual and enlarged image.

The angular magnification can be calculated from the geometry

−y ' y' θ' f
θ= and θ ' = ⇒ M= =− 1
f1 f2 θ f2

A telescope should have a long focal length for the objective lens and a short focal
length for the eyepiece.

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