The 

Hong Kong Polytechnic University 
Department of Electrical Engineering 

High Voltage Engineering
EE509
Prof. Derek S.W. Or

2016 / 2017
 Chapter 2  Breakdown of Gaseous Insulation ................................................................................... 2-1 
2.1  Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 2-1 
2.2  Ionization Processes.......................................................................................................................... 2-2 
2.2.1  Collision Ionization Process ............................................................................................... 2-3 
2.2.2  Photoelectric Ionization Process......................................................................................... 2-5 
2.2.3  Secondary Ionization Process ............................................................................................. 2-6 
2.2.4  Electron Attachment Process .............................................................................................. 2-7 
2.3  Townsend Breakdown Mechanism................................................................................................... 2-8 
2.3.1  Townsend’s Current Growth Equation ............................................................................... 2-8 
2.3.2  Townsend’s Current Growth Equation with Secondary Ionization Process ...................... 2-9 
2.3.3  Townsend’s Criterion for Spark Breakdown .................................................................... 2-11 
2.3.4  Experimental Determination of Townsend’s Ionization Coefficients .............................. 2-12 
2.4  Breakdown in Electronegative Gases ............................................................................................. 2-17 
2.5  Streamer Breakdown Mechanism ................................................................................................... 2-20 
2.6  Paschen's Law ................................................................................................................................. 2-24 
2.7  Corona Discharges .......................................................................................................................... 2-28 
2.7.1  Formation of Corona on a Two Conductor Line .............................................................. 2-28 
2.7.2  Waveform of Corona Current ........................................................................................... 2-30 
2.7.3  Mechanism of Corona Formation ..................................................................................... 2-31 
2.7.4  Power Loss due to Corona ................................................................................................ 2-34 
2.8  Breakdown in Non-Uniform Fields ................................................................................................ 2-35 
2.9  Post-Breakdown Phenomena and Applications .............................................................................. 2-36 
2.10  Vacuum Insulation .......................................................................................................................... 2-38 
2.10.1  Nature of Vacuum ............................................................................................................ 2-38 
2.10.2  Vacuum Breakdown ......................................................................................................... 2-39 

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 2.11  References....................................................................................................................................... 2-43

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Chapter 2
Breakdown of Gaseous Insulation

2.1 Introduction

Gases are probably the simplest and the most commonly found electrical insulating materials (or dielectrics).
When the voltage applied between the two electrodes immersed in a gas is low (i.e., when the electric field stress
applied to a gas is low), there is only a small current flowing through the gas, and its insulation properties can be
retained. If the applied voltage is large enough, the current increases very sharply, resulting in a dielectric
breakdown, forming a strongly conducting spark, and producing a short-circuit failure. The maximum voltage
applied to the insulation at the moment of breakdown is called the breakdown voltage.

There are two types of electrical discharge in gases: (1) Non-Sustaining Discharges and (2) Self-Sustaining
Discharges. The breakdown in a gas, called spark breakdown, is the transition of a non-sustaining discharge into
a self-sustaining discharge. The build-up of high currents in a breakdown is due to the process known as ionization
process in which free electrons and positive ions are created from neutral atoms or gas molecules, and their
migration to the anode and cathode respectively leads to high currents.

At present, two basic mechanisms of breakdown in gases are available: (1) Townsend Breakdown Mechanism
and (2) Streamer Breakdown Mechanism. Various physical conditions of gases, including pressure, temperature,
electric field configuration, electrode surface nature, and the availability of initial electrically charged particles (i.e.,
free electrons) are known to govern the ionization processes.

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2.2 Ionization Processes

Gaseous dielectrics in practice are not free of electrically charged particles, but they contain free electrons
instead. On the application of a voltage, an electric field stress is established to force these free electrons to acquire
a kinetic energy (Ek = ½ mev2, me ~ 9.1110-31 kg) and to travel from the cathode to the anode. These free electrons
collide with the neutral gas molecules present between the electrodes, losing part of the kinetic energy while
transmitting part to the neutral gas molecules, during their travel across the electrode gap. If the neutral gas
molecules gain sufficient energy (i.e., more than the energy required for an ionization process to occur, Ei) from the
free electrons, they may become ionized by collisions, liberating a new electron and a positive ion. The average
number of ionizing collisions by one electron per unit travel across the electrode gap is not a constant but subject to
statistical fluctuations. The newly liberated electron and the impinging electron, together with the corresponding
positive ions, continue to travel in the electric field but in the opposite direction so that an avalanche is set up.
Further increase in the electric field stress (or the applied voltage) results in an increase in the probability of
ionization. Ionization increases especially rapidly once secondary ionization process takes place until ultimately
breakdown occurs.

Ionization is the process of liberating a new electron from a neutral gas molecule with the simultaneous
production of a positive ion (a positive charge). Three ionization processes are primarily responsible for the
breakdown of a gas: (1) Collision Ionization Process, (2) Photoelectric Ionization Process, and (3) Secondary
Ionization Process. Besides, Electron Attachment Process plays an important role in high pressure or compressed
gases (also called insulating or electron-attaching gases) where free electrons are removed by attaching them to
neutral gas molecules.

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2.2.1 Collision Ionization Process

In the collision ionization process, a free electron e– collides with a neutral gas molecule M to liberate a new
electron e– and a positive ion M+. As shown in Fig. 2.1, if an electric field E is applied across the two parallel plane
electrodes immersed in a low pressure gas corresponding to the (gas pressure p × gap distance d) values of <1,000
torr·cm (atmospheric pressure = 760 torr) at a uniform field, any free electron e– presents initially at the cathode
will gain a kinetic energy (Ek = ½ mev2,) to accelerate and collide with the neutral gas molecules M during its travel
towards the anode. If the kinetic energy of a free electron in collision with a neutral gas molecule exceeds the
ionization energy (Ei = eVi, electron volt with 1 eV = 1.6×10-19 J) of the neutral gas molecule, the collision
ionization process can occur as

. (2.1)

Fig. 2.1 Experimental arrangement for the study of collision ionization.

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 By increassing the appliied electric fieeld, it can inccrease the proobability of th
he ionizing co
ollisions. By iimpinging
a ultraviolet (UV) light ( ~ 125 nm)) on the catho
an ode, it can prroduce an exttra number off photoelectro ons at the
c
cathode for io
onizing more neutral
n gas molecules
m and generating
g moore free electrrons and posittive ions in acccordance
w Eq. (2.1)). This is referrred to the pho
with otoelectric ion nization proceess to be described in Sectiion 2.2.2.

The numb ber of free electrons creaated is equal to the numbber of positivve ions createed. The availlable free
e
electrons repeeat, repeat, an
nd repeat the ionizing collissions during thheir travel tow
wards the anoode, while the available
p
positive ions move toward ds the cathodde at a relativvely lower sppeed because of higher masses.
m This essentially
e
c
creates an avaalanche of freee electrons and
a positive io ons with a commet-like shapee as in Fig. 2.2. Since the number
n of
f
free electronss reaching thee anode per unit
u time is larger than th hose liberated at the cathod de due to thee ionizing
c
collisions, an obvious increease in the eleectron currentt occurs. The probability oof this collisio
on ionization pprocess is
m
measured by Townsend’s primary ion nization coeffficient , defiined as the avverage number of ionizing collisions
m
made by one electron per unit
u travel in the direction of the electriic field. dep pends on gas pressure p annd electric
f
field intensity
y E.

When the positive ionss reach the caathode, they can bombard with
w the cathoode, causing emission of ssecondary
e
electrons from
m the cathode by giving upp their kinetic energy during
g bombardmeent. This is thee Secondary Ionization
I
P
Process to be described in Section 2.2.3.

Fig. 2.2 An avalenchee of electrons and positive ions.

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2
2.2.2 Photo
oelectric Io
onization P
Process

The pheno omena associaated with ion nization by rad

diation, or ph
hotoelectric ioonization, inv
volve the interraction of
r
radiation with
h matter. Phottoelectric ionization occurs when a moleecule in the grround state is ionized by a photon
p of
f
frequency υ, provided
p that the amount of
o radiation (p
photon) energy (Er = hυ) ab bsorbed by thhe molecule exxceeds its
i
ionization eneergy Ei (Fig. 2.3).
2

. (2.2)

n occurs when the waveleng

Ionization gth of the inciident radiation
n satisfies:

or (2.3)

where h = 6.6
w 626×10-34 J·s is the Planck a c = 3×108 m/s is the veelocity of ligh
k’s constant and ht. From Eq. (2.3), the
h
higher the ion
nization energ
gy , the sho orter will be the
t waveleng gth of the inciident radiation
n capable oof causing
p
photo-ionizatiion process. It
I was found experimentall
e ly that a radiaation having a wavelength of 125 nm (uultraviolet
l
light: 10–400 nm) is able to
o induce phottoelectric ionization in almoost all gases.

Fig. 2.3
3 Emission off electrons from a metal pla
ate.

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2
2.2.3 Secon
ndary Ionizzation Proccess

Secondaryy ionization process aim ms to produce secondary electrons

e for “sustaining” a discharge after it is
e
established du
ue to primary collision ioniization and ph
hotoelectric io
onization proccesses. Electrron emission due
d to the
b
bombardment t of positive io
ons on cathod
de is the most important typpe of secondarry ionization process.

g Eqs. (2.1) and

Following a (2.2), po
ositive ions d by the collision ionizattion process (
are formed
) or by
b the photoeelectric ionizaation processs ( ). These posiitive ions
t
travel toward ds the cathodee in oppositio on to the prim mary electron ns. In Fig. 2.4
4, a positive ion appro oaching a
m
metallic cathoode can causee emission of electrons
e f
from the cathode by giving g up its kinetic energy (Ek = ½ mev2)
o impact. If the total energ
on gy of the posiitive ion (i.e., kinetic energ
gy Ek + ionizaation energy Ei) is greater th
han twice
#
t work funcction of the metal
the m (2Ew), a secondary ellectron will bee ejected and neutralized by b the positivee ion. The
p
probability off this process is measured by
b Townsend d’s secondary y ionization ccoefficient defined as th he average
n
number of seccondary electrrons produced d at the cathode per second dary ionizing collision by an
a incident po ositive ion
i the electrod
in de gap. also o depends on gas
g pressure p and electric field intensityy E.

(2.4)

Fig. 2.4 Secondary ionizaation process in

i which
em
mission of seco
ondary electro
ons due to possitive ion
impact..

#
Work function, which h is a characteriistic property off any solid face
of a ssubstance with a conduction band,b is the min nimum energy
neededd to remove an electron from a solid to a poin nt immediately
outsidde the solid face.

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2.2.4 Electron Attachment Process

Electron attachment process is a collision process in which electrons may be attached to molecules M to
form negative ions . The electron attachment process depends on the energy of the electron and the nature of
the gas. All electrically insulating or electron-attaching gases, such as O2, CO2, Cl2, F2, C2 F6, C3 F8, C4 F10, CCl2 F2,
and SF6, are subject to this process. An electron attachment process can be represented as

⟶ (2.5)

The energy liberated as a result of this process is the kinetic energy Ek plus the electron affinity Ea. In the insulating
or electron-attaching gases, the molecules have vacancies in their outermost shells and, therefore, have an affinity
for electrons. The effect of attachment on breakdown in electronegative gases is discussed in Section 2.7 of this
chapter.

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2.3 Townsend Breakdown Mechanism

2.3.1 Townsend’s Current Growth Equation

The Townsend breakdown mechanism is also known as avalanche breakdown mechanism as it was established
based on the avalanche phenomenon created by ionizing collisions at low pressures corresponding to the (gas
pressure p × gap distance d) values of <1,000 torr·cm (atmospheric pressure = 760 torr) and in a uniform field.

Referring to Eq. (2.1): , when one electron collides with a neutral gas molecule, a
new electron and a positive ion are created by the collision ionization process. Let us assume

no = Number of initial photoelectrons emitted from the cathode per second;

= Number electrons moving at a distance x from the cathode in the electrode gap per second
( > due to ionizing collisions in the gap);
= Average number of ionizing collisions made by one electron per unit travel in the direction of the field
[Townsend’s first ionization coefficient (in cm-1), depending on p and E].

When these electrons travel a further distance of dx, they give rise to ( ) electrons, and we have

. (2.6)

Rearranging and integrating Eq. (2.6) gives

=> ln => e . (2.7)

If the anode is at a distance x = d from the cathode, the number of electrons reaching the anode per second is

e . (2.8)

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 The average number of new electrons (also the average number of positive ions) created by each electron,
which is equal to the production of (e 1) collisions in the electrode gap d by each electron leaving the cathode,
can be expressed as

e 1. (2.9)

In the steady state, the average current growth in a uniform field in the gap is equal to the number of electrons
traveling per second in Eq. (2.8): e , giving

e , (2.10)

where Io is the initial photoelectric current at the cathode. Eq. (2.10) is also called the Townsend’s (primary)
current growth equation for the single avalanche process.

2.3.2 Townsend’s Current Growth Equation with Secondary Ionization Process

The single avalanche process described in Section 2.3.1 becomes complete when the initial set of electrons
reaches the anode. However, since the amplification of electrons (e ) occurs in the electric field, the probability
of new electrons and positive ions being liberated in the electrode gap by other mechanisms increases, and these
new electrons and positive ions create further avalanches. In an actual breakdown process, the positive ions
liberated may have sufficient energy to cause secondary electrons from the cathode when they bombard with it
through the secondary ionization process as shown in Fig. 2.4.

Consider now the (secondary) current growth equation in the presence of the secondary ionization process.
Following the Townsend’s primary current growth equation in Section 2.3.1, let us assume

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 γ = Average number of secondary ionizing collisions produced at the cathode by an incident positive ion in
the electrode gap [Townsend’s secondary ionization coefficient (in “no unit”), depending on p and E];
no = Number of initial photoelectrons emitted from the cathode per second;
= Number of secondary electrons produced due to the secondary ionization process per second.

Then, the total number of electrons leaving the cathode per second can be expressed as

. (2.11)

On average, each electron leaving the cathode produces (e 1) collisions in the electrode gap as in Eq. (2.9),
giving the number of ionizing collisions per second in the gap as e 1 . By the definition of , we have

γ . (2.12)
e 1

Combining Eqs. (2.11) and (2.12) and eliminating , we have

(2.13)
1 γ e 1

The total number of electrons reaching the anode per second with x = d from the cathode is given by
e
e (2.14)
1 γ e 1

In the steady state, the total average current growth in a uniform field in the gap before spark breakdown is
e
(2.15)
1 γ e 1
which is called the Townsend’s (secondary) current growth equation with secondary ionization process.

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2.3.3 Townsend’s Criterion for Spark Breakdown

The Townsend’s (secondary) current growth equation with secondary ionization process in Eq. (2.15):
gives the total average current in a uniform field in an electrode gap before the occurrence of spark

breakdown.

For a given electrode gap d and at a given pressure p (low p and uniform E hold true), an increase in applied
voltage leads to an increase in e and hence γ e 1). When the applied voltage is increased to the critical
value called the spark breakdown voltage , the term γ e 1) tends to unity, the denominator tends to zero,
and tends to infinity so that spark breakdown occurs. The corresponding electrode gap distance is called the
sparking distance . In this case, I will, in practice, be limited only by the circuit resistance and the conducting
gas. The condition for satisfying this spark breakdown condition is called the Townsend’s criterion for spark
breakdown and defined as

e 1 1 (2.16)

The Townsend mechanism explains the breakdown phenomena in a uniform field at low pressures (usually
0.01–300 torr) corresponding to the (gas pressure p × gap distance d) values of <1,000 torr·cm (atmospheric
pressure = 760 torr). Also, the associated avalanche breakdown develops over relatively long periods of time,
typically >1 μs, and does not generally occur with impulse voltages.

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2.3.4 Experimental Determination of Townsend’s Ionization Coefficients

The experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 2.5. It consists of two uniform field electrodes made of brass or
stainless steel. The high voltage (anode) electrode is connected to a variable d.c. power supply (2–10 kV rating).
The low voltage (cathode) electrode has a central electrode part and a guard electrode part. The central electrode
part is connected to the ground through an electrometer amplifier having a high input resistance of 109–1013 . The
electrometer amplifier measures currents in the range 10-14–10-8 A. The guard electrode part is directly earthed. The
whole electrode system is placed in an ionization chamber either made of chromium-plated mild steel, stainless
steel, or glass. The chamber is evacuated to a high vacuum of the order of 10-4–10-6 torr, filled with the desired gas,
and flushed several times till all the residual gases and air are removed. The pressure inside the chamber is adjusted
to a few torr depending on the electrode separation and then left for ~30 min for the gas to fill the chamber
uniformly. The cathode is irradiated by an UV lamp ( = 125 nm) kept outside the chamber to produce the
initiatory photoelectrons no by the photoelectric ionization process.

UV

Ionization
chamber

Fig. 2.5 Experimental arrangement to measure the Townsend’s ionization coefficients α and .

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 When a lo ow d.c. voltaage is applied
d, the current pulses start appearing duue to electron
ns and positivve ions as
s
shown in Figss. 2.6.

(a)

(b)

Fig. 2.6 Currrent as a funcction of time.

(a) When
W secondaary electrons are
a produced at a the cathodee by positive ioons.
(b)) When secondary electrons are produceed by photons at the cathod de.
---- ideeal, –––– actual.
a
I(t) is the total
t current; I- and I+ are the
t electron an nd ion curren
nts; τ- and τ+ are the electron
n and ion tran
nsit times.

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 When the applied voltaage is increaseed, the currennt pulses disaappear, and an n average d.c.. current is obbtained as
s
shown in Fig. 2.7. In the in
nitial region T0, the current increases slowwly but unsteeadily with inccreasing voltaage. In the
l
later regions T1 and T2, thee current increeases steadilyy due to the Townsend breaakdown mech hanism. Beyonnd T2, the
c
current rises very
v sharply, and a spark breakdown
b occurs in the traansition of a non-sustaining
n g discharge in nto a self-
s
sustaining disscharge.

F 2.7 Typiccal current grrowth curve in

Fig. n a Townsend discharge and d spark break
kdown for a giiven elecrode gap
g d and
at a giveen low pressurre p.

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 To determmine the Town nsend’s ionizaation coefficieents and γ, it is required to obtain thee electric fieldd intensity
E and currentt I characterisstics for different electrodee gaps d. Theen, a plot of ((ln I / Io) verssus d for diffe
ferent E is
p
plotted as sho
own in Fig. 3.88. The slope of
o the initial portion
p of the curves gives the
t value of after re-arran nging Eq.
(
(2.10): e to be

ln (2.17)

γ can be found
f he Townsend’s secondary current grow
from th wth equation Eq.
E (2.15): at d =

( sparking distance). The experiment can be repeatted for differeent gas pressu
(the ures p.

The spark breakdown voltage

v for a given
g gap is i expressed as
a n which E is a constant for a given d
in
a p. On the other hand, iff is more, I will also be m
and more, and thee relation (ln I / Io) remains the same.

Fig. 2.8
8 Townsend ty
ype ln (l / lo) versus
v d plot fo
or different E at a given low
w p.
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 α and γ are functions of E/p. Typical values of α and
Actually, α/p a γ in variou
us gases are shown
s in Figss. 2.9 and
2
2.10.

Fig. 2.9 Varia

F ationa of /p with
w E/p in hy ydrogen and nitrogen,
nd y axes referrs to values off pressure reduced to 0 oC.
po in both x an

F 2.10
Fig. as a function of E/p
E in nitrogen
n, freon, and SF
S 6 gases.

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2.4 Breakdown in Electronegative Gases

In the above analysis, electron attachment to neutral molecules to form negative ions is not considered. As
described in Eq. (2.5): ⟶ , and since negative ions like positive ions are too massive to
produce ionization due to collisions, attachment represents an effective way of removing free electrons and thus
improves the dielectric breakdown strength of a gaseous insulator. The gases in which attachment plays an active
role are called electronegative gases.

The most common attachment processes encountered in gases are:

(a) Direct Attachment in which an electron attaches directly to form a negative ion.

⟶ (2.18)

(b) Dissociative Attachment in which the gas molecules split into their constituent atoms and the
electronegative atom forms a negative ion.
⟶ (2.19)

A simple gas of this type is oxygen. Other gases are sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) and carbon dioxide (CO2). In
these gases, A is usually sulphur or carbon atom, and B is oxygen atom or one of the halogen atoms or molecules.

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 With such gases, the Townsend’s secondary current growth equation with secondary ionization process in
Eq. (2.15): is modified to include both (collision and secondary) ionization and (electron)

attachment processes. Accordingly, an electron attachment coefficient (in cm-1) is defined, similar to the
Townsend’s ionization coefficients α and γ, as the number of attachments per electron per unit travel in the
direction of the electric field. Under these conditions, the equation for the average current growth in a uniform field
in the gap is

e
(2.20)
1 γ e 1

which is called the Townsend’s current growth equation with ionization and attachment processes.

The Townsend’s spark breakdown criterion for attaching gases is

e 1 1. (2.21)

When α > , breakdown is always possible irrespective of the values of α, γ, and . However, when > α, Eq.
(2.21) approaches an asymptotic form with increasing value of d, and

1 or (2.22)
1 γ

Normally, γ is very small (≤10-4), and Eq. (2.22) can be written as α = for an extreme.

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 The condiition puts a liimit for E/p below
b which non breakdown n is possible irrespective of
o the value of
o d. This
l
limit value is called the crritical E/p. The
T critical E//p is 117 V/ccm·torr for SFF6 and 121 V/cm·torr
V for CCl2F2 at
o
2 C. Typicaal values of in a few gases are shown inn Fig. 2.11.
20

Fig. 2.11
1 Variation of
o η/p with E/p
p in some insullating gases. p20 refers to va
alues of pressu o 20 oC.
ure reduced to

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2.5 Streamer Breakdown Mechanism

Townsend breakdown mechanism when applied to gaseous breakdown at atmospheric pressure (i.e., 760 torr)
was found to have the following three major drawbacks:

(a) It states that the occurrence of current growth is due to (collision and secondary) ionization processes
only, but breakdown voltages were found to depend on the gas pressure and the geometry of the gap in
practice.

(b) It predicts time lags of typically >1 μs for breakdown so that breakdown does not generally occur with
impulse voltages, but breakdown was observed to occur at very short times of the order of 0.01 μs (i.e.,
10 ns) in practice.

(c) It predicts a much diffused form of discharge, but many discharges were found to be filamentary and
irregular in practice.

Around 1940, the Streamer breakdown mechanism was proposed with the added effect of the space-charge
field of an avalanche and photoelectric ionization in the gas volume. In fact, the Streamer breakdown mechanism
predicts the development of a spark discharge directly from a single avalanche in which the space charge
developed by the avalanche itself is said to transform the avalanche into a plasma streamer.

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 Consider Fig. 2.12, a single electro on present in nitially at thee cathode by ionization processes
p buillds up an
a
avalanche of new
n electronss and positivee ions travelin ng crosses the electrode gap p. The space charge
c producced in the
a
avalanche cau
uses sufficientt distortion off the applied electric
e field so
s that free eleectrons move towards the avalanche
a
h
head and in doing
d so geneerate further avalanches
a in a process that becomes cumulative
c rappidly. As the electrons
a
advance rapiddly, the posittive ions are left behind in a relatively slow-moving tail. The electric fieldd will be
e
enhanced in front
f of the heead. Just behiind the head, the electric fi field resulting from the elecctrons and thee positive
i
ions is in the opposite direection to the applied
a electrric field and hence
h ultant electricc field intensity is less.
the resu
A
Again betweeen the tail and d the cathode, the electric field is enhan nced. Due to the enhanced d electric field
d between
t head and the anode, th
the he space charg ge increases, causing
c a furtther enhancem ment of the ellectric field around
a the
a
anode. This iss a very fast process
p and thhe positive sppace charge ex xtends to the cathode very rapidly, lead ding to the
f
formation of a plasma streeamer. As soon as the streamer tip apprroaches the caathode, a cathode spot is foormed and
a stream of ellectrons rushees from the caathode to neuttralize the possitive space ccharge in the streamer,
s resu
ulting in a
s
spark and the spark breakd down.

Fig. 2.12 Effect

E of spacee charge prod
duced by an av
valanche on th
he applied elecctric field.
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 Fig. 2.13 shows the three successive stages in the development of the streamer when: (a) the avalanche has
crossed the gap, (b) the streamer has crossed half the gap length, and (c) the gap has been bridged by a conducting
channel. It is noted that only positive space charges are shown since the negative space charges have already
reached the anode.

Fig. 2.13 Cathode directed streamer.

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 Meek proposed a simple quantitative criterion to estimate the minimum electric field that transforms an
avalanche into a streamer. The electric field Er produced by the space charge, and directed radially at the avalanche
head with radius r, at the radius r, is given by
e
527 10 V/cm
(2.23)

where α is Townsend’s first ionization coefficient, p is the gas pressure in torr, and x is the distance to which the
streamer has extended in the gap.

According to Meek, the minimum breakdown field E is obtained when Er = E and x = d in Eq. (2.23), giving

1
ln 14.5 ln ln (2.24)
2

This equation is solved between α/p and E/p at which a given p and d satisfy the equation. The breakdown voltage
is given by the corresponding product of E and d.

It is generally assumed that:

(a) For pd values <1,000 torrcm and p varying from 0.01 to 300 torr (atmospheric p = 760 torr), the
Townsend breakdown mechanism operates.

(b) At higher pd and p values, the Streamer breakdown mechanism plays the dominant role in explaining
the breakdown phenomena. However, controversies still exist on these statements.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-23

2.6 Paschen's Law

The Townsend’s criterion for spark breakdown in gases has been discussed in Section 2.3.3 and is given by

e 1 1 (2.16)

where the Townsend’s ionization coefficients and are functions of E/p, as can be seen from Figs. 2.9 and 2.10,
i.e.,

and .

Also, the spark breakdown voltage, as seen from Fig. 2.8, is

Substituting for E in the expressions for and and rewriting Eq. (2.16): e 1 1, we have

e 1 1 (2.25)

Knowing the nature of the functions f1 and f2, we can rewrite Eq. (2.25) as

, (2.26)

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-24

 Eq. (2.26)) shows the relationship
r b
between an
nd pd and immplies that the breakdownn voltage variies as the
p
product pd vaaries. The equ
uation is knowwn as the Pascchen’s law annd has been experimentally
e y established for many
g
gases. It is a very
v importan
nt law in high voltage engin
neering.

Fig. 2.14 shows

s the typ
pical Paschen’’s curves for gases.
g The rellationship betw
ween and pd
p is not lineaar and has
a minimum value,
v called the
t Paschen’’s minimum,, for any gas.. The minimuum and thee correspondinng pd for
v
various gases are given in Table
T 2.1.

Fig. 2.14 Typical

T Pasch
hen’s curves fo
or gases in a uniform
u field.

T
Table 2.1 Pascchen’s minimu
um and thee correspondin
ng pd for various gases.
EE509 Hig
gh Voltage En
ngineering 2-25
 The existeence of (the minimu
um spark breaakdown voltaage) in the Paaschen’s curvee may be exp
plained as
f
follows:

For pd > (pd)min (or higher pd), ellectrons crosssing the gap make
m more freequent collisio
ons with gas molecules
m
than att (pd)min, but the energy gained
g between collisions is lower sin nce a part is used to overrcome the
increased pd. Thus, a higher voltaage is requiredd to maintain the desired io
onization.

For pd < (pd)min (or lower pd), electrons crossiing the gap m
make no collissions or only very
v limited ccollisions.
Hence, more voltagee is required to
o give breakd
down.

The cathode materials also affect th

he breakdown
n values. Fig. 2.15 shows the
t breakdow
wn –pd charaacteristics
f various caathode materiaals of barium, magnesium, and aluminum
for m in a uniform
m field.

F 2.15 Brea
Fig. akdown –pd
d characteristics for variouss cathode mateerials in a uniform field.

EE509 Hig
gh Voltage En
ngineering 2-26
 In order to account for the effect of temperature, the Paschen’s law in Eq. (2.26): is generally stated
as , where is the density of the gas molecules. This is necessary because the pressure of the gas
changes with temperature according to the ideal gas law: / , where is the volume of the gas, T is the
temperature, and R is a constant.

Based on the experimental results, the breakdown voltage of air is expressed as a power function in pd as

293 293
24.22 6.08 (2.27)
760 760
From the above formula, the breakdown voltage at constant pressure and temperature is not constant.

At p = 760 torr and T = 293 ºK (20 ºC),

6.08
24.22 kV/cm (2.28)

If is large, there is a limiting E value of ~24 kV/cm. For 1, E becomes 30 kV/cm which means a
pressure of 760 torr at 20 ºC with 1 cm gap. This is the usually quoted breakdown strength of air at room
temperature and at atmospheric pressure. At very low and very high pressures (compared to the atmospheric
pressure), Paschen’s law fails. Also, it is valid for temperatures <1,100 ºC due to thermal ionization.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-27

2.7 Corona Discharges

In a uniform field, a gradual increase in voltage across a gap produces a breakdown of the gas in the form of a
spark without any preliminary discharges. However, if the field is non-uniform, an increase in voltage will first
cause a discharge in the gas at locations with the highest electric field intensity (e.g., at sharp points, at curved
electrodes or on transmission lines). This form of discharge is called a corona discharge. It appears as a bluish
luminescence accompanying a hissing noise, and the air surrounding the corona region becomes converted into
ozone. Corona leads to considerable loss of power from high voltage transmission lines, besides the deterioration of
insulation due to the combined action of the bombardment of ions and the chemical compounds formed during
discharges. Corona also gives rise to radio interference.

2.7.1 Formation of Corona on a Two Conductor Line

For two parallel conductors in air, nothing will be seen or heard with an initially increasing voltage. The air
surrounding the conductors gets ionized along with the increase in voltage (since the voltage produces electric
fields), and a hissing noise is heard at a certain voltage indicating the formation of corona. This voltage is known as
the disruptive critical voltage . A further increase in the voltage causes a visible violet glow around the
conductors. This voltage is called the visual corona inception voltage (with > ).

If the voltage is a dc, the positive conductor (anode) will have a uniform glow, while the negative conductor
(cathode) will be relatively patchy and often accompanies streamers at rough points (because the streamers of
electrons rush out from cathode to neutralize positive space charges). If the voltage is alternating, both conductors
will have a uniform grow, but the effect will be similar to the direct voltage case when observed using a
stroboscope.

When the voltage is further increased, corona increases continuously and finally leads to “spark over” between
the two conductors. If the conductors are placed quite close to each other, corona may not form prior to spark over.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-28

 The formation of corona causes the current flow in the line so that the voltage drops to be non-sinusoidal. It
also causes a loss of power. To prevent the formation of corona, the working voltage under fair weather conditions
should be kept at least 10 % less than the disruptive critical voltage (i.e.,  0.9 ).

Corona formation may be reduced by increasing the effective radius. Thus, steel-cored aluminum has the
advantage over hard-drawn copper conductors on account of the larger diameter, provided that other conditions
remain the same. The effective conductor diameter can also be increased by the use of bundle conductors.

Corona acts as a safety valve for lightening surges, by causing a short circuit. The advantage of corona in this
instance is that it reduces transients by reducing the effective magnitude of the surge by partially dissipating its
energy due to corona.

The effect of corona on radio reception (EMI) is a matter of some importance. The current flowing into a
corona discharge contains high-frequency components, causing interference in the immediate vicinity of the
transmission line. As the field is gradually increased, the disturbing field makes its appearance long before corona
loss becomes appreciable. The field has its maximum value under the line and attenuates rapidly with distance. The
interference fails to ~1/10 (i.e., 10% only) at 50 m from the axis of the line.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-29

2
2.7.2 Wave
eform of Co
orona Curre
ent

The shuntt current in a line is almo ost purely cap pacitive with a 90 phasee leading the applied voltaage under
n
normal condittions, and theere is no pow
wer loss in thee line under nno-load cond ditions. When the applied vvoltage is
i
increased and
d corona is forrmed, the air becomes conducting and powerp loss occurs. The shu
unt current is no longer
9 phase leaading the voltaage, but consiists of two co
90 omponents: (1 1) the originall component and (2) the nooisy (also
l
lossy) compo onent, as show wn in Fig. 2.16.
2 The noiisy componen nt is non-sinusoidal and occurs only when the
d
disruptive crittical voltage exceeds inn either polarrity. The coronna current can
n be analyzed
d and shown tot possess
a strong third harmonic com mponent.

Vdc
normmal
shu
unt
currrent

-Vdc

Fig. 2.16 Wa
aveform of corrona current.

EE509 Hig
gh Voltage En
ngineering 2-30
2
2.7.3 Mech
hanism of C orona Form
mation

The electrric field inten

nsity surroundding the cond ductor is a maximum at th he conductor surface, but decreases
r
rapidly as thee distance froom the conducctor increasess. When the electric
e field is raised to the
t critical vaalue ( )
i
immediately surrounding the conducto or, ionization commences only in this region, and the air in th his region
b
becomes condducting. The effect is to inncrease the efffective conduuctor diameteer (i.e., coron na envelope), while the
v
voltage remaiins constant. This
T results in n two effects.. First, an inccrease in the eeffective sharp pness of the conductor
c
t
tends to reduuce the stresss outside this region. Seco ond, this tendds to reduce the effectivee spacing bettween the
c
conductors, leeading to an inncrease in stress. Dependinng on which effect
e is stronnger, the stresss at increasing
g distance
c either inccrease or decrrease. If the stress
can s is madee to increase, further ionizzation would occur and flaashover is
u
unavoidable.

The condittion for the fo

ormation of viisual corona can
c be analyzeed based on th
he illustration
n shown in Figg. 2.17.

Fig. 2.17 Electric

E field sstress in a two
o conductor lin
ne system.

The electrric field inten

nsity at distan a separated from the
nce x from thhe surface of a conductor of radius r and
r
return conducctor by a distance d is givenn by

(2.29)
ln
w
where V is thee phase voltag
ge (to neutral)).
EE509 Hig
gh Voltage En
ngineering 2-31
If d >> r, Eq. (2.29) becomes

(2.30)
ln

For 3-phase lines with equilateral spacing, is still given by the same expression when V is the voltage to
neutral (or the phase voltage) and d is the equilateral spacing. Since there is no electric field within the conductor
(i.e., equipotential), the maximum field occurs when x is minimized (i.e., on the conductor surface with x = 0).

According to Paschen’s law, the maximum electric field stress required to cause breakdown in air at room
temperature (293 K or 20 ºC) and at atmospheric pressure (760 torr) is generally taken as 30 kV/cm (peak) so that
the root mean square (rms) value of the electric field stress is = 21.2 kV/cm. If , is the rms value of the
√
disruptive critical voltage (to neutral), Eq. (2.30) becomes
30 ,
, kV/cm to neutral (2.31)
√2 ln

Since the corona formation is affected by the mean free path and hence the air density, it is required to
introduce the air density correction factor to take into account the gas pressure p (in torr) and the temperature T
(in C). Moreover, the surface condition of the conductors is an important issue, and thus the surface irregularity
factor m is added.

The rms value of the disruptive critical voltage (to neutral) in Eq. (2.31) is now modified as

30
, ln kV to neutral (2.32)
√2
where

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-32

 293
∙
760 273
and
= 1.0 for smooth polished conductors,
= 0.98 – 0.93 for roughened conductors,
      0.90 for cables of more than 7 strands, and
= 0.87 – 0.83 for 7 strand cables.

Visual corona occurs at a higher voltage than the disruptive critical voltage . For the formation of visual
corona, a certain amount of ionization and the raise of an electron to an excited state are necessary. The production
of light by discharge is not due to ionization, but due to excitation and subsequent giving out of excess energy in
the form of light and other electromagnetic waves. To obtain the critical voltage for visual corona formation called
the visual corona inception voltage , the disruptive critical voltage has to be multiplied by a factor dependant on
the air density and the conductor radius. Further the value of the irregularity factor is found to be different.

The empirical formula for the formation of visual corona, called the rms value of the visual corona inception
voltage (to neutral) , , is

30 0.3
, 1 ln kV to neutral (2.33)
√2 √
where
= 1.0 for smooth polished conductors,
      0.82 for decided corona on standard wires (all over the wire),
= 0.72 for local corona on standard wires (patches).

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-33

2.7.4 Power Loss due to Corona

The formation of corona is associated with a loss of power. This loss will have a small effect on the efficiency
of the line, but will not be of sufficient importance to have any appreciable effect on the voltage regulation. The
more important effect is the radio interference.

The power loss due to corona per phase per unit length in the line is proportional to the square of the
difference between the line-to-neutral (phase) voltage of the line and the disruptive critical voltage to neutral of
the line . It is given by the empirical formula.

243
25 , , 10 kW/km/phase (2.34)

where
f = Frequency of supply (Hz),
, = rms value of line-to-neutral (phase) voltage of the line (kV) (= , / √3), and
, = rms value of disruptive critical voltage (to neutral) of the line (kV).

For stormy weather conditions, , is to be taken as 80 % of that under fair weather conditions.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-34

2.8 Breakdown in Non‐Uniform Fields

In non-uniform fields, such as coaxial cylinders and sphere-plane gaps, the applied field varies across the gap.
Similarly, Townsend’s first ionization coefficient α also varies with the gap. Hence, αd in Townsend’s criterion for
breakdown in Eq. (2.16): e 1 1 is rewritten by replacing αd by . Townsend’s criterion for
breakdown in non-uniform fields is

e 1 1 (2.35)

Meek and Raether discussed the non-uniform field breakdown process as applied to their Streamer mechanism,
and Eq. (2.23): 527 10 for the radial electric field intensity at the head of an avalanche when it has

crossed a distance x is modified as

527 10 e
V/cm (2.36)

where αx is the value of at the head of the avalanche and is the gas pressure. The criterion for the formation of
the streamer is reached when the space charge field approaches a value equal to the applied field at the head of
the avalanche.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-35

2
2.9 Post‐B
Breakdow
wn Phenom
mena and A
Application
ns

Glow and d arc discharrges are the post-breakdo own phenom mena. Fig. 2.1 18 shows th he d.c. voltagge-current
c
characteristics
s of an electrical discharge and breakdow
wn with electrrodes having no sharp poin
nts or edges.

In a Tow wnsend dischaarge (AB), th he current increases gradu ually with thhe applied vo oltage. Beyonnd B, the
T
Townsend’s s
spark breakdo
own approach hes with a coonsiderable inncrease of currrent, then the Townsend discharge
t
transits to a Glow
G discharg
ge (BC). Furth
her increase in ults in a small reduction in voltage
n current resu v across the gap,
c
causing a Norrmal Glow (C CD). When th he current is increased
i morre, the gap vooltage increases obviously due to an
A
Abnormal Glow (DE). Th he further incrrease in curreent eventually
y leads to a significant
s drrop in the gap
p voltage,
c
creating a Glo ow-to-Arc Diischarge transsition region (EFG).
( The phenomena
p th
hat occur in th he region CDDEFG are
r
referred to thee Post-Breakdown Phenom mena consistting of Glow Discharge
D (CDDE) and Arc Discharge (E EFG).

Fig. 2.18 d.c. vo

oltage-currentt characteristiics of an electrrical discharg
ge.
EE509 Hig
gh Voltage En
ngineering 2-36
(a) Glow Discharge
A glow discharge is characterized by a diffused luminous glow. The color of the glow discharge depends on the
cathode material and the gas used. The glow discharge covers the cathode partly and the space between the cathode
and the anode will have intermediate dark and bright regions. This is called normal glow. If the current in the
normal glow is increased such that the discharge covers the entire cathode surface, then it becomes abnormal glow.
In a glow discharge, the voltage drop between the electrodes is substantially constant, ranging from 75 to 300 V
over a current range of 1–100 mA depending on the type of the gas. The properties of the glow discharge are used
in many practical applications, such as cold cathode gaseous voltage stabilized tubes (voltage regulation tubes or
VR tubes), for rectification, as a relaxation oscillator, and as an amplifier.

(b) Arc Discharge

If the current in the gap is increased to ~1 A or more, the voltage across the gap suddenly reduces to a few to
several ten volts (20–50 V). The discharge becomes very luminous and noisy (EFG in Fig. 2.18). This phase is
called the arc discharge and the current density over the cathode region increases to very high values of
103–107 A/cm2. Arcing is associated with high temperatures, ranging from 1,000 ºC to several thousand ºC. The
discharge will contain a very high density of electrons and positive ions, called the arc plasma. The study of arcs is
important in circuit breakers and other switch contacts. It is a convenient high temperature high intensity light
source. It is used for welding and cutting of metals. It is the light source in lamps such as carbon arc lamp. High
temperature plasmas are used for generation of electricity through magneto-hydro dynamic (MHD) or nuclear
fusion processes.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-37

2.10 Vacuum Insulation

According to the Townsend theory, the growth of current in a gap depends on the drift of the charged particles.
In the absence of any such particles, as in the case of perfect vacuum, there should be no conduction and the
vacuum should be a perfect insulator.

However, the presence of metallic electrodes and insulating surfaces within the vacuum in practice complicate
the issue, and the use of a sufficiently high voltage can cause a breakdown in vacuum.

2.10.1 Nature of Vacuum

A vacuum is a volume of space that is essentially empty of matter, such that its gaseous pressure is much lower
than atmospheric pressure. In vacuum systems, the pressure is always measured in terms of “millimeters of
mercury” (“mm of Hg”), where one standard atmosphere is equal to 760 mm of Hg (i.e., 1 atm = 760 mm of Hg) at
0 ºC. The term “mm of Hg” has been standardized as “torr” by the International Vacuum Society, where one mm
of Hg is taken as equal to one torr (1 mm of Hg = 1 torr). Vacuum may be classified as

High vacuum : 10-3 – 10-6 torr

Very high vacuum : 10-6 – 10-8 torr
Ultra high vacuum : 10-9 torr and below

For electrical insulation purposes, the range of vacuum generally used is the “high vacuum” in the pressure
range of 10-3–10-6 torr.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-38

2.10.2 Vacuum Breakdown

In the Townsend type of discharge in a gas, electrons get multiplied due to various ionization processes and an
electron avalanche is formed.

In a high vacuum, even if the electrodes are separated by a few centimeters, an electron crosses the gap without
encountering any collisions (it is basically empty of matter). Therefore, the current growth prior to breakdown
cannot be established. However, if a gas is liberated in the vacuum gap, breakdown can occur in the manner
described by the Townsend mechanism (since p < 760 torr) so that how to produce a gas is important to vacuum
breakdown. During the last 70 years or so, many different mechanisms for breakdown in vacuum have been
proposed. These can be broadly divided into two categories: (1) Particle Exchange Mechanism and (2) Field
Emission Mechanism.

(a) Particle Exchange Mechanism

This mechanism assumes that a charged particle would be emitted from one electrode under the action of the
high electric field, and when it impinges on the other electrode, it liberates oppositely charged particles. These
particles are accelerated by the applied voltage back to the first electrode where they release more of the original
type of particles. When this process becomes cumulative, a chain reaction occurs which leads to the breakdown of
the gap.

The particle exchange mechanism involves electrons, positive ions, photons, and the absorbed gases at the
electrode surfaces. Fig. 2.19 shows the particle exchange mechanism of vacuum breakdown.

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-39

 on present in the
An electro t vacuum gap
g is acceleraated towards the
t anode, and d on impact releases
r positiive ions A
a photons C. The posittive ions A are
and a accelerated towards th he cathode, annd on impactt, each positiive ion A
l
liberates seco
ondary electroons B while eaach photon C liberates ano
other secondarry electrons D.
D The breakddown will
o
occur if the coefficients
c of
o productionn of secondarry electrons exceed
e unity. Mathematicaally, the conddition for
b
breakdown caan be written as
a

1. (2.37)

However, these coefficcients were fo

ound to be too
o small for this process to take place. Accordingly,
A E
Eq. (2.37)
w modified to allow for the
was o negative ions and the criiterion for breeakdown then becomes
t presence of

1, (2.38)

where A and B are the saame as beforre and E and

w d F represent the coefficieents for negaative and positive ions
l
liberation by positive and negative
n ions. It was experrimentally fou
und that the values
v of the product
p EF were
w close
e
enough to uniity for copperr, aluminum, and
a stainless steel
s electrodees to make this mechanismm applicable at voltages
>
>250 kV.

Fig. 2.19 Pa
article exchangge mechanism
m of vacuum b
breakdown.
EE509 Hig
gh Voltage En
ngineering 2-40
( Field Emiission Mecha
(b) anism

Anode Heatin
A ng Mechanism m
This mech hanism postullates that elecctrons produceed at small micro-projectio
m ons at the cathhode by field
d emission
b
bombard the anode,
a causinng a local rise in temperatu
ure and releasiing gases and t vacuum gap. These
d vapors into the
e
electrons, at the
t same timee, ionize the atoms of the gasg and produce positive io ons. These possitive ions arrrive at the
c
cathode, incrreasing the primary
p electrron emissionn due to spacce charge fo ormation and producing secondary
s
e
electrons by bombarding the t cathode surface.
s The process contiinues until a sufficient nuumber of elecctrons are
p
produced to give
g rise to brreakdown, as in the case of a low pressuure Townsend d type gas disscharge. This is shown
s
schematically y in Fig. 2.20.

Fig. 2.20
0 Electron bea
am-induced an
node heating mechanism
m off vacuum brea
akdown.

EE509 Hig
gh Voltage En
ngineering 2-41
Cathode Heatting Mechanissm
C
This mechhanism postulates that nearr the breakdow
wn voltages of the gap, shaarp points on the
t cathode su urface are
r
responsible fo nce of the pre-breakdown current, whiich is generatted according
or the existen g to the field emission
p
process descriibed below.

This curreent causes resistive heatingg at the tip off a point and when
w a criticaal current den
nsity is reacheed, the tip
m
melts and exxplodes, thereeby initiating vacuum discharge. This mechanism is called fielld emission as a shown
s
schematically
y in Fig. 2.21.. Thus, the innitiation of brreakdown dep pends on the conditions
c an
nd the propertties of the
c
cathode surfaace. Experimeental evidencce shows thatt breakdown takes place by b this proceess when the effective
6 7
c
cathode electrric field is of the
t order of 10 to 10 V/cm m.

Fig. 2.21 Breeakdown in va

acuum caused
d by the heatin
ng of a microp
projection on the
t cathode.

EE509 Hig
gh Voltage En
ngineering 2-42
2.11 References

1. Naidu, M.S. and Kamaraju, V., High Voltage Engineering, 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (2004).
2. Naidu, M.S. and Kamaraju, V., High Voltage Engineering, 2nd Edition, McGraw-Hill, New Delhi (1996).
3. Kuffel, E. E. and Zaengl, W.S. and Kuffel, J., High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals, 2nd Edition, Butterworth Heinemann,
Oxford (2000).
4. John, A.J. and Platts, J. R., High Voltage Engineering and Testing, Peter Peregrinus, Lodon (1994).
5. Meek, J.M. and Craggs, J.D., Electrical Breakdown of Gases, John Wiley, New York (1978).
6. Raether, H., Electron Avalanches and Breakdown in Gases, Butterworth, London (1964).
7. Nasser, E., Fundamentals of Gaseous Ionization and Plasma Electronics, John Wiley, New York (1974).
8. Latnam, R. V., High Voltage Vacuum Insulation, Academic Press, London (1981).
9. Meayats, G. A. and Proskurovasky, D. L., Pulsed Electrical Discharges in Vacuum, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Germany (1989).

EE509 High Voltage Engineering 2-43