ODA BULTUM UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF NATURAL AND COMPUTATIONAL

SCIENCE
DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Tittle : Photoelectric effect in quantum and classical view

NAME ID NO

1.MUHAMED ALEBACHEW 0515\13

2.CHALTU GENETI

DESEMBER :6 : 2023

1
 Acknowledgment

First of all we would like to thank God who helps as, to be successful and reach in my goal with
peace and health. Next, especially thanks to our family which have been supported in all
academic level and financially encouraging prayers during our life and advice through our
educational achievement at large from the beginning up to now in our life as whole. Finally, I
would like to thanks my class mate which are learned together for four years in peace and love
without any conflict.

2
 Abstract

In 1887 Heinrich Hertz observed that the ultraviolet light incident on metals can cause electric
sparks. In 1989 J.J. Thomson established that the sparks are due to emission of the electrons.
Phillip Lenard showed in 1902 that this phenomenon, now called the Photoelectric effect,
showed ‘not the slightest dependence on the light intensity’ even when it was varied a thousand
fold. He also made a qualitative observation that photoelectron energies increased with the
increasing light frequency. The observations of Lenard were hard to explain on the basis of
electromagnetic wave theory of light. The wave theory would predict an increase in
photoelectron energy with increasing incident light intensity and no effect due to increase of
frequency of incident light. On the Eiis entire energy to it. An electron
from the interior of a metal has to do some work, W, to escape from the interior to the surface.
We therefore get the Einstein photoelectric equation, for the energy of the electron E, Of course
electron may lose some energy to other atoms before escaping to the surface, so this expression
gives only the maximum of photo-electron energy which would be observed.

E = hV − W.

One can see that Einstein’s light quantum picture explains quite naturally the intensity
independence of photoelectron energies and gives a precise quantitative prediction for its
dependence on incident light frequency. It also predicts that no photoelectrons would be
observed if v < v 0where hv 0 = W. The effect of increasing light intensity should be an
increase in the number of emitted electrons and not on their energy.

3
Data of Acronym

 E— Energy of photon
 h— Planck’s constant
 v— frequency of the light
 c— speed of light
 e— charge of electron
 λ— wavelength
 K— kinetic energy
 W— work function
 UV— ultra violet
 Mev— mega electro volt
 V r — static potential or retarding potential
 V s — stopping potential

4
Data of Constants

 Speed of light c=3 × 108m/sec

 Planck’s constant h=6.626 ×10−34 Jsec
 Charge of electron e=1.602 ×10−19 c

5
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Contents

1.1 Introduction.................................................................................................................................................................8

1.2. Statement of problems................................................................................................................................................9

1.3.2 Specific objectives...........................................................................................................................................9

1.4. Limitation of research proposal ......................................................................................................................10

CHAPTER TWO.....................................................................................................................................................11
2. LITERATURE REVIEW............................................................................................................................................11

2.1. PHOTON..........................................................................................................................................................11

2.2. Photoelectric Effect..........................................................................................................................................12

2.3 Application of Photoelectric Effect ………………………………… 16

2.4 Laws of Photoelectric Emission................................................................................................................................19

2.4.1 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation...............................................................................................................19

2.4.2 Verification of Laws of Photoelectric Emission based on Einstein’s Photoelectric
Equation………………………………………………………………………………………………….21

Chapter three : The Photoelectric effect views in Classical and Quantum Mechanics ....................................22

3.1. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT IN CLASSICAL VIEW...................................................................................22

3.1.1. Fails of Classical to Explain Photoelectric Effect.................................................................................................23

3.2. Photoelectric effect in Quantum Mechanics view....................................................................................................25

CHAPTER Four : METHDOLOGY……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..31

4.1 Studying area ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………31

4.2 Study design………………………………………………………………………………………………………………31

4.3 Source of Information…………………………………………………………………………………………………31

CONCLUSION............................................................................................................................................................................32

R EFERENCE.................................................................................................................................................................34

6
List of Figure

Figure 2.1. The ejection of electrons-----------------------------------------------------------------7

Figure 2.2. Comparison of metal and nonmetals in showing of photoelectric effect----------8

Figure 2.3.Graphs of current (I) versus intensity of light (L)----9

Figure 2.4. Graphs of potential (V) versus current (I) ----------------------------------------------10

Figure 2.5 Threshold frequency versus potential……………………………………………11

Figure 2.6. Einstein’s photoelectric effect -----------------------------------------------------------12

Figure 3.1Photoelectric effect in Quantum -----------------------------------------------------------17

Figure 3.2. Photoelectric effect in experimental study----------------------------------------------1

7
 CHAPTER ONE
1.1Introduction
1.1.1 Background of the study
In 1887, Heinrich Hertz discovered that when electromagnetic radiation shines on a clean, metal
surface, electrons are emitted from the surface. This phenomenon is called the photoelectric
Effect not surprisingly the number of electrons emitted per unit time (called the photo current)
depends on the intensity (i.e. brightness) and frequency (i.e. color) of the light that shines on the
metal surface [5].

In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that light be described as quanta of energy that behave as
particles [2] A photon is a particle of electromagnetic radiation that has zero mass and carries a
quantum of energy [16]

Classical physics describes light as a wave with a set frequency and amplitude where the
amplitude is related to the intensity. The classical explanation was that the metal's electrons
would oscillate with the light and eventually break away from the surface with a kinetic energy
that would depend on the intensity of the incident radiation [2]. The experimental findings
cannot be explained within the context of a purely classical picture of radiation, notably the
dependence of the effect on the threshold frequency. According to classical physics, any
continuous amount of energy can be exchanged with matter. Since the intensity of an
electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude, any frequency with sufficient
intensity can supply the necessary energy to free the electron from the metal [2].

8
 1.2. Statement of problems
The purpose of this proposal paper is to study about photoelectric effect in Classical and
Quantum Mechanics. Here, at the end of this research proposal study we will understand about:

 Photon
 Photoelectric effect in Classical view.
 Photoelectric effect in Quantum view.
 How classical mechanics fails in explaining of photoelectric effect.
 Einstein’s theory of photoelectric

1.3. Objective of study

1.3.1. General objective

The general objective of this project work was:

To review the photoelectric effect and its application.

1.3.2. Specific objectives

The specific objective of this proposal was:

 To review photoelectric effect in classical and quantum view.

 To study the applications of photoelectric effect.

9
 1.4. Limitation of research proposal study
On the process of carrying out some activity, challenges were expected to be appeared. we will also
encounter some limitation while doing this research proposal. Some limitations encountered on our study

 Lack of model proposal from previous proposal

 Shortage of internet service.

 Lack of reference materials.

1.5 Significance of the study

The proposal area has gat significance contribution to provide clear information about

Photoelectric effect in classical and quantum view, it will give the proposal awareness

And experience about effective proposal in the future.

 To explain what was done, why it was done and the result of a study
 It conveys information /facts/data and organize in to a meaningful presentation
 To demonstrate our knowledge and understand of a topic what we are learning about
 To present the findings of an investigation, analyze and solve the problems
 To meet the needs of the readers and answer the questions in their mind
 To give accurate, clear and concise information about the investigation that we are do.
1.6 Scope of the study
In this project we will do concept related to photoelectric effect in classical and quantum view.
This photoelectric effect has some difference in quantum and classical view .But it not describe
in understandable manner

10
 CHAPTER TWO

2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. PHOTON
A photon is the smallest discrete amount or quantum of electromagnetic radiation. Albert Einstein
proposed that light be described as quanta of energy that behave as particlegy. The energy of photons of
light is quantized according to the E=hv equation. Photons, like all quantum objects, exhibit both wave-
like and particle-like properties. The photon displays clearly wave-like phenomena such as difraction and
interference on the length scale of its wavelength. Young’s double slit experiment is clear evidence of
this. In this experiment a single photon passing through a double-slit lands on the screen exhibiting
interference patterns.

In 1905, Einstein put forward a theory of photoelectric effect which suggested that the quantum of energy
was not a property associated with the radiation emitted by atoms but is a property of radiation itself.
Radiation, according to Einstein's theory consists of discrete bundles of energy, called photons. Thus,
electromagnetic energy is seen as a collection of photons. According to [1] Equ.2.2.1 photon is
c
characterized by an energy E, related to the frequency by the relationship of E=hv ,but v=
λ
2.1

hc
E= 2.2
λ

Where E is the minimum energy that is required in order for the metal’s electrons to be ejected
h is the Planck’s constant, ν is the frequency of the radiation or photon, c is the speed of light

2.1.1. Same Properties of photon

A photon is massless, has no electric charge [16] “and is stable. A photon has two possible
polarization states. In quantum field theory the momentum representation is preferred. In this
representation, a photon is described by its wave vector, which determines its wavelength λ and
its direction of propagation .photons are emitted in many naturally occurring radiative processes.

During a molecular, atomic or nuclear transition of radio waves to gamma rays to a lower energy
level, photons are emitted the photon also carries spin angular momentum that does not depend
on its frequency. [17]
 11

2.2. Photoelectron effect

When light shines on a metaelectron can be ejected from the surface of the metal in a
phenomenon known as the photoelectric effect. This process is also often referred to
as photoemission, and the electrons that are ejected from the metal are called photoelectrons. In
terms of their behavior and their properties, photoelectrons are no different from other electrons.
The prefix, photo-, simply tells us that the electrons have been ejected from a metal surface by
incident light.Or photoelectric effect is a phenomenon that occurs when light shined onto a metal
surface causes the ejection of electrons from that metal. The phenomenon of emission of
electrons from mainly metal surfaces exposed to light energy (X – rays, γ – rays, UV rays,
visible light and even infra- red rays) of suitable frequency is known as photoelectric effect.

It was observed that only certain frequencies of light are able to cause the ejection of electrons. If
the frequency of the incident light is too low (red light, for example), then no electrons were
ejected even if the intensity of the light was very high or it was shone onto the surface for a long
time. If the frequency of the light was higher (green light, for example), then electrons were able
to be ejected from the metal surface even if the intensity of the light was very low or it was shone
for only a short time. This minimum frequency needed to cause electron ejection is referred to as
the threshold frequency [2].Einstein used the particle theory of light to explain the photoelectric
effect as shown in Figure below.

Fig. 2.1. The 2eV photon energy absorption of potassium metals Couse photoelectron emission
 12

Fig.2.1. shown that low frequency light (red) is unable to cause ejection of electrons from the
metal surface. At or above the threshold frequency (green) electrons are ejected. Even higher
frequency incoming light (blue) causes ejection of the same number of electrons but with greater
speed.

If the frequency of light is equal to or higher than the threshold frequency, electrons will be
ejected. As the frequency increases beyond the threshold, the ejected electrons simply move
faster. An increase in the intensity of incoming light that is above the threshold frequency causes
the number of electrons that are ejected to increase, but they do not travel any faster. The
photoelectric effect is applied in devices called photoelectric cells, which are commonly found in
everyday items such as a calculator which uses the energy of light to generate electricity.

Note: non- metals also show photoelectric effect. Liquids and gases also show this effect but to
limited extent [ref].

Fig. 2.2. Comparison of metals and in showing of photoelectric effect

The most important fundamental phenomena in connection with the ordinary surface
photoelectric effect are the following [5].

1 .If light of a given frequency is capable of liberating electrons from a surface, the electronic
current is directly proportional to the intensity of light [5].

13
 2. Light of wave length shorter than this critical value causes the emission of electron, and
the length of time which elapses between the illumination of the surface and the onset of
the photoelectric current is not more than 3 ×10−9second[5]
3. The kinetic energy of the emitted electron is directly proportional to the frequency of the
light that releasethem.

1) Effect of Intensity of Incident Light on Photoelectric Current:

For a fixed frequency, the photoelectric current increases linearly with increase in intensity of
incident light [6]

Fig. 2.3 the liner graphs of photoelectric current (I) versus intensity of light (L) that applied on
metals

2) Effect of Potential on Photoelectric Current:

For a fixed frequency and intensity of incident light, the photoelectric current increases with
increase in positive potential applied to the anode. When the potential is decreased, the current
decreases but does not become zero at zero potential. This shows that even in the absence of
accelerating potential, a few photo electrons manage to reach the plate on their own due to their
kinetic energy.When the potential is decreased, the current decreases but does not become zero at
zero potential. Intensity of incident light does not affect the stopping potential [7].

14
Figure 2.4. Graphs of potential (V) versus current (I)

3) Effect of Frequency of Incident Light on Photoelectric Current:

For a fixed intensity of incident light, the photoelectric current does not depend on the frequency
of the incident light. Because of the photoelectriccurrent simply depends on the number of photo
electrons emitted and in turn on the number of photons incident and not on the energy of
photons.

4) Threshold Frequency:

The graph between stopping potential and frequency does not pass through the origin. It shows
that there is a minimum value of frequency called threshold frequency below which photoelectric
emission is not possible however high the intensity of incident light may be. It depends on the
nature of the metal emitting photo electrons.

Figure2.5. Threshold Frequency versus potential

15
 2.3 Application of Photoelectric Effect:
The Photoelectric effect has numerous applications, for example
Photomultiplier tubes are a variation of the phototube, but they have
several metal plates called dynodes. Electrons are released after light
strikes the cathodes. The electrons then fall onto the first dynode, which
releases more electrons that fall on the second dynode, then on to the
third, fourth, and so forth. Each dynode amplifies the current; after about
10 dynodes, the current is strong enough for the photomultipliers to detect
even single photons. Examples of this are used Spectroscopy (which breaks
apart light into different wavelengths to learn more about the chemical
compositions of star, for example), and computerized axial tomography (CAT)
scans that examine the body.[19]

Photoelectric cells also used to detect light, using a vacuum tube containing
a cathode, to Emit electrons, and an anode, to gather the resulting current.
Today, these "phototubes" have advanced to semiconductor-based photodiodes
that are used in applications such as solar cells and fiber optics
telecommunications.

In semiconductor Photoelectric current is produced by exciting the electrons

or by kicking out electrons from the valence shells by throwing light even of
low energy. This current produced in semiconductors is used for different
purposes and has voltages related to the band gap energy.

Photoelectric current was also used in video camera tubes. The photoelectric
current is produced

16

In Silicon image sensors by knocking out the electrons from outer most shell
of the solid but not
16

Out of the matter this photoelectric current is then used in different

charged couple devices. In

Addition, Photoelectric current is also used in gold leaf electroscope which

is designed for The Detection of electricity.

The energy of incident photons can be found with the help of photoelectric
current

Because energy of incident photons is equal to the sum of binding energy of

material’s work Function and the energy of photoelectrons. The binding
energy is determined by bombarding the matter with ultraviolet source or
monochromatic X-ray source. On the other hand, energy of emitted photo
electrons is determined by measuring the kinetic energy of photoelectric
current.

Photoelectric current of positive or negative charges is also produced in

space craft due to the

Photo electric effect The parts of space craft exposed to the shadow develop a
negative current of Several kilovolts On the other hand, the parts of space
craft exposed to light produce positive Current.

17

Furthermore, the sunlight hits the lunar dust, they get charged due to
photoelectric effect. The

Surface of the moon is lifted off due the repulsion of this charged dust. So,
the photoelectric
Effect is also used to study the surface of the moon. Apart from all of the
above mentioned uses,

Photoelectric current produced during photoelectric effect also has a great

use in night vision

Devices, The photoelectrons are ejected out when light is fallen on gallium
arsenide plate of the

Night vision devices which are then amplified into cascade of electrons these
amplified

Electrons are used to lighten up a phosphor screen.[20]

18

2.4 Laws of Photoelectric Emission

Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921 for "his discovery of the law of the photoelectric
effect",
  For a given substance, there is a minimum value of frequency of incident light called
threshold frequency below which no photoelectric emission is possible.
 The number of photo electrons emitted per second (i.e. photoelectric current) is directly
proportional to the intensity of incident light provided the frequency is above the
threshold frequency.
 The maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is directly proportional to the
frequency provided the frequency is above the threshold frequency.
 The maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons is independent of the intensity of the
incident light.
 The process of photoelectric emission is instantaneous. I.e. as soon as the photon of
suitable frequency falls on the substance, it emits photo electrons.
 The photoelectric emission is one-to-one. I.e. for every photon of suitable frequency one
electron is emitted.

2.4.1 Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation

Einstein’s photoelectric equation is an equation that giving the kinetic energy of photoelectron
Emitted from a metal as a result of the absorbation of a radiation quantum According

E=hv-w

Where E is the kinetic energy of the photo electron,h is planks constant,v is frequency associated
with a radiation quantum and w is work function of a metal.

19

When a photon of energy hv falls on a metal surface, the energy of the photon is absorbed by the
electron and is used in two ways:

i) A part of energy is used to overcome the surface barrier and come out of the metal surface.
This part of the energy is called ‘work function’ (W = hν0).
ii) The remaining part of the energy is used in giving a velocity ‘v’ to the emitted photo electron.
1
This is equal to the maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons ( m v 2 ¿ where ‘m’ is mass of
2
the photo electron, and ‘v’ is velocity of photo electrons.

According to law of conservation of energy

Figure 2.6. Einstein’s photoelectric effect

1 2
hv=W + m v max
2

1 2
hv=hv 0 + m v max
2
1 2
mv max  h(v  vo )
2

20

Using this, we can rewrite Einstein's equation as;

K max  h(v  vo ) Equ.2.3.1.1

2.4.2 Verification of Laws of Photoelectric Emission based on Einstein’s Photoelectric
Equation:

i) If ν < ν 0, then ½ mv 2 max is negative, which is not possible. Therefore, for photoelectric
emission to take place ν > ν o

ii) Since one photon emits one electron, so the number photoelectrons emitted per second is
directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

iii) It is clear that ½ mv ^2 max α ν as h and ν 0 are constant. This shows that K.E. of the
photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident light.

iv) . Photoelectric emission is due to collision between a photon and an electron. As such there
can not be any significant time lag between the incidence of photon and emission of
photoelectron.i.e. the process is instantaneous. It is found that delay is only 10-8 second

21
 CHAPTER TREE

The Photoelectric effect views in Classical and Quantum Mechanics

3.1. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT IN CLASSICAL VIEW

The classical explanation was that the metal's electrons would oscillate with the light and
eventually break away from the surface with a kinetic energy that would depend on the intensity
of the incident radiation [8]. And it describes light as a wave, with a set frequency and amplitude
where the amplitude is related to the intensity [8]. Einstein proposed that light could travel in
small quantized packets of energy (photons) instead of strictly behaving as a classical wave.
Einstein showed that the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons was equal to the energy of the
incident photon minus the energy barrier (known as work function W) to releasing an electron
from that particular metal [1].
This interpretation is described by the following equation:

1
KE= m v 2 =hv −W---------------------------------------------------------------------3.1.1
2

34
Where h is Planck’s constant h  6.626  10

V is frequency of light

W is work function

Thus Einstein model was able to fully account for the experimental results including the lack of
dependence of the energy of the ejected photons on the intensity of the incident radiation. The
failure of some frequencies of light to eject any photons from the metal surface is based on the
fact that the incident photons have energy less than the work function of the metal [8].

22
In general when light hits a metal surface, electrons come out called photoelectric effect. If the
conditions are right, a beam of light can knock electrons out of the surface of a metal. When the
effect was first discovered, one of the most striking things about it was that it could not be
explained by the classical theory of electromagnetism, the only available theory of light at the
time. Firstly, we will define a

few terms. The electrons emitted from the surface are called photo electrons. If the frequency of
the light is swept, we find that there is a minimum frequency below which no electrons are
emitted. The energy hv 0 corresponding to this frequency is called the work function of the
surface, and is often given the symbol(W ).

According to classical physics an electron would keep on absorbing energy—at a continuous rate
—until it gained a sufficient amount; then it would leave the metal. If this argument is to hold,
then when using very weak radiation, the photoelectric effect would not take place for a long
time, possibly hours, until an electron gradually accumulated the necessary amount of energy.
This conclusion, however, disagrees utterly with experimental observation.

3.1.1. Fails of Classical to Explain Photoelectric Effect

The discovery of the photoelectric effect had a fundamental role in the crisis of classical physics
because it demonstrated that electromagnetic radiation had both a wave-like nature and, in some
experiments, also particle-like properties. This behavior came to be known as the wave-particle
duality [10].

23
According to Classical electromagnetic theory, the photoelectric effect can be attributed to the
transfer of energy from the light to an electron. From this perspective, an alteration in
the intensity of light would induce changes in the kinetic energy of the electrons emitted from the
metal. Furthermore, according to this theory, a sufficiently dim light would be expected to show
a time lag between the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an electron[11].

Now we will look at why classical electromagnetism fails to explain the photoelectric effect, and
why all the problems are solved by quantum mechanics.

Light intensity
In classical electromagnetism, increasing the intensity of a beam of light increases the amplitude
of the oscillating electric field vector E. Since the force that the incident beam exerts on an
electron is Ee , the theory would predict that the energy of the photo electrons would increase
with increasing light intensity. However, this is not the case: v 0 is independent of light intensity.
In quantum mechanics however, doubling the intensity simply doubles the number of photons, it
does not change their energy. If the photoelectric effect is interpreted as a collision between a
single photon and an electron in the metal surface, then the total number of photons striking the
surface is immaterial in determining the energy of the ejected electro

Frequency

According to classical electromagnetism, as long as the intensity of the light is great enough, the
photoelectric effect should occur at any frequency, a direct contradiction of the experiment
evidence, which shows a clear cutoff frequency below which no electrons are ejected. In
quantum mechanics the frequency of the light determines the photon energy, and since it takes a
certain minimum amount of energy to knock an electron out of the surface (defined by the work
function W of the surface), photons with energy hv < W simply do not have enough energy to
achieve this.

24
 Time delay
In classical electromagnetism the energy imparted to the electron must somehow be ‘soaked up’
from the incident wave. Since this takes some time, if very weak light was used it would be
expected that there should be a measurable time delay between the light striking the surface and
the electron being emitted. This has never been observed. In quantum mechanics, the
photoelectric effect is viewed as a single collision event and no time delay is predicted.

3.2. Photoelectric effect in Quantum Mechanics view

4. In 1905 Einstein extended Planck’s hypothesis to explain the photoelectric effect, which is the
emission of electrons by a metal surface when it is irradiated by light or more-energetic photons.
The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons depends on the frequency ν of the radiation, not on its
intensity; for a given metal, there is a threshold frequency ν0 below which no electrons are
emitted. Furthermore, emission takes place as soon as the light shines on the surface; there is no
detectable delay. Einstein showed that these results can be explained by two assumptions: (1) that
light is composed of corpuscles or photons, the energy of which is given by Planck’s relationship,
and (2) that an atom in the metal can absorb either a whole photon or nothing. Part of the energy
of the absorbed photon frees an electron, which requires a fixed energy W, known as the work
function of the metal; the rest is converted into the kinetic energy meu2/2 of the emitted electron
(me is the mass of the electron and u is its velocity). Thus, the energy relation

is
4.2.

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon which can be completely explained with quantum
mechanics. It consists in the ejection of electrically charged particles from an object upon
exposure to electromagnetic radiation. In practice, the energy transported by light incident on a
metal surface brings about to the ejection of electrons (called photo electrons) [4].

The photoelectric effect provides a direct confirmation for the energy quantization of light.
Electrons were observed to be ejected from metals when irradiated with light (Figure 3.1a).
Moreover, the following experimental laws were discovered prior to 1905:

25
  If the frequency of the incident radiation is smaller than the metal’s threshold frequency
— a frequency that depends on the properties of the metal—no electron can be emitted
regardless of the radiation’s intensity (Philip Lenard, 1902).

 No matter how low the intensity of the incident radiation, electrons will be ejected
instantly the moment the frequency of the radiation exceeds the threshold frequency v 0

 At any frequency above v othe number of electrons ejected increases with the intensity of
the light but does not depend on the light’s frequency.

 The kinetic energy of the ejected electrons depends on the frequency but not on the
intensity of the beam; the kinetic energy of the ejected electron increases linearly with
the incident frequency.

Figure 3.1 (a) Photoelectric effect: when a metal is irradiated with light, electrons may get
emitted. (b) Kinetic energy K of the electron leaving the metal when irradiated with a light of
frequency v; when no electron is ejected from the metal regardless of the intensity of the
radiation[4].

26
These experimental findings cannot be explained within the context of a purely classical
picture of radiation, notably the dependence of the effect on the threshold frequency. According
to classical physics, any continuous amount of energy can be exchanged with matter. Since the
intensity of an electromagnetic wave is proportional to the square of its amplitude, any frequency
with sufficient intensity can supply the necessary energy to free the electron from the metal.

. Experiments were conducted with a light source that was so weak it would have taken several
hours for an electron to accumulate the energy needed for its ejection, and yet some electrons
were observed to leave the metal instantly. Further experiments showed that an increase in
intensity (brightness) alone can in no way dislodge electrons from the metal. But by increasing
the frequency of the incident radiation beyond a certain threshold, even at very weak intensity,
the emission of electrons starts immediately. These experimental facts indicate that the concept
of gradual accumulation, or continuous absorption, of energy by the electron, as predicated by
classical physics [7].

When a beam of light of frequency v is incident on a metal, each photon transmits all its energy
hf to an electron near the surface; in the process, the photon is entirely absorbed by the electron.
The electron will thus absorb energy only in quanta of energy ( hv ¿, irrespective of the intensity
of the incident radiation. If hv is larger than the metal’s work function (W)the energy required to
dislodge the electron from the metal (every metal has free electrons that move from one atom to
another; the minimum energy required to free the electron from the metal is called the work
function of that metal)—the electron will then be knocked out of the metal. Hence no electron
can be emitted from the metal’s surface unless¿) [11]:

hv=W + K ----------------------------------------------------------------------3.2.1

27
Where k represents the kinetic energy of the electron leaving the material. Equation (3.2.1),
which was derived by Einstein, gives the proper explanation to the experimental observation that
the kinetic energy of the ejected electron increases linearly with the incident frequency v,

K=hv−W -----------------------------------------------------------------------3.2.2

But W =hv 0then the above equation become

K=hv−h v 0

K=h ( v−v 0 )------------------------------------------------------------------3.2.3

Where v 0is called the threshold or cutoff frequency of the metal.

Moreover, this relation shows clearly why no electron can be ejected from the metal unless

v> v 0: Since the kinetic energy cannot be negative, the photoelectric effect cannot occur when
v< v 0 Regardless of the intensity of the radiation. The ejected electrons acquire their kinetic

energy from the excess energy h ( v−v 0 ) supplied by the incident radiation [12].

In experiments used to investigate the photoelectric effect, the photo electrons are usually
collected on a metal plate detector, which forms part of an electrical circuit. The current
measured in the circuit is proportional to the number of electrons striking the detector plate. To
measure the kinetic energy of the electrons, we can apply a static potential V r (often known as a
retarding potential) to the plate. Only electrons with a kinetic energy greater than eV r, where e is
the electronic charge, will reach the plate; any electrons with a kinetic energy less than eVr will
be repelled, and won’t be detected. The stopping potential, v 0, is the retarding potential at which
no more electrons are detected, and tells us the kinetic energy of the fastest electrons i.e.
K max =eV 0. One of the important early observations about the photoelectric effect is that for a
particular metal surface and frequency of light, the stopping potential is independent of the light
intensity [5].

28
Consider the figure shown below is experiments used to inve

stigate the photoelectric effect

Figure 3.2. Photoelectric effect in experimental study

Glass transmits only visible and infra-red lights but not UV light. Quartz transmits UV light.

When light of suitable frequency falls on the metallic cathode, photo electrons are emitted. These
photo electrons are attracted towards the positive anode and hence photoelectric current is
constituted.

The kinetic energy of the emitted electrons can be experimentally determined as follows.
The setup, which was devised by Lenard, consists of the photoelectric metal (cathode) that is
placed next to an anode inside an evacuated glass tube. When light strikes the cathode’s surface,
the electrons ejected will be attracted to the anode, thereby generating a photoelectric current.
 29

It was found that the magnitude of the photoelectric current thus generated is proportional to the
intensity of the incident radiation, yet the speed of the electrons does not depend on the
radiation’s intensity, but on its frequency. To measure the kinetic energy of the electrons, we
simply need to use a varying voltage source and reverse the terminals. When the potential V
across the tube is reversed, the liberated electrons will be prevented from reaching the anode;
only those electrons with kinetic energy larger than ev will make it to the negative plate and
contribute to the current. We vary V until it reaches a value Vs, called the stopping potential, at
which all of the electrons, even the most energetic ones, will be turned back before reaching the
collector; hence the flow of photoelectric current ceases completely. The stopping potential Vs is
1
connected to the electrons’ kinetic energy by e|V s|= m e v =k (in what follows, Vs will
2
2
implicitly denote) [10].

h W c
V s= v − But v=
e e λ

hc W
V s= − --------------------------------------------------------------------------3.2.4
eλ e

Table 3.1.Describes the difference between explanations of photoelectric effect in classical and
quantum view.

Photoelectric effect in classical vie w Photoelectric effect in quantum vie w

Kinetic energy of the ejected electron i s Kinetic energy of the ejected electron i s
Dependent of the intensity of radiatio n Independent of the intensity of the radiaton
The photoelectric effect can be attributed to the Experiment showed that electron dislodged
Transfer of energy from the light to an electron Only by the impingement of photon when those photon reach or exceed a threshold frequency(energy)
A sufficiently dim light would be expected to No electron emitted from the material regardless of the light intensity or the length of time exposure to the light
Show a time lag between the initial shining of its light and the subsequent emission of an electron
When using very weak radiation the photoelectric effect would not takes place for a long time, possibly hours until an electron gradually accumulated the necessary amount of energy The kinetic energy of the photoelectron is depend on the wave length, or frequency
 30

CHAPTER FOUR
METHDOLOGY

4.1 Studying area

This study is conducted oda bultum University department of physics ,in the
year 2016 E.C

4.2 Study design

This proposal study will Einstein theoretical review designed and carried
out on photoelectric effect picture and its application.

4.3 Source of Information

The source of information is secondary source like different article, books,
standard journal, internet access etc.

31
 CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION
A photon is a particle of electromagnetic radiation that has zero mass and carries a quantum of
energy .Energy of a photon depends upon frequency of the photon; so the energy of the photon
does not change when photon travels from one medium to another, but wavelength of the photon
changes in different media; so, velocity oaf photon is different in different media.

The phenomenon of emission of electrons from mainly metal surfaces exposed to light energy (X
– rays, γ – rays, UV rays, visible light and even infra- red rays) of suitable frequency is known as
photoelectric effect. it was observed that only certain frequencies of light are able to cause the
ejection of electrons.

If the frequency of the light was higher (for example green light), then electrons were able to be
ejected from the metal surface even if the intensity of the light was very low or it was shone for
only a short time. This minimum frequency needed to cause electron ejection is referred to as the
threshold frequency. Low frequency light (red) is unable to cause ejection of electrons from the
metal surface.

Even higher frequency incoming light (blue) causes ejection of the same number of electrons
but with greater speed. If the frequency is equal to or higher than the threshold frequency,
electrons will be ejected. As the frequency increases beyond the threshold, the ejected electrons
simply move faster.

Classical physics describes light as a wave with a set frequency and amplitude where the
amplitude is related to the intensity. According to classical ideas, the K.E. of ejected electron
will depend upon intensity of incident light. However, experimental results contradict the
classical ideas. In fact, no electrons were ejected, no matter how intense the incident radiation
was, if frequency of light beam is lower than a given threshold frequency for that metal.
According to classical electromagnetic theory, the photoelectric effect can be attributed to the
transfer of energy from the light to an electron.

32
while experimental showed that electrons are dislodged only by the impingement of photons
when those photons reach or exceed a threshold frequency (energy).In experiments used to
investigate the photoelectric effect, the photo electrons are usually collected on a metal plate
detectors.

According to classical physics an electron would keep on absorbing energy—at a continuous rate
—until it gained a sufficient amount; then it would leave the metal. If this argument is to hold,
then when using very weak radiation, the photoelectric effect would not take place for a long
time, possibly hours, until an electron gradually accumulated the necessary amount of energy.
However, disagrees utterly with experimental observation. Experiments were conducted with a
light source that was so weak it would have taken several hours for an electron to accumulate the
energy needed for its ejection, and yet some electrons were observed to leave the metal instantly.
Further experiments showed that an increase in intensity (brightness) alone can in no way
dislodge electrons from the metal.

33
 REFERENCE

[1] Einstein, Ann. Physik, 17, 132,(1905); 20,199 (1906)

[2] Einstein, Albert, Ann. Phys., Lpz17 549-560, 1905

[3] A. Einstein, Ann. Physiks 20 (1906), 199.

[4] Quantum Mechanics: concepts and applications / Nouredine Zettili. – 2nd edition.

[3] R. A. Millikan, A direct photoelectric determination of Planck’s “h”, Phys. Rev. 7 (1916)355.
[5] Hertz, Ann. Physik, 31,983 (1887)

[6] R. H. Fowler, The analysis of photoelectric sensitivity curves for clean metals at various
temperatures, Phys. Rev. 38 (1931), 45.

[7] R. G. Kessing, The measurement of Planck’s constant using the visible photoelectric effect,
Eur. J. Phys. 2 (1981), 139.Classical vs. Quantum Mechanics. UC Davis. Chem Wiki. The
Dynamic Chemistry E-textbook.

[8] Classical Physics. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

[9] Quantum mechanics, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

[10] Millikan, phys. Rev, 7, 355, (1916)

[11] Serway, R. A. (1990). Physics for Scientists & Engineers (3rd edition.). Saunders. p.
1150. ISBN 0-03-030258-7.

[12] Mehra, J. and Rechenberg, H. (1982). The historical development of quantum theory. New
York: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0387906428.

34
[13] A. Einstein, B. Podolsky and N. Rosen, Phys. Rev. 47 777 (1935).

[14]Weinberg, S. "Collapse of the State Vector", Phys. Rev. A 85, 062116 (2012).

[15] Plato.stanford.edu. 2007-01-26. Retrieved 2012-08-18

[16] Kobychev, V.V.; Popov, S.B. (2005). “Constraints on the photon charge from
observations of extragalactic sources”. Astronomy

[17] Raman and Bhaga vantam in 1931: Raman, C.V.; Bhaga vantam, S. (1931).

[18] Indian Journal of Physics 6: 353. E.g., section 1.3.3.2 in Burgess, C.; Moore, G. (2007).

[19] https;www.livescience.com/58816-photoelectri-effect.htm

[20] www.britanica.com,science,applica

35