The photoelectric effect: Evidence of particle nature of light

By

Nimesh Shrestha

A project work submitted in the partial fulfilment for the degree

of
High school in Physics

Department of Physics
National Examination Board
GEMS School
Lalitpur, Nepal
2024
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Declaration by Student

I Mr. Nimesh Shrestha declared that my project work entitled “The photoelectric effect:
Evidence of particle nature of light” presented in this report is genuine work done by
me under supervision and guidance of Mr.Sarad Kumar Oli in accordance with the
requirement of high school degree in physics for the academic year 2024. Any literature
data or works done by others are cited within the reports and enlisted in reference. I
assure you that this work has not been published elsewhere.

...............................
Nimesh Shrestha
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Acknowledgement

I express my sincere gratitude and appreciation to GEMS School of Higher

Studies.
I would like to acknowledge our college head Mr. Ganesh Datt Bhatta, NEB
Coordinator Mr.Govinda Raj Sharma, Department Head of Physics Mr. Raj Kumar
Maharjan along with all the faculty of chemistry.

I would like to thank my physics teacher Mr.Sarad Kumar Oli and all my friends
for their help and support in the completion of this project.

Finally, I am thankful to my parents and siblings for their unconditional love and
support and my friends for giving me help at every step of the project.
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Contents

Declaration by Student 2

Acknowledgement
3
1. Introduction 8
1.1. What is the photoelectric effect? 8
1.2. History of the Photoelectric Effect 8
1.3. Properties 9

2. Explaining the Photoelectric Effect: The Concept of Photons 10

3. How does the photoelectric effect prove light is made of particles? 12

4. Characteristics of Photons 13

5. Threshold Energy for the Photoelectric Effect 13

6. Relationship between the Frequency of the Incident Photon and the Kinetic Energy of
the Emitted Photoelectron 14

7. Difference Between Wave and Particle Nature of Light 15

8. Experimental Observations 15

9. Einstein's Explanation 16

10. Implications for Quantum Mechanics 16

11. Applications and Technologies 17

Conclusion 18
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1. Introduction

1.1. What is the photoelectric effect?

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon in which electrons are ejected from

the surface of a metal when light is incident on it. These ejected electrons are
called photoelectrons. It is important to note that the emission of
photoelectrons and the kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons is
dependent on the frequency of the light that is incident on the metal’s surface.
The process through which photoelectrons are ejected from the surface of the
metal due to the action of light is commonly referred to as photoemission.

The photoelectric effect occurs because the electrons at the surface of the
metal tend to absorb energy from the incident light and use it to overcome the
attractive forces that bind them to the metallic nuclei. An illustration detailing
the emission of photoelectrons as a result of the photoelectric effect is
provided below.

1.2. History of the Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect was first introduced by Wilhelm Ludwig Franz
Hallwachs in the year 1887, and the experimental verification was done by
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz. They observed that when a surface is exposed to
electromagnetic radiation at a higher threshold frequency, the radiation is
absorbed, and the electrons are emitted. Today, we study the photoelectric
effect as a phenomenon that involves a material absorbing electromagnetic
radiation and releasing electrically charged particles.

To be more precise, light incident on the surface of a metal in the photoelectric

effect causes electrons to be ejected. The electron ejected due to the
photoelectric effect is called a photoelectron and is denoted by e–. The current
produced as a result of the ejected electrons is called photoelectric current.
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1.3. Properties
The properties of the photoelectric effect is as follows:
● The lag time characteristic implies that electrons are instantly released
when light strikes the electrode material. Contrary to classical physics,
this characteristic is seen even at very low radiation incident
intensities.
● On graphs, this characteristic of the photoelectric effect can be
represented by the radiation intensity and the kinetic energy of the
photoelectrons.
● When the potential difference is positive, the current increases until it
reaches a plateau. No further photocurrent increases occur.
Photocurrent increases with increasing intensity.
● In the case of negative potential, photocurrent declines and is zero at
the stopping point as the absolute potential difference rises.
● The cut-off frequency is determined by a material’s physical
characteristics. Just after this, the photocurrent stops flowing. The
cut-off frequency is the minimum frequency of the surface of the
material.
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2. Explaining the Photoelectric Effect: The Concept of Photons

The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by considering light as a wave. However,
this phenomenon can be explained by the particle nature of light, in which light can be
visualised as a stream of particles of electromagnetic energy. These ‘particles’ of light
are called photons. The energy held by a photon is related to the frequency of the light
via Planck’s equation.
E = h𝜈 = hc/λ

Where,
● E denotes the energy of the photon
● h is Planck’s constant
● 𝜈 denotes the frequency of the light
● c is the speed of light (in a vacuum)
● λ is the wavelength of the light

Thus, it can be understood that different frequencies of light carry photons of varying
energies. For example, the frequency of blue light is greater than that of red light (the
wavelength of blue light is much shorter than the wavelength of red light). Therefore,
the energy held by a photon of blue light will be greater than the energy held by a
photon of red light.

3. How does the photoelectric effect prove light is made of particles?

The photoelectric effect happens when light strikes a metal surface causing the
emission of electrons from it (photoelectrons).
If you increase the intensity of the light you get, as a result, more electrons emitted
but their kinetic energy does not increase.
If you increase the frequency of the incident light the number of photoelectrons
emitted does not increase while the velocity, and so their kinetic energy,
increases...the emitted electrons are more...energetic!
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This can be explained considering the incident light as a shower of particle-like

packets of energy (photons); if you increase the intensity you simply increase the
number of packets (all with the same energy) hitting the metal; these can be used by a
lot of electrons to escape.
On the other hand if you increase the frequency the number of packets remains the
same (emitting fewer electrons perhaps) but the energy carried by each of them
increases.
Each packet carries an energy directly proportional to the frequency.

The discovery of the Photoelectric effect is due to the extensive Industry creations
carried out by W Smith, Heinrich Hertz, Wilhelm Hallwachs, Elster, Geital, J.J
Thompson and P. Lenard. This effect was discovered by Hertz. Laws of photoelectric
effect were given by Lenard. Further, it was explained by Albert Einstein using the
Quantum theory of light.
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When electromagnetic radiations of suitable wavelength and frequency are incident

on a metallic surface then electrons are emitted. This phenomenon is called the
Photoelectric effect. The electrons that are emitted are known as photoelectrons and
the current so obtained is known as photoelectric current. Alkali metals like Li, Na, K,
Cs, etc. show photoelectric emission with visible light. Zn, Cd, Mg, etc show
photoelectric emission with ultraviolet light.

When monochromatic light of sufficiently short wavelength falls on the plate called a
cathode which is made of some photosensitive material, electrons are emitted from it.
The electrons are collected by the plate called the anode and the current flows in the
circuit. Both these electrodes, cathode and anode, are enclosed in an evacuated glass
tube which is provided with a Quartz window. Quartz is used because we have to use
UV light to which glass is opaque. The anode can be maintained at a suitable positive
or negative potential with the help of a potential divider. The potential difference
between the electrodes is measured with the help of a voltmeter. When light of a
suitable wavelength falls on the cathode, electrons are emitted. When the anode is
positive with respect to the cathode, electrons are attracted to it and the resulting
photoelectric current is measured with a micro ammeter.

A photocell is a practical application of the phenomenon of the photoelectric effect. It

converts light energy into electrical energy. Applications of photocell in the real world
include television cameras, automatic doors, Burglar alarms and automatic switching
of street lights and traffic signals.
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4. Characteristics of Photons
Following are the characteristics of photons.
○ Photons may show properties of diffraction of light.
○ Photons are undeviated by magnetic and electric fields.
○ The wavelength of photons changes in different media therefore the velocity of
photons is different in different media.
○ Energy of photons depends upon the frequency of photons and it does not change with
a change in medium.
○ They have zero mass and the rest energy.
○ They only exist as moving particles
○ When an empty space they travel at the speed of light.
○ They have no electric charge or they are electrically neutral.
○ Equivalent mass of photon: E =mc.c=hf
○ m = ℎf/c.c = h/cλ

Photons have momentum: p = mc = ℎ/cλ⋅c= h/λ

○ Intensity of a light beam is directly proportional to the photons present in it.

5. Threshold Energy for the Photoelectric Effect

For the photoelectric effect to occur, the photons that are incident on the surface of the
metal must carry sufficient energy to overcome the attractive forces that bind the
electrons to the nuclei of the metals. The minimum amount of energy required to
remove an electron from the metal is called the threshold energy (denoted by the
symbol Φ). For a photon to possess energy equal to the threshold energy, its frequency
must be equal to the threshold frequency (which is the minimum frequency of light
required for the photoelectric effect to occur). The threshold frequency is usually
denoted by the symbol 𝜈th, and the associated wavelength (called the threshold
wavelength) is denoted by the symbol λth. The relationship between the threshold
energy and the threshold frequency can be expressed as follows.

Φ = h𝜈th = hc/λth
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6. Relationship between the Frequency of the Incident Photon and the

Kinetic Energy of the Emitted Photoelectron
Therefore, the relationship between the energy of the photon and the kinetic energy of
the emitted photoelectron can be written as follows:
Ephoton = Φ + Eelectron
⇒ h𝜈 = h𝜈th + ½mev2
Where,
● Ephoton denotes the energy of the incident photon, which is equal to h𝜈
● Φ denotes the threshold energy of the metal surface, which is equal to h𝜈th
● Eelectron denotes the kinetic energy of the photoelectron, which is equal to ½mev2
(me = Mass of electron = 9.1*10-31 kg)
If the energy of the photon is less than the threshold energy, there will be no emission
of photoelectrons (since the attractive forces between the nuclei and the electrons
cannot be overcome). Thus, the photoelectric effect will not occur if 𝜈 < 𝜈th. If the
frequency of the photon is exactly equal to the threshold frequency (𝜈 = 𝜈th), there
will be an emission of photoelectrons, but their kinetic energy will be equal to zero.
An illustration detailing the effect of the frequency of the incident light on the kinetic
energy of the photoelectron is provided below.
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7. Difference Between Wave and Particle Nature of LightThe main

distinction between the wave and particle natures of light is that the former explains
how light can act like an electromagnetic wave while the latter explains how light is
made up of tiny particles called photons.

8. Experimental Observations

Experimental investigations of the photoelectric effect have confirmed the key

predictions of Einstein's theory. When monochromatic light of sufficient frequency is
incident on a metal surface, electrons are emitted with kinetic energy proportional to
the frequency of the light and independent of its intensity. Moreover, there exists a
threshold frequency below which no electrons are emitted, regardless of the intensity
of the incident light. These observations are consistent with the particle-like nature of
light, wherein photons possess discrete energy quanta determined by their frequency.
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9. Einstein's Explanation

Albert Einstein's theoretical framework for the photoelectric effect revolutionised our
understanding of light and matter interactions. According to Einstein's theory, each
photon carries energy proportional to its frequency, given by the equation E = hf,
where E is the energy of the photon, h is Planck's constant, and f is the frequency of
the light. When a photon collides with an electron in the metal, it imparts its energy to
the electron, causing it to be ejected from the surface with kinetic energy equal to the
difference between the photon energy and the binding energy of the electron.

According to Einstein’s theory of the photoelectric effect, when a photon collides

inelastically with electrons, the photon is absorbed completely or partially by the
electrons. So if an electron in a metal absorbs a photon of energy, it uses the energy in
the following ways.
Some energy Φ0 is used in making the surface electron free from the metal. It is
known as the work function of the material. Rest energy will appear as kinetic energy
(K) of the emitted photoelectrons.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation Explains the Following Concepts

● The frequency of the incident light is directly proportional to the kinetic energy of the
electrons, and the wavelengths of incident light are inversely proportional to the
kinetic energy of the electrons.
● If γ = γth or λ =λth then vmax = 0
● γ < γth or λ > λth: There will be no emission of photoelectrons.
● The intensity of the radiation or incident light refers to the number of photons in the
light beam. More intensity means more photons and vice-versa. Intensity has nothing
to do with the energy of the photon. Therefore, the intensity of the radiation is
increased, and the rate of emission increases, but there will be no change in the kinetic
energy of electrons. With an increasing number of emitted electrons, the value of the
photoelectric current increases.

10. Implications for Quantum Mechanics

The success of Einstein's explanation of the photoelectric effect played a pivotal role
in the development of quantum mechanics. It provided compelling evidence for the
quantization of energy and the particle-wave duality of matter. Moreover, the concept
of photons as discrete packets of energy laid the foundation for the wave-particle
duality principle, which states that particles like electrons and photons exhibit both
wave-like and particle-like properties depending on the experimental context.
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11. Applications and Technologies

The photoelectric effect has found widespread applications in various fields, including
photovoltaics, photomultiplier tubes, and photoelectron spectroscopy. Photovoltaic
cells, for instance, exploit the photoelectric effect to convert light energy into
electrical energy, providing a renewable source of power. Similarly, photomultiplier
tubes utilise the photoelectric effect to amplify and detect low-intensity light signals,
enabling sensitive measurements in fields such as astronomy and particle physics.
Some of its applications are listed below:
● Used to generate electricity in solar panels. These panels contain metal
combinations that allow electricity generation from a wide range of
wavelengths.
● Motion and Position Sensors: In this case, a photoelectric material is placed in
front of a UV or IR LED. When an object is placed in between the
Light-emitting diode (LED) and sensor, light is cut off, and the electronic
circuit registers a change in potential difference
● Lighting sensors, such as the ones used in smartphones, enable automatic
adjustment of screen brightness according to the lighting. This is because the
amount of current generated via the photoelectric effect is dependent on the
intensity of light hitting the sensor.
● Digital cameras can detect and record light because they have photoelectric
sensors that respond to different colours of light.
● X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS): This technique uses X-rays to
irradiate a surface and measure the kinetic energies of the emitted electrons.
Important aspects of the chemistry of a surface can be obtained, such as
elemental composition, chemical composition, the empirical formula of
compounds and chemical state.
● Photoelectric cells are used in burglar alarms.
● Used in photomultipliers to detect low levels of light.
● Used in video camera tubes in the early days of television.
● Night vision devices are based on this effect.
● The photoelectric effect also contributes to the study of certain nuclear
processes. It takes part in the chemical analysis of materials since emitted
electrons tend to carry specific energy that is characteristic of the atomic
source.
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Conclusion
In conclusion, the photoelectric effect stands as a compelling demonstration of the particle
nature of light and has had far-reaching implications for our understanding of fundamental
physics. Through experimental observations and theoretical insights, scientists have
elucidated the mechanisms underlying this phenomenon, paving the way for advancements in
quantum mechanics and the development of innovative technologies. The legacy of the
photoelectric effect endures as a testament to the profound interplay between light and matter,
shaping our understanding of the universe at both macroscopic and microscopic scales.
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