The Rise of Solar Cell Technology

EE 436X

Spring 2020

By Cody Juracek
 Table of Contents

I. Introduction.............................................................................2

II. Early Discoveries of the Photovoltaic Effect..........................2

III. Photoelectric Effect................................................................2

IV. Equations of the Photoelectric Effect.....................................6

V. The Modern Photovoltaic Solar Cell......................................7

VI. Corporates’ Lead Development in Solar Energy...................8

VII. Future Flagship Projects......................................................13

VIII. Final Thoughts......................................................................14

IX. Work Cited............................................................................15

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Introduction
Electricity has become essential in a person’s everyday routine from portable calculators to
smartphone portable chargers, from powering entire cities to powering the International Space
Station in Earth’s orbit. Various energy generation techniques are widely used with solar cell
energy rising through the ranks. The purpose of this article is to provide an understanding of the
physics of solar cells in the chronological order of historical events and discoveries.

Early Discoveries of the Photovoltaic Effect

In 1839, French physicist Edmond Becquerel observed electricity being generated purely by the
absorption of light. Becquerel took silver chloride, connected it to platinum electrodes, and
placed it in an acidic solution. When the silver chloride was illuminated, he observed that
voltage and current were generated. His contraption was highly inefficient and was only used for
measuring light. The term “photovoltaic” was first recorded in 1849 when Alfred Smee published
Elements of Electro-Biology. Smee wrote, “Upon exposing the apparatus to intense light, the
galvanometer was instantly deflected, showing that the light had set in motion a voltaic current,
which I propose to call a photo-voltaic circuit” [ CITATION Sme \l 1033 ].

In the 1870s, W. Smith, W. G. Adams, and R. E. Day noticed electricity generating in selenium
as light shined on the material, and in 1883 Charles Fritts produced the first solar cell by coating
a selenium semiconductor with a transparent gold layer [ CITATION Sol13 \l 1033 ]. As light
photons are absorbed, mobile electrons generate and supplement the component’s
conductivity. Adding a barrier layer – e.g., the transparent gold in Fritts’ experiment – provides
the necessary charge separation allowing voltage to generate. This process is usually achieved
by doping charged particles into the substance, or substrate. Fritts had hoped his invention of
the solar cell would rival Thomas Edison’s coal-fired power plants of 1882. However, it only
provided 1% efficiency costing around $300 per watt, not coming close to Edison’s coal power
which, at the time, boasted 15% efficiency at about $2-$3 per watt [ CITATION His \l 1033 ].

Photoelectric Effect
In 1887 Heinrich Hertz experimented with a spark gap generator, an early design of what would
later become a radio. The device would generate electrical sparks between two small metal
spheres within a transmitter. When the spark ignited in the transmitter, the receiver would
reproduce the same spark. However, igniting sparks between the spheres provided a great
challenge as it required a gap of less than millimeter. Hertz then applied light (visible and
ultraviolet) and noticed its ability of increasing the spark gap threshold. This phenomenon was
later coined as the photoelectric effect.

Joseph John Thomson added to this experiment and, in 1897, proved the existence of
electrons. Shortly after, in 1900, Philipp Lenard discovered that light is composed of photons -
individual particles – and that their energies are directly proportional to the frequency of light

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radiation as Max Planck would later determine. Lenard placed two clean metal plates, one of
which was made from photoemissive material, at opposite ends of a vacuum tube. When
positioned correctly, light would only illuminate the photoemissive plate while the second plate
collected photoelectrons.

Figure 1: Philipp Lenard’s photocell circuit. [ CITATION Ele20 \l 1033 ].

This device, as seen in Figure 1, is called a photocell, or electric eye. In Lenard’s experiment,
the photocell was connected to a variable power supply, microammeter, and voltmeter as the
photoemissive plate was exposed to various light frequencies. Lenard noted that both photocell
plates were slightly positive by two things. First, electrons bounce free from the photoemissive
plate, making it positively charged. Second, the collector plate is attached to the photoemissive
through the circuit wiring also giving it a slight positive charge, allowing for the free
photoelectrons to gravitate towards the collector, generating electron flow from a light source.

Looking at the circuit, with the variable power supply’s negative cathode connected to the
collector, electrons are pushed through the microammeter and into the photoemissive plate.
When set at a low voltage the least energetic electrons are trapped, decreasing current flow.
When voltage is set to zero, it generates an open-circuit voltage (VOC) – “the potential that exists
between the contacts at the front and back of the solar cell, when they are not connected to any
external circuit and therefore not delivering any current,” [ CITATION Wol18 \l 1033 ]. Refer to
Figure 2, notice how higher voltages reduce current flow – the electrons of higher energy are
pushed back into the photoemissive plate until there are no more available electrons, making
the microammeter read zero - known as short-circuit current (ISC). Therefore, the solar cell can
be short-circuited without damaging it. This measurement corresponds to “the maximum kinetic
energy of the electrons emitted as a result of the photoelectric effect” - known as the stopping
potential [ CITATION Ele20 \l 1033 ].

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 Figure 2: Typical Voltage vs. Current characteristics of PV cell at different light levels.
[ CITATION Wol18 \l 1033 ].

Lenard noted that changing light intensity had no effect on maximum kinetic energy, if the
frequency of the light remained the same; whether the light source was bright or dim, the energy
output remained constant. However, light intensity does determine the number of
photoelectrons. In relation with the conservation of energy, a higher intensity means there will
be more electrons and a lower intensity means fewer electrons. In 1914, Robert Millikan noticed
the adjustment of the light source resulted in varying frequencies, identified a certain threshold
frequency where no photoelectrons would flow regardless of their intensity. Metals have a high
threshold frequency and require at least a green light - or lesser wavelength - for some
photoelectrons to eject to the collector. The higher the wavelength, the lower the frequency and
the less energy will be produced.

Figure 3: Light wavelength chart. [ CITATION Ele20 \l 1033 ]

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In many cases, ultraviolet light provides the best energy potential for solar cell metals and
materials. Figure 3 provides a visualization of how light frequency is related to kinetic energy.
Figure 4 shows how light of different wavelengths reacts when hitting a photoemissive plate.

Figure 4: Various light wavelengths ejecting photoelectrons when hitting a photoemissive

plate. Note: semiconductors have lower threshold frequencies. [ CITATION Ele20 \l 1033 ].

Albert Einstein contributed to the study of the photoelectric effect by proposing that light is both
a wave and a particle with an electron’s energy dependent on the light’s frequency, known as
the wave-particle duality of light. As mentioned before, a light’s frequency has a direct
correlation with the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons it ejects; photoemissive
materials act in the same way. Shortly before Einstein’s discovery in 1905, Maxwell Planck, in
1900, noticed the constant energy increase when increasing light’s frequency. However, Planck
observed the correlation between frequency and energy remained constantly at 6.626 × 10 -34
[m2 kg s-1] regardless of what photoemissive materials were used, leading to the discovery of
Planck’s constant. Planck’s constant can be seen graphically in Figure 5.

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 Figure 5: Frequency vs. Kinetic Energy in relation to photoemissive materials
used. [ CITATION Ele20 \l 1033 ].

Equations of the Photoelectric Effect

Einstein and Robert Millikan formulated the mathematical relationship of maximum kinetic
energy of the photoelectrons (Kmax) to their absorbed frequency (f) and photoemissive threshold
frequency (f0).

Kmax = h(f-f0)

This equation can also be written in terms of energy absorbed photons (E) and the work
function (ϕ ) of the surface.

Kmax = E – ϕ

The absorbed energy of the photons (E) can be expressed in terms of frequency (f) or
wavelength (𝜆).

E = hf = hc/𝜆

Note: Planck’s constant (h) = 6.626 × 10-34 [m2 kg s-1] = 4.1357 × 10-15 [eV s] and the speed of
light in a vacuum (c) = 299 792 458 [m / s] = 3 × 108 [m / s].

The work function (ϕ ) may also be written in terms of the threshold frequency (f0) or wavelength
(𝜆0).

ϕ = hf0 = hc/𝜆0

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The maximum kinetic energy (Kmax) of the photoelectrons can be expressed by the stopping
potential voltage (V0) with an electron charge (e).

Kmax = eV0

When electron charge (e) is in coulombs [C], the energy will be in terms of joules [J = m 2 kg
s-2]. When electron charge (e) is in elementary charges, the energy will be in terms of
electron volts [eV].

e = -1.602 × 10-19 C
1 [eV] = 1.602 × 10-19 [J]
1 watt [W] = 1 [J s-1]

The Modern Photovoltaic Solar Cell

With Einstein and Planck’s contributions to photoelectricity where an electrons energy emission
is due to its radiation had yet provided the necessary leap for photovoltaic experiments. After all,
the only semiconductor/metal contacts used at the time were made from selenium which was
only 1% efficient.

Russell Ohl, of Bell Laboratories, wanted to find more efficient means of increasing energy
generation of photocells by experimenting with various materials, leading to the first patent of a
modern solar cell - Light-Sensitive Electric Device (US 2,402,662) - which Ohl filed in 1941 and
was granted in 1946. “The invention is to provide an improved method of making light-sensitive
electric devices [known as photo-E.M.F (electromotive force) cell] of fused silicon with high
purity [of 99.85%],” [CITATION Ohl41 \l 1033 ]. It was this invention that made a great impact in
understanding p-n junctions, when a material builds up a positive charge on one side with the
other negative creating an electric field. “An incoming photon that hits the cell can…give an
electron a kick and start current flow,” [ CITATION Cho09 \l 1033 ]. The process Ohl used in
creating the photo-E.M.F. cell is summed up in Figure 6, a process still widely used today when
producing semiconductors.

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 Figure 6: An operation diagram used to manufacture a photo-E.M.F. cell. [CITATION Ohl41 \l
1033 ]

With further experiments by Gerald Pearson, Daryl Chapin, and Calvin Fuller of Bell Labs in
1954, the first practical silicon-based photovoltaic (PV) solar cell with an 6% efficiency was
created. Pearson’s PV cell was able to produce substantially more energy in comparison to
Charles Fritts’ 1883 selenium photocell of 1% efficiency. In 1957, Pearson, Chapin, and Fuller
further refined their techniques and obtained a patent in manufacturing the first solar cell battery
in Solar Energy Converting Apparatus (US 2,780,765) and increased the solar cell efficiency to
8% [ CITATION Cho09 \l 1033 ].

Corporates’ Lead Development in Solar Energy

Developed and improved by Hoffman Electronics, the PV solar cell was adapted by several
space programs to improve their earth orbiting satellites – e.g., Vanguard I, Explorer III,
Vanguard II, and Sputnik-3 all within 1958 - for self-sufficiency and to reduce restrictions
imposed by other energy supplies. Fuel use alone wreaked havoc on projectile calculations as
weight constantly changed making to hit the margin of error, as well as maintaining fuel
capacity. Using solar cells, energy is generated from the sun and the fuel's weight is no longer a
factor when launching and maintaining orbit. Solar energy is now one of the main power
sources for all in-space related missions from operating space shuttle computers to maintaining
the International Space Station orbital and living conditions. In 1960, Hoffman Electronics had
succeeded in not only commercializing PV solar cells, but increasing their efficiency to 14%

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[ CITATION Les20 \l 1033 ]. Throughout the remainder of the 1960s, more companies turned
their focus to PV solar cell energy, further reducing the cost to $100 per watt [ CITATION His \l
1033 ]. However, it was the 1970s Energy Crisis that gave a big push towards solar energy. In
1973, trading with Arab oil companies ceased, causing gasoline and electricity prices to
skyrocket by 70% forcing many citizens into poverty [CITATION Fro \l 1033 ]. Governments
needed to act fast in procuring the next best energy production, many companies sought out
solar as the next great power source. Dr. Elliot Berman of Exxon managed to invent a solar cell
with “five silicon wafers on a single circuit board encased in silicon rubber” providing a
substantial reduction in cost to $20 per watt [ CITATION All19 \l 1033 ], [ CITATION His \l
1033 ]. The world’s first building heated and powered only by solar and wind energy was built in
1974.

Figure 7: Photovoltaic module design.

The main solar energy collecting technique was the flat plate approach: solar modules rowed-up
next to each other on a circuit board oriented for optimal solar radiation collection. However,
these early flat plate designs did not factor in varying light angle diffusion. To better enhance the
plates’ energy collection, the circuit boards were placed on a 2D rotating axis equipped with
trackers that followed the sun, further maximizing energy collection. Figure 7 shows the
composition of a flat plate PV solar cell encapsulated into a solar module.

Within PV solar cell collecting two types of systems emerged: stand-alone DC power system
and grid-connected AC power system, shown in Figure 8. The DC power system is used for
linking directly to the load (garbage compactor, smart phone photocell battery charger, or
building, etc.) with excess energy manifesting and needing to be expelled without losing it.
Having a DC controller acting as a control valve allows for energy to be sent to the load and a
battery bank for energy storage – a great application of the conservation of energy. The grid-

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connected system is mainly used in commercial settings (power plants, solar farms, etc.). It
allows for direct integration into a power grid-line distribution.

Figure 8: Simplified PV system schematics for DC and AC applications. [ CITATION Wol18 \l

1033 ]

Innovated from PV energy, the concentrator system was developed as a non-PV means of
energy generation through collecting heat – with Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque,
New Mexico as the first generating plant. It consisted of a “linear-trough concentrator system
[with a] point focus acrylic Fresnel lens focusing on water-cooled silicon cells and two axis
tracking” for following the sun [ CITATION Con \l 1033 ]. Cell cooling with a passive heat sink –
a thermal conducting technique – provided great means of energy generation. Figure 9 shows
what those flat plates looked like. Further developments curved the plates in a trough or dish
with a focal receiver rod or single point allowing for even more energy concentration and better
cooling techniques.

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Figure 9: (left photo) Fresnel lens concentrator. (right photo) Non-PV: concentrated solar “power
tower” in Spain at the Gema-solar project. (bottom photo) Other non-PV designs to further
energy collection. [ CITATION Wol18 \l 1033 ].

With cost down and new designs revolutionizing solar energy collection – ARCO Solar became
the leading PV solar cell company with investments in boosting efficiency, bettering
manufacturing tools and techniques, and designing a more durable solar cell [ CITATION Wat85
\l 1033 ]. In 1985, a U.S. Department of Energy official mission report relayed all current events
within photovoltaics up to 1984. According to the report, world “PV shipments” (solar energy
generation) ended in 1984 with 23 MW and “PV revenues” (profit margins) at just $400M. This
data can be seen in Figures 10 and 11, [ CITATION Wat85 \l 1033 ]. U.S. PV generated about
12 MW; 2 MW were due to concentrated solar energy with the rest 10 MW were flat plate. U.S.
Government funding for PV solar technology went from $10M in 1973 to $130M in 1981.
Production costs have also been reduced due to federal funding for research and development,
which has led to an increased efficiency of 18% and improved durability. Today, solar modules
have a typical lifespan of 20 years with a 1% degradation each year.

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 Figure 10: World PV Shipments. [ CITATION Wat85 \l 1033 ].

Figure 11: World PV Revenues. [ CITATION Wat85 \l 1033 ].

Figure 12: Year vs. Energy Production (Gigawatts). [ CITATION Pui18 \l 1033 ].

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Future Flagship Projects
Today, there is a huge market for solar technology with projections of dominating the power
industry within the next 10 years; Figure 12 shows these future projections with year 2025 solar
being the main energy production. Solar cell energy is currently $0.50 per watt and is expected
to be further reduced in the future. Talks of several possible future projects keep solar
interesting and mainstream. The already implemented “floatovoltaics” (Figure 13) is projected to
be cheaper compared to land-based PV solar modules as well as more efficient as the water will
cool the modules. Positive environmental impacts include the reduction of water evaporation by
limiting air circulation as well as blocking the sun from forming noxious algae, effectively
lowering water treatment costs. Plus, no major land-based real estate will be used and waste
will be minimized [ CITATION San20 \l 1033 ].

Figure 13: Floatovoltaics imaged by Sungrow. [ CITATION San20 \l 1033 ].

Another PV technology already in use is building-integrated photovoltaics, where solar cells are
incorporated into a structure’s design, optimizing energy generation without wasting space. In
the southern-most U.S., it is common for homes to have PV modules atop their shingles,
providing a sustainable local energy source and providing sound insulation. Something worth
developing is PV glass being installed to walls allowing for addition energy collection but also
providing more natural lighting. However, some are staying away from PV modules atop their
shingles as they find them aesthetically displeasing. With solar skins, PV modules will blend in
more with their environment, with the added possibility of placing signs across them for
businesses. This new idea could help further propel PV solar cells into the mainstream. One
consideration is what material would be used to cover the PV modules while creating as little
resistance as possible. Figure 14 shows of what a PV module and its solar skin might look like.
These are just a few empowering innovations for photovoltaic solar cells [ CITATION San20 \l
1033 ].

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 Figure 14: PV modules (left) and their solar skins (right). [ CITATION San20 \l 1033 ].

Final Thoughts
With solar energy being discovered long before Thomas Edison’s coal power plants to
commercializing it right before the Energy Crisis, solar has had an exciting ride. Its development
led to numerous discoveries – e.g. behavior or electrons – as well as affirming others – e.g. law
of conservation of energy. Solar technology is taking energy from a constant source available all
around the world – sun photoelectrons – and converting it to sustain and improve life. The
already existing technologies being used by solar are only a fraction of its true potential. It is
believed solar energy will be used in people’s everyday lives. When one thinks of solar energy,
they are thinking of the future, photovoltaic is the future.

Juracek 15
Works Cited
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pp. 39-47). Jenny Stanford Publishing. From https://books.google.com/books?
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Ncxg&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjP3s3Wm5bpAhVWWs0KHdbqDKcQ6AEwAHoECA
kQAQ#v=onepage&q=

All Things Considered (2019). How Big Oil of the Past Helped Launch the Solar Industry of
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Concentrator Photovoltaics. (n.d.). From Wikipedia:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concentrator_photovoltaics#History

Electro-Opsaisthenics. (1849). In A. Smee, Elements of Electro-Biology (p. 15). From

https://books.google.com/books?
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Elert, G. (1998-2020). Photoelectric Effect. From The Physics Hypertextbook:

https://physics.info/photoelectric/

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Les Hoffman. (2020, April 30). From Wikipedia: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Hoffman

Ohl, R. S. (1941). United States of America Patent No. 2402662. From

https://www.lens.org/images/patent/US/2402662/A/US_2402662_A.pdf

Puiu, T. (2018, June 26). How much renewable energy does the world use. From ZME Science:
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Rapid Transition Alliance Staff;. (2019, April 17). From Oil Crisis to Energy Revolution - How
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Sandhu, J. (2020, May 8). Which new solar panel technologies will revolutionize energy
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This Month in Physics History, APS News. (2009, April). In A. Chodos (Ed.), APS News, April
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Watts, R. L., Smith, S. A., & Dirks, J. A. (1985). Photovoltaic Industry Progress through 1984.
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