Research Paper With Solar

Overcoming rainwater harvesting challenges in sub-Sahara African: community engagement,
coping techniques, and beneficial technologies 1
Overcoming rainwater harvesting challenges in sub-Saharan Africa: community
engagement, coping techniques, and beneficial technologies
Cody C. Juracek
School of Engineering, Iowa State University
SOC 348: Global Poverty, Resources and Sustainable Development
Ramesh B. Balayar
November 10, 2020

Table of Contents
Introduction....................................................................................................................................4
Problem Statement........................................................................................................................4
Analysis of Case Study #1: Rainwater harvesting in South Africa...........................................5
Benefits of no-till in-field runoff water harvesting..........................................................................9
How rural institutions make a difference......................................................................................12
Explanatory Framework of Case Study #1....................................................................................14
Analysis of Case Study #2: Challenges in dealing with droughts............................................15
Analysis of Case Study #3: Floatovoltics and rainwater harvesting.......................................19
Assessment....................................................................................................................................22
The Report Author’s Suggested Solutions and Closing Remarks...........................................22
Works Cited.................................................................................................................................25
Introduction
What are the best methods for reducing poverty? That is a hard question to answer since
there are many variables to consider. The trick is creating techniques for communities and
societies to implement and increase their coping capacities when experiencing droughts, market
crashes, hindering legislation, etc. This paper will explain how rainwater harvesting techniques
can help mitigate poverty by analyzing several case studies on the effects of practicing rainwater
harvesting, revising governmental regulations, and community engagement and outreach
programs around sub-Saharan Africa.
Problem Statement
Sub-Sahara Africa has experienced a constant struggle when fighting against poverty.
One in three Africans – over 422 million people, about 41% of sub-Sahara Africa – live below
the global poverty line [ CITATION Ham19 \l 1033 ]. Also, more than 70% of the world's poorest
population are in sub-Sahara Africa [ CITATION Pat18 \l 1033 ]. Back in 2010, more than 62,500
Africans were entering poverty per day [ CITATION Ham19 \l 1033 ]. According to the World Data
Lab, Africa has reached an incredible milestone where 367 more Africans per day escape
extreme poverty conditions [ CITATION Ham19 \l 1033 ]. One potential factor leading to this
marvelous is improving conditions in which small-scale farming is being operated. Even with
sub-Sahara Africa's poverty rate being reduced, it is only a minuscule statistic. What are some
techniques that may help further reduce poverty levels?
One way is by optimizing farming conditions for the betterment of sub-Sahara Africa's
72% rural poverty population who mostly, if not solely, rely on rainwater to feed their crops,
livestock, and use it as drinking water [CITATION Bai09 \p 1358 \l 1033 ]. Studies have shown
rainfall is directly linked to the success of small-scale farming, further maximizing the use and
storage of rainwater would promote more considerable poverty coping capacities [CITATION Enf08
\p 607-608 \l 1033 ]. However, placing a few rainwater harvesting systems around Africa will not
fix the underlining issue: governments and their legislations are hindering experimental methods
for harvesting rainwater; nongovernment organizations and relief programs are unable to
maximize their efforts without the cooperation and coordination from local, provincial, and
national governments; and when droughts or other disasters do occur, implementing coping
strategies will mitigate financial and food scarcities. This paper will first analyze challenges,
coping techniques involved with rainwater harvesting, and how local community participation
can benefit yield production within South Africa. Secondly, a case study examining the effects
caused by droughts within Tanzania will be presented and will provide insight on how to
maximize water capacity better. Thirdly, the analysis of certain technological advancements may
provide unique solutions, not one but two significant concerns in sub-Sahara Africa. Finally, a
summation of each case study's concluding recommendations with the report author offers
insight into which tactics would best counteract poverty within sub-Sahara Africa.
Analysis of Case Study #1: Rainwater harvesting in South Africa
The first case study analyzes farming in South Africa, significantly how rainwater
harvesting techniques benefit small-scale farmers. With poverty, population, and food demand
on a steady increase, it is essential – now more than ever – for South Africa to implement the
best alleviating strategies to secure a better tomorrow. However, the issue lies with South
Africa's landmass consisting mostly arid (55% of the country's landmass) and semi-arid (39% of
Figure 1: Bioclimatic zones of South Africa [CITATION Hen11 \p

772 \l 1033 ].
Figure 2: Number of households using rainwater harvesting tanks

as main water source in each of the nine provinces of South Africa
[CITATION Tai11 \p 970 \l 1033 ].
the country's landmass) areas with only 6% left for sub-humid conditions [CITATION Hof \p 19 \l
1033 ]. This can be depicted in Figure 1 by the dark grayed regions representing drylands, sparse
vegetation growth conditions making it only suitable for livestock and irrigation purposes;
medium grayed regions represent semi-arid lands – suitable for livestock, crop farming with
high-risk failure, and irrigation; and light grayed regions represent sub-humid areas, suitable for
livestock and crop farming with little risk involved. For statistical analysis of each bioclimatic
zone, an aridity index (AI) – the annual mean rate of water evaporation divided by the annual
mean rate of rainfall – resulting: dry zones having an AI between 0.03 to 0.2; semi-arid AI
readings are 0.2 to 0.5; and sub-humid area AI readings are above 0.5 [CITATION Hen11 \p 771-772
\l 1033 ]. Over 26,500 households, shown in Figure 2, rely on rainwater as their only water source
if they do not experience droughts (or other disasters) that would hinder their water intake
[CITATION Tai11 \p 969 \l 1033 ].
There several various types of rainwater harvesting techniques classified as: in situ – or
local – rainwater harvest (iRWH), soil organization strategies that enhance rainfall infiltration
and reduce surface runoff; ex-situ – or off-site – rainwater harvesting (eRWH), the capture of
water from areas such as land, surfaces, steep slopes, roads surfaces or rock catchments and
funnel it into storage tanks; and domestic rainwater harvesting (dRWH), funneling rainwater
from rooftops, courtyards, compacted or treated surfaces into storage tanks [CITATION Tai11 \p 968
\l 1033 ]. Many households use rooftop rainwater harvesting systems to replenish brackish
groundwater – a high sodium water mixture that is not necessarily good for crop production or
drinking water – or serve as a substitute drinking water source to brackish groundwater [CITATION
Tai11 \p 969 \l 1033 ]. As mentioned, some crops – including humans and livestock – cannot
withstand the high sodium levels present in brackish water as it lowers hydration levels than
replenishing them. Several villages, such as Xolo, Garies, Karkams, Paulshoek, and
Lepelfontein, practice rainwater harvesting to mitigate the potential risk brackish groundwater
poses by using rainwater to dilute the high sodium concentration levels [CITATION Tai11 \p 969 \l
1033 ]. Villages Guquka and Gogela rip post-harvested soil during the winter and spring months
and extract their built-up moistures; this technique often proves to be very valuable [CITATION
Pes16 \p 138 \l 1033 ]. Other villages construct trenches consisting of a mixture of rocks, boulders,
soil, and other organic material – sometimes called tillage – that funnels runoff water down a
heavily cropped row – and sometimes collected into a tank at the end of the slope [CITATION Tai11
\p 969 \l 1033 ]. Some areas construct river dams whose purpose is to flood and divert water into
large, flat basins that each extend from 1 ha to 100 ha [CITATION Tai11 \p 969 \l 1033 ]. Such
techniques prove useful as water is stored and seeps into the soil.
However, many of these techniques require high labor volumes for implementation and
the funds to pay for such work; thus, many households must input the work themselves, seeing
they cannot afford it otherwise. Specific rainwater harvesting techniques also require protective
fencing to prevent wildlife and livestock from contaminating the harvested water, especially if it
is being collected into a large water bank or an open-roofed storage container [CITATION Tai11 \p
971 \l 1033 ]. As mentioned, many households do not have the funds to invest in such projects
and do not have access to any money credit services; those who do are often pushed further into
poverty, coined as a poverty trap [CITATION Enf08 \p 608 \l 1033 ] [CITATION Tai11 \p 971 \l 1033 ].
Surprisingly, South African government legislations do not provide clear guidelines or
regulations to properly harvest rainwater, specifically in urban and peri-urban (suburbs or
neighboring towns) areas, making it illegal. The closest legislation would be The National Water
Act of 1998, the main legal instruments relating to water resources management [CITATION
Tai11 \p 971 \l 1033 ]. The Water Services Act of 1997 offers regulatory water supply and
sanitation services to all citizens, stating that rainwater can be harvested when providing basic
needs, animal watering, and domestic gardening use with the South African government
[CITATION Tai11 \p 971 \l 1033 ]. However, rooftop rainwater consumption for commercial usage
and land-based rainwater is prohibited due to unsanitary methods of extracting or lack of studied
research. Much of the government's blocking legislation is due to insufficient environmental
impact studies on plausible affected water resources or downstream users. Still, it is recognized
as of great importance and could positively impact society should such legislation be approved
[CITATION Tai11 \p 971 \l 1033 ]. Another legal roadblock is the prohibiting use of communal
croplands to harvest rainwater, often due to the lack of legislation stating land users' rights and
landowners. The next section will go into detail about a particular rainwater harvesting
technique.
Benefits of no-till in-field runoff water harvesting
To further elaborate on the tillage technique developed by The Water Research
Commission (WRC), it would be beneficial to supplement one of their reports Taigbenu and
Kahinda's referenced. The WRC noticed irrigation is the only viable technique that can
successfully stabilize crop production in dry and semi-arid areas, especially during dry or
drought years [CITATION Hen11 \p 772 \l 1033 ]. With much of South Africa's irrigation done
utilizing sprinkler systems – that require electricity to function – there needs to be a better
irrigation system that is just as effective and reduces expenditure costs.

Figure 3: The soil-plant-atmosphere continuum (SPAC) showing

the water-balance processes [CITATION Hen11 \p 773 \l 1033 ].
Figure 4: The no-till in-field runoff water harvesting technique,

with mulch in the basins [CITATION Hen11 \p 777 \l 1033 ].
This led to the idea of the no-till in-field runoff water harvesting technique. First, the researchers
focused on how runoff water operates by analyzing all possible factors, such as rain; run-on and
runoff water; evaporation; drainage depth; etc. Visual representation of this concept can be seen
in Figure 3. This runoff flow process was dubbed the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum (SPAC)
[CITATION Hen11 \p 771 \l 1033 ]. By better controlling and harnessing runoff water, harvest yields
would be further maximized. The mechanics behind the technique is planting crops on a small
declining slope where run-on and runoff water passes from crop to crop freely. Then they placed
two crop rows within 1-meter of each other and the next two crop rows about 2-meters away
from the first two rows looking like Figure 4. Each 1-meter distance with a small dugout trench
at a slightly inclined slope runoff water becomes trapped within the trench. The dugout trench is
littered with mulch scrapings to prevent the water from eroding the slope and increase soil water
absorption. This trap allowed the water to seep into the soil and provide for the root-zones,
promoting a reduced risk to crop damage during seasonal droughts and producing higher yields
by 30% [CITATION Hen11 \p 776 \l 1033 ]. WRC tested this technique on a farm plot of sunflowers
and maize, comparing it to a field using conventional tillage practices. The results yielded a 30%
to 50% increase in harvested crops than traditional tillage crops [CITATION Hen11 \p 776 \l 1033 ].
However, more research is needed to provide clear evidence that the no-till technique is proven
to be effective. Had the South African government provided support in implementing this no-till
technique across the country, it would be conceivable the WRC would have the data they need to
give a final working method for the majority of the country's dry and sub-arid area small-scale
farmers. The next section analyzes the importance of community engagement in another South
African study.
How rural institutions make a difference
A study was conducted in Thaba Nchu to analyze how in-situ rainwater harvesting, no-till, basin
tillage and mulching on high drought risk clay soils can totally reduce water runoff to zero and
evaporation from the surface considerably [CITATION Bai09 \p 1359 \l 1033 ]. These practices
increased small-scale farmers' income and decreased risk factors concerning farming within
semi-arid regions [CITATION Bai09 \p 1359 \l 1033 ]. A large population lives in 42 villages close to
Thaba Nchu that rely on farming, with little nonfarming activities available, as their primary
source of income [CITATION Bai09 \p 1359 \l 1033 ]. Figure 5 provides a visualization of where the
case study took place. Each household has access to about 2 to 4 ha of suitable cropland.
However, most croplands are unused due to the lack of appropriate production technologies, and
harvest yields are low [CITATION Bai09 \p 1359 \l 1033 ]. The study spanned over four growing
seasons and observed the farms that incorporated rainwater harvesting techniques and how fast
these farmers would spread their knowledge to neighboring farmers and villages [CITATION
Bai09 \p 1359 \l 1033 ]. It required the villages to develop communal associations to effectively
spread their knowledge and aid others in incorporating such techniques. Within the first study,
the participating households increased their membership from 4 to 108 [CITATION Bai09 \p 1359-
1361 \l 1033 ]. By the end of the second study, these communal associations started forming
guidelines and regulations to communicate the introduction of rainwater harvesting systems
better.
At the end of the fourth study and into the following growing season, 1,033 households in
Figure 5: This map of South Africa’s province Free State shows

where Thaba Nchu is located [ CITATION Hyb20 \l 1033 ].
all 42 villages were practicing rainwater harvesting techniques [CITATION Bai09 \p 1361 \l 1033 ].
Farmers who participated did so with great success and harvested larger yield amounts, with
varying degrees. Some villages produced better results than others, primarily due to each
communal association's efficiency within the villages. The more an association communicated
and aided its members increased yield outputs and participation spreading. In conclusion, local
institutions' formation increases crop performance, thereby increasing household income and
reducing poverty.
Explanatory Framework of Case Study #1
Taigbenu and Kahinda suggest that the South African government implement financial
assistance programs to install and upkeep storage water tanks [CITATION Tai11 \p 972 \l 1033 ].
One such program did exist and installed 64 underground water tanks in 26 villages across four
provinces; it had the necessary funds and appropriate delivery system. However, due to
previously stated blocking legislations, this program shortly came to an end [CITATION Tai11 \p
972 \l 1033 ]. New legislation and further studies on rainwater harvesting need to be implemented
and carried out that support healthy and self-sustaining habits for rural communities and urban
and peri-urban communities. These proactive legislations and studies will promote beneficial
supplement programs, like the initial underwater tank installation and maintenance service, or
provide more precise guidelines stating land users have certain property rights when using
communal croplands for rainwater harvesting and other beneficial uses. The government should
also offer broader support for nongovernmental organizations whose purpose is to investigate
and innovate with local communities, new rainwater harvesting practices, and lower poverty
levels. The South African Water Research Commission is already working with local rural
communities to better rainwater harvesting, such as micro-basin tillage, and creating computer
software programs that project where rainwater harvesting would be best suited for
implementation [CITATION Tai11 \p 973-975 \l 1033 ]. For these programs to work, local
communities need to form their institutions to implement and spread methods proven to work.
Many nongovernmental organizations lack the strategy of upscaling their local projects to an
entire region or country, whereas with the nation's government's backing, more nongovernmental
programs would thrive. Next, the paper will analyze challenges that are faced during drought-
like conditions.
Analysis of Case Study #2: Challenges in dealing with droughts
The second case study analyzes another sub-Sahara African country, Tanzania, and
studies how local small-scale farmers cope during droughts. Study after research shows a direct
relationship between rainfall and the success of small-scale farming. When experiencing an
unexpected drought, farmers must incorporate tactics such as crop variety diversification,
matching labor inputs to expectations of the season, livestock grazing on failed farm plots, food
transfers, and migration employment [CITATION Enf08 \p 607 \l 1033 ]. "The persistent nature of
poverty in the rural drylands of sub-Sahara Africa is the result of a general marginalization of
these areas, manifested by a lack of infrastructure, public services, and market access by human
capability deprivations, in combination with a highly challenging hydro-climate" [CITATION Enf08
\p 608 \l 1033 ]. For many households, however, unique tactics or coping strategies may barely
cover expenses or push them further into poverty – in other words, a poverty trap [CITATION Enf08
\p 608 \l 1033 ]. Theorized poverty emits a self-reinforcing pattern by households, communities,
or larger societies. Having multiple dynamic welfare equilibria and critical asset holdings
presents a tipping point between economic growth and decline [CITATION Enf08 \p 608 \l 1033 ].
Households with lower welfare or income have difficulties reaching and surpassing a higher
equilibrium. Households seeking financial investments, usually small in size and offer only a
temporary fix, often produce negative feedback pushing the household further into poverty
[CITATION Enf08 \p 608 \l 1033 ].
As stated earlier, rainwater, particularly in dry and sub-arid areas, is directly linked to
poverty; more access a household has to water leads to more significant crop production and
higher food security [CITATION Enf08 \p 608 \l 1033 ]. The case study notes there are two types
Figure 6: Map of the case study located in Tanzania. The left map
shows the location of the studied villages. The right map shows the
position of the water catchment in North-Eastern Tanzania.
[CITATION Enf08 \p 609 \l 1033 ]
of droughts. First is a meteorological drought, when rainfall during a growing season is below
the required amount to produce crops, resulting in total crop failure. This typically occurs once
every five years in semi-arid sub-Sahara Africa [CITATION Enf08 \p 608 \l 1033 ]. The second is an
agricultural drought where there is enough rainfall to provide for crops. However, there is a lack
of plant-available water, resulting in yield reductions or total crop failure [CITATION Enf08 \p
608 \l 1033 ]. Agricultural droughts are more common and determined by several varying factors:
dry-spells and water losses from runoff, drainage, and evaporation [CITATION Enf08 \p 608 \l
1033 ]. Dry-spells tend to occur three out of four growing seasons for semi-arid households. Mix
this with deficient soil nutrients, insectoid infestations, and lack of inputs and labor make small-
scale farming very uncertain and create financial struggles and food shortages. However,
supplemental irrigation systems, rainwater harvesting, and conservation and precision farming
techniques improve a household's coping capacity when undergoing agricultural droughts
[CITATION Enf08 \p 608 \l 1033 ]. Some families, particularly in sub-arid and sub-humid regions,
proactively set large-scale irrigations for their small-scale farms to maximize their water storage
capacity in preparation for the next coming drought. Practices like conservation water tillage
compared to conventional tillage can increase harvesting yields from 20% to 120%, and other
experiments with combining rainwater harvesting, tillage, and nutrient boosting yields 70% to
300% [CITATION Enf08 \p 609 \l 1033 ]. Such techniques, especially when combined, can
significantly improve coping capacity during droughts, thus alleviating poverty for small-scale
farmers.
This case study focuses on the Makanya catchment in the South Pare Mountains, same
district, Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania, where it covers 320 kilometers squared with a population
of 35,000 [CITATION Enf08 \p 609 \l 1033 ]. Figure 6 provides a visual representation of where the
case study was conducted inside Tanzania. The main livelihood is small-scale farming, often
practiced with livestock herding. Many farmers grow crops, such as maize, for personal use and
vegetable cash crops to earn an income. In addition to farming, or during nongrowing seasons,
nonfarming activities are farmers' secondary income sources. Nonfarming activities such as
mining, trading, wage labor, etc., are vital to the local economy [CITATION Enf08 \p 609 \l 1033 ].
About 30% of the region's population lives below poverty [CITATION Enf08 \p 609 \l 1033 ]. Two
growing seasons exist the Masika season from March to June and the Vuli season between
October and January. However, over the last 48 years, rainfall has been increasingly erratic,
especially during the Maskia season, where dry-spells last longer than three weeks, causing
unproductive waterflow and declining soil fertility [CITATION Enf08 \p 609 \l 1033 ].
Enfors and Gordon observed how farmers in the villages of Bangalala and Mwembe,
along the Ndiva irrigation system, coped with droughts throughout two growing seasons, about
one year [CITATION Enf08 \p 610 \l 1033 ]. Around 25%, or about 500, households in the area have
access to the Ndiva irrigation system [CITATION Enf08 \p 610 \l 1033 ]. During the first Masika
growing season, with a moderate amount of rainfall and a four-week dry-spell period, classifying
as an agricultural drought causing severe yield losses [CITATION Enf08 \p 610 \l 1033 ]. The second
growing season within that same year, the Vuli season, Bangalala underwent a meteorological
drought causing most crops to fail [CITATION Enf08 \p 610 \l 1033 ]. Within the region, 30 out of 60
households had access to the Ndiva irrigation system. All 60 were interviewed to assess what
each household did to overcome struggles they may have faced during each growing season and
gauge if the Ndiva irrigation system alleviated any hardships. Food scarcity was a primary
concern for many households in the early stages of the 2005/2006 Vuli growing season, due to
insufficient yield production from the 2005 Masika season, with only eight households able to
harvest crops at all [CITATION Enf08 \p 611 \l 1033 ]. Many households resorted to purchasing food
at local markets; of course, market prices increased due to increased demand and a reduced
supplement. Also, caring for livestock became increasingly tricky with less water to feed them,
making them unhealthy, resulting in livestock incomes rapidly decrease [CITATION Enf08 \p 611 \l
1033 ]. Only 20% of the food needed in the households was produced within their farming
systems; when compared to customary conditions, households have 80% of what they need
[CITATION Enf08 \p 611 \l 1033 ]. Thus, many households gathered wild fruits and vegetables;
relied on government and nongovernment relief programs; shared food among their friends,
families, and neighbors; planted drought-tolerant crops; or worked in nonfarming activities to
supplement their reduced income [CITATION Enf08 \p 611-612 \l 1033 ]. Households having access
to the Ndiva irrigation system experienced a higher coping capacity for food shortages and yield
harvesting. With two consecutive droughts, too many farmers relied on the Ndiva irrigation
system, thus, decreasing its beneficial effects for all who used it [CITATION Enf08 \p 613 \l 1033 ].
The main takeaway from this case study is that had the farmers incorporated an irrigation
system and management strategies into their farming plan, such as rainwater harvesting, their
coping capacity would have increased. Previous improvement programs often failed; they did not
factor the correlation between improvements on the field scale and potential trade-offs or
synergies on the landscape scale, thus missing the connections between food production, other
ecosystem services, and livelihoods of the rural poor [CITATION Enf08 \p 612-613 \l 1033 ]. Even
still, households with access to a social network or nonfarming activities have made a difference
in sustaining, however little, their living conditions. It is important to note, and this paper will
not go into detail, that farming cannot be the sole investigated activity when finding ways to
reduce poverty. Nonfarming activities must be incorporated into such investigations as they
provide a means of support when farming alone does not cover expenses. Governments need to
invest more resources in the development of water system technologies, which, in turn, will
proactively contribute to poverty alleviation, increase infrastructure, better market systems, and
enabling institutions [CITATION Enf08 \p 614 \l 1033 ].
Analysis of Case Study #3: Floatovoltics and rainwater harvesting
This section will take a slight detour from the report's main topic. It will still relate to
how solar energy incorporated with rainwater harvesting technologies can provide incredible
benefits to neighboring communities. Throughout this report, the constant theme is reducing
poverty by improving rural agricultural systems. However, both case studies 1 and 2 mention the
importance of nonfarming activities in correlation with farming; of course, these authors were
referring to activities such as mining, trading, transportation, etc. [CITATION Enf08 \p 609 \l 1033 ]
[CITATION Bai09 \p 1359 \l 1033 ]. Consider this, in addition to 41% of people living in poverty
conditions, over 53% of Africans are living without electricity [ CITATION Acc18 \l 1033 ]
[ CITATION Ham19 \l 1033 ]. The electricity percentages across Africa are represented in Figure 7.
The World Bank has been investigating the utilization of sub-Sahara Africa's overwhelming
amounts of sunlight by installing industrial-sized solar farms throughout its urban areas and
installing micro-sized solar farms in rural areas [ CITATION Acc20 \l 1033 ]. However, a growing
concern about solar energy, especially in an area that relies heavily on farming practices, is the
amount of land-based real estate needed to support such projects. How can solar energy benefit
Africa's rural population without taking valuable farmland away – the answer is floatovoltics.
Floatovoltics – derived from photovoltaics, light-generating voltaic current, with the
ability to function over water [CITATION Kum18 \p 1090 \l 1033 ]. In addition to floatovoltics
costing cheaper than standard land-based photovoltaics, the water offers a natural cooling system
for the solar panels [CITATION Kum18 \p 1094 \l 1033 ]. Specific harvesting techniques require
funneling of water into storage containers or large basins spanning from 1 ha to 100 ha, perfect
for implementing a solar power plant that will feed into nearby villages [CITATION Tai11 \p 969 \l
1033 ]. Figure 8 shows floatovoltics installed in a farming water basin. Not only do floatovoltics
produce 10% more than standard land-based photovoltaics, but they also provide beneficial
environmental impacts such as reduce water evaporation; noxious algae production; lowers water
treatment costs; and minimizes energy waste [ CITATION San20 \l 1033 ].
Figure 7: Map of electricity percentages of sub-Sahara Africa

[ CITATION Acc18 \l 1033 ].
Figure 8: Floatovoltics incorporated with standard land-based

photovoltaic panels surrounded by farmland [CITATION Kum18 \p
1091 \l 1033 ].
As one can imagine, floatovoltics promote both implementing rainwater harvesting
basins across sub-Sahara Africa and increasing electricity generation for neighboring villages
and communities. Not only that, but it has the real potential of providing positive environmental
impacts such as protecting water sources from evaporation and certain harmful algae that
contaminate water sources. However, more ecological studies are needed further to understand
their implications on local land and marine wildlife.
Assessment
The outlined case studies provided in this report highlights vital revelations in promoting
beneficiary techniques of implementing rainwater harvesting systems into rural, even urban, sub-
Sahara African communities. These studies showed the beneficiary impacts of installing
rainwater harvesting systems for communal areas. Benefits include an increase in small-scale
farming yield productions; healthier crop and livestock production; safe drinking water for
communities and livestock; coping techniques when facing adversity, such as droughts; an
increase in community engagement; providing solar energy harvesting grounds. To achieve these
results, governments need to enact proactive legislation that will promote government and
nongovernment supplement financial relief programs, thus encouraging the two entities to work
collaboratively.
The Report Author's Suggested Solutions and Closing Remarks
When focusing on rainwater harvesting solutions, much can be done to increase poverty
coping capacity. First, governments need to implement proactive legislation promoting funding
and relief programs. Such avenues will encourage government (local, provincial, and national)
and nongovernmental (whether they be international, national, or communal based) engagement,
such as the South African underwater storage tank installation and maintenance, or others like it.
However, under the supervision of provincial or higher institutions, cooperative established
institutions provide the best beneficiaries for local communities. Meaning, farmers in rural areas
who form commutative groups yield the best results in poverty reduction. Instructional and
assistant means of implementing rainwater harvesting and irrigation systems; and sharing coping
techniques are a few techniques communal based institutions would employ to mitigate poverty
levels. Of course, each region is different and supplies a unique list of variables. However,
communal organizations will be able to reassess already proven techniques from other areas of
bioclimatic zones and reinvent them to mitigate their region's adversities better. For rural
communities, rainwater harvesting techniques (i.e., no-till in-filed runoff water harvesting; the
funneling of rooftops, road surfaces, and rock catchments into personal or communal storage
containers; etc.); separation of wildlife and livestock from water harvested catchments to prevent
contamination; installation of large-scale irrigation systems for small-scale farms; produce high
drought-tolerant crops when needed are all excellent techniques to invest, whether a household
does one or a combination of them; and the investigation and implementation of floatovoltic
technology. For urban and peri-urban areas, rooftop rainwater harvesting is worth investigating.
However, with some governments blocking such practices, more research is encouraged to
explore societal and environmental impacts to alleviate or validate any concerns. Lastly, never
overlook any local nonfarming activities – such activities provide financial support to households
if farming does not cover all expenditures. The improvement in working conditions and increase
in job opportunities for nonfarming activities may, in turn, improve farming outputs.
Even though – for the first time – overall poverty levels are just starting to decrease in
sub-Saharan Africa, further research and implementation of rainwater harvesting tactics must
become a high priority if governments want to continue the positive trend towards ending
poverty once and for all.

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Overcoming rainwater harvesting challenges in sub-Sahara African: community engagement,

coping techniques, and beneficial technologies 1

Overcoming rainwater harvesting challenges in sub-Saharan Africa: community

engagement, coping techniques, and beneficial technologies

School of Engineering, Iowa State University

SOC 348: Global Poverty, Resources and Sustainable Development

November 10, 2020

Analysis of Case Study #1: Rainwater harvesting in South Africa...........................................5

Benefits of no-till in-field runoff water harvesting..........................................................................9

How rural institutions make a difference......................................................................................12

Explanatory Framework of Case Study #1....................................................................................14

Analysis of Case Study #2: Challenges in dealing with droughts............................................15

Explanatory Framework of Case Study #2....................................................................................19

Analysis of Case Study #3: Floatovoltics and rainwater harvesting.......................................19

Explanatory Framework of Case Study #3....................................................................................22

The Report Author’s Suggested Solutions and Closing Remarks...........................................22

harvesting, revising governmental regulations, and community engagement and outreach

programs around sub-Saharan Africa.

techniques that may help further reduce poverty levels?

Analysis of Case Study #1: Rainwater harvesting in South Africa

Figure 1: Bioclimatic zones of South Africa [CITATION Hen11 \p

Figure 2: Number of households using rainwater harvesting tanks

[CITATION Tai11 \p 969 \l 1033 ].

Surprisingly, South African government legislations do not provide clear guidelines or

regulations to properly harvest rainwater, specifically in urban and peri-urban (suburbs or

research. Much of the government's blocking legislation is due to insufficient environmental

Benefits of no-till in-field runoff water harvesting

To further elaborate on the tillage technique developed by The Water Research

irrigation system that is just as effective and reduces expenditure costs.

Figure 3: The soil-plant-atmosphere continuum (SPAC) showing

Figure 4: The no-till in-field runoff water harvesting technique,

How rural institutions make a difference

guidelines and regulations to communicate the introduction of rainwater harvesting systems

Figure 5: This map of South Africa’s province Free State shows

Explanatory Framework of Case Study #1

Analysis of Case Study #2: Challenges in dealing with droughts

capability deprivations, in combination with a highly challenging hydro-climate" [CITATION Enf08

\p 608 \l 1033 ]. Theorized poverty emits a self-reinforcing pattern by households, communities,

[CITATION Enf08 \p 608 \l 1033 ].

techniques improve a household's coping capacity when undergoing agricultural droughts

families, and neighbors; planted drought-tolerant crops; or worked in nonfarming activities to

Explanatory Framework of Case Study #2

enabling institutions [CITATION Enf08 \p 614 \l 1033 ].

Analysis of Case Study #3: Floatovoltics and rainwater harvesting

Floatovoltics – derived from photovoltaics, light-generating voltaic current, with the

treatment costs; and minimizes energy waste [ CITATION San20 \l 1033 ].

Figure 7: Map of electricity percentages of sub-Sahara Africa

Figure 8: Floatovoltics incorporated with standard land-based

Explanatory Framework of Case Study #3

As one can imagine, floatovoltics promote both implementing rainwater harvesting

their implications on local land and marine wildlife.

The Report Author's Suggested Solutions and Closing Remarks

and nongovernmental (whether they be international, national, or communal based) engagement,

However, under the supervision of provincial or higher institutions, cooperative established

poverty once and for all.

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