Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Practical
By J. Crawford Lochhead
and Ken RodgerV
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
International Standard Book Number: 0-87171-620-8
American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, FL 33126
O 2000 by American Welding Society.
All rights reserved.
Text edited by Tim Heston.
The American Welding Society is not responsible for any statement made or opinion expressed herein. Data
and informationdeveloped by the authors are for informational purposes only and are not intended for use with-
out independent, substantiating investigation on the part of potential users.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
Table of Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Consumable Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Production Weld Test Pieces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society iii
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
When we, the authors, decided to write this book, we had a definite aim in mind
- to present a “practical” approach to the application of welding theories.
Over recent years universities and colleges have recognized the previous lack of
attention paid to the welding fraternity and subsequently greatly improved teaching
capabilities and lecture contents. As a result, the modem engineer is well versed in
basic metallurgical behavior; he is aware of the application of electronic wizardry to
modem equipment; fracture mechanics is not just an obscure theory but a practical
everyday tool; and, modem materials and consumables have apparently eliminated
many of the problems of the past. What the modem welding engineer lacks is the
knowledge of how to apply this knowledge in a practical sense. What we have
attempted to write is basically a distillation of almost 60 years (between the two of
us) of hard-gained realism in heavy engineering fabrication.
The basis of the book is therefore an assumption that the reader is already knowl-
edgeable of basic welding and metallurgical theory. He is most likely a metallurgist,
materials science or mechanical engineering graduate who, during his or her univer-
sity career has stumbled, or been fortuitously directed, into the welding field. It is
obviously a biased view, but in the opinion of the authors, welding is one of the most
exciting fields available to a young graduate. It is both vibrant and dynamic with new
avenues to be explored becoming available on a regular basis. Synergic gas metal arc
welding and inverter power sources, electron and laser welding, magnetic-impelled
arc butt-joint welding (MIAB), robotic welding, and diffusion bonding are careers in
themselves. It is difficult to identify another discipline where the range of possibili-
ties are as diverse, broad, and exciting, and where the potentials for exploration and
discovery stretch enticingly into the future.
However, enough of such esoteric digressions. This book was not written from
that approach. It is intended to present the inexperienced welding engineer with some
“sage” advice on some of the pitfalls awaiting in the hard commercial world that
awaits. Be under no illusions; it is not sufficient to be the best theoretical welding
engineer in your company. You must know how to apply that knowledge in an almost
“street-wise’’ manner.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
Welding is regarded by many employers as a “black art.” Some of this reputation
has been due to welding engineers camouflaging their inadequacies, or uncertainties,
with professional jargon. Telling one’s employer that the problem is one of “cracking
initiated in a highly tensile stressed region of hard martensite or body centered cubic
microstructure of poor crack resistance surrounded by material of similar sensitivity
to crack propagation into which atomic hydrogen has diffused, and that until the dif-
fusion rate is beneficially altered the problem will persist,” is not clear. Telling him
that you have identified the problem to be “one of delayed hydrogen cracking and that
increasing the preheat temperature by 25°C will resolve it” will undoubtedly raise
your standing in the company - unless you have an enlightened employer who asks
you why you didn’t recognize that a higher preheat was necessary in the first place.
The book is entitled “The Practical Welding Engineer.” We hope you find it to be
practical. We also hope that, although you may not totally or even partially agree with
its contents, you find it readable and interesting.
Good Reading
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the following personnel for their assistance in the
execution of this work.
T. Clement and M. Dorricott, Managing Directors, Brown & Root Highlands
Fabricators Ltd.
D. J. Wright, Managing Director, Brown and Root McDermott Fabricators, Ltd.
I. G. Hamilton, Consultant (for general advice).
Dr. W. Welland, for assistance with run-outístub length information.
Mrs. Patricia Vass and Claire Lochhead, for general secretarial assistance.
All other suppliers of photographs, tables, suggestions, etc.
The authors would also like to thank Training Publications, Ltd., Watford, England,
for permission to use data and Figures 8.1-8.9 and 8.11-8.13 extracted from Module
Manual F10 of the General Welding and Cutting for Engineering Craftsmen manual.
Permission is not transferable.
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society vi
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
Contracts and the Role
of the Welding Engineer
This may appear to be a strange starting point for a book intended to assist a weld-
ing engineer. However, it must be appreciated at an early stage that, as is common
with most disciplines, decisions based on technical judgments must be tempered with
economic awareness. In general, there can be several possible solutions (and hence
several possible costs) for any one problem. The principle behind every commercial
venture is to make a profit, and the welding engineer must always remember that what
leaves the factory gates is what pays his wages. It may leave in a timely manner, and
it may be of the finest quality; but it also must be profitable.
Commercial awareness usually is presented as an unessential part of the welding
engineer’s discipline. This thinking is misguided because in most fabrications weld-
ing plays a primary role of cost containment. If it is not right, either technically or
commercially, the company’s profitability will suffer. This is an aspect that still is not
sufficiently recognized by many companies and engineers.
This chapter will deal with two aspects in some detail - commercial awareness,
and dealing with specifications.
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
2 The Practical Welding Engineer
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
Contracts and the Role of the Weldno Engineer 3
On first impression, the welding engineer may perceive that few of these aspects are
applicable to him. This is erroneous. In fact, the welding engineer should have a fun-
damental role in every phase of the contract from the preparation of a tender to the
fulfillment of the last contractual obligation; and greater emphasis on this role should
be undertaken by the conscientious engineer. The seven key elements presented above
will now be described briefly.
The Tender
The key elements of a tender (i.e., the bid) that form the criteria against which the
job will be measured are
specifications,
drawings,
scope of work,
procedures,
resources,
methods, and
price.
The tender describes the criteria and assumptions upon which the work is priced
and planned, and it establishes the base from which all changes will be measured.
Therefore, it is of paramount importance to define clearly the data and assumptions
used in compiling the price and plan. In addition, it must be made clear that if the
assumptions are wrong, or if they are not acceptable to the client, then there will be
an effect on the price, or the delivery date, or both. All factors and calculations used
in compiling the price and plan must be clearly recorded and retained throughout the
life of the contract. Remember, they will form the basis for any cost adjustments
resulting from changes.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The Plan
The plan describes how, when, and where the work will be carried out, as well as
the resources to be used. There are many instances when the time allowed by a client
for the tender period is very short, and the information relating to the scope of work
and deliverables is incomplete. This combination of factors complicates the develop-
ment of a comprehensive plan. Nevertheless, the aim should be to develop an accu-
rate plan that represents the way the work is intended to be carried out. The plan is the
base from which the effect of all changes will be measured, and this includes self-
induced changes.
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
4 The Practical Welding Engineer
ally because the work is insufficiently defined at the time of the tender. It is important
that the people who are responsible for executing the work are fully aware of how the
work was planned and costed, so they can operate within their parameters or can iden-
tify and notify change to the same. The identification and notification of changes is
the most important link in the chain of events that leads to payment for the effects of
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
changes.
Purchasing
Cost-effective purchasing is a key factor in successfully executing a contract. At the
tender stage, delivery dates and prices for all required materials should be obtained.
After the contract is awarded, it is important that materials are procured in accordance
with the needs of the production department - that is, in accordance with the plan
and within the quoted prices. Additionally, if items such as new welding machines or
consumables are necessary for the job, sufficient notice should be given by the weld-
ing engineer to the relevant departments to obtain adequate quotations. Any relevant
purchase lead-times also must be included in the plan.
Subcontracting
Regardless of the size of the subcontract. the rules are the same. The subcontract
must
o clearly define the scope of work,
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
Contracts and the Role of the Welding Engineer 5
Changes initiated by means other than drawings are the subject of variation orders,
for example,
changes in specification,
changes in timing, and
changes in design after work has been completed.
Generally, such changes would be measured as an effect on the cost of labor, equip-
ment, and facilities and would be priced accordingly - not on the basis of the sched-
ule of unit rates.
Contractual Obligations
The major contractual obligations that affect the performance of the work are:
execution of the work in accordance with drawings and specifica-
tions;
execution of the work in accordance with the schedule, unless it can
be proven that this has been prevented by factors beyond the com-
pany?s control;
provision that work is free from defects (noting that, even where
work has been inspected and/or certified, the manufacturer is liable
for any defects that may be found subsequently; and, while a con-
tractual obligation extends through to the end of the maintenance
period, a common-law and/or moral obligation extends far beyond
that date);
appreciation that approval of drawings, method statements, weld
procedures, etc., do not relieve the company from contractual oblig-
ations;
appreciation that inspectors and certifications by certifying authori-
ties do not relieve the company from contractual obligations; and
knowledge that, in cases where the client causes disruption or delay
to the progress of the work, the contractor has an obligation to min-
imize the effect of the same, provided such mitigation does not add
to its cost.
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
6 The Practical Welding Engineer
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
Contracts and the Role of the Welding Engineer 7
Three main factors therefore emerge, all essential when dealing with commercial
aspects:
Keep good and explicit records,
be vigilant, and
think profit.
The foregoing was a general summation of the relevant commercial aspects in
which a company welding engineer should be involved during a project. However,
there is one very important function in particular that deeply involves this individual
- dealing with specifications. Section 1.2 will discuss this aspect in detail. Many
other facets also relevant to commercial success - welding costs, choice of equip-
ment and consumables, assessing procedure requirements etc. - are dealt with in
subsequent chapters.
specifying the base material and weld metal properties; the other specifying any non-
destructive examination requirements.
Nevertheless, great care must be taken in assessing the implications of any contract
specification out of the ordinary. Particularly important is the stage of negotiation at
which this assessment is carried out - i.e., has a contract actually been placed, or is
it still at the bid stage? If the latter, then mitigating the apprehension of the client must
be the foremost consideration. Sound judgment must be used in deciding which con-
tract specifications will have serious cost implications and which are merely advanta-
geous to avoid, but not serious enough to jeopardize a contract award. Two convenient
means can be utilized in exercising this determination. These may be labeled
Exceptions to the Specijìcation and Clarifications to the Specijìcation, and they can
be easily written directly into the tender. Two other possibilities exist, but these will
be explained in more detail later.
Exceptions to Specification
The Exceptions category should be avoided if possible, or at least restricted to those
few major items where the specification demands are virtually impossible to achieve
economically. The reasons for making such exceptions must be clearly identified. A
common example would be a requirement to maintain preheat until a certain percent-
age of the weld volume has been completed. A simple illustration of this would be
rolling a tubular section in the manufacture of a pressure vessel or offshore rig. It is
very common for the rolling contractor to tack and root weld the longitudinal joint of
the rolled cylinder when it is still in the rolls, then to transfer it later to a welding sta-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tion. Maintenance of preheat throughout this process is not practicable, and abandon-
ing this requirement can be justified based on the success of past practice. Indeed, the
argument of successful past practice is a very persuasive one and should be used
whenever possible.
Clarifications to Specification
Clar$cations to the Specification can be a subtle method of identifying what are
really exceptions. These are basically in-house or preferred interpretations of sections
of the specification that are unclear or ambiguous. Obviously, the interpretation most
practical for the welding engineer will be preferred; but, on occasion, it is advisable
for the engineer also to consider foregoing the preferred interpretation and applying
the less-convenient one. In the latter instance, when a significant cost can be attrib-
uted directly to the client’s preferred or anticipated interpretation, then it should be
noted specifically in the tender. If the client’s perceived benefit does not outweigh the
additional cost, then a reversal of opinion will likely be forthcoming.
As mentioned previously, there are two other useful tactics that fall outside of the
above classifications. One is to include a passing general statement in the tender that
would leave an open door for future compromises on the requirements of the contract.
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
Contracts and the Role of the Welding Engineer 9
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Monitoring Production
There is a very common pitfall of which the welding engineer must be ever mind-
ful when dealing with specifications. It is the assumption that his interpretation of a
client’s specification, if it is against the company’s practice, will be applied in pro-
duction when a tender becomes a contract. Ideally, the welding engineer’s responsi-
bilities with respect to specifications will be defined loosely enough to permit his
feedback throughout the company’s departmental structure. Generally, it is better (and
safer) for the company to allow this sort of follow-through on a contract, rather than
assume that it will be covered by some other department.
Of course, the responsibility of the welding engineer principally will be with those
points in the specification dealing directly with welding activities. However, there can
be instances outside of the engineer’s day-to-day responsibilities in which other
departments rely on his guidance. If, for example, the engineer is aware of recent
changes in welder qualification requirements, it is his obligation to convey this to oth-
ers, regardless of departmental responsibilities, to ensure that the contract is executed
correctly.
In every industrial setting, engineers face process-control problem areas, and the
welding engineer is no exception. Therefore, all specifications should be compared to
the last contract and examined for changes. Never assume that the specification is
identical just because the client is the same. Likewise, never assume that different
clients will interpret the same specification in a similar manner.
Examples of such potential problem areas are:
Material Weldability -Is the steel identical to that supplied for the
last contract, or should new weldability tests be carried out?
https://www.facebook.com/groups/WeldersGroup/
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
1O The Practical Welding Engineer
D = Max. depth relative to the surface, typically 1.O, 1.5 or 2.0 mm.
S = Max. space (center to center) between indentations through heat-affected
zone (HAZ), typically 0.5 mm or 0.75 mm (may vary with location in sur-
vey).
1. The higher the value of S the fewer the indentations made and the less risk
of encountering a “hard spot.”
2. The value of D will affect different welds in different ways depending on the
weld interface shape.
3. Generally higher loads provide an averaging effect and decease the risk of
reporting “hard spots.”
4. Some surveys ask for additional impressions (shown as dots above) fol-
lowing the weld interface. This type of survey will increase the risk of
reporting high values due to the increase in the number of impressions
adjacent to the maximum hardness zone.
STEEL WELDMENTS
ly; but, obviously, it would be better if they were not. A preferable option, if it were
possible, would be to carry out in-house testing to ascertain'the effects of the change
on the cost and time of production. Possible testing methods might include simple
repeat hardness surveys, or bead-on-plate trials to examine effect of preheathardness
levels. These need not be extensive or expensive, but the results can reaffirm confi-
dence in accepting a specification.
A final word of caution is extended here regarding the interpretation of suppliers'
typical data (consumable or weldability data, and the like), and the relevance of this
data to specification requirements. Do not assume these values are minimum or even
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
average values; in fact, they are more likely to represent typical good results from
tests carried out under ideal conditions. In cases where such typical data are close to
your minimum specified requirements, take great care to avoid assuming responsibil-
ity for aspects of a specification that may prove to be technically unachievable. Such
assumptions may lead your company to penalties for failing to attain specified
requirements, with all the commercial implications such failures carry.
Specification Requirements
The fabrication specification is the first and most important step in selecting a
process. At this stage the engineer must establish what is required -in terms of joint
type, mechanical properties, nondestructive examination (NDE), etc. - not only for
the particular joint in question, but also for the overall effect of welding on tolerances,
where these could influence the approach to a particular fabrication problem. Clearly,
the specified requirements represent a fixed point in the process selection exercise,
and, unlike the many other factors concerned, a compromise is not acceptable in terms
of the minimum quality demanded by the specification. Therefore, it is the duty of the
welding engineer to ensure the process, or processes, accepted at this initial stage are
capable of meeting all specification requirements. A list of typical points for consid-
eration at this stage is given below. These at least should be questioned mentally and
assessed by the welding engineer prior to his decision.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--
roe
m
rom
m mz
$ m
m m
z
m N
$ m
- m
"p-
il:U
J
I-
Practical Constraints
Within this category are found the many and varied aspects of a fabrication method
that can influence the choice of welding process. It is therefore necessary to establish
the overall manufacturing sequence ahead of, or at least in parallel with, any decision
on welding methods. For example, the initial selection stage may have identified three
processes - shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), flux cored arc welding (FCAW),
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and submerged arc welding (SAW) - as suitable for a simple fillet weid. Yet, it
quickly becomes evident that SAW is not suitable if the component happens to be fab-
ricated in a sequence that places this fillet in, say, the 3G position. The meclianical
properties inherent in certain combinations of processes and consumables for various
welding positions also must be considered at this stage. For instance, if low-tempera-
ture impact properties are not important, then a particular self-shielded FCAW con-
sumable could be used for 3G uphill welding, whereas if impact properties are criti-
cal [ 11, downhill welding or even another process may be required. Other factors -
such as accessibility, fitup, type and standard of weld preparation, etc. -can all influ-
ence the suitability of the welding process chosen. Similarly, other environmental fea-
tures such as indoor (shop) vs. outdoor (site or field) fabrication have a major influ-
ence on process choice, particularly with respect to the suitability of gas shielded
processes.
FACTOR GOVERNED BY
Quality Specification
Resources Practical constraints
Functional constraints
cost Economic factors
Functional Constraints
Unlike the previous considerations, this group contains a number of intangible fac-
tors as well as tangible and straightforward problems. The more easily recognizable
areas to be considered are
availability of equipment;
availability of personnel and skills;
availability of services such as gas, power, water, air, etc.; and,
availability of shop space.
Each of the above items will influence the choice of welding process - either
directly via the total unsuitability of available resources, or indirectly via the addi-
tional cost of providing suitable resources. As such, these aspects are dealt with rela-
tively easily during the selection of a welding process. More difficult is the assess-
ment of the sometimes-less-tangible constraints imposed on the selection decision,
such as
utilization of personnel (i.e., if there are a number of skilled welders
from another project available on a part-time basis, economic factors
may demand the use of such personnel),
capacity of individual work stations (i.e., there may be existing pro-
duction bottlenecks to be avoided), and
overall time savings (Le., there is little point in welding a compo-
nent faster unless the total production time is reduced as a result).
Economic Factors
If all other factors are equal, the final choice of welding process should be made on
the basis of production costs.
An assessment of costs, however, involves many interrelated factors, some of which
already have been mentioned. It is important to consider costs on the basis offinal
cost, not on the basis of individual process costs in isolation. Thus, if a group of
skilled shielded metal arc welders were available for an average of 10 hours per week
(surplus to the requirements of another project), then it may be worthwhile to utilize
SMAW for a particular application rather than the nominally more productive FCAW
or SAW.
Similarly, it may prove more economic to choose a less productive welding process
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to achieve some other desired feature (e.g., surface finish), where the additional time
spent welding the component can benefit overall production costs by reducing machin-
ing or dressing operations later. Careful consideration should also be given to the mer-
its of mechanization or automation; since, despite the major productivity benefits, the
potential payback is highly dependent upon the degree of utilization in the plant. As a
result, what may be a good investment in a production line environment (high utiliza-
tion) .may prove excessively expensive in a mixed fabrication shop (low utilization),
despite any improvement in the welding time for the item in question.
may not be relevant if the overall working practices are changed. There is no doubt-
ing the fact that the availability of capable welding equipment and consumables will
affect the decision-making process in relation to changing working practices.
However, unless only one specific consumable or piece of equipment is potentially
suitable, the process decision can be made based on generic information. Having
made the decision in principle to change working practice, then the equipment or con-
sumable assessment can be carried out against clearly defined target requirements.
Equipment Assessment
As mentioned above, it is worthwhile to establish a checklist against which both
your requirements and equipment performance can be judged. This will differ, obvi-
ously, for different types of equipment; nevertheless, the following lists are offered as
examples dealing with two distinct applications.
Power Source Checklist
Type of current (AC or DC).
o Polarity (electrode positive or negative).
.
Programmability (e.g., preset facilities).
8
.
Interchangability with existing plant (e.g. spares).
8
.
Duty cycle.
Ancillary equipment required (wire feeders, high frequency units,
etc.).
Availability, cost, and ease of servicing.
Orbital Gas Tungsten Arc WeldinP Unit Checklist
Type of head (direct pipe mounting vs. track mounting).
Power source and programmer (pulsing mechanisms, programming
systems, level and number of programming steps possible for given
current, voltages, wire speed, travel speed).
Pipe size capacity.
Ability for interchange of heads.
Head facilities (wire positioning facility, wire drive on head, exter-
nal arc-length or arc-voltage control, gas lens, water-cooling facili-
ties, electrical and thermal protection, general ruggedness).
Head access limitations.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Length of interconnects.
Number of passes possible on continuous operation.
Headtrack clamping methods (Le., automatic vs. manual centering,
arc voltageílength monitoring mechanisms, etc.).
Previous industrial experience.
Availability, cost, and ease of servicing.
Availability of machining facilities for weld preparation.
Necessity for orbital welding (possible options such as rotation of
component, etc.).
The above examples are intended to illustrate the advisability of an objective
approach to equipment assessment and purchase; they should not be regarded as ideal
checklists. The ideal checklist is the one outlining your requirements in detail.
Consumable Assessment
The selection and assessment of consumables depends very much on the application
range in view. For instance, there is little value in assessing the positional welding
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
capability of a filler metal if the intended use is exclusively for flat-welding-position
fillets. Obviously, there is a need to match the assessment to the application. Having
established the target application(s), the assessment of any consumable provides two
main areas for evaluation, namely,
operability, and
weld properties.
Each of the above features is examined differently -that is, “operability” is a judg-
ment affected by the welder’s ability and bias, whereas “weld properties” normally
will present a well defined target that may or may not be achieved. The only compli-
cation regarding weld properties is that these are influenced by the detailed weld pro-
cedure used. It is recommended, therefore, that you incorporate the recommendations
of the consumable manufacturer regarding specific techniques in any evaluation
involving a property assessment. If these recommendations are impractical, or limit-
ing (but necessary), then this factor in itself could eliminate a consumable from fur-
ther consideration.
Operability, however, is of equal importance; there is much to be said for a product
that has “welder appeal.” Ease of use normally will translate into fewer defects and
better productivity, so operability should be an important consideration in any evalu-
ation. Given that operability can be a subjective assessment, it is worthwhile to estab-
lish a score sheet covering the various aspects of operability that should be addressed.
An example of such a score sheet is shown in Figure 2.2. This is a particularly useful
tool when evaluating manual-process consumables. Another consideration is to hear
reactions from several welders, because opinions often vary. In terms of general
approach, the first action would be to identify a number of consumables that meet the
mechanical and chemical analysis requirements of the weld “on paper.” Having estab-
Striking/Re-Striking o
o
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Weld Root Stability
Fill & Cap Pass Stability 0
Slag Action:
Control o
Removal o
Fume Emission O
Coating Stability o
Deposit:
Shape/Profile o
Spatter O
Total: o
General Comments:
*Scale: 10 = Excellent 8-9 = Above Average 6-7 = Average û-5 = Below Average
lished such a list, samples can be obtained and used for simple operability tests. These
should be designed to suit your intended application (e&, for SMAW on a fully posi-
tional pipe weld using a butt joint, a simple test involving the filling of a shallow
groove in a 5G- or 6G-positioned pipe would suffice).
The best two or three products can then be assessed further on the basis of full weld
procedure tests to establish required properties. The “operability” factor obviously can
mean different things for different processes; examples of what should be considered
for shielded metal arc welding are given below:
Deposition efficiency.
Coating type (basic, rutile, iron powder, etc. -choices may be lim-
ited by specification).
Electrode application range (current and polarity, positional limita-
tions per available resources and applications, etc.).
Electrode operability (factors to be considered and “scored”
include arc action [strikinghestriking, root stability, and the stabili-
ty of the cap pass]; slag action [control, removal, fume emission,
coating stability, etc.]; and deposit [shape and spatter]).
An example of an evaluation code that incorporates many of these features in
greater detail is shown in Figure 2.3.
For processes employing a bare wire electrode, there is seldom a need for an “oper-
ability” type of assessment on the wire consumable, since these usually are ordered
according to an analysis specification. Other processes, especially those that involve
a flux, can be treated in a fashion similar to the SMAW scenario described above. For
all welding processes, including SMAW, a further consideration in many industries is
the level and type of consumable-handling practices required to meet and maintain
low weld-metal hydrogen values. As this can have cost implications and affect the
preheat levels required, it is a factor that also must be considered before the final
choice of a consumable.
References
[i] Rodgers, K. J., and Lochhead, J. C. 1987. “Self shielded flux cored arc welding
- the route to good toughness.” Welding Journal 66(7): 49-59.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ined carefully to assess the number of tests that will be required, taking into considera-
tion the thickness ranges, the material groupings, the heat treatment conditions, and the
welding positions. If there is sufficient time, this initial assessment should be circulated
among managers in other appropriate disciplines -such as planning, quality assurance,
and, especially, production - for comment and feedback. Cognizance should be taken
of any restricted-access conditions or equipment limitations; and, where necessary,
alternative procedures should be proposed. Insomuch as an initial procedure-require-
ment estimate is seldom sufficient to accommodate client alterations, changes in fabri-
cation methods, and other unforeseen factors, it is a good rule of thumb to overestimate
by 10 percent when establishing budget requirements. Of course, this “contingency mul-
tiplier” could be increased or reduced depending on the engineer’s level of confidence
in, or familiarity with, the type of work being bid.
Having established the initial procedure test requirements, the engineer preparing
the bid should determine whether any of the proposed procedures can be considered
suitable for acceptance by virtue of being “prequalified.” Confusion can arise between
the casual use of the terms “prequalified” and “previously qualified.” A prequalified
welding procedure specification is defined in ANSIIAWS A3.0-94 - Standard
Welding Terms and Definitions as “a welding procedure that complies with the stipu-
lated conditions of a particular code or specification and is therefore acceptable for
use under that code or specification without a requirement for qualification testing.”
(author’s emphasis).
In some cases, prequalification may relate to the use of code-approved procedures
(e.g., AWS Dl.l), but it can equally relate to situations where previously qualified
procedures (satisfying all current requirements) are the only allowable means of pre-
qualification. This assumes, naturally, that the relevant national or client specification
permits prequalification, and that the proposed material is sufficiently similar to that
on which the previous tests were performed. Even so, the engineer might consider
testing a limited number of specimens to reassure both himself and the client that the
materials are worthy of prequalification. Qualification is a significant factor in the
cost of most fabrications; therefore, one must take advantage of prequalification
whenever permissible. This is why engineers often will specify a desired procedure in
terms of more than one process, each of which is prequalified separately; or, they will
combine the results of several procedures into a single “hybrid” procedure, which can
then be offered (with supporting data) for consideration by the client as being pre-
qualified.
At this point, one could deliberate the extent to which the engineer may apply the
strategy of substituting specified procedures with prequalified procedures. For instance,
it may be that certain specified procedures differ from existing qualified procedures in
only minor details -e g , number of specimens, location of hardness tests, etc. Should
the prequalified procedure be discounted? - not necessarily! In the interest of cost
reduction, many clients will accept such procedures, especially if the rest are qualified
as originally specified. However, the engineer must have enough familiarity with the
client to win his confidence, as this action presumes a good deal of faith in the engi-
neer’s judgement. Offering alternatives is an easy way to avoid cost-inflating specifica-
tion details, particularly when they impact procedure qualification requirements. The
engineer can always offer a small amount of additional testing once the bid is accepted.
This can be a useful tactic in persuading the client to accept his recommendations.
Finally, when the information at hand is inadequate to fully establish welding pro-
cedure requirements, the welding engineer must be prepared to recognize this during
the bidding or pre-contract stage. Two strategies are available to the engineer in this
event. First, he can assume, from background knowledge and experience, what type
and number of procedure tests are likely to be required; then, these can be listed and
identified to the prospective client as the total number upon which the price has been
established. Second, an average price per individual test plate can be calculated; this
figure can then be inserted into the bid document, leaving the final price subject to
change. Most clients favor the former method, not surprisingly, as they prefer to have
at least some knowledge of what the ultimate figure will be.
6 b
r
O
P
O
I- I-
?i 3
O
O
w w
J
2
2
93
E !i
m
m
!i
o- t
-I
d
> Y
-1 -I
w W
r Ed
z
U
2 N
Y Y
m cl
zm 3
Y
3
s 3
m
M N
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
retests), but also to identify the amount of material required per individual test piece.
Also allow for the wastage of material due to machining or cutting. This issue is best
discussed in advance with the testing facility performing the mechanical tests: the
testing facility can often provide useful guidance on overall material requirements for
individual weld procedure tests. As a simple illustration, consider the following cases:
A pipe butt joint weld procedure qualification on small-bore pipe
(say, 1 in. [25 mm] or less) - here, several individual butt joint
welds may be required to obtain the tests needed for one weld
procedure qualification.
A thick plate (say, 2 in. [50 mm] or greater) butt joint weld involv-
ing Charpy impact testing at several locations. In this case, impact
specimens for weld root, mid-thickness and the cap pass subsur-
face usually can be machined from a single through-thickness slice
at a particular location: hence, the total length of weld required
may be less than for some thinner plates.
The importance of having some spare procedure test material should not be
ignored: but the cost of providing redundant test samples must be taken into account
as well, since the cost of a procedure test program can quickly escalate. Remember
that the largest single expense item in a welding test program is often not the materi-
al, but labor. If all procedures in a weld procedure qualification program were based
on manual welding processes (e.g., shielded metal arc welding [SMAW]), any major
over-allowance on the amount of weld required could prove very costly. Conversely,
for automatic and mechanized welding (e.g., submerged arc welding [SAW]) the cost
of welding a 6-ft-long (2-m) test plate may not be significantly higher than welding a
3-ft (1-m) test plate; and, in this case, a provision for additional test material would
be relatively inexpensive. In all cases, a common-sense approach should prevail. A
10- or 20-percent allowance for potential retests should be adequate for all but the
most problematic of procedure tests.
Macro-Examination
The purpose of a macro-specimen is twofold: to provide an overall view of the met-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
allographic appearance of a weld, and to provide a cross section that can be examined
for weld defects, etc. This specimen can be either a section that samples the weld in a
typical or pre-specified location, or a section taken to investigate some particular
problem or aspect of the weldment.
Given the considerable amount of information that can be gained from simple
macro-examination of a weld, one must question why the humble “macro” is so often
underrated. With a detailed knowledge of the welding process, one can gain from the
macro-specimen a means of establishing whether or not the weld was completed with-
in the stated parameters. An example of such a use is given in Chapter 4.
In addition, a simple bead count and bead placement check can quickly establish
the accuracy of the written weld record for the procedure test in question. In pro-
duction tests, placing a limit on the total number of beads, or the bead count per unit
length of the weld interface, can help ensure that production welds are comparable
to procedure test welds.
Aside from the merits of macro-examination, remember that this method is intend-
ed to be performed with minimal, if any, optical magnification (commonly xlCLx20
maximum), and care should be taken in assessing any apparent defects discovered at
higher magnifications. Also, if a specification requires examination at a particular
magnification, use it.
Hardness Survey
A hardness survey, normally performed on the specimen taken for macro-examina-
tion, is a common requirement of weld procedure tests. The function served by the
hardness survey will vary according to the application. Probably the most widely
known application relates to identifying the maximum HAZ hardness in
structural/pipe steels, as this is regarded as a good indicator of the risk of encounter-
ing HAZ hydrogen cracking. In other applications, such as hardfacing, the hardness
survey is important with respect to wear resistance; and, in this case, minimum hard-
ness criteria will be specified.
In terms of testing technique, the three main factors to be aware of are choice of
load (commonly, Vickers Diamond 10-kg load is specified), calibration of equipment,
and accuracy of placement for indentations. The last-mentioned factor is particularly
important with respect to many steel fabrication specifications in which keeping
below the maximum HAZ hardness is the main objective. Here, indentations are
required to be within, say, 0.5 mm of the weld interface and positioned at intervals of
0.5 mm on a traverse through the HAZ. This requires accurate placement of the inden-
tations; and, as this can have a marked influence on the results obtained, the indenta-
tion location should always be checked in such cases, with particular attention paid to
any unusually low hardness values reported. For most structural steel applications, a
macro-specimen employing a Nital (i.e., 10- to 20-percent Nitric acid in Methanol)
etch is a long-established and normally acceptable practice for delineating the weld
zones. However, some specifications call for the use of dendritic etches using, for
example, a saturated solution of picric acid with a wetting agent (SASPA-NANSA),
which delineate the fusion boundary more clearly, and also assist in locating the hard-
ness indentation. The relative appearance of both types of etches on similar steel weld
samples is shown in Figures 3.3(a) and 3.3(b), respectively. The use of such special
etches should be governed by need rather than routine, since they require a consider-
ably better standard of preparation (typically polished to a 1-micron finish) and there-
fore involve more time and cost. In addition, the SASPA-NANSAetch has been found
to be unsuccessful when examining some self-shielded flux cored arc welds.
On some materials, such as certain stainless steels and nickel alloys, the sample
preparation can influence the result obtained in a hardness survey due to the forma-
tion of a work-hardened surface layer. Awareness of this probability should govern
any assessment-of unusually high hardness values reported in these materials. Also,
on these materials, avoid severe preparation methods such as heavy grinding or
milling. It is best to prepare samples by progressive, light surface-grinding passes
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Micro-Examination
Micro-examination is rarely a
requirement in weld procedure tests,
except in cases where it can influence
the serviceability of a component, and
where discontinuities must be detected
prior to their effect being noticed via
other, more routine tests. Micro-exam-
ination procedures may include ferrite
testing - that is, measuring ferrite
levels, which are known to affect
solidification cracking, sigmatization
potential, and corrosion properties in Nital Etch (HAZ Region)
some stainless steels. Corrosion resis- x 500
tance testing is an alternative, non- (0)
optical form of micro-examination.
As with macro-examination, micro-
examination should be carried out only
after the specimen has been correctly
prepared, and always at an appropriate
magnification. The information that a
micro-examination can provide for the
welding engineer is more
likely to be worthwhile in situations
such as failure investigations, investi-
gations of poor mechanical test perfor-
mance, etc. - where a detailed metal-
lurgical assessment of the weld and SASPA-NANSA (HAZ Region)
HAZ is often invaluable. x 500
(b)
-
FIGURE 3.3 ETCHES OF SIMILAR STEEL
WELD METALS
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Tensile Testing
The type of tensile test specimens used are variable and are normally governed by
the application of a national standard or client specification. Within the scope of weld
procedure testing, these fall into two main categories, namely,
all-weld tensile tests (those in which only the weld metal is tested),
and
transverse or cross-weld tensile tests (those in which the complete
weld cross section, including adjacent base material, is tested).
The significance of the tensile test is readily apparent, inasmuch as the information
generated has a specific design relevance to the strength of a component or structure.
By pointing out this relevance, it is sometimes possible to have results that are slight-
ly outside of specification accepted -presuming, of course, that one checks with the
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
design or structural engineer responsible. Often, the tensile test performance is pre-
dictable, and any sudden departure from expected results is worthy of investigation.
For instance, an unusually high or low result could indicate a problem with material,
specimen location, specimen identification, etc.; such factors should be checked
before retesting.
The specimen location within a weld can influence tensile values obtained as a
result of dilution effects on the weld metal analysis. This is demonstrated in
Figure 3.4, which shows the effect of specimen typeAocation on results obtained in a
typical structural-steel weld. In the case illustrated in diagram (a), the all-weld tensile
result is shown to be affected by its “through thickness” location. This is associated
with small, compositionaldifferences between the sample close to the root (more dilu-
tion) and the sample close to the final layer of the weld (less dilution).
Diagram (b) shows a similar example taken from an actual procedure test. Here,
because of the limited capacity of tensile testing equipment, the initial transverse ten-
sile test was carried out as a series of overlapping specimens (an acceptable practice).
The results obtained were marginally outside of the specified minimum ultimate ten-
sile strength (UTS) and therefore deemed unacceptable by the client. Then, it was
noted that previous all-weld tests performed on the same weld were acceptable, and
that the transverse sample taken toward the root side of the weld was also acceptable.
For the retest of this weld, it was decided to have a full-section tensile test performed
at a different test establishment - where machine capacity was not a factor, and a
fully acceptable retest could be obtained. This example is worth remembering, partic-
ularly when, as in this case, it is known that the weld metal strength is marginal. In
general, the use of a full-size specimen should be beneficial in such situations.
Another test result warranting caution would be any unexpected increase in the
yield stress or yield stressAJTS ratio. Again, this could be indicative of a material
problem or simply an error in calculation; but, it could be the result of incidental cold
work due to improper handling of the test material. An example of the effect of pre-
vious cold work, or pre-straining, is shown in Table 3.1.
Yet another notable tensile-test feature in steel weldments would be the appearance
of “fish eyes” on the fracture surface, as shown in Figure 3.5. Attributed to the pres-
ence of hydrogen, these are sometimes noted on welds made with cellulosic/rutile
SMAW electrodes. They also occur occasionally on some self-shielded flux cored arc
welds, particularly if tested in as-welded conditions. They should not be considered as
defects; but, if noted on welds made with a low-hydrogen process, they are worthy of
investigation (e.g., verifying that correct consumables were used).
Bend Testing
Bend tests are essentially qualitative in nature, and so they do not generate data of
direct relevance in engineering terms. The bend test is, however, a widely specified
(and cheap) test -both as a part of weld procedure qualification and, more often, as
a requirement in welder qualification tests. Although crude, the bend test is good at
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
~ ~
In weld procedure tests on steels, it is normal practice to test both the weld metal
and the heat-affected zone. In the latter case, the positioning of the notch is impor-
tant; and, close attention must be paid to this point, as moving the notch by as little
as 0.5 mm can often have a dramatic effect on the results obtained. Therefore, the
notch locations should be checked by etching individual specimens to ensure that the
correct locations have been taken. A similar procedure should be adopted prior to
notching Charpy specimens to ensure correct notch location. Notch profile and test
temperature also must be closely controlled. Despite its simplicity, the Charpy test is
one that requires close attention to detail in order to achieve reliable results.
Otherwise, the unpredictability associated with impact testing of welds (particularly
H u s ) will be so chronic, it will leave the welding engineer seeking divine inter-
vention.
Subject Check
Equipment Calibration Verify that all pieces of equipment are uniquely identified
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and traceable to current calibration certificates.
Test Piece Identification Verify how incoming test pieces are identified, and that
identification is maintained during machining.
Recording of Results Verify that all relevant data are recorded, and are previous
data retrievable?
Tensile Tests Spot check dimensions, particularly those relevant to
cross section.
Impact Tests Spot check notch profile and review methods used by test
house. Check machine zero and specimen alignment.
Also check bath temperature (where applicable) just
before and/or during testing.
Micro/Macro-Examination Check that a representative sample has been taken. Verify
that macro corresponds to weld records, and check
opposite (unprepared) face for obvious defects.
Hardness Survey Check indentation locations. Also check load used.
Results Query any unusual results (see previous text).
The checks presented in Table 3.2 are not intended to provide the requirements for
a comprehensive quality or technical audit of a testing establishment; rather, they are
provided so the welding engineer may conduct checks at an individual level, easily and
informally. Any grossly unacceptable practice highlighted by such checks would, how-
ever, warrant a much more detailed assessment under formal guidelines.
Standard Subsldy
Dimension Speclmen Specimen
WIDTH W
THICKNESS B = 0.5W B-W
NOTCH THICKNESS N
EFFECTWE NOTCH LENGTH m
EFFECTIVE CRACK LENGTH a
straight so the notch can sample as many areas as possible in the specified microstruc-
ture. This often means that additional precautions must be taken during welding, such
as controlling wire-to-wall position in submerged arc welding to ensure that the weld
interface remains straight. However, some might argue that, even with extra precau-
tions, this method may not produce a .test representative of production conditions.
When a fully representative sample is demanded, the surface notch approach can be
taken; but, this method can be expected to produce a high number of microstructural-
ly invalid test pieces (often in excess of 50 percent), which can become prohibitively
expensive. Another approach is described in other literature [l, 21, based on “search-
ing” for the zone of minimum toughness. The methods above, however, are those nor-
mally specified.
Another use of the CTOD test is with respect to weldability testing for the qualifi-
cation of material supply routes. This is now a fairly common requirement for offshore
structural fabrication activities, obligating the steel supplier to provide fracture tough-
ness data for all thickness ranges and heat input ranges to be applied during fabrication.
Often, by presenting such data, the fabricator can avoid extensive CTOD testing as part
of the weld procedure requirements. However, when reviewing such information (sup-
plied, for example, by the steelmaker), ask the following questions:
Is the data recent and does it reflect current steel chemistry and pro-
duction routes?
procedure, but a better solution can always be adopted later. In this type of situation,
it is usually advisable to generate options. For instance, if your instinct tells you that
it is possible to convince your client of a procedure’s fitness for purpose, then by all
means pursue this course of action. In the meantime, however, rerun the procedure
with a different weld preparation, consumable, or whatever is suspected to be the
source of the initial problem. Delays to production are far more costly than an extra
weld procedure test. So, do not waste time waiting for the answer to your first option;
it may be negative.
When presented with a test failure, it is important to establish the cause of the fail-
ure as soon as possible - or, at least, to rule out all non-causal factors. The cause
may be attributable to human error, equipment malfunction, a metallurgical problem,
or simply an unsuitable procedure. If the problem is traceable to the equipment used
or to the welder (e.g., porosity related to an equipment malfunction or slag inclu-
sions), then it is usually possible to get the procedure accepted on the basis of
mechanical properties alone - possibly with the proviso of satisfactory NDE per-
formance on the first production weld. Such occurrences should not be regarded as
indicative of poor weld procedures, provided of course that the slag inclusions were
not related to some adverse geometrical feature or access problem that made the
weld unusually difficult to accomplish.
The engineer’s reaction to failed mechanical tests should be governed to some
extent by previous experience. If the procedure test was utilizing previously proven
technology with respect to the consumables, then the f i s t thing to check is the source
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and quality of the materials and consumables. At this stage, it is also worth checking
whether the same batches, casts, etc., were used in production -especially if serious
doubts are arising as to their acceptability.
Finally, it is necessary for the engineer to examine clearly the nature of the failure
to eliminate the possibility of simple errors such as incorrectly located specimens,
inaccuracy in notch location (impact tests), etc. Even if such a problem is found, the
fact remains that a failed result was obtained, and this cannot be ignored.
Nevertheless, close examination is required to establish where the problem lies, both
technically and contractually; because, if the failure is related to HAZ or base mate-
rial, then it may be your client’s problem (e.g., if the material was free issued or from
a contractually specified supplier). This in itself does not solve the technical problem,
and it does not absolve the welding engineer from his responsibility to solve the prob-
lem; but it may affect who pays the cost of rerunning weld procedures and, more
importantly, of delays in production. Contractual responsibilities must, therefore, be
borne in mind. A simple decision tree is shown in Figure 3.7 to illustrate the various
points noted and actions advised. Note that Figure 3.7 is not intended to provide a
fully comprehensive list of questions. The engineer must consider additional ques-
tions as necessary.
r I
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
References
[i] Rodgers, K. J. 1988. Heat-Affected Zones -A Fabricator’s Viewpoint. OMAEA
88, Paper 903.
[2] Private communication of original idea, Tad Boniszewski.
[3] American Petroleum Institute standard RP-2Z, Preproduction Qualificationsfor
Steel Plates for OfSshore Structures, 3rd Edition, 1998. Washington D.C.: American
Petroleum Institute.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Production welding control is undoubtedly the sharp end of the welding engineer’s
involvement in any production environment. It cannot be emphasized enough that for
manual and semiautomatic applications, and to a lesser extent for machine welding
processes, the welder is the most important factor in controlling weld quality. No mat-
ter how good the welding procedure appears on paper, or how advanced the consum-
able or equipment may be, if the welder is not properly instructed, or controlled, the
chances of a poor weld resulting from his work increase dramatically. For example, if
the welder feels what he is doing is incorrect, or if the fume from the electrode is caus-
ing problems, or if the equipment seems awkward or wrong, then the welder will
prove that your procedure led to poor quality.
To help the welder produce good quality welds, there are several factors that must
be continually monitored and controlled. These are listed below in the order of impor-
tance to a welding engineer, then subsequently examined in detail.
1. Defect analysis
2. Welder training/qualification
3. Supervision
4. Useful aids
5. Consumable control
6. Production tests
This may appear to be a peculiar placing for this topic. However, unless the weld-
ing engineer is aware of what the problems actually are, he can make little progress
in rectifying them. Many companies benefit from the availability of a defect analysis
system. The usual format is one in which percent defect is expressed as defect length
divided by weld length. This may be further divided into linear or volumetric defects.
The use of weld length as an overall measure is simple to apply but lacks the effect of
volume. Consequently it has no absolute meaning, so take care in interpreting such
data - especially when a large amount of fillet welding is included in the overall
total. In this instance, a problem with a high defect rate on full penetration butt joint
welds could be easily masked.
Should the engineer be fortunate enough to be able to relate percent defect to indi-
vidual weld procedure (again, a format greatly desired and becoming increasingly
common), then a strict analytical routine should be applied to determine the cause(s)
behind the defect levels being achieved.
The defects will, in general, be induced by one or more of the following:
geometry,
equipment,
consumable,
procedure, or
operator.
A preliminary determinant can be the type of weld. Fillet weld defects are most
likely to be linear, caused by one or any combination of the following: cracking,
undercut, poor surface profile or overlap. With butt joints, one must ascertain if the
defect is linear or volumetric in order to help pinpoint the reason.
Presuming the defect can be identified, the causes listed in Table 4.1 can be exam-
ined. However, there are a number of other reasons for defects that should also be
examined in conjunction with those listed.
Geometry Related
The welding engineer must ask this basic question: Was the weld preparation suit-
able for the particular application? That automatically raises further questions.
Did the welder have sufficient access or vision?
Was the bevel angle too steep for adequate fusion?
Was the root opening too tighvwide?
Was the nose too thick or too thin?
If the weld preparation was such that gouging was specified prior to
second-side welding, was the backgouge too shallow?
Was there too small a radius at the weld root?
Do not assume, for instance, that if a backgouge depth of 8-10 mm (minimum) is
called for, this will always be what is needed. In reality this range will, more often
than not, need to be extended usually upward to, say, 15 mm. An examination of the
weld procedure preparation and careful consideration of the location of the reported
discontinuity often gives clues.
If geometry is thought to be the basic cause of the discontinuities, then the neces-
sary remedial action can be taken. This may be re-preparation, relocation of the work-
piece to increase welder accesshision, or even use of simple depth gauges and pro-
files to ensure more accurate backgouging.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Welder Related
The main welder-induced faults are listed in Table 4.2. Other causes more difficult
to pinpoint are also possible. These include misuse of the procedure where, for exam-
ple, a welder may utilize a larger gauge of electrode at an early stage where the weld
preparation is unsuitable. (Indeed, he may simply be new to the process or particular
technique.) Another aspect not to be overlooked is familiarity with the particular con-
sumable itself. In this case, communication, trust, and rapport with the welder is of
TABLE 4.1 -
TYPICAL DEFECTS AND CAUSES
Material Related
Base materials being welded are less common sources for discontinuities, but nev-
ertheless warrant investigation. The usual assumption is that what is supplied is cor-
rect regarding type, condition, microstructure, properties, etc. This is not always the
case. Plate, forging, casting, and piping manufacturers have been known to produce
out-of-specification products. Cracking can result from material having higher carbon
contents than specified. Discontinuities located by ultrasonic examination have been
traced to a large grain size that, according to the specification, should not be there.
High carbon piano wire has even been erroneously supplied as C-Mn wire for sub-
merged arc welding with disastrous results for the weld metal.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Overview
The overwhelming conclusion in defect analysis is that the welding engineer must
have, if possible, no preconceived ideas. The problem should be approached with an
open mind, not accepting the approved or obvious without question. The variability of
discontinuities and the many reasons for them require the welding engineer to inves-
tigate each instance comprehensively so that the actual reason for the discontinuity
may be ascertained. Only then can the proper remedial actions be implemented.
From a practical and managerial position, it always provides satisfaction to reach
a definitive conclusion, but do not forget that this is not always possible. No true engi-
neer should be afraid to state that the reasons for a problem are not completely under-
stood. Indeed, the solution may be a combination of factors that will never be satis-
factorily explained.
of heat flow, critical cooling rates, microstructural effects, etc., when all that you wish
to ensure is correct preheat. The following statement is suggested as an adequate
explanation for this specific requirement:
“The faster a weld cools, the harder and more brittle the metal
will become and the more likely it is to crack. Preheat is used
to slow down the rate of cooling. The preheat stated on the
weld procedure has been chosen to suit the material and it is
important that this preheat is correctly applied.”
TABLE 4.2
WELDER INDUCED DEFECTS AND CAUSES
In some circumstances, even just a simple, highlighted statement can suffice, such
as “Preheat prevents cracking.”
Some argue that the welder does not need to know, for instance, why a particular
preheat is used; in strict terms this may be true. However, it is probably also true that
more attention will be paid to detailed requirements where an appreciation of the need
for such requirements exists; this should benefit quality levels overall.
Similarly, a useful approach to reducing defect levels is to ensure that welders and
other shop floor personnel are fully aware of the consequences of their particular oper-
ations - for example, how the standard of fitup or machining can influence weld dis-
continuities, or the importance of pre-weld cleaning on porosity, or interpass cleaning
on avoiding slag inclusions. This introduces the principle of self-inspection whereby
the welder is the first person with the opportunity to judge the visual acceptability of
a weld. By empowering the welder to make this judgement, the company should reap
benefits, establishing a principle of pride in workmanship.
Actual samples illustrating these points to the welder provide an excellent com-
munication technique. Given a piece of hardware demonstrating, for example, that
welding in the uphill position instead of downhill can produce large beads and hence
poor notch impact values, will make the point in a more memorable and meaningful
fashion than mere words on a weld procedure.
The welder should be made aware of the main discontinuities encountered in weld-
ing and, specifically, any discontinuities known to be prevalent in the particular com-
ponents or material being welded. A typical list of such discontinuities can be pro-
duced for general reference, and those shown in Table 4.2 are offered as an example
(together with the causes relevant to the welder). The main causes of discontinuities
are in many standard textbooks, but these should be augmented by any specific
knowledge from past experience. No matter how good a textbook seems, such books
cannot be expected to cover all situations. It may be.that for a particular procedure or
process, the parameters are particularly critical.
A good example is the self-shielded flux cored arc welding of offshore structural
steels. Here, the requirement for good, low-temperature toughness properties effec-
tively restrict the type of weld procedure that can be used, despite that “defect-free”
welds can be produced over a fairly wide parameter band [i].In such situations, it is
even more important that the welder be well informed to ensure that he does not
unwittingly “improve” production by increasing deposition rate, thereby causing
problems with weld metal toughness. In just such a case, strict control over weld
travel speed was required; this was monitored via relationships established with bead
width (Le., controlled bead width = controlled travel speed = good toughness). An
example of how strict this requirement had to be is given in the section of this chap-
ter discussing production tests (see Production Weld Test Pieces, page 60).
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4.3 Supervision
The supervision of welded fabrication encompasses many aspects of shop floor
management, Within the concept of this book, however, only the technical supervision
of welded fabrication is relevant. Company structures of course vary considerably,
and although ideally all personnel should be committed to producing the maximum
output at an acceptable quality level, sometimes the interests of production manage-
ment and technical management will appear to be in conflict. The interchange of ideas
between the production supervisory staff and the welding engineer can assist in min-
imizing such conflict. It does this by ensuring that, as in the case of welders, supervi-
sors are fully aware of the requirements of the weld procedure and their associated
specifications. Supervisors must also be aware of the consequences of not adhering to
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
procedure and specification. Production supervision by its nature, of course, will
always tend to be more concerned with maximizing output. While technical instruc-
tions and specification rules should not be ignored or broken, you can assume they
will be given their most liberal interpretation. This will also apply to the welding pro-
cedure and any general welding instructions that the welding engineer may issue. For
this reason, it is important that all such requirements are both justifiable and extreme-
ly clear.
The relationship between the welding engineer and the welding supervisor is cru-
cial. The engineer may, in some situations, be totally reliant on the supervisor for the
implementation of specific requirements. At the same time, the supervisor represents
a first-hand source of information on problems occurring on the shop floor, thus pro-
viding an opportunity for early correction.
The next section in this chapter on “Useful Aids” provides guidance on some meth-
ods that can enhance shop floor control. Knowledge of such gadgetry to supervisors
is worthwhile in itself. As a general rule, individuals will be less likely to ignore
requirements when a means of checking them (and the knowledge that checks are car-
ried out) is available. Thus, if a welder knows that spot checks on weld parameters are
carried out he is more likely to ensure he will be working within procedure limits.
Similarly, the availability (and visibility of use) of contact pyrometers, or a range of
temperature-indicator crayons, should significantly improve the application and main-
tenance of preheat levels.
Good supervision, however, need not and should not involve constant checking of
such detail. If the communication of ideas between the engineer, the supervisor, and
the welder is functioning properly, then less time will be needed for such routine
checks and more time will be available for addressing real problems. It is becoming
more common in certain industries to allow a suitably trained supervisor to perform
formal visual acceptance of completed welds. The main criteria here are the needs for
appropriate training and qualification. Companies operating such practices have
quickly realized benefits from less waiting time on the shop floor and greater pride in
workmanship. Empowering the work force to be responsible for quality rather than
trying to “inspect quality ” can be shown to increase both productivity and quality [2].
Standard Workmanship
Examples FIGURE 4.1 -
Exhibiting a typical component, STANDARD WORKMANSHIP EXAMPLE
or section of a component, in the
workplace that demonstrates the required weld quality in terms of, say, fillet size or
surface finish can sometimes be extremely helpful. Although this would not be appro-
priate or necessary in most situations, it can prove a worthwhile exercise in applica-
tions where production is regularly affected by disputes regarding quality. Such an
example is shown in Figure 4.1.
Weld Replicas
As an alternative to the above, and especially useful on large projects involving
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
many work fronts, there are methods available by which accurate epoxy replicas of
weld surfaces can be produced. These
lightweight samples are then available to
both fabricator and client inspection per-
sonnel as necessary. One method for pro-
ducing these replicas is described below.
At the procedure qualification stage, the
fabricator and client should select a sam-
ple from the procedure test that will form
the basis of either a ?typical? or a ?worst
acceptable? weld profile or surface fin-
ish. A block containing this portion, ide-
ally about 6 in. (150 m)long (in weld
direction) and trimmed to provide about
1-2 in. (25-50 mm) of base material
adjacent to the weld, would be removed.
This block would then be placed in a
suitable container and a silicon rubber
compound cast around it. After curing,
this component would be separated from
the block to leave a silicon rubber mold,
or ?negative,? of the weld sample. As
FIGURE 4.2 - WELD REPLICAS many replicas as required could then be
Arc Monitoring'
While there are some sophisticated arc monitoring equipment packages available,
care must be taken to balance the expense of providing a measurement and the need
for, and usefulness of, the data provided. If the tool required is intended as a means
for the welding engineer, or supervisor, to ensure that the welders are working within
the specified procedure tolerances, then simple hand-held meters or tong testers may
be all that is needed. If, on the other hand, a detailed record with printout or graphi-
cal display is required, then the equipment needed will be considerably more expen-
sive and probably less flexible.
Where detailed monitor-
ing of this nature is
required by specification
(for example, in some
nuclear applications), a
monitoring system can be
included in a purpose-built
power sourcekontrol unit.
Also, a number of suitcase-
or briefcase-sized portable
monitoring packages are
capable of printing out cur-
rent, voltage, and wire feed
speeds, as well as providing
such ancillary functions as
temperature monitoring and
heat input calculations
(Figure 4.4). The availabili-
ty of such Portable equip- FIGURE 4.4 - PORTABLE ARC MONITORING PACKAGE
ment, although not recom-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
mended for full-time recording of data, does provide the welding engineer with some-
thing very useful. Now he has a method by which clients can be convinced (by
demonstration) of details about which they may otherwise have been reluctant to
accept, e.g., the consistency in operation of a particular piece of equipment, the abil-
ity of welders to work to strict tolerances or weld parameters, etc.
Remember, however, that any such equipment should be calibrated and that the
methods employed to calibrate production equipment and measuring equipment
should be the same, or at least the differences should be understood. A good example
of this last point refers to a well-known “suitcase” measuring piece of equipment that
records the true mean AC current. This, however, gives an 11 percent lower value than
the RMS (root mean squared) current value displayed in most standard welding plant.
It is obvious that in the wrong hands such equipment identifying an apparent “error”
could lead to disaster. The importance of understanding what is being measured
should not be underestimated. Also note where the monitoring unit is connected, as
this may not necessarily be the same position as the metered reading on the welding
equipment (especially in relation to welding voltages where voltage drops can affect
readings). Once again, care is required in evaluating any data produced.
Gauges
Gauges come in many forms, but fall essentially into two categories:
those used by inspection personnel and others for actual measure-
ment, and
those used by the welder to measure progress, check workmanship,
etc.
The first category is to a large extent self-explanatory and will not be discussed in
detail here. These would include items ranging from accurate dimensional survey
tools to simple goho-go gauges. The gauges of more immediate interest here are
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
those used on the shop floor by the welder. These should ideally have the following
characteristics:
easy to use,
inexpensive, and
no more accurate than necessary.
The types of gauges that fall into this category would be simple fillet-size gauges,
backgouge depth and profile gauges, a steel ruler, root opening gauge, torch flow
meters, etc. A point worth noting is that it seems that some of the best and simplest
gauges in this group have been those supplied as promotional aids by consumable sup-
pliers. It may at first appear that some of the items mentioned (for example, a ruler)
are unworthy of note. However, the situation where welders are asked to produce a
certain size or length of fillet, and are then left to judge this by eye, is probably rather
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The choice of pass length selected by the welding engineer becomes critically
important, since a whole series of tests would normally be run using the same para-
meters. The “minimum” pass length is chosen to represent a value slightly shorter
than any production welder is likely to use. Again, because of the number of test
plates, it is essential that the weld metal be suitable for this heat input, so it is impor-
tant to establish this fact -by changing consumable if necessary -before any major
testing program begins. Similarly, the “maximum” pass length is chosen to represent
a value slightly longer than any production welder is likely to use. Since the property
at risk here is the HAZ hardness level, the critical parameter is the preheat level for
this pass length.
To avoid undue difficulties for the test welder, the selection of pass length limits is
combined with the selection of welding position, so that the long pass length tests are
performed 2G and the short pass length tests 3G. It is assumed that all welds in either
1G or 4G (or indeed, 5G or
350 6G) will use pass lengths
within these limits, and so
there is no justification for
300 separate tests in these posi-
tions. This approach has
been condensed in some
250
specifications into a
200
‘‘,‘ ‘. requirement simply to qual-
ify standard procedures in
the 2G and 3G positions to
150
Diameter l-7 cover all other positions.
One concession to
normal production welding
is permitted - variable
stub lengths. Again, asking
the welder to work to a con-
1O0 stant 50-mm stub length
could put an unnecessary
additional strain on his con-
50 centration, so the stub ends
should instead be collected
for each pass. Knowing the
total length of the pass, the
50 1O0 150 number of electrodes used,
Stub Length (mm) their original lengths, and
the total length of the stub
FIGURE 4.6 - MONITORING CHART FOR A TYPICAL ends, it is possible to calcu-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
From this figure, the pass length to be expected with a nominal 50-mm stub is estab-
lished. Applying the 10 percent tolerance to this “full pass” value also avoids the risk
of a single minor aberration producing a rejected plate. (Note that in monitoring pro-
cedure tests, reporting the results relating to only one electrode in each pass is now
common practice.)
If the welding engineer has done his job correctly, all of the mechanical tests will
pass, and these limits on pass length will have been validated. More importantly for
production welding, all of the production welders will naturally work within these
limits.
This welding procedure test will normally provide data for more than one diame-
ter of electrode, and a series of graphdelectrode size can be produced.
c
stub end remaining. Because the 200
C
pass length limits have been al
1
established on the basis of length c
3
of electrode per unit length of 150
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
being assessed and procedure welder. Although welding within these bands will pro-
duce acceptable results, any welder found welding within the “Caution” zone should
be appropriately advised, and the welding engineer should also be warned that his
chosen limits may prove to be non-conservative. If a production welder is discovered
welding within the “Quarantine” zone, then the resultant weld will require either
removal or qualified acceptance subject to a review by the welding engineerklient,
etc. This is because the properties of these more extreme welding parameters have not
been established. Figure 4.7 shows that two electrode sizes can be conveniently dis-
played on a single chart if the limits do not overlap.
This approach has the added advantage that, if the welder is aware of the supervi-
sorhspector’s presence and breaks his arc early to avoid monitoring, the weld length
he has already completed can still be assessed. This may sound as if the object of the
exercise is to catch welders doing the wrong thing, but it is not. If the welding engi-
neer has chosen his test parameters correctly, all welders will be working within them
as a result of their natural techniques. The production monitoring exercise then
becomes a far more convincing way of demonstrating to the client that the procedure
test results really do represent the properties of production welds.
Limitations of Approach
It is unlikely that a welder will use a single electrode diameter, either in production
or in a procedure test, so separate limits (and separate charts) will need to be estab-
lished for each size in use. The welding engineer may be ill-advised enough to believe
that he should specify different pass-length limits in different parts of the weld; this
causes complications. This is definitely not recommended in the root pass, since pass
length here is heavily dependent on fitup. As such there is likely to be significant vari-
ation - even for a single welding position. This is not considered a major drawback
as the root pass of a single-sided weld is unlikely to affect the mechanical properties
measured in the procedure test and a root pass in a double-sided weld is likely to be
removed by gouging.
age immediately. The only acceptable rule in such situations is: i f i n doubt, throw it
out.
Depending on the industry involved, the traceability of consumables may or may
not be a significant requirement. Where traceability is required, then the stores system
must be designed to accommodate this, with all issues and returns of consumables
requiring close control. It is also important that, where required, all necessary con-
sumable certification is checked prior to issue of materials to the shop floor. Most con-
sumable manufacturers will have an adequate system for identifying consumables,
such as the typical systems that follow:
Solid wires and flux cored wires: External packaging and individual
coils of cored wire (spooled) marked with type and batch.
Solid wire (straight lengths) for gas tungsten arc welding (GTAV:
External packaging marked with type and batch. Some manufacturers
also roll mark individual wire lengths with batch number.
If due care is taken, the use of the wrong consumable should be easily avoided.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Mix-ups do occur, however, and this could lead to major problems in a mixed fabri-
cation area. Use a color coding system as an additional precaution by paint-marking
the ends of electrodes or wires in a readily identifiable manner. This ideally should not
be required, but conditions are seldom ideal. This and other small expenditures may
save considerably more if serious problems are avoided.
Equally important is the condition of the consumable. It is only through correct
storage and treatment that consumables can be delivered to the welder in the correct
condition. The manner of handling the consumables will obviously depend on the type
of product in question. For solid wire products, the main requirement is simply to keep
the product clean and dry to avoid contamination with dust, rusting, etc. More control
is required on flux-containing products such as submerged arc fluxes, manual elec-
trodes and flux cored wires.
While some products require only storage under clean, dry conditions, there are
others, such as basic low-hydrogen electrodes and fluxes, that require additional
treatments to ensure the product reaches the welder in its correct low-hydrogen con-
dition. For electrodes, this would normally involve a regime of electrode baking (typ-
ically 300-35O0C), electrode holding (typically 120-15OoC), and direct issue to
welders in heated quivers (approximately 70°C). Most importantly, recognize that
once a practice has been established, it must be strictly enforced; again, some form of
audit on the operation of the system should be regularly carried out. In some situa-
tions, it is also sensible to carry out hydrogen determinations on product samples
taken from shop floor level on a random basis.
The introduction (c. 1990) of EMR (extra moisture resistant) fluxes, electrodes,
and packaging is a fairly recent, but now well established, development in terms of
low-hydrogen consumables. For SMAW electrodes, this offers the possibility of issu-
ing electrodes directly to the welder in the supplier’s packaging with a guarantee of
achieving very low weld metal hydrogen (-4mL/lOO g) values over fairly prolonged
shop floor periods, typically 10 hours. Note that any electrodes returned to the issue
store after the 10 hours must be baked and handled as per the regime noted above to
ensure weld metal hydrogen values are kept low.
This is achievable through the use of improved binders, and also through the intro-
duction of specialized packaging systems. These systems are designed to eliminate
moisture pickup, thereby maintaining the electrode in the condition it was manufac-
tured. Such systems can be based on either vacuum packing or the use of atmospher-
ic control within the packaging.
The treatment of submerged arc fluxes, particularly the fully basic agglomerated
types, requires special attention. This is necessitated by the often rapid deterioration,
in terms of moisture pickup, which can occur if conditions are not correct. These types
of flux are usually either used straight from the newly opened packaging, preheated,
or baked before use. In each case, problems can occur. If used straight from bag or tin,
establish that the manufacturer’s packaging is both intact and designed to deliver the
product in a usable condition. If preheated or baked, the control over this operation
must ensure that both the temperatures used and the times at temperature are ade-
quately monitored. Otherwise, it is possible to increase the moisture content of a flux
while in the oven if the flux is handled incorrectly. It is beneficial to ensure that the
consumable supplier has been made aware of and has approved the handling tech-
niques employed; also, have this recorded for the purpose of informing your clients.
weld, per vessel). The principal objective of production tests is usually to demonstrate
that specified mechanical properties are being consistently achieved in the production
environment. In either case, the most important points for the engineer are that the test
is correctly identified, traceable to a known production quantity or unit, and correctly
carried out. The last point may seem strange considering that by definition a produc-
tion test should be fully representative of production performance. However, while
achieving this is simple in the case of a longitudinal joint weld where the production
test piece can be an extension of the actual production component, this cannot always
be assumed in cases where a separate test piece must be set up. Here, two extremes
are possible, both of which are wrong:
The test piece is given a level of detailed attention far beyond nor-
mal production and as such is not representative.
The test piece represents a “nuisance” to production. As a result it
is not completed correctly, leading to potential failures, again not
representative of production.
A production test encompasses both a check on the welder and on the welding con-
sumables. However, periodically such tests can also highlight problems with base
materials that previously may have been missed. An example will be given later.
It is important to be able to identify the production quantity against which the pro-
duction test can be referenced. This should be straightforward, but it has been known
for production departments to produce a ‘run’ of test pieces. Beware; if one of these
fails, the acceptability of a much larger production quantity may be cast in doubt.
There are many more typical comments usually in more descriptive, colorful lan-
guage, but probably the only valid question is: What can be done?
The first thing to establish is the nature of the failure (e.g., welding discontinuities,
mechanical properties, etc.) and identify and arrange associated production welds to
be quarantined pending investigation. All relevant information must be generated
quickly, and it is important that a strategy is established regarding the approach both
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to the technical investigation and to satisfy the client as to the acceptability of the
overall production run. Identification of the problem may not always be straightfor-
ward, and a few examples of problems that have occurred in the past are given later
in this section. Satisfying the client organization can depend upon their perception of
the problem, the urgency of their need for the component in question, and the rela-
tionship and trust previously established with the client on prior work. Obviously,
there will be occasions where a production test failure must result in materials being
scrapped - but this should always be a last resort.
The following are typical cases of production test failures highlighting three dif-
ferent causes.
Was the wire batch satisfactory and was the wire feeding
problem in any way related?
Was the equipment operating properly?
Was the production test welded within production parame-
ters?
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
These examples highlight typical production failures. They also reinforce the fact
that such results do not always reflect poor production practice, as only the first such
example proved to be the case. Having investigated a problem, the client must be fully
satisfied as to the acceptability of the product to avoid scrapping valuable production
components. Some investigative approaches have already been examined. In addition,
the following can be considered:
This list represents common approaches. However, every problem tends to have its
own individual solution that may be a combination of approaches covering more than
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
one of the above. In addition, the cost element must always be considered. It may be
cheaper to scrap a number of components rather than to recover them. While this will
not always be an acceptable option, it must always be considered. This is especially
true where any additional required testing is likely to be extensive.
References
[i] Rodgers, K.J. and Lochhead, J. C. 1987. Self-shielded flux cored arc welding -
the route to good toughness. Welding Journal 66(7): 49-59.
[2] Lochhead, J. C., and Rodgers, K. J. 1997. The Welding Paradigm. London:
International Conference on Joining and Welding for the Oil and Gas Industry, The
Welding InstituteDBC U. K. Conferences, Ltd.
[3] Based on an original methodology by Dr. W. Welland.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I
l There are many reasons for requiring an estimate or evaluation of welding costs,
e.g., in bidding for work, or the evaluation of new or alternative methods. It is also
clear that to reduce welding costs you must fist identify and understand them.
There are several approaches to the estimation of welding costs, some specific to
the company methods involved, some making a detailed assessment, others only a
rough estimate. Regardless of the particular methods used, remember that the accura-
cy of the result is dependent on the accuracy of the input data. Where a rough estimate
is all that is necessary, it may be possible to utilize published non-company data; but
where a more accurate estimate is required, some measurement of achievable, or pre-
viously achieved, performance particular to your company is essential. In all cases,
the following factors should be considered in the most convenient unit:
Labor Costs
Labor cost is the unit cost per unit time (e.g., $/hour) for a welder. It should include
all the overhead costs associated with the operation as determined by the normal
accountancy practices of the organization involved.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Operating Factor
The operating factor is the ratio between the arc time and the total time spent by a
welder in completing a joint. This factor is crucial to the costing exercise, since any
change in the factor used has a proportional effect on the costs predicted. By defini-
tion, the operating factor will always be less than 1.O, since a value of 1.O would imply
continuous welding. The operating factor is higher on automated or semiautomated
processes and lower on manual processes. The range [ 11 of typical operating factors
for various processes is shown in Figure 5.1. When considering operating factors,
understand that different fabrication shops may achieve vastly different operating fac-
tors for essentially similar work. In Figure 5.1, a higher operating factor indicates a
well-organized andor better-equipped shop. Site construction applications will, by
their nature, produce lower operating factors than, say, an equivalent (in welding
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
terms) shop application. For example, the shop welder should spend considerably less
time getting to the workstation; fixturing may be better, more automatic welding
equipment may be available, and handling facilities are normally better.
OPERATOR FACTOR
~- The consumable cost should be
From Welding Handbwk,Vol. 1, ûth Ed., American Welding Society, Miami,
calculated to the same unit quantity
Fla. as used in the above example, i.e.,
consumable cost per unit weld weight, volume, or length. There are essentially two
components of consumable cost to consider:
1. cost of consumable as purchased (e.g., per unit weight of electrode), and
2. cost of consumable as deposited ( e g , per unit weight of deposit).
The first of these two items is identifiable from purchase invoice data, but the sec-
ond must either be estimated by trials, or, more commonly, by using a deposition effi-
ciency factor from the consumable supplier. The deposition efficiency factor is
defined as follows and gives a measure of spatter loss, slag loss, stub losses, etc.:
Typical values [i]for the various arc welding processes are given in Table 5.1, but
it is usually better to obtain specific product data from the supplier. For gas shielded
processes, the cost of supplying the shielding gas should be considered separately; the
same goes for the cost of the flux for the submerged arc process. For the submerged
arc process, the amount of flux consumed to produce the welding slag is typically near
the same weight as the electrode consumed. However, this 1:1 ratio is never likely to
be achieved in actual flux usage records, due to spillage losses, etc. As an approximate
guide, a ratio of between 1.5:l and 2: 1 should be used for estimating purposes (assum-
Covered electrodes
SMAW - 14 in. long 55 to 65
SMAW - 18 in. long 60 to 70
SMAW - 28 in. long 65 to 75
TABLE 5.1 -
DEPOSITION EFFICIENCY FOR WELDING PROCESSES AND FILLER
METALS
From Table 8.10, Welding Handbook, Vol. I, 8th Ed., American Welding Society, Miami, Fla.
ing a fairly good flux recycling regime is in operation). If no flux recycling is carried
out, the flux consumption is more likely to be between 3: 1 and 4: 1.
Related Costs
None of the above items specifically deals with related costs, such as equipment
investment costs, costs of repairs and rework, etc. These must always be considered,
and it may depend on the individual fabricator’s accountancy practices as to how these
costs are identified within the above general methods. Equipment costs can be built
into the labor cost as part of the overhead cost; an allowance for repairs, etc., may also
be dealt with in this way. Another method used is the combination of the operating
factor, repair cost, etc., into an overall joint completion rate based on welder hours
(not arc time). This combined rate would be based on similar previously measured
work. The important point to note is that, regardless of how the estimate is made,
recognition of the various points indicated must be included in some form.
ExampIe
[
= t x t x tan:] +3t
[
= (50)2x (tan;)] + [(3)x (50)]
= 1,186 mm2 (2)
where t = plate thickness and x = groove angle. The allowance for reinforcement
assumes a “nominal” bead height of 3 mm and a final layer width equal to plate
thickness - accurate enough for this type of estimate.
estimated weld volume = [Eq. 11x [Eq. 21
= 1,000 mmx 1,186 m2
Therefore, for the weld weight of 9.310 kg above, the consumable cost is
- $30/hx9.31 kg
-
0.35x1.7 kgl h
+
= $469.41 $143.19
= $612.60
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
process.
Introduce mechanization, robotics, etc.
Change type of consumable used, e.g., to a higher recovery version.
Use high deposition techniques, e.g., multi-wire submerged arc
andor addition of metal powders to submerged arc welds.
Use of reduced angle or narrow-groove weld joint preparations.
Reduce defect levels.
All three methods are capable of yielding considerable cost reductions. The direct
methods are more often those associated with the welding engineer whose detailed
metallurgical and welding process knowledge is needed to evaluate these features.
Compare these to the indirect methods where there is often little need for specialized
welding knowledge; many of the problems can be more closely identified with pro-
duction engineering. For all indirect methods, there is essentially one common aim -
to maximize the arc time recovered from a welder or welding station.
It would be a mistake to ignore the indirect route to reduced welding costs based
on a possible lack of detailed knowledge. Even if the welding engineer is not capable
of providing a detailed solution, he should at least be capable of highlighting the need
for a solution. The best solution will normally be achieved by close cooperation
between production engineers and welding engineers, both contributing their own
specialized knowledge.
Remember that while the indirect methods are too often ignored, they are capable
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of producing significant benefits. As shown in the previous section, any change that
improves the operating factor produces a proportional change in costs.
Cost reduction by changes to the detailed design generally improves with, and
results from, previous experience. Familiarity with production methods and shop floor
practices is essential to appreciate how relatively minor changes in design can have
major effects on costs. However, discussions to achieve this aim must take place as
early as possible, preferably during preproduction activities. Design engineers require
time to check calculations and change drawings (and overcome prejudices). Time may
also be required to convince clients and inspecting authorities as to the merit of such
proposed changes.
Some of the methods noted above will be expanded slightly, highlighting some of
the potential pitfalls of cost reduction exercises rather than providing specific recom-
mendations.
The above factors, although usually very persuasive regarding the potential for
change, must not, however, be taken in isolation. There are other points to consider
before assuming that any predicted benefits are indeed achievable. For example, if the
process change proposed forms only a minor part of the overall workload or relates
only to sporadic business, then the additional costs in buying equipment and qualify-
ing procedures and personnel, etc., may not be justifiable.
The degree of automation available will be a major factor regarding the potential
for improvement, as discussed in more detail below. The introduction of semiauto-
matic methods, while achieving a less dramatic increase in the operating factor (refer
to Figure 5.1), is normally within the reach of all fabricators given that the capital
expenditure required is usually modest in comparison with more extensive mecha-
nization or automation proposals.
Introduction of Robotics
In many respects, this is a natural extension of the above discussion, and there is
again a need for a careful approach to such proposed changes. The potential gains
identified by comparing the operating factors such as those given in Table 5.1 are
only achievable if a higher operating factor can indeed be realized. There would be
little point in committing considerable amounts of capital to the introduction of mech-
anized SAW (e.g., column and boom or tractor machines) to replace manual welding
if, for the particular application, this involved an additional setup time, thus vastly
reducing any other benefits achieved. In general, the more organized and consistent
the throughput of work, the more scope there is to achieve benefits via increased
mechanization of automation. The simple diagram in Figure 5.2 illustrates this idea.
The intended message is simple. Utilize the potential of increased automation to
its full extent, but always judge each case in detail (on its own merits), since there are
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Change of Consumable
As a welding engineer, you will be continually offered alternative consumables as
direct replacements within existing practices. These may be offered on the basis of
reduced cost, better properties, higher productivity, etc. Guidance has been given in
Chapter 2 on how to assess such offers. The most important factor when considering
a change is that the welding engineer knows exactly what he requires and does not
allow a short-term price gain, or the availability of enhanced (but possibly over-spec-
ified) properties, to dictate the change. The main factor to remember is that reduced
consumable costs, and any gain obtained through reduced consumable costs, could be
quickly erased by higher defect rates, increased weld cleaning, procedure requalifica-
tion costs, etc. The main reason for changing consumables within existing practices
are listed below.
Problems with an existing consumable (either technical or supply
problems).
Improved productivity (via better finish, improved deposition rate,
etc.) - A particularly good example of this is that the requirements
for consumables to be used for fillet welding should not necessari-
ly be confused with those chosen for butt joints. Weld bead contour
and toe profiles are often the most significant features with respect
to fillet welds; here, rutile consumables may be preferred to basic
low-hydrogen kinds. In many cases, a higher deposition rate elec-
trode or process may also be worthy of consideration.
Improved properties required, e.g., to meet increased specification
demands.
Consumable cost - As with all cost-related questions, all aspects
of a proposed consumable change should be considered carefully
prior to making a change. Only overall quality and production costs
should be of importance in the final analysis.
The previous sections referred to the use of mechanization and automation mainly
as a means of achieving higher operating factors and hence improved productivity.
Productivity improvements can also’be achieved by utilizing a higher deposition rate
process, causing little or no change to the operating factor. For example, in submerged
arc welding, it may be possible to introduce a double- or triple-wire method to replace
a single-wire application and, in doing so, reap considerable productivity improve-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ments. However, simply multiplying by the number of wires used would not give an
accurate view of the productivity improvements achievable. There is often some
trade-off in terms of operating factor or procedure restrictions that would not be
reflected in such a simple assessment.
Remaining with submerged arc welding, it is also possible to utilize equipment
delivering a metered quantity of metal powder to the weld. By doing so, it is possible
to achieve a higher deposition rate with no significant increase in heat input or major
change to working practice (Le., almost “consumable cost” weld metal). This method
has been widely used for offshore structural fabrication [2,3] but obviously depends
on the availability of suitable metal powder consumables. Similarly, the use of flux or
metal cored submerged arc wires and process options, such as long stickout welding,
can enhance the deposition rates of submerged arc welding [4,5].
Plate Thickness
(percentages)
25 mm 75mm 150mm
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Single-V-groove weld, 50 degrees groove angle 1O0 100 100
Single-V-groove weld, 45 degrees groove angle 89 89 89
Double-V-groove weld, 50 degrees groove angle 50 50 50
Narrow-groove weld (1 9 mm) (e.g., SAW) 124 50 26
Narrow-groove weld (1 O mm) (e.g., GTAW, GMAW) 76 27 14
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Reducing Defect Levels
Areduction in defect levels is an obvious route to reduce welding costs and is men-
tioned here merely to reinforce this point. Rectification and rework cost several times
more per unit weld volume than the original work, and even a small reduction in
defect levels can achieve useful savings [ 6 ] .This topic is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 4.
As noted earlier, an indirect method of reducing welding costs is one not directly
related to, or applied via, the welding procedure. Indirect methods could vary from
items totally removed from the workstation, e.g., improved coffee-making facilities
(reducing welder downtime), to items crucial to the working practice but not specific
to welding, e.g., availability of cranes. In fact, anything that will enable or encourage
the welder to produce more arc time will have beneficial effect on the operating fac-
tor (and hence costs), provided of course that the expense of making this improvement
is not prohibitive. A few of these methods are discussed below.
Improved Fixturing
The availability of jigs and fixtures, their suitability for the job, and their ease of
use, among other things, all have major bearing on welding efficiency. All time the
welder spends setting up a workpiece, or assisting in such operations, could be regard-
I ed as lost production. Obviously there will always be some time spent on such oper-
ations, but the aim should be to minimize this whenever possible. Such problems need
not involve complex situations. For example, in a general fabrication shop where the
product varies, there will be little opportunity for employing standard jigs or auto-
matic clamping devices. There may, however, be scope for standardizing on a range
of standard strongbacks, pre-cut run-odoff blocks, and the like. While these may not
be obvious ways of improving operating factor, they can prove to be beneficial in
some instances.
Improvement is gained through a better planned operation with such apparently
nonproductive operations carried out either by less costly manpower or, alternatively,
by the welder during periods of “slack” time. The benefit comes by reducing the time
needed by the skilled operative while “productive” work is in progress. Other equip-
ment worth considering include positioners, turning rolls, indeed, anything that
reduces time spent on repositioning workpieces.
Another simple example can be found in the attachment of electrical preheating
bands. These are often attached using magnetic clamps - a very sensible approach in
many situations. However, consider a very large component that requires preheat to
be maintained over a wide area for a prolonged period. Here, clamps would necessi-
tate a considerable equipment investment due to the numbers involved. A simple solu-
tion could be the use of nails (2-3 mm diameter) attached by a capacitor discharge
method and bent to hold the heat-
the need for such an approach. Such methods vary from standard (manually fixed)
jigs, through pneumatically operated jigs, to combined jigs and welding equipment
that essentially automate the whole operation. An example of the last-mentioned
would be an automatic machine for the production of I-beams. Here, although the
weld procedure may be similar to that used on, for example, a simple tractor unit, the
overall welding operation will be much more efficient due to the higher operating fac-
tor obtained. Again, however, the benefit must be weighed against the capital cost of
such equipment, and this would only be viable for major producers of such beams.
Working Environment
While there can be no disputing health and safety requirements, all too often little
regard is placed on matters beyond these requirements, Le., the comfort-level of the
work force. Surveys [7] indicate that when welders have been asked to rank the most
negative aspect of their work, the list is typically as follows:
1. Fume/smoke
2. Dust
3. Monotony
4. Heat (generally from high air temperature, not arc radiation)
5. Physical strain.
Any competent welding engineer should appreciate the factors listed and make
changes to reduce their effect. This can often be achieved with little cost and mini-
mum alteration to working practices.
Obviously the statement “maximize the comfort of the work force” must be taken
in the context of a working environment, since real comfort should be reserved for the
home. However, simple steps like providing a chair for operations that can be per-
formed from a sitting position would reduce operator fatigue and should produce ben-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
efits.
There are some foremen who would be horrified by the above suggestion, but if
that same chair is not provided, the welder will most likely waste time arranging the
work and/or adjacent planks and scaffolding to improve his lot. Similarly, in many
welding operations, the use of preheat can result in inhospitable welding environ-
ments, e.g., working in a confined space within a preheated vessel. Here, any addi-
tional ventilation and/or insulation will help.
In an extreme case where the tolerable time the welder can spend at a given loca-
tion is, say, only 5 min, then even an increase of a minute of two represents a signif-
icant improvement. The working environment should not therefore be regarded pure-
ly as a set of safety regulations. It should go further than that; all ways of encourag-
ing the welder to safely spend more time doing the job he is paid for should be
explored. Often, necessq improvements come at little cost, while also (though infre-
quently recognized) improving the operating factor. Reject rates may also be reduced,
thus giving additional cost savings.
The availability of tools will, for the purpose of this discussion, be included in
working environment. If items such as grinders, hammers, etc., are not readily avail-
able and close to the work, then considerable time can be lost in either fetching such
items from a store or waiting for someone else to finish using them. Restricted tool
issue can be a false economy and should be addressed carefully. Often, the hidden cost
of lost production can outweigh the visible cost of tool purchase.
achieve a 10-mm leg length in a single pass (even using large-gauge electrodes), so a
multipass procedure will be needed. This will often require a minimum three-pass
technique to maintain an acceptable weld profile. In addition, the end result will prob-
ably be a vastly overcompensated 10-mm leg length, requiring additional interpass
cleaning. Discussion with the designer to ensure he is aware of such costs can prove
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
very beneficial.
A separate issue regarding fillet welds, but connected to the above, is the often gen-
eral requirement of compensating for a root opening resulting from a poor fïtup. In
general fabrication, a zero root opening cannot be guaranteed unless machined sur-
faces are specified or a fixture is utilized. For example, code requirements often
require that a 2-mm root opening must be compensated for with a 2-mm addition to
the leg length. Thus, a minimum 6-mm specified leg length becomes an 8-mm leg
length in practice. Similarly specifying an 8-mm leg length can lead to the need for
multipass welding as an actual 10-mm leg may be required. The design engineer must
TABLE 5.3 -
WELD STRENGTHS OF 100-MM FILLET WELD WITH 6-MM LEG
LENGTH.
again be made aware of this point and asked to pay particular attention to the specifi-
cation of fillet welds around these sizes.
From the welding engineer’s viewpoint, it is sometimes permissible to use weld
penetration to compensate for leg length. It also may be possible in some circum-
stances to demonstrate that adequate fillet weld strength has been achieved without
weld leg length compensationby performing a simple test program. The results shown
in Table 5.3 were obtained in a simple test of this type based on a 100-mm length of
fillet weld in each case. This is a particularly useful exercise where the amount of fil-
let welding is high and a change from single- to multipass welding would have major
cost implications.
Other important aspects of weld joint design are the specification of partial pene-
tration welds rather than full penetration welds and designing for “buildability,” e.g.,
taking access and fabrication sequences into consideration. Although many of the
aspects may not be under the direct control of the welding engineer, it is important that
you, as a welding engineer, make every effort to inform the designer of such problems
and of the advantages obtained by considering all of these factors.
References
[i] Connor, L. P. (ed.). 1987. Welding Handbook. Vol. 1, 8th Ed. American Welding
Society, Miami, Na.
[2] Rodgers, K. J. and Lochhead, J. C. 1987. Submerged arc welding metal powder
additions, productivity and properties. Welding Journal 66 (10): 21-27.
[3] Fraser, R., et al. 1982. High deposition rate submerged arc welding for critical
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
While any of the above (or other similar views) may well come to mind, it is much
more productive and interesting to regard welding problems as opportunities.
An opportunity to learn.
An opportunity to improve practices.
An opportunity to display your worth to your employer.
The last item above leads to the question: Would your employer need a welding
engineer if no welding problems were likely? Welding problems, in this sense, are the
lifeblood of the welding engineer’s profession, and although your main function
should always be aimed at preventing problems, there will always be a need for
prompt and efficient reaction to welding problems as they arise.
This chapter outlines five specific examples of welding-related problems and also
introduces a general “fitness for purpose” concept that offers an alternative solution
to many problems. It is hoped these will provide an insight into problem-solving in
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Presence of hydrogen.
Presence of stress, i.e., restraint.
Time.
Note that the technique employed for the nondestructive examination (NDE) of
welds - particularly of submerged arc welds - should be designed with chevron
cracking in mind. Due to the orientation of chevron cracks in submerged arc welds,
they could be missed unless an ultrasonic testing (UT) scan, designed for their detec-
tion, is incorporated. Chevron cracking has mainly been associated with welds in
materiais more than 50 mm thick, but cases are known in thicknesses as low as 22
mm. Additionally, chevron cracking is a delayed form of cracking, normally not
appearing until 12 hours after cessation of welding. Allow at least 24 (or, more com-
monly, 48) hours prior to the required nondestructive examination.
Detection
The ultrasonic technique for detection of chevron cracking involves the use of a
45-degree probe, scanning longitudinally along the surface of submerged arc welds or,
alternatively, along the finished surface of manual or semiautomatic welds. As it is
most unlikely that chevron cracking will occur in processes other than SAW, the
requirement for additional NDE is normally ignored for these procedures.
This scan is carried out as a supplement to other scans, specifically to locate dis-
continuities lying in the transverse plane of the weld. The 45-degree probe is utilized
because chevron cracks present a reflecting face within the range of 30-50 degrees to
normal. Conventional scans from either side of the weld surface will not resolve such
discontinuities for two reasons:
Hydrogen
The presence of hydrogen cannot be treated in precise quantitative terms since
there is no specific value that will result in chevron cracking. The problem of chevron
cracking is usually associated with basic agglomerated submerged arc fluxes that, due
to their mode of manufacture, are hygroscopic and will increase in moisture content
unless stored and handled properly. This, therefore, presents one main area of inves-
tigation if chevron cracking is found, i.e., consumable handling practices. One diffi-
culty is that, because you will be investigating a problem that occurred some days (or
even weeks) previously, it may not be possible to assess the state of consumable han-
dling at the time of welding with any confidence.
Here, it is necessary to rely on your judgment of the normal practices involved. Are
consumables routinely abused? Are they always rigorously applied? Are they ade-
quate? These questions identify the extremes possible and can often provide useful
guidance. Regardless of what handling practice was actually specified, the following
points are worth considering:
ovens are not well designed and properly used. Baking ovens
should have heating elements passing through the charge, not
just enveloping the charge. The time in the oven should also be
carefully controlled to ensure all flux charged is brought to the
temperature specified. Remember that flux is a good insulating
medium and does not allow rapid heat flow.
If flux is used from the bag and a problem occurs, check the as-supplied moisture
level. It helps if you can relate the figures obtained to previous data since the “accept-
able value” will vary from application to application. An ideal moisture value is zero,
and for guidance, a O. 1 percent moisture level could be considered high and possibly
problematic in some situations.
Flux handling and flux condition are possibly the most likely potential sources of
a chevron cracking problem, but do not assume it is the only cause. In a high-volume
fabrication area using the same flux in a number of differing situations, it is difficult
to blame the flux if only a limited proportion of the work is affected, Le., if the prob-
lem occurs only on one thickness or at one welding station. Although the flux could
still be the main contributory factor, other aspects should be examined, such as pre-
heat or local flux storage problems (e.g., roof leaks). Flux recycling can also result in
a local (or, indeed, general) pattern. A number of commercially available units use
compressed air for transporting the flux within a recycling system. Should this air
become contaminated in any way, either by oil or water, then potential carry-over into
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Restraint
As with the effect of hydrogen, the degree of restraint necessary for chevron crack-
ing to occur has never been accurately established. With chevron cracking, most
cracks are often located within the top one-third of the thickness. This would indicate
that tensile loading is a very relevant feature; it also indicates that, in general, the
greater the thickness, the greater the chance of chevron cracking. There is very little
that the welding engineer can do to alter these particular parameters. However, the fol-
lowing example illustrates that, occasionally, beneficial changes to existing practices
can be arranged.
f .Weld
location
u
FIGURE 6.1 -ANNULAR STIFFENER WELD
This particular example, illustrating the combined effect of restraint and preheat,
relates to an occasion when radially oriented chevron cracking was experienced in
joints between cylindrical cans and external annular plate stiffeners, as shown in
Figure 6.1. In the initial manufacturing procedure, the cylindrical shell was preheated
from the outside, but the stiffener plate was not directly heated. The resultant stress
pattern was analyzed as follows:
The can was modeled as an infinitely long, thin elastic cylinder with an
axisymmetric radial line load acting outward on the cylinder at the weld
interface. The external stiffener was modeled as an annular plate with a radi-
al load acting on the inner radius. The thermal description of the setup is that
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
after the two components had been welded together, the cylinder cooled by
a stated amount relative to the disc. If the two components had not been
welded, this would have resulted in a radial gap at the weld interface, calcu-
lable from the free contraction of the cylinder.
The radial force required, therefore, was that which was sufficient to
close the gap by outward deformation of the can and inward deformation of
the plate. The circumferential stress in the weld was found from analysis of
the disc.
In essence, this indicated that when the can preheat was withdrawn, after
welding or at some intermediate stage, the shell would tend to shrink in
diameter during cooling, but the external plate would remain at the original
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
diameter. The resulting strain discontinuity across the weld would develop
radial stress in the joint leading to a circumferential stress along the weld
interface.
The calculated radial and circumferential stresses were shown to be sig-
nificant in relation to the yield strength of the material. From the analysis, it
was obvious that any temperature differential at the beginning of the cooling
phase from the preheat temperature would lead to significant stress. This
would be alleviated if the external stiffener was preheated to match the can
temperature. In addition, if the stiffener preheat was removed first, then com-
pressive strain would be produced in the weld joint during cooling.
A revised preheating method based on the above analysis was developed
and no further cases of chevron cracking occurred on this particular item.
Summary
To summarize (and oversimplify), regarding the problem of chevron cracking, the
following actions are advised:
solutes, such as oxygen and sulfur, the levels of which were important. In the partic-
ular example referenced above [ 5 ] , it was found that casts of 316-type stainless steel
with a sulfur content of 0.001-0.002 percent (Figure 6.3, left) behaved drastically dif-
ferent from one with a sulfur content of 0.010 percent (Figure 6.3, right). The transi-
tion in behavior between the two levels was predicted as being around the 0.005 per-
cent level.
In considering the possibility that the problem under investigation may be cast-to-
cast variability, you must also consider other causes of variable penetration, such as
The above and other factors must be ruled out prior to diagnosing cast- to-cast vari-
ability, if for no other reason than that most of the other causes are curable. Having
established that cast-to-cast variability exists, consider the following possible problem
management methods:
rent) is carried out in the presence of a magnetic field and disruption or distortion of
the arc results. The disruption can be a consequence of the magnetic field produced
by the arc itself or by the interaction with any magnetism persisting in the steel. The
magnetic field causes the arc to be deflected, as shown in Figure 6.4, and behave in
an often unpredictable and erratic manner. In some very severe cases, the arc may be
completely extinguished. Typical discontinuities resulting from such arc instabilities
include slag inclusions, porosity, and incomplete fusion.
Magnetism, of a level to cause arc blow when welding, can result from two sepa-
rate sources that may be additive. The steel, as supplied, may possess its own residual
magnetism; also, the welding current will induce a magnetic field surrounding the
component during welding.
Considering the former source - residual magnetism - this may have a number
of possible origins.
The second source of magnetism leading to arc blow is where it arises during weld-
ing. Here, no magnetic field can be measured on an unwelded section, but during the
welding process, the current causes the resultant magnetic field. This effect will
increase with higher currents and can be influenced by the shape of the component
and earthing arrangements.
As a guide, there are few problems with low magnetic fields of 20 gauss or less.
Between 20-40 gauss, arc instability can be observed, whereas fields greater that 40
gauss can create definite arc blow. These values assume a “facility to measure,” but
this is often not available. A simple test uses iron filings that, if attracted, indicate a
magnetic field and, therefore, a potential for trouble. A severe collection of filings is
obviously an indication of a severe problem. The shape and depth of the weld prepa-
ration influences the magnetic effect on the arc. It will be more pronounced in deep
and narrow preparations; root runs will also be more affected until “a bridging”
affects, minimizes, or alters the magnetic effect.
Having identified arc blow as the problem, the welding engineer has a number of
options in order to eliminate, or at least reduce, the problem to acceptable limits.
These are indicated below in order of severity, available resources, and expense.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
I A
properties, or a lowering of
any adverse effect of a welding
process on the mechanical
properties of the heat-affected
zone (HAZ). I
However beneficial these
effects may be, there are situa-
Weld
tions where PWHT can, and
Direction’ Progression
should, be avoided wherever
possible, especially where the
practicality of performing the
operation is virtually insur-
mountable. Note that the use
of heat treatment avoidance
techniques are dictated by an
overall assessment of the situ-
ation; for example, should
stress corrosion be an influ-
encing factor, then a heat treat- FIGURE 6.5 - BACKSTEP WELDING TECHNIQUE
ment to provide stress relief and to reduce maximum hardness levels may be a com-
pulsory requirement.
Buttering
Buttering is “a surfacing variation in
which one or more layers of weld metal are
deposited on the groove face of one member
that is to be welded to a dissimilar base metal.
The buttering provides a suitable transition
Normalized Condition
weld deposit for subsequent completion of the
butt joint.” [7] (BI
The use of buttering to avoid postweld heat
treatment in steel structures relates to the abil- FIGURE 6.6 ELECTROSLAGWELDS-
Copyright American Welding Society
Provided by IHS under license with AWS
No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS Not for Resale
96 Tite Practical Welding Engineer
ity to avoid high HAZ hardness in the subsequent butt joint. This is achieved via the
use of a buttering consumable that will not transform in the final HAZ to produce
martensitic constituents. The HAZ from the buttering operation must itself be con-
trolled by PWHT, but this can be done piece meal, and ail final assembly welds can
be carried out and left as welded. The technique can also be applied to situations
where, for example, one side of a transition weld was in a material that could suffer
deterioration during any subsequent PWHT. For example, certain stainless steels con-
taining high femte levels could, under some circumstances, “sigmatize” with conse-
quent serious impairment to properties.
The use of previously stress-relieved, buttered weld preparations is perhaps the
most common technique to avoid subsequent PWHT. A number of weld metal types
may be used for the buttering material. One type frequently applied is the InconelB
family of consumables. Here, the buttering layer is welded to the fabrication requir-
ing PWHT at a thickness
sufficient to contain a new
Component Requiring
weld preparation and sub-
Postweld Heat
sequent HAZ. The but- Treatment
tered section is nonde-
structively examined, heat
treated, then prepared for
the final butt joint welds,
which are not subject to Weld Buildup -
PWHT (Figure 6.7 illus- Buttering
trates the sequence of
events).
The requirement to
kL
Inspect, then Postweld Heat Treat
examine volumetrically
the buttering before
PWHT may itself pose
problems. If this is done
by radiography, consider-
able difficulty can be
I
experienced in the subse-
quent interpretation of the I
films caused by the X-
rays scattering at the edge
of the preparation. One
solution to this problem is
to make a complete butt
joint weld between pairs
( Final As-Welded I
Assembly Weld
of components using the
buttering consumable, FIGURE 6.7 -WORKING WITH BUTTERED SECTIONS
nondestnictively examine,
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
repair if necessary, and finally PWHT the subassembly. The butt joint weld can then
be parted and a new preparation made for the final assembly weld. Figure 6.8 illus-
trates this sequence.
Buttering with ferritic electrodes can also be a potential solution to overcome the
problem of high HAZ hardness. In this instance, the component could be of a hard-
enable alloy or high-carbon steel; the buttering deposit would use low-hydrogen elec-
trodes of a composition giving the desired levels of strength within the final butt joint
after PWHT, but not producing a high hardness in the final HAZ. The buttered com-
ponent would be subjected to PWHT, then the closing weld would be carried out using
the same low-carbon ferritic electrodes. To overcome any potential discontinuity
problems in the buttered layer prior to the PWHT, sufficient buttering must again be
applied to allow, in this case, for an ultrasonic test.
Temper Bead
The temper bead technique is
a fairly well known method for I I
Components Requiring Postweld Heat Treatment
controlling HAZ properties. It
can sometimes mean that
PWHT, when conducted to
J-
achieve hardness criteria, can be
avoided. Only a brief summary
of the method is given here (see
J-
Set Up for Butt Joint Weld
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Inspect
by the welding engineer on his
particular consumables and
welding practices to ascertain
J-
the degree of bead overlap
required and the tolerances for
this overlap.
J-
Postweld Heat Treat Butt Joint Welds
pass sequence control that, while offering scope for reduced HAZ hardnesses, cannot
be relied upon unless strictly controlled and therefore definable as a true temper bead.
The use noted above relates mainly to reducing HAZ hardness levels, but the princi-
ple can also be applied in butt joint welds to produce a maximum tempering effect
throughout the weld [SI by combining controlled layer grinding and/or bead place-
ment. This approach eliminates the need for PWHT and has particular relevance to in-
service repairs where PWHT may be impractical.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
increased until some other natural resonant level is noted. Two or three repeats are
generally required to achieve satisfactory stress redistribution.
Take care, however, when considering the use of this technique. Where metallur-
gical improvements are necessary (e.g., relating to brittle fracture or stress corrosion
cracking), then thermal treatments will most likely be necessary. Nevertheless, a gen-
eral improvement in dimensional stability is usually observed, and, for this reason, the
process is particularly applicable to large welded components or castings that require
machining to very close tolerances.
Fracture mechanics assessment is now accepted engineering practice and has been
utilized in offshore construction, power generation, pipelines, pressure vessels,
bridges, and in many other structures. It has been used to assess the significance of
defects, define life extension and change-of-service applications, and determine if
postweld heat treatment is required. (See section on fracture toughness justification,
page 98.)
The practical welding engineer should be aware of the potential behind fracture
mechanics and be prepared to utilize it wherever possible - either proactively (for
example, to encourage designers to relax existing requirements), or reactively (as a
solution to an existing defective condition or problem). Removing defects from welds
is expensive; postweld heat treatment is also expensive; therefore, time spent using a
computer program -possibly eliminating PWHT and possible defects -is time well
spent.
References
[ i ] Wright, V. S . 1978. Chevron cracking in submerged arc welds. The Welding
Institute Int. Con$ Trends in Steels and Consumables for Welding, Nov., 581-602.
Paper 38.
[2] Tuliani, S . S . 1976. A metallographic study of chevron cracks in submerged arc
weld metals. Welding Research Znt. 6 (6): 1 9 4 6 .
[3] Rodgers, K. J. and Lochhead J. C. 1987. Self-shielded flux cored arc welding
-the route to good toughness. Welding Journal 66 (7):49-59.
[4] Lucas, W. and Eardley, J. A. 1981. Effect of cast to cast material variations in
TIG welding literature review. Welding Inst. Report 168.
[5] Rodgers, K. J. 1983. A study of penetration variability using mechanized TIG
welding. The Welding Institute Int. Conf. Effects of Residual Impurity and Micro-
alloying Elements on Weldability and Weld Properties. Paper 2: 2-1 to 2-8.
[6] Heiple, C. R. and Roper, J. R. 1982. Mechanism for minor element effect on
GTA fusion zone geometry. Welding Journal 61 (4): 97-s to 102-s.
[7] Metals Handbook, 9th Ed.: Vol. 6, Glossary 3. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM
International, 1983.
[SI Albeny, P. J. 1981. Simple test reveals level of two layer refinement. Welding
and Metal Fabricator 49 (9): 543-547.
[9] Parlane, A. J. A. 1977. Vibrational stress relief. The Welding Institute Research
Bulletin. pp, 339-342.
[lo] Claxton, R. A., and Saunders, G. G. 1976. Vibratory stress relief. Metallurgist
and Mat. Technol. 8(12): 651-656.
[ i 11 Blakely, P. 1988. Magnetic arc blow -causes, effects and cures. Metal Constr.
20(2):58-6 1.
U21 Anon. 1990. What a blow. Welding Inst. Oct., p. 7.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
It is both a
boon and a bane
to the practical
welding engineer
that a relatively
large number of
defect types can
be observed in a
welded structure.
No matter how
good the engi-
neer’s procedure
may be, there are
too many vari-
ables, e g , equip-
ment, consum-
ables, and, most
of all, “the
welder,” to con- A - Incomplete groove-face fusion; B - lamellar tearing;
struct the perfect C - poor profile; D - slag inclusions; E - undercut
fabrication. The FIGURE 7.1 -WELD DEFECTS
most that the
competent welding engineer can hope to achieve is to minimize the occurrence of
such defects and, once discovered, rapidly diagnose and correct them with remedial
actions.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
This chapter identifies the more common types of defects that can occur in a weld-
ed steel structure, how they may be recognized, and typical remedial actions. The list
is not all inclusive, but it has been many years since any new phenomena have been
discovered (e.g., lamellar tearing and chevron cracking). The problems that follow are
not new but are generally the old favorites, albeit recycled under a new guise.
Figure 7.1 is an exceptional illustration of five individual defect types, the nature
of which are described below. It is an example of what poor technique, poor material
choice, and poor control can produce.
The faults illustrated in Figure 7.1 are identified as follows:
A. Incomplete groove-face fusion (see section 7.4)
The defects discussed are identified within four main headings: cracks, profile, vol-
umetric, and incomplete fusion.
To assist the welding engineer in dealing with these defects, they have been
defined, their causes identified, and remedial actions proposed. Whenever possible
macro/micro-photographs of physical samples, or sketches thereof, have been used to
illustrate the individual defect.
7.1 Cracks
Five types of cracking can be found
in steel weldments.
Hydrogen cracks - chevron.
Heat-affected zone hydrogen
cracks.
Lamellar tearing.
Reheat cracks.
Solidification cracks (includ-
ing crater cracks).
The f i s t was discussed in the previ-
ous chapter. The next four are discussed
below. xl
Characteristics
Heat-affected zone (HAZ) hydrogen
cracks (toe or underbead cracks) are dis-
continuities originating in a heat-affect-
ed zone due to high internal stresses
combined with a susceptible microstruc- x 400
ture and the presence of hydrogen. This
is shown in Figure 7.1.1. FIGURE 7.1.1 - HYDROGEN TOE CRACK
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Causes
Hydrogen is diffused into a hardened heat-affected zone.'The level at which crack-
ing can occur is influenced by the following factors:
Increasing section thickness
Too high residual stresses.
Increasing carbon equivalent.
Too low a heat input.
Insufficient preheat.
Poor consumable handling (i.e., contaminated or not dried).
Remedial Actions
The foremost activity is to reduce the hydrogen level retained within the weld
metal by doing the following:
Use low-hydrogen consumables (properly handled).
Remove contaminants.
Increase hydrogen diffusion time by increasing preheat level or
soak time, or both.
Increase heat input.
Postweld heat treat.
Characteristics
These are discontinuities caused by the progressive cracking, under tensile loading,
of inclusions within the base metal. The inclusions are approximately parallel to the
plate surface and not generally associated with the heat-affected zone, although in
some cases the defect may initiate from a HAZ toe crack. Figure 7.1 (page 101) illus-
trates this type of defect.
Origins
Presence of thin layers of nonmetallic inclusions parallel to the
plate surface. Thermally induced strain causes through-thickness
stresses that result in these inclusions linking up.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Remedial Action
Use of steel grades (usu-
ally designated Z quali-
ty) with high through-
thickness ductility (>35
percent reduction of
area).
Redesign of weld joint
to reduce through-thick-
ness strain.
Longitudinal Section with Cracks Circled (x 1)
(a)
7.1.3 Reheat Cracking
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Characteristics
This defect can be located after a
postweld heat treatment of a low-
alloy weldment, e.g., 2.25 percent
Cr, 1 percent Mo. The cracking is
transverse to the weld metal and of
an intergranular nature with respect
Intergranular Cracking (x 400) to the prior austenite grain structure,
(Etch SASPAINANSAINITAL) where these prior austenite grain
(b) boundaries are extremely "decorat-
ed" with segregates. Figure 7.1.3(a)
FIGURE 7.1.3 - REHEAT CRACKING illustrates the general nature of the
cracking, which is relatively small in
size. Figure 7.1.3(b) shows the intergranular nature of the cracking and decoration of
the prior austenite grain boundaries.
Origins
Cracking of this nature is generally associated with relatively high levels of resid-
ual elements in the weld metal. Such residuals, and levels likely to cause cracking,
are phosphorus (0.025 percent), copper (0.25 percent), tin (0.30 percent), and arsenic
(0.55 percent).
Remedial Action
Removal of the defective weld metal and tighter control of the
analysis of the welding consumables.
Characteristics
These are cracks created when the weld material, while still hot, yields plastically
due to high internal stresses. This usually occurs along the centerline.
Figure 7.1.4(a) shows a typical example occumng on the fist side of a double-
sided weld that has propagated from the unfused root face at the weld root up through
the center plane of the columnar grains of the as-deposited bead.
Figure 7.1.4(b) clearly illustrates that the cracks had originated at the weld root and
propagated along the center plane of the as-deposited columnar bead. Figure 7.1.4(c)
illustrates the inter-columnar nature of the crack. This was etched in the SASPA-
NANSA (a saturated solution of picric acid with a wetting agent) etchant to reveal the
solidification pattern rather than the transformation structure. (See Figure 3.3,
page 32).
approx. x 6.5 x 60
(b) (cl
FIGURE 7.1.4 - SOLIDIFICATION CRACK
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Origins
High bead depth to width ratios (>2: 1).
High carbon, sulfur (hot shortness) and phosphorus contents.
Decreasing Mn/S ratios.
Contaminants.
Inadequate filling of craters at the end of the weld runs (in this
instant, the defect is more commonly known as crater cracks,
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Remedial Actions
Identify the pertinent cause, then apply the appropriate remedial action. For exam-
ple,
adjust parameters to obtain better depth-to-width ratios (aim for
l:l),
use lower residual element base materials andor consumables,
clean joint faces,
use backstepping technique to eliminate craters, or
use slope-out device.
Characteristics
Arc strikes are caused by arcing between the electrode, the electrode holder, or the
workpiece lead clamp, and the workpiece. The results are areas of fused metal with
associated heat-affected zones that may or may not contain cracks. Note that if the arc
strike has been caused by a copper contact tip or cable arcing onto steel, then serious
contamination defects can result (see section 7.3.6, page 119).
Origins
Poor or missing insulation on electrode holder or torch.
Loose current return (workpiece lead) clamp.
Poor access to work.
Careless practice.
Remedial Actions
Correct insulation.
Maintain current return clamping system.
Improve access.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Train welders.
Characteristics
Excess distortion is an imperfection whose occurrence can seldom be predicted
unless the work is of a repetitive nature. It occurs when welded members are physi-
cally outside acceptable predetermined dimensions relative to one another, usually at
the end of the welding operation. It is also an imperfection that can be recognized to
be occurring during the welding operation; steps can be taken at this intermediate
stage to minimize or eliminate this problem.
With respect to this imperfection, recommendationsfollow on how to minimize or
rectify the situation:
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Use balanced welding (equalize weld runs on either side of the weld
joint).
Use special welding sequences
- Backstepping.
- Intermittent backstepping.
Minimize (where possible) number of weld runs.
Keep weld sizes to a minimum - do not over-weld.
Ensure good fitup; avoid large root openings and misalignment.
Rectification of Distortion
Use of force -Force usually is permitted (without the simultaneous
application of heat) provided that a preset level of strain is not
exceeded.
Use of heat treatment -If used at an intermediate fabrication stage,
this reduces the peak stress levels (i.e., produces more even disbib-
ution of stress) and hence reduces distortion caused by these
stresses.
Use of heat line bending - This is permitted in some cases, but
often only where the method has been qualified by destructive test-
ing. The workpiece temperature is usually controlled to a preset
maximum using temperature-indicating crayons or infrared pyrom-
eters. Particular attention needs to be taken with steels, such as
quench and tempered steels, where the temperature reached may
have a significant effect on properties.
Characteristics
Most welding codes, whether of national or client origin, will specify a maximum
cap-pass height for a weldment, e.g., 3 mm. This allows both an aesthetically pleas-
1 EXCESS
ing and a better designed transition between the base metals being welded (a sudden
joining and stress-raising “hump” is avoided). In addition, this restriction assists in
producing more economic weldments by eliminating additional man-hours adding
unnecessary weld metal.
The difference between an acceptable cap-pass height and excess reinforcement is
sketched in Figure 7.2.3.
Characteristics
Incomplete penetration of weld metal into the
root of a joint. Figure 7.2.4 illustrates its features.
Origins
Current too lowhigh.
Irregular wire feed.
Preparation too narrow.
Too large electrode for joint preparation. FIGURE 7.2.4 -
Root face too thick. INCOMPLETE ROOT PENETRATION
Root opening too small.
Wrong polarity.
Mismatched joint.
Incorrect electrode angle for joint configuration.
Arc length too high.
Poor techniques.
Stickout too long.
Insufficient cleaning on second side.
Remedial Action
The necessary corrective action(s) follows the identification of the cause, e.g., cor-
rection of parameters, re-preparation of joint configuration, etc.
7.2.5 Misalignment
Characteristics
This profile imperfection occurs when the abutting members of a weld joint rela-
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tive to one another are outside a specified maximum permissible level. Figure 7.2.5
illustrates this imperfection.
Remedial Action
Prevent by using better preparation, fabrication, and assembly tech-
niques.
Pre-survey of base metal.
Rectify via localized dressinglmachiningif permissible.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7.2.6 Overlap
Characteristics
Overlap is basically a lack of surface fusion at the toe, or root, of the weld. It is
caused by the weld metal fíowing onto the base material surface without fusing to it.
Figure 7.2.6 illustrates this imperfection.
Origins
Poor manipulative tech-
nique.
Excessive weaving.
Too low arc energy.
Too low travel speed.
Incorrect positioning of
workpiece.
Remedial Actions
Identification of the perti-
nent cause and subsequent
correction.
FIGURE 7.2.6 -OVERLAP
7.2.7 Overpenetration
Characteristics
The penetration of the root bead is excessive, resulting in unacceptable protrusion.
Figure 7.2.7 illustrates this feature.
Origins
Excessive root opening.
Welding current too high.
Travel speed too low.
Poor welder technique.
Root nose too thin.
Remedial Actions
Use of correct parameters.
Improvement of welding technique.
Improvement of joint configuration.
Can sometimes be reduced by changing the welding position.
Origins
Poor technique.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Remedial Actions
Improve welder training.
Consumable with better positional characteristics.
Optimize parameters.
Origins
Excess back-purging gas pressure.
Effect of gravity on a ?wide? root bead.
Can be influenced by weld preparation, especially with automatic
gas tungsten arc welds.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Remedial Actions
Restriction of back-purging gas pressure.
Optimize parameters to improve weld root shape.
Change from V to J preparation (automatic gas tungsten arc welds).
7.2.10 Spatier
Characteristics
Spatter is defined as small droplets of weld metal thrown clear of the weld pool that
may or may not be fused to the adjacent base metal. While not a ?defect? in the sense
of affecting weld integrity, spatter produces a poor appearance and increases subse-
Origins
Arc length too long.
Current range too high.
Incorrect polarity.
Magnetic arc blow.
Contaminated, damp, or poor-operability consumables.
Incorrect electrode angle.
Poor gas shielding.
Remedial Actions
Use of correct parameters.
Elimination of arc blow.
Improvement of technique.
Use better consumables and/or improve consumable storage
practice.
7.2.1 1 Undercut
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Characteristics
This defect is an irregular groove usually found at the weld toe in the base metal
or in previously deposited weld metal. An example of the latter is illustrated in Figure
7.1, and typical forms of this defect are sketched in Figure 7.2.11.
Origins
Excessive weaving.
Too high current, travel speed, or electrode size.
Incorrect electrode angle.
Incorrect shielding gas.
Remedial Actions
Identification of pertinent cause, then corrective action, e.g., correct
parameters, better manipulative techniques, etc.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6. Copper inclusionskontamination (7.3.6).
7. Tungsten inclusions (7.3.7).
Characteristics
These are depressions due to shrinkage at the end of a weld run where the heat
source was removed. Figure 7.3.1. illustrates this feature.
Origins
Combination of interrupted deoxidation reactions and the liquid-to-
solid volume change.
Often associated with porosity.
Characteristics
This is a very localized defect normally occurring in manual or automatic arc weld-
ing at the start of the weld run. It happens as a result of delay in the establishment of
suitable fluxing and shielding reactions at the start of the weld run due to nonequilib-
num temperature conditions. Figure 7.3.2 illustrates this feature as it would appear on
a radiograph.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Origins
Ineffective filling of weld craters.
Poor technique.
Remedial Actions
Use run-odrunoff blocks to contain the defect.
Pay greater attention to starthestart manipulative techniques.
7.3.3UnifornVSurface Porosity
Characteristics
These are voids, or pores, distributed fairly uniformly throughout a weld run. They
are generally equiaxed and result from gases formed during reactions in the weld pool
being trapped as the weld metal solidifies. In surface porosity, these pores break the
weld metal surface. The extent of porosity is generally defined by the number of pores
noted per 10 cm of a radiograph (weld only).
Extensive > 100 t
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Figure 7.3.3 illustrates the pattern of extensive uniform porosity as it would appear
on a radiograph.
Origins
Porosity can generally result from one or more of the following. The more obvious
causes marked (*) should be eliminated first.
Damp flux or electrode coating. *
Contaminated surfaces. *
Welding current too lowhigh. *
Insufficient flux/gas coverage. *
Drafty conditions. *
Damaged electrode coating.
Loss of, or contaminated, gas shielding.
Gas flow too high.
Water leakage (in water-cooled unit).
Contaminated consumables.
Remedial Actions
The necessary corrective action(s) follows the identification of the cause, e.g., de-
greasing, correcting of gas shield, replacement or drying of consumables, improve-
ment of technique, etc.
Characteristics
Elongated porosity (or tunneling) defects are elongated, or tubular, voids with cir-
cular cross sections typically running along the axis of the weld. They are formed by
gas entrapment that occurs as the weld metal solidifies; they may appear as a single
entity or in groups. Figure 7.3.4 below illustrates the cross section of such elongated
porosity (length around, 7 cm) in a narrow-groove gas tungsten arc weldment.
Elongated porosity can sometimes appear in an extensive chevron pattern.
Origins
Incorrect welding variables,
particularly travel speed.
Surface contaminants.
Joint geometry (e.g., opening
between the vertical member
of a T-joint welded from both
sides).
Remedial Actions
Ensure pre-weld cleanliness.
Eliminate susceptible joint
configurations.
Correct travel speed.
Characteristics
These are slag particles, or other foreign matter, trapped during welding. The irreg-
ular nature of the defect differentiates it from a gas pore when examined radiograph-
ically. Slag inclusions can often be associated with, and have related causes, to incom-
plete fusion defects. A linear slag inclusion is generally considered a more serious
defect than isolated inclusions, which are often disregarded within acceptance criteria
unless multiple. Figure 7.1 (page 101) illustrates typical slag defects.
Origins
Slag inclusions generally result mainly from one or more of the following causes.
Those marked (*) should be eliminated first.
Poor manipulative technique causing loss of slag control (shielded
metal arc welding, self-shielded flux cored arc welding).*
Inadequate cleaning between runs (shielded metal arc welding, sub-
merged arc welding, self-shielded flux cored arc welding, gas
shielded flux cored arc welding).*
Electrode too large (shielded metal arc welding).*
Presence of mill scale andor rust.*
Slag flooding in front of arc caused by work position (shielded
metal arc welding, submerged arc welding, self-shielded flux cored
arc welding).
Travei speed too low (shielded metal arc welding).
Arc too long (shielded metal arc welding).
Variation in welding speed (shielded metal arc welding).
Welding over irregular profile (shielded metal arc welding, sub-
merged arc welding).
Voltage too low (submerged arc welding).
Poor bead positioning (shielded metal arc welding, submerged arc
welding).
Poor joint configuration (shielded metal arc welding, submerged arc
welding).
Remedial Actions
The necessary corrective action is dependent on the identification of the cause, e.g.,
better inter-run cleaning, better manipulative technique or positioning, etc.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
7.3.6 Copper
Inclusions/Contamination
Characteristics
This particular defect occurs
when copper has been accidental-
ly introduced to the weld pool.
The resultant effect is weld metal
cracking or penetration of the cop-
per into the grain boundaries of
the steel. Figure 7.3.6 illustrates
copper contamination due to the
brazing of anode attachments
directly onto a C-Mn pipe.
Origins
touching9and FIGURE 7.3.6 - COPPER CONTAMINATION (X 5)
especially arcing, of the
contact tip on the weld
preparation groove faces.
Loss of, or the melting of, copper contact tips.
Transfer by abrasion andor arcing from clamps, cable etc.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Remedial Actions
Avoid contactlarcing.
Complete removal of contaminated area. This must be excavated to
a depth ensuring removal of any zone affected by grain boundary
penetration. In severe cases, metallurgical examination by local
etching may be required to establish this.
Characteristics
Tungsten inclusions occur when tungsten has been accidentally introduced into the
weld pool. As this can only result from the use of the gas tungsten arc welding process
- inherently free from slag inclusions - assume that any inclusions found are tung-
sten residue. In addition, tungsten is a denser material than steel and most other com-
monly welded materials and thus shows as light areas on radiographs, often having an
angular shape.
Origins
Poor technique allowing electrode to touch.
Incorrect polarity.
Disintegration of electrode during welding.
Using thoriated electrode for AC.
Current too high for electrode diameter.
Remedial Action
Avoid accidental contact between tungsten electrode and pool.
Use correct polarity, grade, and size of electrode to suit application.
Tungsten inclusions are often disregarded if small and are treated
similarly to porosity in terms of defect acceptance.
Origins
Poor manipulative techniques.
Contamination of weld surface.
Arc length too short.
Travel speed too fast.
Current too low.
Incorrect electrode angle.
Incorrect inductance setting.
Incorrect work position resulting in molten metal flooding ahead of
arc.
Incorrect weld preparation.
In addition to the above, the following are particular to the root condition:
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Remedial Actions
Identification of cause(s) and application of specific corrective action(s) improve-
ment of parameters, joint setup, etc.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
HCS =
c (s+P + S A 5 + Ng0) x 1000
3 M n + C r + 2 (Mo+V)
where HCS (hot cracking susceptibility) and UCS (units of crack susceptibility) are
indices of crack susceptibility.
The effect of C levels and M d S ratios is illustrated graphically in Figure 7.5 [3].
References
[il Bonomo, E 1972. Sulfur-induced solidification cracking in low alloy steel weld
metal deposited from basic low hydrogen electrodes. Welding Research International
2(4): 1-28.
[2] Bailey, N., and Jones, S.B. 1978. Solidification cracking of ferritic steels during
submerged arc welding. Welding Journal 57(8) 217-s to 231-s.
[31 Lancaster, J. E 1992. Handbook of Structural Welding, Cambridge, U.K.:
Abington, p. 207.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
8.1.1 Kerf
Kerf, defined as the width of the cut, is a function of the oxygen jet dimensions,
type of tip, speed of cutting, and the flow rates of both the cutting oxygen and preheat
gases. Because of these factors, the width of the kerf increases as the material thick-
ness being cut increases.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CUTTING
nD TIP NUT,
~ E E - T U B E
DESIGN
/CUTTING
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
OXIGEN
FIGURE 8.1 - TYPICAL PREMIXING-TYPE CUTTING TORCH (LEFT), AND TYPICAL TIP
MIX CUTTING TORCH (RIGHT).
From Welding Handbook, Vol. 2 , American Welding Society. Miami, Fla.
8.1.2 Drag
loss in quality.
Correct Cutting
In a correct cut (Figure 8.3), the
top of the cut is sharp and clean, and
the drag lines are almost invisible,
producing a smooth side. Oxide is FIGURE 8.3 -CORRECT CUTTING
easily removed, the cut is
square, and the bottom edge is
clean and sharply defined. Drag
lines should be vertical for pro-
files. A small amount of drag is
allowed on straight cuts.
Cutting Speed Too Slow FIGURE 8.4 - CUTTING SPEED TOO SLOW
Because of melting, the top
edge has become rounded
(Figure 8.4). Gouging is pro-
nounced at the bottom edge,
which is also rough. Scale on Top and bottom
the cut face is difficult to
remove. To rectify, traverse at
recommended speed; increase FIGURE 8.5 - CUTTING SPEED TOO FAST
the oxygen pressure. Figures 8.3-8.5 from Module Manual FIO of the General Welding and
Cutting for Engineering Craffsmen. Training Publications, Ltd., Watford.
England. Reprinted with permission.
above Work
Excessive rounding and
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
that on thinner steel, high oxygen pressure can cause a taper cut likely to give the
impression that the cutting machine is set incorrectly in relation to the plate.
Correct Gouging
In a correct gouge
(Figure 8.11), the groove
is
of uniform width
and depth;
free of oxide and
scale, both in the
groove and
surrounding plate;
and \ I /
Cutting
Metal sheet and plate up to I
10 mm thick can be metal-arc FIGURE 8.13 - INCORRECT NOZZLE ALIGNMENT
cut with ease* The From Module Manual F10 of the General Weldmg and Cutting for
should be held at a shallow Engineering Craftsmen. Training Publications, Ltd , Watford, England
Reprinted with permission
angle of about 15 degrees to the
surface of the plate, as shown in Figure 8.14.
With thicker plates, an up-and-down motion should be made in the direction of
thickness so that the molten metal and slag may run clear of the cut, as shown in
Figure 8.15.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Direction of Travel
Direction of Travel ’
FIGURE 8.16 -GOUGING
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Books
Anderson, T. L. Fracture Mechanics: Fundementals & Applications. 2nd. Ed. Boca Raton,
Na.: CRC Press, Inc., 1995.
ASM Handbook, Vol. 6, Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International, 1993.
Boniszewski, T., Self Shielded Arc, cambridge, U.K.: Abington Publishing, 1992.
Castro, R., and deladenet, J. J., Welding Metallurgy of Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steels,
New York, N.Y.: Cambridge University Press, 1975. (Out of Print)
Colangelo, V.J. and Heiser EA., Analysis of Metallurgical Failures, 2nd. Ed. New York, N.Y.:
John Wiley and Sons, 1987.
Davies, A.C., The Science and Practice of Welding, 10th Ed. 2 vols. New York, N.Y.:
Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Gray, T. G. E , and Spence, J, Rational Welding Design, London, U.K.: Butterworths 1982.
Kou, &Welding Metallurgy, New York, N.Y.: John Wiley and Sons, 1987.
Lancaster, J. E, Handbook of Structural Welding, Cambridge, U.K.: Abington Publishing,
1992.
Handbook of Case Histories in Failure Analysis, 2 vols. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM
International, 1992-93.
Pickering, E B., Physical Metallurgy and the Design of Steels, 4th Ed. New York, N.Y.:
Applied Science Publishers, 1996.
The Procedure Handbook of Arc Welding, 13th Ed., Cleveland, Ohio: The Lincoln Electric
Company, 1995.
Welding Handbook, Vol. 2: Welding Processes, 8th Ed. Miami, Fla.: The American Welding
Society, 1991.
Welding Handbook, Vol. 5: Engineering Costs, Quality, and Safety, 7th Ed., Miami, Fia.:
American Welding Society, 1984.
Welding Handbook, Vol. 1: Welding Technology, 8th Ed. Miami, Fla.: American Welding
Society, 1987.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
B. Formulas
C. Diagrams
1. Iron Carbon 142
2. Nelson Curves 143
3. Schaeffler and DeLong Diagrams 144
4. WRC-1992 Diagram 145
5. Electrode Classification 146
A. Useful Tables
1. Hardness Equivalent
~~
2. Stress Conversion
tonvln.' kgVmnP Wmnf IMn.' tonMn.' kgVmnf Illrmm' IMn:
1 1.6 15.4 2240 50 78.7 772.2 112000
2 3.2 30.9 4480 51 80.3 787.7 114240
3 4.7 46.3 6720 52 81.9 803.1 116480
4 6.3 61.8 8960 53 83.5 818.5 118720
5 7.9 77.2 11200 54 85.0 834.0 120960
6 9.5 92.7 13440 55 86.6 849.4 123200
7 11.0 108.1 15680 56 88.2 864.9 125440
8 12.6 123.6 17920 57 89.8 880.3 127680
9 14.2 139.0 20160 58 91.3 895.7 129920
10 15.7 154.4 22400 59 92.9 91 1.2 132160
11 17.3 169.9 24640 60 94.5 926.7 134400
12 18.9 185.3 26880 61 96.1 942.1 136640
13 20.5 200.8 29120 62 97.6 957.5 138880
14 22.0 216.2 31360 63 99.2 973.0 141120
15 23.6 231.7 33600 64 100.8 988.4 143360
16 25.2 247.1 35840 65 102.4 1004 145600
17 26.8 262.6 38080 66 103.9 1019 147840
18 28.3 278.0 40320 67 105.5 1034 150080
19 29.9 293.4 42560 68 107.1 1050 152320
20 31.5 308.9 44800 69 108.7 1066 154560
21 33.1 324.3 47040 70 110.2 1081 156800
22 34.6 339.8 49280 71 111.8 1097 159040
23 36.2 355.2 51520 73 115.0 1127 163520
24 37.8 370.7 53760 74 116.5 1143 165760
25 39.4 386.1 56000 75 118.1 1158 168000
26 40.9 401.6 58240 76 119.7 1174 170240
27 42.5 417.0 60480 77 121.3 1189 172480
28 44.1 432.4 62720 78 122.8 1205 174720
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
29 45.7 447.9 64960 79 124.4 1220 176960
30 47.2 463.3 67200 80 126.0 1236 179200
31 48.8 478.8 69440 81 127.6 1251 181440
32 50.4 494.2 7 1680 82 129.1 1266 183680
33 52.0 509.7 73920 83 130.7 1282 185920
34 53.5 525.1 76160 84 132.3 1297 188160
35 55.1 540.5 78400 85 133.9 1313 190400
36 56.7 556.0 80640 86 135.4 1328 192640
37 58.3 571.4 82880 87 137.0 1344 194880
38 59.8 586.9 85120 88 138.6 1359 197120
39 61.4 602.3 87360 89 140.2 1375 199360
40 63.0 617.8 89600 90 141.7 1390 201600
41 64.6 633.2 91840 91 143.3 1405 203840
42 66.1 648.7 94080 92 144.9 1421 206080
43 67.7 664.1 96320 93 146.5 1436 208320
44 69.3 679.5 98560 94 148.0 1452 2 10560
45 70.9 695.0 100800 95 149.6 1467 2 12800
46 72.4 710.4 103040 96 151.2 1483 2 15040
47 74.0 725.9 105280 97 152.8 1498 2 17280
48 75.6 741.3 107520 98 154.3 1514 2 19520
49 77.2 756.8 109760 99 155.9 1529 22 1760
1O0 157.5 1544 224000
For 101 or greater, add 100 measurements to number adding up to desired measurement (e.g., for 111, add mea-
surements for 100 and l l ) .
"OF')
B. Formulas
la. Carbon Equivalent C.E.
Purpose: This value is calculated to estimate the susceptibility of steel to cold crack-
ing in the HAZ.
There are several equations proposed for calculating the carbon equivalents. Two
are identified below.
CE=C+-+Mn C r + M o + V +-Ni+Cu%(BS5135)U.K.andEurope
6 5 15
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Mn Si Ni Cr Mo V
CE = C+ - + -+ -+ -
5
+-
4
+-
14
6
% (WES 3001) Japan
24 40
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
J=
v x 1000
where,
J = Heat input in kJ/in. (or kJ/mm)
E = Arc voltage in volts
I = Welding current in amperes
V = Arc speed, in./min (&min)
where,
T, = thickness of higher yield stress plate material
Ti = thickness of original plate material
Rz = minimum yield stress of higher yield stress material
Ri = minimum yield stress of original plate material
C. Diagrams
1. Iron Carbon Equilibrium Diagram
Fe-Fe3C SYSTEM
OC
2 3 4 5 --``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
~ I 2.OCr-0.5Mo steel
400
Carbon steel
400
300
500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
NELSON CURVES
3. Schaeffler, DeLong, and WRC-1992
The Schaeffler and DeLong diagrams both relate the microstructural constitution of
chromium-nickel based stainless steels to composition. Chromium, molybdenum, nio-
bium and silicon are grouped as ferrite formers, while nickel, carbon and manganese
are grouped as those elements that promote austenite formation. In the case of the
DeLong diagram, nitrogen is included in the latter category.
The Schaeffler Diagram is most commonly used to predict the approximate
microstructure and hence resistance to hot cracking in manual metal-arc weld metal.
The diagram can be applied to mixed and dissimilar welding. To apply the diagram,
it is necessary to know
the composition of the undiluted weld metal,
the composition of the base metal(s), and
the dilution and the proportion of base metal in the final weld.
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
APPROXIMATE BOUNDARY OF
.15c AUSTENITE REGION FOR
003% MIN FOR ALL STEELS WRoUGHT MATERIALS
36 EXEFTWHERENOTED / \
SILIWN: 03W MIN
O 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
Creq = XCr +%Mo+ (1.5 x %Si) + í0.5x %I%)
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Creq=%Cr +%Mo+ (0.7x%Nb)
The following may be used as a guide to the dilutions that can occur with shielded
metal arc welding (SMAW):
Root run or square butt joint with root opening 30 f40%
,MAW{
Single run fillet or normal cladding 20 f30%
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Gas tungsten arc welding dilution varies from 30 percent for normal butt joint, and
fillet welds up to 100 percent for autogenous root runs. Gas metal arc welds usually
give 2 0 4 5 percent dilution, while submerged arc gives 30-50 percent. Fill passes of
multi-run welds can range from O to 45 percent, depending upon the process and the
exact position of the run.
The DeLong diagram was developed as a result of the growing use of the gas-shield-
ed welding processes. These are more prone to variable nitrogen pickup by the weld
metal than the shielded metal arc welding process. The diagram is shown with a larg-
er scale focus upon that area in which the majority of austenitic stainless weld metals
lie. It is used specifically to predict the ferrite content of weld metals in which the
nitrogen has been established by analysis. It is applicable to the majority of welding
processes; note, however, that nitrogen content can vary with welding conditions and
gas shielding efficiency.
More recently, the Welding Research Council’s diagram (WRC- 1992) has been
developed and is generally considered more accurate, especially for grades such as
duplex stainless steels.
Section III of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Code (NB-
2433) allows the use of both the DeLong and WRC-1992 diagrams to predict ferrite
content, preferably expressed as the Ferrite Number (FN), which differs from the pre-
viously used Ferrite Percent only above about 8 FN. Where nitrogen is not actually
measured, the code permits the use of the following assumed values:
shielded metal arc, gas tungsten arc, and submerged arc welding:
0.06 percent
gas metal arc and gas shielded flux cored welding: 0.08 percent
Self-shielded flux cored welding: 0.12 percent
4. Electrode Classification
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
crack tip opening displacement (CTOD), 35, 37- fracture mechanics tests, 37-39
39,64,65,98-99
cracking susceptibility formula, 140 gas shielded processes, cost of, 69-70
cracks, types of, 102-106 gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 19, 145
crater pipes, i 14-115 cast-to-cast variability in, 91
craters, 115 gauges, 53-54
cross-weid tensile tests, 33 geometry defects, 44
cutting oxygen pressure, 128 groove angle, 76
grooving. See electrode gouging
D1.l, 25
defect analysis, 43-46 hardness equivalent table, 136
defects. See weld defects hardness survey, 31-32
DeLong diagram, 144 hardness surveys, 10
deposition efficiency factor, 69 heat input formula, 141
deposition rate, in calculating costs, 68 heat input, significance of, 55
discontinuities. See also weld defects heat line bending, 108
chevron cracking, 84-88 heat treatment, 108
communicating to welder, 49 heat-affected zone (HAZ)
from arc blow, 93 hardness of, 29, 31, 55, 56, 96
hydrogen cracking, 31 hydrogen cracking in, 31
in micro-examination, 32 in CTOD, 38-39
transverse planar, 85 in impact testing, 36
distortion, excess, 107-108 in micro-examination, 32
drag, 127 in temper bead technique, 29-30
heating pad. See fixturing
electrode basicity index, 140 high deposition rate techniques, 75-76
electrode gouging/cutting, 130-132 hot cracking susceptibility (HCS), 122
electrodes. See also consumables hot-wire gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), 76
angle, 94 hydrogen cracking, 31
bare wire, 22 hydrogen cracks, in HAZ, 102-103
cellulostic/rutile, 34, 75 hydrogen, in chevron cracking, 85-86
classification of, 146-147
coating, 23 impact tests, 10, 35-36, 65
diameter, charts for, 56, 57 incomplete fusion, 46, 120-121
ferritic,buttering with, 97 incomplete root penetration, 109
low-hydrogen, 75 international specifications, 7
re-striking, 23 iron carbon equilibrium diagram, 142
SMAW rods, storage of, 59
solid GTAW wire (straight lengths), 59 joint completion rate, 68
stub lengths, 54 joint type, costs, 72, 80-82
electroslag welding (ESW), 76
normalizing, 95 kerf. 125
equipment assessment, 19-20
etches, dendritic and nital, 31.32 labor, cost of, 67
lamellar tearing, 103-104
ferrite testing, 32 linear completion rate, 68
filler metal. See consumables low-alloy steels, cutting, 125
fish eyes, 34,35 low-carbon steel, cutting, 125
fitness for purpose, 99
fixturing, 77-78 macro-examination, 30-31
flame cutting. See oxyfiel cutting macroscopic examination, FCAW, 63
flux cored arc welding (FCAW), 16,31,34, 49, manual processes, cost of, 68,73
84, 118 material mechanical properties, 16-18
low toughness in, 89-90 material weldability, 9
test procedures, 62-63 mechanical tests, 30-36
flux recycling, 86 bend testing, 34-35
flux-covered electrode, gouging with, 131 hardness survey, 31-32
fracture mechanics. See fitness for purpose impact testing, 10, 35-36
--``,``-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---