Welding Processes and Practices PDF

Welding Processes and
Practices
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Located, reviewed and reprinted in cooperation with the authors under the
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This publication is designed to provide information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is made
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AmericanWelding Society
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Copyright American Welding Society
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Welding Processes and Practices was prepared to com- covers general theory, each of the others a single process.
plement welding programs of postsecondary and voca- These sections on processes are complete in themselves
tional schools. The text is a balanced blend of process and can be taught independently of one another.
theory and practical application exercises. It is designed Every effort has been made to provide the student and
to challenge and inspire the student. The authors have instructor with technically correct information on each of
emphasized neither the theoretical nor the practical por- the processes selected for this book. The drawings and
tion at the expense of the other. The two have been photographs have been carefully chosen and prepared to
blended to help create not only a skilled welder but a help the student understand the material. Commonly
knowledgeable one as well. used terms and expressions are identified and defined in
Welding Processes and Practices is intended for begin- each section, but American Welding Society terms and
ning students in postsecondary and vocational and tech- definitions are followed throughout.
nical schools as well as for practicing welders who wish Each chapter has been written in easily understood lan-
to increase their knowledge of welding theory and appli- guage that will not discourage the beginning student. Yet
cation. The book combines classroom theory and shop the contents provide enough background and scientific
practice to promote an understanding of the major weld- explanations to motivate the more advanced students to
ing processes. It will help a student to master the skills seek more knowledge about welding. Instructorscan use
specified in the portions of the text that describe welding the text for reading assignments and as a supplement to
procedures. Since each section begins with basic process weld theory classes.
theory and moves on to practical exercises that become The practical exercises lead students through proven,
increasingly more difficult, the book is ideally suited for step-by-step procedures designed to make them proficient
students at all levels. Beginning students should practice in the manual application of the welding process. Each
all the lessons, but the more advanced students may omit practical exercise, and procedure, outlines the equipment
the earlier lessons and progress to the more difficult ex- and material necessary to do the exercise. Safety i s
ercises. Each of the process sections has a similar chapter stressed throughout. Proper techniques are graphically
sequence. Students should find this helpful in locating emphasized in the drawings and photographs. Exercises
information they wish to retrieve. begin with basic steps and progress to more difficult tech-
Each section of the book is meant to stand alone. It is niques. This text is competency-based and may be used
not necessary to follow any particular sequence or rota- in either fixed-time or celf-paced instructional programs,
tion. The process sections may be taught in whatever We would like to acknowledge the contributions of
sequence is chosen by the instructor. Each section begins coauthor Len Koellhoffer. He.originally developed the
with the history and development of the process, fol- concept and structure of this text. Len was a dedicated
lowed by chapters on process basics, equipment basics, teacher and an active member of the American Welding
and system operation. The text presents advantages, dis- Society until the time of his death. We think that he would
advantages, as well as troubleshooting. Safety is stressed approve of what we have achieved.
throughout the sections and is highlighted by color print-
ing of the sentences containing precautionary informa- Union, New jersey August F. (Gus) Manz
tion. Objectives are specified at the beginning of each Hampton, Virginia Eugene C . Hornberger
lesson, and theory questions, based on lesson objectives,
are given at the end of each section. Section I of the book
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C H A P T E R 7 A R C BLOW 107
B Lesson 7A The Causes and Effects of Arc Blow 107
REVIEW EXERCISES 110

C H A P T E R 1 PRECAUTIONS AND
SAFE PRACTICES 3
Lesson 1A The Major Hazards 3 SECTI@N EH[ (DXYFUEL GAS
Lesson 1B Precautionary Measures 4 WELDING AND CUTTING E12
Lesson 1C Other Hazards and Protective
Measures 7 C H A P T E R 1 OXYFUEL PROCESS
Lesson 1D Sources of Safety Information 10 BASICS 115
Lesson 1A Review of the Hazards 115
C H A P T E R 2 T E E WELDING Lesson 1B Special Safety Considerations 116
P U D D L E AND WELD ZONE 12 Lesson 1C Types of Fuel 117
Lesson 2A The important Factors Controlling Lesson 1D Types of Flames 120
Puddle Size 12
Lesson 26 Porosity 14 C H A P T E R 2 OXYFUEL EQUIPMENT
Lesson 2C Puddle Defects and Weld BASICS 122
Discontinuities 15 Lesson 2A Torches 122
Lesson 2D Common Causes of Failure 19 Lesson 26 Cylinders 124
Lesson 2C Regulators 126
C H A P T E R 3 MATERIALS 21 Lesson 2D Hoses, Connections, and Check
Lesson 3A Mechanical Factors 21 Valves 127
Lesson 38 Physical Factors 25 Lesson 2E Typical Setup 130
Lesson 3C Material identification Tests 27
Lesson 3D Classification of Steel and Aluminum 32 C H A P T E R 3 OXYFUEL SYSTEM
OPERATION 132
Lesson 3A Lighting Up 132
C H A P T E R 4 INSPECTION
36 Lesson 38 Shutdown 134
AND TESTING
Lesson 4A Destructive Tests 36 Lesson 3C Materials 135
44 Lesson 3 0 Possible Problems 137
Lesson 4B Nondestructive Tests
Lesson 4C Critical Welding Variables 48 Lesson 3E Cleaning an Oxyacetylene Torch
Tip 139
C H A P T E R 5 B A S I C POSITIONS C H A P T E R 4 OXYFUEL FLAME
AND JOINTS 50 CUTTING 141
Lesson 5A Basic Positions 50 Lesson 4A Safe Use of the Equipment 141
Lesson 5B Basic Joints 55 Lesson 48 Making Straight Cuts and Beveled
Lesson 5C Penetration Factors 57 Cuts on Steel Plate 146
Lesson 5 0 Distortion: Causes and Cures 64 Lesson 4C Making Piercing and Elongating
Lesson 5E Welding Symbols 69 Holes 151
Lesson 4D Flame Cutting and Beveling Pipe 152
C H A P T E R 6 POWER SOURCES 90
Lesson 6A Definition of Terms 90 C H A P T E R 5 OXYACETYLENE
Lesson 6B Energy Sources 92 WELDING O F CARBON STEEL 155
Lesson 6C Devices 94 Lesson 5A Welding in the Flat Position With
Lesson 6D Types of Control 97 and Without Filler Metal 155
Lesson 6E Volt-Ampere Characteristics 99 Lesson 58 Welding in the Horizontal Position 159
Lesson 6F Statics and Dynamics 102 Lesson 5C Welding in the Vertical Position 161
Lesson 6G Possible Problems 105 Lesson 5 0 Welding in the Overhead Position 164
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X CONTENTS
C H A P T E R 6 OXYACETYLENE Lesson 58 Welding in the Horizontal Position 229

B R A Z E WELDING 166 Lesson 5C Welding in the Vertical Position 234
Lesson 6A Braze Welding in the Flat Position 167 Lesson 5D Welding in the Overhead Position 239
Lesson 66 Braze Welding in the Horizontal
Posit ion 168 C H A P T E R 6 S H I E L D E D METAL
Lesson 6C Braze Welding in the Vertical ARC WELDING OF SHEET METAL 244
Posit ion 170 Lesson 6A Welding an Outside-Corner joint in
the Flat or Downhand Position 244
C H A P T E R 7 OXYACETYLENE Lesson 66 Welding in the Horizontal Position 246
WELDING OF P I P E 172 Lesson 6C Welding in the Vertical Position,
Lesson 7A Welding a V-Groove To Join Two DownhiII 248
Pieces of Pipe 172 Lesson 6D Welding in the Overhead Position 250
Lesson 6E Welding a Six-Sided Box, in the 2G,
WEVHEW EWEERCHSES 175 3G, and 4G Positions 252
C H A P T E R 7 S H I E L D E D METAL
A R C WELDING OF P I P E 254
Lesson 7A Preparations for Welding Pipe 254
Lesson 76 Welding Pipe in the 1G Position,
B 78 with its Axis in the Horizontal Position 257
Lesson 7C Welding Pipe in the 2G Position,
C H A P T E R 1 SHIELDED METAL
with its Axis in the Vertical Position 258
A R C WELDING P R O C E S S BASICS 181
Lesson 7D Welding Pipe in the 5G Position,
Lesson 1A Review of the Hazards 181
with its Axis in the Horizontal Position 26 1
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Lesson 1B Special Safety Considerations 183

Lesson 7E Welding Pipe in the 6G Position,
Lesson 1C Electrode Coatings 185
with its Axis at a 45-Degree Angle 265
Lesson 1D Electrode Classification 187
Lesson 1E Electrode Selection 189
Lesson 1F The Arc and Metal Transfer 192 268
Lesson 1G Process Capabilities and Uses 194
C H A P T E R 2 SHIELDED METAL
A R C WELDING EQUIPMENT B A S I C S 196
Lesson 2A Electrode Holders, Cables, and %7@
Clamps 196
Lesson 26 Power Sources 198 C H A P T E R 1 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC
Lesson 2C Typical Setup and the Welding WELDING P R O C E S S BASICS 273
Circuit 202 Lesson I A Review of the Hazards 273
- Lesson 16 Special Safety Considerations 275
C H A P T E R 3 SHIELDED METAL Lesson 1C Tungsten Electrodes 277
A R C WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION 204 Lesson 1D The Arc 280
Lesson 3A Arc Starts and Stops 204 Lesson 1E Gas Shielding and Gas Backup 282
Lesson 36 Critical Variables 206
Lesson 3C Possible Problems and Solutions 207 C H A P T E R 2 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC
WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS 285
C R A P T E R 4 A I R CARBON A R C Lesson 2A Torches 285
CUTTING A N D GOUGING 210 Lesson 28 Power Supplies and Polarity 287
Lesson 4A Process Basics 210 Lesson 2C High-Frequency Units 290
Lesson 46 Equipment Basics 21 2 Lesson 2D Typical Setup 293
Lesson 4C System Operation 214
C H A P T E R 3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC
C H A P T E R 5 S H I E L D E D METAL WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION 296
A R C WELDING OF P L A T E 21 7 Lesson 3A Arc Starts, Equipment Adjustments
Lesson 5A Welding in the Flat or Downhand and Settings 296
Position 217 Lesson 3B Weld Stops 298

CONTENTS Xi
Lesson 3C Cleaning Action 300 Lesson 4C Welding in the Vertical Position 373
Lesson 3D Important Variables 302 Lesson 4D Welding in the Overhead Position 376
Lesson 3E Possible Problems and Solutions 304
CHAPTER 5 S P R A Y TRANSFER
C H A P T E R 4 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING O F STEEL 378
WELDING OF CARBON STEEL 307 Lesson SA Welding in the Flat Position 379
Lesson 4A Welding in the Flat Position 308 Lesson 56 Welding in the Horizontal Position 380
Lesson 46 Welding in the Horizontal Position 312
Lesson 4C Welding in the Vertical Position 315 REWEW EXERCISES 382
Lesson 4D Welding in the Overhead Position 317
C H A P T E R 5 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC

WELDING O F ALUMINUM 321
Lesson 5A Welding Aluminum in the Flat 384
Position 322
Lesson 56 Welding Aluminum in the
Horizontal Position 324 C H A P T E R 1 FLUX=CORED ARC
Lesson 5C Welding Aluminum in the Vertical WELDING P R O C E S S BASICS 387
Position, Uphill 325 Lesson 1A Review of the Hazards 387
Lesson 5D Welding Aluminum in the Overhead Lesson 16 Special Safety Considerations 3 89
Position 327 Lesson 1C Electrode Construction and Melt
Rates 390
Lesson 1D The Arc and Metal Transfer 392
Lesson 1E Electrodes and Shielding Gases 393
C H A P T E R 2 FLUX=COREDA R C
WELDING EQUIPMENT B A S I C S 396
Lesson 2A Welding Guns 396
C H A P T E R 1 GAS METAL ARC Lesson 2B Wire Feeders 398
WELDING P R O C E S S BASICS 336 Lesson 2C Power Supplies and Polarity 400
Lesson 1A Review of the Hazards 336 Lesson 2D Typical Setup 402
Lesson 16 Special Safety Precautions 337
Lesson 1C Electrode Melt Rates 340 C H A P T E R 3 FLUX=CORED A R C
Lesson 1D The Arc and Metal Transfer 342 WELDING SYSTEM O P E R A T I O N 405
Lesson 1E Shielded Gases 345 Lesson 3A Arc Starts 405
Lesson 38 Weld Stops 408
C H A P T E R 2 GAS METAL A R C Lesson 3C Weld Spatter 41O
WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS 347 Lesson 3D Important Variables 412
Lesson 2A Welding Guns 347 Lesson 3E Possible Problems and Solutions 415
Lesson 26 Wire Feeders 350
Lesson 2C Power Sources and Polarity 352 C H A P T E R 4 FLUX=CORED A R C
Lesson 2D Typical Setups 355 WELDING OF STEEL 418
Lesson 4A Welding in the Flat Position 419
C H A P T E R 3 GAS METAL ARC Lesson 46 Welding in the Horizontal Position 42 1
WELDING SYSTEM O P E R A T I O N 357
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Lesson 4C Welding in the Vertical Position,

Lesson 3A Arc Starts 357 Uphill 422
Lesson 36 Weld Stops 359 Lesson 4 0 Welding in the Overhead Position 424
Lesson 3C Spatter and Arc Instability 361
Lesson 3 0 Important Variables 3 64
426
Lesson 3E Possible Problems and Solutions 366
GLOSSARY 429
C H A P T E R 4 SHORT=CIRCUITING
A R C WELDING OF STEEL 368 APPENDIXES 447
, Lesson 4A Welding in the Flat Position 369
Lesson 46 Welding in the Horizontal Position 371 INDEX 473

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GENERAL THEORY
Welding is not just a matter of adding enough heat to a metal to melt it and
then letting it solidify. The strength and the integrity of a weld depend on the
material properties of the metal being welded, as well as on a great many
other factors. These factors include the shape of the weld, the temperature of
the heat source, the amount of heat produced by the source, and even the
type of power source used when you are arc welding. Everything seems to
have an influence on the weld. Many of these factors are the same for all
welding and cutting processes, however. This section discusses the things of
a general nature that apply to almost all processes.
Because of the high temperature needed in welding, the metal can react
with almost everything it contacts. The metal will react with air, moisture,
dirt, and other materials that can touch it while it i s hot. The reaction products
themselves usually wind up in the weld puddle or are released into the en-
vironment. All welding processes are designed to work around these reactions,
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or to take advantage of them. For example, some of the processes use special
shielding gases to protect the molten metal from the atmosphere. Others use
fluxes. Some of the gases are intended to react in a controlled manner with
the hot metal in just the same way that fluxes operate.
Since the composition of the weld metal and materials used in welding is
so important, specifications are written to describe what that composition is
supposed to be. Different organizations publish specifications that are used by
welding engineers and designers. This section discusses some of these speci-
fications and what they mean to the welder.
The combinations of weld joints, materials, temperature, positions,
processes, and so on that can be used to make a good weld are almost infinite
in number. in order to make a particular weld a bit easier to describe, the
American Welding Society has developed a special system of symbols. These
symbols are used by designers and engineers to tell the welder what is to be
done. The symbols are a sort of secret code between welders and designers.
This section discusses symbols and their use. Once you understand their use,
you will be able to read symbols just as you read the daily newspaper.

The information in this section i s of a general nature. It can be used in
combination with a process section when you want to learn about a particular
welding process. Each of the process sections is separate from the others. You
do not have to use the process sections in any particular sequence, but they
have been arranged in an order preferred by the authors. Good luck!
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CHAPTER 1
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LESSON IA
A
@BJIECTIaVES CO Metal oxides the welding zone. The best thing for
Upon completion of this lesson you you to do is to act as though all
should be able to fumes and gases are harmful and
1. Identify at least four major weld- can be hazardous to your health.
ing hazards.
2. List three types of radiation. r RADIATION
3. Name four gases produced near The high temperatures of flames and
or in some arcs. arcs produce infrared radiation. Arcs
F’HGURE BA.8 Arcs and flames form produce ultraviolet radiation in ad-
fumes and gases such as ozone, carbon dition to a very bright visible light.
LOOK FOR THE LABEI, dioxide, carbon monoxide, oxides of The infrared radiation, sometimes
You will find a precautionary label nitrogen, metal oxides, and metal called IR radiation, comes from the
vapors. hot metal as well as from the flames
on welding consurnables and equip-
ment. The label is based on one giv- and arc. (See Figure 1A-2.) It is the
en in American Welding Society same type of radiation as the heat
specifications, as well as on Nation- you feel from a burning fire. Ultra-
al Electrical Manufacturers Associa- violet radiation, also called UV ra-
tion standards. The label identifies diation, comes from welding arcs.
the major hazards of welding and It can give you an “arc burn” in
cutting processes. This lesson dis- the same way as the sun causes
cusses these major hazards. sunburn.
The amount and type of radiation
you are exposed to depends on the
FUMES AND CASKS
FHCKJRE ñA.2 Arcs and flames pro- temperature of the materials and the
Arcs and flames produce fumes and duce radiation such as infrared (also process you are working with. Be-
gases. Most of the fumes come from from hot metal), ultraviolet (arcs only), cause arcs are hotter than flames,
combustion products, from burning and intense visible light. they produce a great deal of ultra-
fuel gases, and from heated metal. violet radiation. When ultraviolet ra-
(See Figure 1A-I.) The intense heat
diation interacts with the oxygen in
from welding also causes metal va-
the air, it forms ozone, a gas which
pors to rise from the weld puddle.
can be hazardous to your health. It
These metal vapors react with oxy- shielding gases, such as argon,
is best to act as though all radiation
gen in the air to produce the oxides which are released into the air. Arcs
is hazardous.
that make up part of the visible also form ozone and oxides of
welding fumes. Flames and arcs nitrogen.
both form invisible gases. For ex- The amount and type of fumes NOISE
ample, carbon dioxide is formed and gases that are released depend Flames and arcs make noise. The
when a flame burns. In addition, on the materials you are using. They amount of noise depends on the en-
some arc welding processes use also depend on the temperature in ergy of the flames and arcs, as well

SECTION I GENERAL THEORY
as their shapes and sizes. (See Figure

1A-3). Some flames and arcs can be
-Sound pressure
waves 7 trapped inside of molten metal.
When the gas is heated by a flame,
as loud as a jet airplane. Overex- or arc, it expands. When the pres-
posure to loud sounds can perma- sure from the expanding gas is great
nently damage your hearing. enough, it can cause the bubbles to
Many welding shops have other burst. Bursting gas bubbles throw off
sources of noise. For example, chip- bits of molten metal. When the bits
ping hammers, motors, presses, and are small and fine they are called
other equipment all add to the shop FIGURE IA-3 The noise from arcs sparks. When they are larger they
noise. It is best to act as though all and flames is produced by the rapid are called spatter.
loud sounds can damage your expansion of gases and by electrical Fine sparks can ignite flammable
hearing. fuse action. materials. However, because sparks
are usually very small and fine, they
ELECTRIC SHOCK are not likely to burn you. Spatter
All the arc welding and cutting can also start fires, but spatter balls
processes use power supplies. Some are larger and contain more heat en-
processes also need to use controls best thing for you to do is to act as ergy than sparks. Spatter can cause
and other electric equipment. Some- though all electric shocks can kill. burns to your skin.
times, even oxyfuel welding and Hot spatter can also stick to metal
cutt ing require electric equipment. SPATTER AND SPARKS surfaces as it freezes. It may even
Everyone knows that strong electric All welding processes can produce weld itself to the surface. Spatter
shocks are dangerous and can kill. spatter and sparks, the amount de- burns can be very painful and trou-
However, even slight shocks can be pending on the specific process. blesome. It is best to consider all
dangerous, for they can startle you Sparks are usually caused by electric spatter and sparks as dangerous and
and cause reflex actions: For exam- energy, just as when an overloaded capable of starting fires and causing
ple, a muscle reflex could cause you fuse blows. burns to your skin.
to fall from a ladder or scaffold. The Sometimes bubbles of gas are
~ ~
LESSON 1B
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES
OBJECTIVES yourself from the hazards. The la- and gases from arcs and flames. One
Upon completion of this lesson you bels for welding materials and way you can protect yourself is to
should be able to equipment specified by the Ameri- keep your head out of the fume
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1. identify three pieces of equip- can Welding Society, the National plume. Because hot air rises, the
ment that you can use to protect Electrical Manufacturers Associa- "smoke"-the hot fumes and gas-
yourself from fumes and gases. tion, and the American National es-from an arc or flame usually
2. Explain the hazards of clothes Standards Institute recommend sev- rises straight up. These fumes and
made from plastic fibers. eral safe practices to follow. gases mix with the room air and
3. Describe why cleaning solvents In addition, most manufacturers spread around the general area. You
should be removed from the list precautions and safe practices in can ask someone else to watch you
welding area. their manuals and instruction litera- weld and see which way the fumes
4. Identify two major effects of elec- ture. Be sure you read and under- and gases move. Once you know
tric shock. stand the labels and instructions be- which way they are blowing, you
fore using any equipment. can position yourself on the up-
READTHELABEL stream side. Then the air will carry
A good precautionary label tells you FUMES AND GASES the fumes and gases away from your
what things you can do to protect You should not breathe the fumes breathing zone rather than to it.

CHAPTER 1 PRECAUTIONS AND SAFE PRACTICES 5
If you have a fan to help blow

away the fumes and gases, or if there
is a strong breeze, don?t allow the
air to blow at your face or back.
From front or back the fumes and
gases can get under your helmet and
in your breathing zone. It is best to
have the air currents blow from your
side and carry the fumes and gases
An
away from your body. (See Figure st can
1B-1.) remove fumes
You can also use exhaust ducts.
Place the pickup nozzle near the
weld zone. Be careful not to get too
close to the arc or flame. The suc-
tion can ruin the arc shielding or
flame shape. A good rule of thumb -Fans can blow fumes a w a y
is to keep the duct?sopen end about
one-duct diameter away from the
arc or flame. At this distance the
suction won?t disturb the arc or
flame too much.
Erhaust ducts can
You can also use an overhead ex- capture fumes and
haust system. It will remove the hot gases
gases as they rise over your head. FHGURE uB.8 Some typical methods used to control fumes and gases.
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Just remember to keep your head out
of the fume plume. Sometimes you
can put your work near an open
window or doorway. Be sure to ob-
serve the direction of the air flow. RADIATION lens shade that is too dark for you to
Then position yourself so that the The best way for you to avoid ultra- see the weld zone. Then pick a light-
fumes and gases blow away from violet and infrared radiation is to er shade, the shade that lets you be-
your body. Remember, don?t let the wear protective clothing and safety gin to see the arc zone while weld-
breeze blow on your back or into glasses. The clothing must be thick ing. Do not go to lighter shades. This
your face, for the fumes and gases enough to block out the ultraviolet rule of thumb will always provide
will be trapped under your helmet radiation; otherwise you can get a protection for your eyes. Never start
and in your breathingzone. At times burn right through your clothes. with a lens shade that is too light and
you may have to wear a protective Clothing shouId be fire-retad a nt go to darker shades; you can injure
mask with an air supply or special whenever possible. Be careful of your eyes while you try to find the
filters. clothes made of plastic fibers. Many correct lens shade.
Some welding torches have a plastic fibers can melt, stick to your You can also use the lens shade
built-in exhaust system, but these skin, and might cause severe burns. recommended by the American
torches are usually quite a bit heav- Only special man-made fibers and Welding Society in its safety publi-
ier and not as portable as standard woolen fibers can stand up to ultra- cations. Manufacturers also supply
torches. Some manufacturers sell violet radiation. Many fibers will lens shade selection charts.
portable fume collectors that have a disintegrate after being exposed to Radiation can cause chemical
variety of ducts and nozzles to col- strong radiation. changes in some cleaning solvents.
lect fumes. They act almost the same Protect your eyes by wearing the For example, arc rays can convert
as household vacuum cleaners, ex- proper shade of colored safety glass- some cleaning solvents into phos-
cept that they are designed to work es. (See Figure 1B-2). If you are an gene and phosphine, both of which
near arcs and flames. Never, never arc welder, and do not know the are poison gases. Be sure all solvents
use ordinary vacuum cleaners as correct lens shade to use in your and vapors are removed from the
fume collectors. You may start a rag- welding shield, you can apply the work area before you use a welding
ing fire. following rule of thumb. Start with a arc.

6 SECTION I GENERAL THEORY
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Curved shell Narrow shell Straight shell
(6)
FIGURE 1B.2 (a) Various types of safety glasses. (Courtesy of Sellstrom Manufacturing Company.)
(b) Welding shields are available in various shapes. A few of the more popular styles are shown
here. (Courtesy of Jackson Products.)
It is good practice to wear regular riods. lt will also recover from the ear drums. Good industrial-grade
safety glasses at all times. Not only “temporary threshold shift” brought ear protection will also protect you
do they protect your eyes from on by short-term loud noise. Contin- from hot spatter. (See Figure 1 B-3.)
sparks and spatter, but they give uous exposure to loud noise will Remember, loud noises can also
some protection against radiation. permanently damage your hearing. come from other equipment in the
Safety glasses can help protect your You should always wear hearing weld area. Equipment such as en-
eyes from arc flashes and from the protection where there is too much g¡ne-driven generators, chipping
infrared rays from hot metal, which noise. hammers, drop forges, and shears
can also hurt your eyes. Always Ear plugs and ear muffs are forms are very noisy. The hearing lost
wear your safety glasses. of hearing protection. They should through overexposure to loud noise
be designed to special industrial is permanent loss and cannot be
NOISE safety standards. Although some restored. Always wear hearing
Noise is unwanted sound. Ordinary protection is better than none, don’t protection.
noise can annoy you and distract use homemade protectors such as
your attention, and loud noises can cotton balls. Sometimes when you ELECTRIC SHOCK
damage your hearing. Most of the least expect it a ball of hot spatter Electric shock can kill you by mak-
time your hearing can recover from may hit your ear. Hot spatter is pain- ing your heart stop beating properly.
exposure to loud noises for short pe- ful and has been known to damage Most people are aware of this fact,

CHAPTER 1 PRECAUTIONS AND SAFE PRACTICES la
ducts electricity, never weld in the

rain, or where it is very wet. Stand
on a platform or plank, never in
puddles or mud. Always use some-
thing to keep your feet out of water
and wetness.
Don't wrap extra welding cable
around your body while welding.
Damaged insulation could expose
you to a shock. Always keep from
touching live electric parts. Never
work on electric equipment unless
you are qualified. Be sure that the
power is off and that the cables and FIGURE 1B.4 Some types of caps for
welders.
equipment are in good repair. If they
aren't, get them fixed. Don't over-
load cables and equipment. Use
the correct current for the job. Too hidden places. Wear pants without
much current can ruin insulation cuffs. If you wear boots, or high-
Y and destroy equipment. topped shoes, keep your trouser legs
FìiGETHIE 1B.3 Two types of ear pro- Remember, even if the shock on the outside. Keep your shirt
tection: the head set covers the entire doesn't kill you, the fall might. pocket flaps buttoned. Do every-
ear; the plugs are inserted in the ear. thing you can to keep spatter from
(Courtesy of Sellstrom Manufacturing
SPATTER AND SPARKS getting into pockets and crevices.
Company.)
Spatter can travel great distances. A Wear a cap when spatter can
hot spatter ball can bounce like a reach your hair, or when you are
rubber ball. It can roll, and it can welding overhead. (See Figure 16-
but they don't realize that shock can ricochet like a billiard ball. You can 4.) Some wigs and some hair sprays
also prevent them from breathing prevent fires and spatter damage by can burn. Many welders wear a
properly. Even though your heart i s erecting spatter shields and using baseball cap, but they wear it back-
working fine, you can die because welding curtains. ward. The "bill" of the cap prevents
you cannot breathe. A good first Cover all flammable materials in spatter from getting under their col-
aid procedure for electric shocks is the weld area, or move them away. lar and down the back of the neck.
to check whether the person is Keep spatter from getting into hid- Always protect yourself from spatter
breathing. den spaces. Plug up openings and sparks.
You can help prevent shock by around pipes and holes in walls and
keeping dry. Because moisture con- floors. Otherwise fires can start in
QBI$EG%"VES 2. Explain why you should wear 4. Explain why a carpenter's ham-
Upon completion of this tesson you gloves, even when you are hot mer should not be used for
should be able to and uncomfortable. chipping.
1. Explain why clean, loose clothing 3. Give a simple definition for a
combat heat and fatigue. confined space.
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HIDDEN HAZARDS
Every work area can have hidden
hazards, as well as obvious ones.
You should learn to recognize these
hazards. When you know what to
look for, you can take measures to
protect yourself. The lessons in this
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chapter cannot cover all the hazards

of welding and cutting. New ones
are found everyday. However, if
you learn these lessons well and fol-
low their teachings, you will avoid
a great deal of pain and protect your
equipment from damage.
HEAT AND FATIGUE

Welding can be very uncomforta-
ble, especially when the weather is
hot and humid. You may be tempted
to take off your protective clothing
because it i s too hot. Don’t do it.
FHGBIBE BC=R A properly outfitted welder.
You may suffer a burn that is more
uncomfortable than the heat. Try to
wear loose-fitting, clean clothing.
(See Figure 1C-1 .) It will absorb your ing can cause trapped gases and va- CON FIN ED S PAC15S
sweat and let air circulate near your pors to expand. Increased pressure Everyone knows that the inside of a
skin. if you use a fan, be careful that from expanded gas can cause con- tank is a confined space. The same
the breeze blows from the side. Air tainers to explode. is true of ship compartments. When-
from the back lowers the pressure in ever you work in a confined space,
front of you. This area of low pres- you should have an emergency plan
sure will tend to draw the welding Sometimes containers and pipes in case anything goes wrong. For ex-
fumes and gases into your breathing are coated with an unknown mate- ample, when you work inside a
zone. rial. Welding heat can change the tank, you could wear a safety rope
Sweaty, bare hands conduct elec- unknown material to fumes and gas- around your waist. (See Figure 1C-
tricity better than dry hands. Be sure es, which could be poisonous, cor- 3.) if something goes wrong, you
you wear dry gloves, even when you rosive, or even explosive. (See Fig-
are hot and uncomfortable. Never ure 1C-2.) If you don’t know that the
touch “live” torches and electrodes pipe or container is clean, don’t start
with sweaty hands. An electric welding. Make certain that all con-
shock, which might be mild if you tainers and-pipesare clean and vent- Fumes from unknown
/--material inside ofpipe
are dry, could kill you if you are ed before you apply heat. When you
wet and sweaty. If you become are not sure, don’t weld.
overtired, stop welding. Just as you It would be best for you to act as
should not drive when you are over- though all uncleaned pipes and con-
tired, don’t weld either. tainers can release poisonous gases
Always act as though heat and fa- and fumes and can explode, and as
tigue are your enemy, and avoid though all unknown surface coat-
them both when you can. ings can release toxic fumes and
gases when heated.
CONTAINERS AND PIPES Remember the saying “Cleanli-
Unless a container or pipe is new ness is next to godliness”? Well, the
and clean, it could be very danger- same is true for welding materials. If FüGïUBBE EC-Z Always be sure con-
ous to weld. Even a clean container you are a welder, you are much saf- tainers and pipes are clean before you
can be dangerous. Heat from welder if the material is clean. begin.

CHAPTER 1 PRECAUTIONS ANI) SAFE PRACTICES
It is best to see that all cables and steam. Trapped steam can build up
hoses are kept in good repair. pressure in containers and pipe and
may cause an explosion. To protect
W A T I12 A ND M( 1ISTUKII; yourself and others, keep everything
Water and moisture can conduct dry.
electricity and may cause a shock.
When you work in wet places, or CHIPPING
outdoors where it can rain, be extra Special slag chipping hammers and
careful. Moreover, never cool hot chisels are part of a good welder’s
torches by dunking them into a tool kit. Never use an ordinary car-
bucket of water. Dunking isn’t good penter’s hammer as a chipping ham-
FIIGUJIIBnS nc-:E A welclei- with safcty
for the torch insulation and may give mer. It is not designed for this kind
harness and line before entering a
you a shock. of work. Because a carpenter’s ham-
vessel.
Be sure the workpiece you are merhead can splinter and split, use
can be pulled to safety. This means welding is dry. Moisture not only only special chipping hammers.
that you need a partner on the out- can cause bad welds but can turn to (See Figure 1C-4.)
side whenever you work on the
inside.
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When welding in a confined

space, you also need good ventila-
tion. Fumes and gases can collect
inside tanks. Remember, lack of
oxygen can kill, and some fumes
and gases are poisonous. However,
t
tanks and compartments are not the
only spaces that are confined. Any
place where ventilation is poor,
such as the corner of a rooin or an
open pit, can act as a confined
space. Because you can get in and
out easily does not mean everything
is safe. You should treat any place
where fumes and gases collect as a
confined space.
CAßLI<S A N D FIOCbJS
All welding systems use cables, or
hoses, or both. Always keep them in
good repair. Broken insulation can
be the source of shock, and dam-
aged hose can be the source of leak-
ing gases. In addition, you should
keep hoses and cables from being
tripping hazards. Keep them out of
walkways, and don‘t hang them
where they can be a choking haz-
ard. Don’t wrap extra hose or cable
around your body or drop them over
your shoulder. Bare wires can give
you a shock, and gas leaks can sat-
urate your clothes. Clothing saturat-
ed with flammable gas or oxygen
can easily burst into flame or A C-4 A representative group of the ch i pp i ng hammers and scratch brushes
explode. (Courtesy of Lenco, Itic.)

Slag can be sharp and cutting. Al- clutter, for it can become fuel for a welding torches, pressure regula-
ways wear proper safety glasses fire or a tripping hazard, or it can tors, valves, and cables can leak,
whenever you chip. Chipping can fall from high places and hurt cause fires, cause shocks, explo-
be very noisy, and large air-driven someone. sions, and so on. Poorly maintained
hammers can be especially noisy. electric equipment will not make
Be sure to wear hearing protection H OH S 15 I’ IA Y good welds, as well as being a shock
as well as eye protection when you In every workplace there are people hazard.
do chipping. who play practical jokes or fool Your productivity will be less
around. These people can be killers when your equipment doesn’t work
T,ADJIF:HS, CYLINIIERS in a welding area. Never allow properly. Whenever something goes
AND FALLING 0H.JECTS horseplay in a weld area. The elec- wrong with your equipment, have it
The work area usually cdntains ob- tric power, high-pressure gas, flam- fixed. Don’t put off repairs, and
jects that can fall over or be knocked mable materials, and fuels are po- don’t make “quick fixes.” Always
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over. Cylinders should always be se- tentially hazardous; they can injure treat your tools and equipment with
cured in racks or carts. Damaged you and may even kill you. care, and make all repairs promptly
cylinders can become flying missiles Save horseplay for after work, and properly. If you are not quali-
or exploding bombs. when you are away from the work fied to repair pieces of equipment-
Ladders can slip and slide when area. DON’T! You may cause more dam-
they are not anchored or tied down. age and can injure yourself and oth-
Tools and welded parts can be ac- ers. Finally, when in doubt follow
cidentally pushed off of table tops or EQUIPMENT R E P A II< the manufacturer’s instructions.
fall from platforms or scaffolds. AND MA íNTEN AN C I.: Don’t guess about repairs.
You should always keep the weld Always keep your equipment and
area neat and clean. Remove all tools in good repair. Damaged
LESSON I D
BBJECTHVES women.” You have a right to know shall comply with the occupation-
Upon completion of this lesson you about the hazards of your occupa- a l safety and health standards and
should be able to tion. The act states that each em- all rules, regulationsand orders is-
1. identify the following organiza- ployer shall sued pursuant to this Act which
tions: (a) AWS, (6) CGA, (c) are applicable to his own [your]
NFPA, (d) NEMA, and (e) ANSI. Furnish to each of his employees actions and conduct.
2. Identify 29 CFR 1910.252 (Sub- employment and a place of em-
part QI. ployment which are free from rec- This lesson will teach you where
3. Name a good source from which ognized hazards that are causing to find the safety information needed
to obtain “recommended prac- or are likely to cause death or seri- to comply with your responsibilities.
tices” for various welding and ous physical harm to his
cutting processes. employees. MAN UFA C‘I’U I<E l<’S
LITE:R A T U I<I<
OSHA Most employers have always done Most manufacturers provide operat-
The Occupational Safety and Health this. However, sometimes you have ing instructions and safe practices
Act of 1970, commonly referred to to learn about safety and proper information for their products. You
as the OSHA Act, was enacted “to work techniques by yourself. should read and understand those
assure safe and healthful working The act also states that each em- operating instructions before you
conditions for working men and ployee (this means you) operate any equipment. If the in-

CHAPTER 1 PRECAUTIONS AND SAFE PRACTICES
structions are missing, or lost, con- OSHA office, which is usually listed come an active member in one of
tact the manufacturer. Most manu- under “U.S. Government” in your the many AWS Sections.
facturers will provide you with phone directory. If you live in a
additional copies. Many of them small town, you may have to call the OTTIER SOURCES
have special “safe practices” infor- information operator for the number The insurance company for your
mation in the form of booklets and in a nearby large city. You can also employer may be able to provide
pamphlets. Be sure you ask for obtain a great deal of helpful infor- helpful information. Many large in-
copies. Be sure to read the precau- mation by contacting your local Ii- surance companies have people
tionary labels attached to the equip- brary. Even your local newspaper who can help employers train work-
ment and materials you use. Before editor may be able to direct you to ers. There are many associations
you begin, be sure you read and un- the correct government agency. Use and organizations involved in safe-
derstand the information you are a little imagination and you will be ty. Here is a short list of some of
provided. Do not be careless and able to obtain a great deal of helpful them. Contact your local library to
read the instructions only after information. üon’t forget to check learn about others.
something has gone wrong. Read with your own state government of- 1. National Electrical Manufacturers
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your instructions first. ficials. Most states have full-time Association (NEMA)
safety staffs which can help you. 2101 L Street, N.W.
( N V IS I< N M14 N‘I’ SO U I{( IS (4 Washington, D.C. 20037
Many helpful publications are avail- A MISI< ICAN W I.:LI) I NC,
able through the U.S. Government 2. Compressed Gas Association
COCI M ’ Y (AWS)
Printing Office. Sometimes these (CGA)
The American Welding Society pub- 1235 Jefferson Davis Highway
publications can be obtained for free lishes a great many documents on
by writing to your congressman. For Arlington, Va. 22202
safety and health, as well as “Rec-
example, OSHA safety rules for gen- ommended Practices” for the differ-
3. National Fire Protection Associa-
eral industry are published in a book tion (NFPA)
ent welding and cutting processes.
referred to as 29 CFR 19 10 General Batterymarch Park
You can obtain a copy of their pub-
Industry Standards. This i s section lications catalog by writing to Quincy, Mass. 02269
29 of the code of federal regula- 4. American National Standards In-
tions, part 1910. Section 29 CFR American Welding Society stitute (ANSI)
1910.252 (Subpart Q)contains most Publications Dept. 1430 Broadway
of the rules that apply to welding PO Box 35 1040 New York, N.Y. 10018
and cutting and covers both arc and Miami, Florida 33135 Remember, try and take advan-
gas processes. This particular book
tage of the information around you.
is not written for the ordinary worker You can also request the name
You may have to dig a little, but
but is of interest to managers and and address of the AWS Section that
there is a great deal of information
employers. However, you can learn has its meetings nearest you. Most
at your fingertips. Go get it.
a great deal from reading OSHA local AWS Sections have staft peo-
standards. ple who can supply you with helpful
You can also call your local information. You could even be-

CHAPTER 2
LESSON 2A
aDBdBECTHVEB n fl enough. When you use too much

heat, the puddle can penetrate all
Upon completion of this lesson you
should be able to the way through the object you are
1. Explain the relation between pud- welding, and a hole forms in its bot-
dle size and penetration. tom. Then the molten metal runs out
2. Describe surface tension force. of the puddle, just as water runs out
3. Discuss the effect of heat conduc- of a bucket with a hole in the bot-
tion on a puddle. tom. (See figure 2 A - 2 . )
4. Identify two factors that control
flame force. POSITION
The weld position has a strong effect
THE PUDDLE on puddles. The amount of heat that
Every weld begins with a puddle of can make a good weld in the down-
molten metal. The puddle and the FiiQBIIIE 2A.n The weld puddle acts hand (flat) position will probably be
area heated by the arc, or flame, are like a mixing pot. too much heat for overhead or ver-
called the weld zone. The weld pud-
dle acts like a small mixing pot.
Metal from the base plate and the
added filler metal mix together in
the puddle. (See Figure 2 A - 1 . ) Large
puddles are needed to make single-
pass welds in heavy plate. In weld-
ing, a pass is a single progression
along a joint. Small puddles are
used for thin plate. You control pud-
dle size by changing your welding
technique and controlling heat
input.
CNNTROLLING THE PUDDLE

Everything you do in the weld zone
has an effect on the puddle and the
quality of the weld. Your welding
technique can control the shape and
size of the puddle. If you don’t use
enough heat, the puddle will be too
small and will not penetrate deep Proper techniques are required to produce a quality weld.
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C”’TER 2 T E E WELDING P U D D L E A N D WELD ZONE 13
- Small torch,
small flame,
small puddle
the surface tension force. Heat loss
by conduction and convection acts
to lower puddle temperature. Some
one reason why aluminum puddles
freeze faster than steel puddles of
the same size. When you move the
metals conduct heat better than oth- weldingtorch in different ways, you
ers. For example, aluminum is a bet- are really adjusting the heat input to
ter heat conductor than steel. This is the weld. Circular patterns, zigzag
movements, and so on all help dis-
Large torch and
large frame tribute the puddle heat and control
Liquid drop on the forces on the puddle.
(-3 a fiat surface
Sometimes a simple straight for-
m ward movement is all you need. You
will learn to produce the motions
and control the puddle in the lessons
that are part of the processes you are
1- Molten metal going to study. Just remember, torch
motion is one of your most effective
tools for controlling heat input, and
by controlling heat input you gain
PHQUHBE %AmtLarge puddles can
penetrate too deep and “tap out” the
control of the weld puddle.
workpiece. All the molten metal will
run out through a hole in the bottom. FLAME AND ARC FORCE
There is an additional factor that we
haven’t covered, the directional
tical welding. Molten metal is very force of the heat source. All arcs and
fluid and wants to run downhill just flames “push” on the molten Pud-
like water. dle. The arc force depends on the
You can hold a puddle in place
by applying less heat and changing
PHGURW P A 4 The surface tension
o shape and current of the arc. The
flame force depends on gas velocity
your welding motions. These two force tries to keep fluids from running and the size of the gas stream.
steps change the surface tension downhill. Some arcs and flames are said to
forces acting on the puddle. Surface be stiff and penetrating. Others are
tension force is the same force that soft and don’t penetrate well. You
causes water to bead up on a pol- can use their “push” to move mol-
ished surface, and the same force ten metal around. It works against
that holds a drop of water on the end the forces of surface tension. Very
of a dripping water faucet. The trick stiff, penetrating heat sources can
in making a puddle behave is to un- actually poke a hole into the weld
derstand how things affect the weld puddle. You can demonstrate this
r”l
puddle. Heat and gravity try to make force with water and a soda straw:
the puddle run downhill. Surface blow through the soda straw and
tension tries to hold it in place. (See Water aim the air jet at the water surface.
Figure 2A-3.) As long as the surface (See Figure 2A-4.)
tension force is larger, the puddle Learning to handle all the factors
will stay in place. ìlWÌXLJIIE 2A.4 Air pressure from a that control the puddle can seem al-
straw can push a hole in the surface of most impossible. However, if you
HEAT LOSS water contained in a glass. This force i s start out simply and learn the tech-
The temperature of the puddle is a just like the arc, or flame, force that niques as you are taught them, you
very important factor in determining acts on a puddle. will become a good welder.
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~ - ~~
LESSON 2 8
POROSITY
OBJECTIVES Weld cross section large as a pea. Puddles that are rela-
tively stable usually have porosity
with nicely rounded holes. The bub-
should be able to
bles try to float to the top of the pud-
1. Name three sources of porosity.
dle but get frozen in place as the
2. Describe how wormhole porosity
puddle solidifies. (See Figure 28-2).
is formed.
This is why porosity can often be
3. Explain how moisture can cause
found at the surface of a weld. Other
hydrogen porosity.
porosity looks like wormholes in an
4. Describe the effect of freeze rate
apple, or like termite trails in a piece
on porosity.
of wood. This kind of porosity forms
when a chemical reaction produces
more gas while the puddle begins to
IS POROSITY BAD? solidify. The gas pressure builds up,
Porosity in welding is a “NO-NO”! and the gas forces its way out of the
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in almost every welding situation bubble to relieve the pressure. It fol-
porosity will cause trouble. How- lows the path of least pressure re-
ever, just because a weld has poros- sistance, a path that can zigzag all
FIGURE 2B-P Microporosity cannot
ity doesn’t automatically mean it is over the place. (See Figure 2B-3.)
be seen with the naked eye. Magnifica-
a failure. Standards have been and tion must be used. Some wormhole porosity comes
can be set to allow a small amount from arc, or flame, gases that are
of porosity. It all depends on how pushed into the molten metal. The
critical strength and leak tightness of gases get trapped by the molten
the weld are and where the weld is Typical location metal as it freezes.
to be used. This lesson will discuss of porosity in
a weld bead
some of the sources and effects of FLUX AND POROSITY
porosity. FIGURE 2B-2Porosity (bubbles) rises
in a freezing puddle. Most porosity is Sometimes molten metal i s covered
located near the weld surface. by a flux, and bubbles that rise to
the top of the puddle can get trapped
SOURCES OF POROSITY
beneath it. Then when the flux i s
Porosity can come from many
peeled away, the top of the weld
sources. For example, chemical re-
looks as though it had a bad case of
actions inside the puddle can re-
chicken pox.
lease gas bubbles. Sometimes gases
Most of the time flux helps pre-
are dissolved in the metal itself. Wormhole porosity in a vent porosity by keeping the puddle
When it is heated by an arc or flame, longitudinal weld section
fluid and giving the bubbles a
the gases can get out. The gas bub- FIGURE 2B.3 Wormhole porosity
chance to rise to the top of the pud-
bles act somewhat like those in a looks like termite paths in wood.
dle and get away. Flux can also en-
bottle of soda. Gas can also be
ter into chemical reactions with sub-
dragged into the puddle by turbu-
stances in the weld puddle. The flux
lence and get trapped there. In ad- TYPES O F POROSITY
action helps prevent other chemical
dition, moisture can turn to steam Porosity can come in all shapes and
actions that could have caused
and produce small pockets of poros- sizes. (See Figure 2B-1.) It can be in
porosity.
ity. There are many other things that the form of tiny bubbles. Micropo-
can form porosity. The important rosity is formed from bubbles that
point to remember is that porosity can only be seen with a magnifying MOISTURE AND POKOSITY
should be avoided wherever glass. Normally, porosity appears as One thing you should look out for i s
possible. visible round holes, some of them as flux that has gotten wet or picked up

CHAPTER 2 THE WELDING PUDDLE AND WELD ZONE 115
moisture, especially. flux covering FRl<I.:%ERATE AND POROSITY EFFECTS OF POROSITY

electrodes. Moisture can change to Most of the time porosity wants to Generally, a small amount of poros-
expanding steam. If the steam is rise to the top of the puddle, just as ity does not decrease weld strength.
trapped below a flux covering, the bubbles rise in a glass of beer. if the A porous area is subject to cracking,
steam can cause chunks of flux to puddle remains fluid, the bubbles but cracks do not form as readily
explode away. can all escape. if the puddle solidi- from porosity as from other defects.
Some hot metals have a strong at- fies, the bubbles will get trapped. A porous area also acts as a place
traction for hydrogen, so strong that Puddles that freeze slowly will tend where corrosion is likely to start
it pulls the hydrogen off of the water to have less porosity than puddles when moisture is present. Pressur-
molecule. The hydrogen dissolves that freeze rapidly. You might ask ized vessels can leak slowly when
into the metal where it stays until it the question “Why don’t we use gases and liquids travel a zigzag
creeps out at a later time. This dis- slowly freezing puddles all the time path from one bit of porosity to an-
solved hydrogen can cause all kinds then?” The answer has to do with other. in a sense, weld metal can
of delayed problems. The oxygen the weld position. You want puddles be like microscopic Swiss cheese.
left over from the water molecule to solidify rapidly when you weld When metal is extremely porous, it
reacts with metal and material in the out of position; it helps keep the can literally act like a sieve but at
weld puddle. All sorts of complex metal in place and prevents it from the same time be very strong.
metal oxides are created and can running downhill. You must com-
show up as oxide inclusions or slag. promise on occasion.
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LESSON 2C
s
@BJEC!d’IWES mance to a point that the weld i s indicated. The gases are released by
Upon completion of this lesson you unacceptable or will fail in service. chemical reactions of the welding
should be able to process and become trapped as the
CAUSES OF DISCONTINUTTIES weld metals cool and solidify. Po-
1. Define the term weld discon- Porosity, slag inclusions, tungsten rosity may be localized or found
tin uity. inclusion, lack of fusion, lack of uniformly throughout the weld. (See
2. Name at least five types of penetration, arc strikes, undercut, Figure 2C-1.)
discontinuities. overlap, poor weld profiles, cracks, Excessive heat can cause porosity.
3. Describe what a “dimensional and foreign matter are all discontin- The welder must be careful and not
discrepancy” ic. uities and may affect the quality of weld with too high an amperage set-
a weld. Welder error is the cause of ting. Travel speed is the rate at
DEFlNl‘I’ION OF W I’:iA1l most discontinuities; welders make which you move the torch or elec-
Il 1SCO NTI NU J ‘f I E9 these errors through lack of ability, trode along the weld path. High
A weld discontinuity is an interrup- fatigue, and poor judgment or travel speed is another factor that
tion in the typical structure of the carelessness. causes porosity. When you move
weldment. A weldment is any as- Some weld discontinuities, their the torch or electrode too quickly,
semblage of pieces that are welded causes, and suggestions that will the weld puddle is left without heat
together to form a unit. A disconti- help eliminate them are discussed in
nuity therein is any break in the the following paragraphs.
sameness of the weldment’s me-
chanical, metallurgical, and physi- l’OH OSITY
cal characteristics. Such imperfec- Cas pockets or voids in the weld
tions can affect the weld perfor- area are called porosity, as we have

16 SECTION 11 GENERAL TEEORY
and tends to cool rapidly, causing the .metal to its melting point. The
the gases to be trapped. presence of foreign material can
sometimes make fusion incomplete.
SLAG INCLUSION
During welding, oxides and other
Y
Backing up strip
Too rapid travel speed can prevent
fusion. Proper cleaning and using
materials can be trapped in the weld FIGURE EC.2 Slag inclusions be- the correct amperage and rate of
tween passes at A and undercut at B. travel can eliminate this problem.
metal and the molten base metal.
(See Figure 2C-2.)Often this mate- (See Figure 2C-5.)
rial comes from the electrode coat-
ing, or it may be foreign matter that INA 1)ll:QU A ï E P E N IW K A'I'ION
has not been properly removed be- If the joint does not fuse at the root,
tween passes. The number of slag there is inadequate penetration or
inclusions in the completed weld no penetration. The root of a joint
can be reduced if the metal is thor- to be welded is the portion where
oughly cleaned between passes. Re- the members approach closest to
move all rust, scale, paint, oil, or each other. One way to check for
other foreign matter from the base FIGURE EC-3 Incomplete fusion in good penetration is to see that a
metal before welding. You must also fillet welding. That at B i s often called specified amount of weld metal pro-
use the correct amount of arc heat; bridging. A fillet weld joins two sur- trudes out the other side of the joint.
make sure you are not welding with faces that are approximately at right (See Figure 2C-6.)Poor joint design;
angles to each other. the wrong choice of electrode; the
too low an amperage.
wrong size of electrode for the root
TUNGSTEN INCLUSION opening; too small a root opening;
Tungsten sometimes causes discon- an overly large root face-the por-
tinuities when the Cas Tungsten Arc tion of the groove face adjacent to
process (CTAW) is used. Particles of the root of the joint; too rapid travel
the tungsten electrode can be de- speed; too low amperage; an incor-
posited in the weld area. They act rect electrode angle; and faulty ma-
as unwanted hard spots that can FIGURE OC.4 Incomplete fusion in a nipulation can all prevent proper
cause a weld to fail. Because tung- groove weld. penetration.
sten i s the hardest metal known and A good welder makes sure that the
has a high melting point, it does not joint is prepared correctly and uses
fuse into the weld metal. welding conditions that give com-
Too much arc current will cause plete penetration.
the tungsten electrode tip to over-
heat. The electrode tip will melt, FIGURE EC-5 Fusion i s incomplete A R C STRIIClCS
and tiny particles will fall into the when there is oxide or dross at the Arc strikes are small weld spots,
puddle, where they remain as center of a joint, especially when the usually outside the weld area, where
the weld solidifies. Touch-starting metal i s aluminum. the welder has accidentally struck
the electrode or dipping it into a an arc. They can occur wherever the
molten pool will also cause tungsten electrode touches the base metal or
to transfer to the puddle. Prevent where a work cable has been im-
tungsten contamination by choosing properly connected to the work-
the correct amperage for the tung- piece. The melting usually takes
sten electrode used. Do not allow place in a very small area, for the
the tungsten electrode to touch the FIGURE 2C-6 Inadequate mass of metal surrounding the melt-
penetration.
molten pool at any time.
4
ed spot tends to cool it rapidly. The
rapid cooling creates a hard spot,
INCOMPLETE FUSION which can cause cracking in that
When the base metal and the weld vent fusion. (See Figures 2C-3 and .area. The hard spot can also reduce
metal fail to melt and join, there is 2C-4.) the thickness of the metal at that
incomplete fusion or no fusion. Normally, fusion is incomplete point, creating an undercut or
joining a bead improperly to one because there is too little heat. It is groove. Avoid arc strikes; they can
from a previous pass can also pre- ncessary to raise the temperature of cause welds to fail and are very ex-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 2 THE WELDING PUDDLE AND WELD ZONE 17’
Excessive heat from using too

much current, slow travel, improper
electrode angles, and improper ma-
nipulation on the part of the welder
can cause an overlap to develop.
FRGURR& 2C-a Undercut at the toes of
a groove weld.
POOH WELD PKOICI I,li
~~
The shape of a weld when viewed

Eb’ECBIiiUE 2C.9 Overlap-an overflow from one end is its weld profile. Fig-
of weld beyond the point where fusion
ure 2C-10 shows the desired profiles
ends.
for a fillet weld and for a groove
weld. A fillet weld is one joining
metal at that point. (See Figure two surfaces that are approximately
2C-9.) at right angles to each other. Figure
Overlap, because of its nature, 2C-11 shows fillet weld profiles that
takes the shape of a notch. It can are not acceptable.
concentrate stress and reduces the It is important to maintain the
effective size of a fillet weld. Its ef- proper profile throughout the weld if
fect is similar to that of an undercut. it is to be acceptable. For example,
Because a notch is a place where the a weld with a throat that is too small
pensive to repair. They should be
section of the weld has been re- may fail in service. The throat must
avoided at all times.
duced, it can become a starting have the correct size if weld strength
Only strike the arc in places that
point for a crack. Once started, a is to be maintained.
will be rewelded. The new weld will
crack can work its way through a if the welder uses the proper
cover the arc spot.
weld, causing it to fail. welding procedures and techniques,
UNDERCUT
A groove melted into the base metal
next to a weld is called an undercut.
(See Figures 2C-7 and 2C-8.) An un-
dercut can be melted during the fin-
\
ish pass or during one of the fill
\
passes in a multipass joint. If the un-
dercut is in a joint sidewall, it can Penetration
trap slag and create slag cleaning Fillet weld Groove weld
problems. It is difficult for the weld- FEGUükE % G I @Desired tiller weld and groove weld protiles.
er to “burn out” an undercut area
completely and obtain a good weld. I
Trapped slag is very difficult to re-
move and, if left in, can cause a
discontinuity.
To reduce the possibility of getting
an undercut, hold a medium to short
arc. Do not use too high an amper- Insufficient
age, and pause briefly at the edges throat
of the weld to allow the metal to fill

in the low spots. Whip the electrode
toward the center of the weld if
necessary.
OV I< K LA I’
An overlap is weld metal that has
’
spilled over the edge of the weld
bead without being fused to the base PBQUüU 2c.n n Unacceptable fillet weld profiles.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

--,
Tranverse crack
n
i\k , Acceptable
weld face
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Excess
Id deposit 4
TI-- T
-4-
L- Underbead crack
mon%
FIGBBTIRP Overwelded fillet.
Longitudinal crack
Insufficient
weld metal
1
T
Arc strikes 1 T
FBIúÌWWE 26.ii4 Underwelded fillet.
Longitudinal crack Offset
Tranverse crack 1 1
FIGURE 2C.ü.2 Types of cracks in welded joints.
there should be no problem in pro- Cold cracking occurs in steels that the weld and in the adjacent metal.
ducing acceptable welds. have low ductility or hardenability It should be avoided at all times.
and have hydrogen present. To pre-
CRACKS vent cold cracking, use low-hydro- UNI~ERWELDINC,
Cracks, narrow breaks or thin sepa- gen electrodes and the correct pre- Underwelding is the opposite of ov-
rations in the solid metal, are con- heat procedure. erwelding. (See Figure 2C-14.) The
sidered the most serious of the dis- welder deposits less filler metal than
continuities. They are likely to specified, which produces a weld
DIMENSIONAL DISCREPANCIES without the required design
elongate with time and may cause
Another type of weld defect is
the weldment to fail while an object strength. Underwelding i s not
known as a dimensional discrepan-
is in service. There are two types acceptable.
cy. An improper weld shape, lack of
of cracking; hot cracking and cold
penetration, a failure to fill the joint,
cracking. (See Figure 2C-12.) Hot MISMATCH
and any change in the size of the
cracking depends on the composi- The offset between two pieces-for
weld joint are all discrepancies in
tion of the metal. There is little the example, between the two sections
dimension.
welder can do except follow the pre- of a butt joint-is called a mis-
scribed procedure, which includes match. Figure 2C-15 illustrates a
preheating the workpiece and keep- OVERWELDING surface offset of two pieces causing
ing the preheat and interpass tem- in overwelding more filler metal a mismatch. Mismatch can be re-
peratures at the lower end of the than specified is deposited. It adds duced by grinding, provided the de-
operating range. (Each electrode has nothing of value to the weld. (See sign section thickness is not re-
a recommended amperage range. Figure 2C-13.) Overwelding not duced. Eliminating the mismatch by
The welder should use the lower only wastes time and material but grinding the joint before welding i s
portion of the range.) also creates great stress at the toes of a far better solution.

CHAPTER 2 THE WELDING PUDDLE AND WELD ZONE 19
LESSON 2D
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
@BJJ€ECTJIVNS find their way to places in grain

Upon completion of this lesson you boundaries. There the foreign matter
should be able to can propagate cracks and generally
1. Explain why moisture in all forms weaken the weld structure.
is bad for welds. The best thing is to follow the rule
2. Explain why high speed is not ”Cleanliness i s next to godliness”
necessarily good for welding. when it comes to welds:
3. Describe the effect of heat treat-
ment on grains. WEEDING RATE
2m.fi Avoid all forms of
FII&XJ~&E “Hurry, hurry, hurry.” “Get done as
moisture. it can cause hydrogen- fast as you can!” Speed in welding
MO IST U HE induced cracking. seems to be a battle cry in many
Water, dampness, and moisture are
shops. You should be aware that
probably responsible for more weld
speed isn’t always good. The puddle
failures than any other factor. (See
temperature and heat input to the
Figure 2D-1.) Even moisture you
weld is very important in making a
cannot see or feel can lead to fail-
weld strong. You control the heat in-
ure. The hydrogen in the water
put with your welding technique as
molecule (H,O) is the bad actor in
well as by the welding condition
most moisture failures. Hot molten
itself.
metal will separate the water mole-
Most procedures require specific
cule into hydrogen and oxygen. The
heat inputs. Don’t guess at the set-
hydrogen dissolves into the molten
IFiíQBUIUiiíE 2D.2 A magnified view of tings of your equipment. Be sure to
metal where it stays for some time. polished weld metal showing grain use the correct flame sizes and gas
Then after a few hours, or days as boundaries where hydrogen can induce flows and the correct arc current and
the case may be, the hydrogen cracking. voltage. Don’t experiment with oth-
comes out of solution. We say it o er welding conditions.
comes out of solution even though
may remember that the puddle acts
nothing is liquid anymore.
like a mixing pot. Everything gets DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
The hydrogen gets into the grain
stirred up together in the puddle. The amount of weld metal deposited
boundaries of the metal and there
Oils, grease, paint, and dust from depends on the joint size and shape.
begins to work its way out of the
the air can all get into the puddle Always prepare the joints to the di-
weld. (See Figure 2D-2.) As it moves
and cause contamination. The for- mensions indicated. Things that you
it leaves behind places for stresses to
eign matter can form weird chemi- consider minor can have a big effect
create cracks and defects. Eventu-
cal compounds that decrease weld on weld volume. (See Figure 2D-3.)
ally the weld can develop a large
strength. Many of the compounds Moreover, the welding conditions
crack and fail. The entire process is
called hydrogen-induced cracking.
The trick to prevent hydrogen
cracking is to preheat the workpiece I L I
and drive off surface moisture. Then

Original joint
use only dry welding materials such
as fluxes, wires, rods, and
electrodes.
A joint with an extra &in.
CLKANLBN ESS on each side needs
25% more metal
Foreign material on a workpiece will
find its way into the puddle. You IFiiGüJ~16E2OD4 The eftect ot small changes in joint dimensions.

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
are chosen for making a weld of a stones in a wall held together by ce- on one side of the building-are
specific size. When you change the ment. The grains come in all sizes heated to change their shape. The
weld dimensions, it has an effect on and shapes and have their own par- building will also change shape, for
how much heat should be supplied. ticular names. You will learn more it will probably lean to one side. The
If the weld joint is smaller than the about the names in later lessons. same thing happens to metal. When
original dimensions, you will have These grains and the way they are it i s heated, and some grains change
to make the torch or electrode travel arranged in the metal determine the size and some do not, the metal dis-
faster. Otherwise you will put down strength of the weld and other torts. The changes in grain size Caus-
too much metal. If the joint is larger factors. es the metal to bend in one direction
than originally expected, the oppo- Heat treatments can change the or the other and become out of
site holds. You will have to make the shape and size of the grains. It is al- shape or out of position.
torch or electrode travel more slow- most as though you built a building Some specialists know how to re-
ly to put down more metal, and as with small bricks and then heat- heat distorted metal to make it bend
a consequence the heat will build treated it. After the heat treatment back to its original shape. It is a very
UP. the building looks as though it were tricky and complicated procedure.
It is best to try and make all welds made of cinder blocks. Changing Because distorted metal is so diffi-
to the correct dimensions. the size of the bricks changes the cult to fix, you should always weld
strength of the building, in the same with the recommended heat. You
HEAT TREATMENTS way that shifts in grain size change should also follow the sequence
AND DISTORTIONS the strength of a weld. specified for welding joints. You can
Weld metal is a complex mixture of In addition to affecting strength, help minimize distortion by using
materials. If you look at it under a shifts in grain shape and size can the correct sequence and heat.
microscope, you will see that it is change the shape of a piece of The best thing for you to do is fol-
composed of small pieces called metal. Say that only half of the low the written procedure. Don’t
“grains.” These grains are similar to bricks in the brick building-those ex per¡ment.

~
CHAPTER 3
@."ECPUVES iron alloys can be made magnetic or used to withstand the load to which
Upon completion of this lesson you nonmagnetic. It all depends on how the product will be exposed when
should be able to much material i s added to make up placed into service.
1. Define the term stress. the mixture in the furnace. A metal that resists bending will
2. List at least five mechanical prop- When you weld, the puddle acts sometimes be chosen, at other times
erties of metal. like a small mixing pot. As you add a ductile metal that can be cold-
3. Describe how hardness is mea- filler metal, you are actually con- formed readily.
sured. trolling the chemistry of the final The load acting to twist, stretch,
4. Identify the property that is mixture. For this reason it is very im- bend, or compress the metal i s
measured with the U-bend test. portant to use the correct filler rod known as stress. Unit stress is the
or electrode. load divided by the cross-sectional
area of the metal (Figure 3A-1). It is
METALS AHE MIXTURES DEFINITION OF usually measured in units such as
When metals are joined by welding MECHANICAL PROPISRTIES pounds per square inch or kilograms
heat, the structure of the metal i s af- per square centimeters.
The mechanical properties of metal
fected. You should understand how During the application of these
are the qualities that determine its
the metal is changed by the effects loads, the metal will change shape.
behavior when a load is applied.
of heat and how you might control
These properties control whether This change in shape is called
some of the effects.
metal will be easy to bend, whether strain. (See Figure 3A-2.)
This lesson discusses the mechan-
it will be hard, brittle, and so on. Metals have an elastic limit, a
ical properties of metal. The metals point at which the metal will no
The mechanical properties of
you will be welding are complicated longer return to its original shape af-
metal include strength, elasticity,
mixtures of many materials. Pure ter the load is removed. if the strain
ductility, hardness, toughness, and
metals are very difficult to produce is increased beyond the elastic limit,
fatigue resistance. Design engineers
because they come from ores, the metal will be permanently de-
must consider all these factors when
which are dug from the ground and
they determine what metal will be formed. In the example of perma-
contain many minerals. These min-
erals get "cooked" in the refining
furnaces along with the metal being
refined. A great many complicated
refining processes are needed to ex-
tract the pure metal. Luckily for us,
the so-called contaminants are not
always bad to have around.
Different materials added to pure
metals can improve their overall
properties and make them more use-
Load force
ful as engineering materials. The
"stuff' that is mixed in can make r
steels harder or softer, stronger or U1
weaker, brittle or ductile, and on. H"iJúXJRRiE This is an example of stress being exerted on a plank.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

FIGURE 3A.2 If sufficient stress is applied to metal, the

stress will distort or change the shape of the metal.
FIGURE S A 4 A specimen pulled beyond its yield point.

(Courtesy of Union County Vocational-Technical School)
PIIGUIIBE 318.4 A specimen mounted in a tensile tester ready

nent deformation shown in Figure for testing. (Courtesy of W. C. Dillon & Company.)
3A-3, the specimen has been pulled
past its yield point and has "necked
down." The center portion has nar-
rowed. if the load were to continue
to increase after this point is
reached, the specimen would even-
tually break.
STRENGTH FPQiiüJRE3A-5 A tensile specimen of a ductile material be-

fore pull and after pull. (From Practical Metallurgy and Mate-
Strength is the property of metal that
rials of Industry, 2nd ed., by John Neely. Copyright O 1979,
resists forces attempting to pull it
by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John
apart. it can be measured with a ten- Wiley & Sons, Inc.)
sile tester, as shown in Figure 3A-4.
The stress required to bring the
metal to the breaking point (in
pounds per square inch) measures YIELD STRENGTH tle as 50 percent to as high as 85
the tensile strength of the metal. This During a tensile test the metal begins percent of the tensile strength. The
test is a destructive load test. it is to "neck down," to narrow as a distance the metal stretches before
commonly used to determine the piece of taffy does when you try to breaking is called elongation.
tensile strength of welded joints. pull it apart. Yield strength is the The American Welding Society
Your work will be subjected to tests load strkss just before the metal be- specification for carbon-steel-cov-
of this kind many times in your ca- gins to deform. The load required to ered arc welding electrodes (AWS
reer. A coupon from one of these take the metal to the yield point is A5.1) lists the tensile strength and
tests, that is, a test sample, is shown lower than the load required to yield strength, in thousands of
in Figure 3A-5. break the specimen. It may be as lit- pounds per square inch, as well as
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS 23
the elongation and reduction in DUCTILITY BRITTLENESS

area, by percent. When toughness i s Ductility is the property that gives Brittleness is the opposite of malle-
important, the results of the Charpy metal the ability to stretch, bend, or ability. Brittle metals will not deform
V-notch test are listed. This test twist without breaking or cracking. easily when placed under load. Met-
measures the number of foot-pounds This quality i s measured by bending als that possess this property are not
required, at a given temperature, to a specimen in a controlled manner only brittle, but also low in ductility;
break the specimen. and examining it for cracks or they crack suddenly when overload-
breaks. A specimen that stretches 70 ed. Cast iron is a good example of a
percent or more is considered to be metal that is brittle.
very ductile.
Ductility tests are done frequent-
ly. You can test your own welds in ELASTICITY
your school shop. This i s an excel- Elasticity is the ability of a metal to
lent way for you to see the results of return to its original shape after the
your own efforts. You will gain con- load is released. Spring steel is a
fidence as you see your welds stand good example of a metal with this
up under the tortures of this test. A property.
sample of a U-bend ductility test
specimen is shown in Figure 3 A - 6 ,
the typical equipment used to per- HARDNESS
form the U-bend test in Figure Hardness is a measure of a metal’s
3A-7. ability to resist indentation or pene-
tration by a harder material. There
is a need in many applications for
MALLEABILITY
metals that possess this quality.
The ability of a metal to deform per-
Hardness is measured by pressing
manently when it is compressed,
a diamond point or hard steel ball
hammered, or rolled into shape i s
into the metal being tested. This
called malleability. Most ductile
makes a small dent in the metal. The
metals are also malleable. Metals
size of the dent is then measured
such as copper, soft iron, silver, tin,
and the hardness i s calculated with
FIGURE 3A.6 U-bend test specimens lead, and gold are examples of met-
a formula. Figure 3 A - 8 shows two
after testing. als with high malleability.
types of penetrators that are used
with a Rockwell hardness tester, Fig-
ure 3 A - 9 the hardness tester itself.
NOTCH TOUGHNESS
Toughness is the ability of a metal to
withstand suddent load without
breaking. This property is also called
impact resistance. Gears and cam-
shafts require this property.
Toughness is measured by striking
a specimen with a sudden force. The
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
specimen is made with a notch cut

into it, to cause it to break at that
point. The energy required to break
the specimen determines the tough-
ness of the metal. The piece of
equipment most often used for this
purpose, the Charpy V-notch tester,
FIIGUIBE3A-7 U-bend test in progress. (Courtesy of Union County Vocation- strikes th,e specimen with a weighted
al-Technical School.) pendulum. (See Figure 3 A - 1 0 . )

I
24 --`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 3A.8 Brale and ball are the two basic types of pe-
netrators used on the Rockwell hardness tester. (Note: Brale is FIGURE 3A.9 Rockwell hardness tester. (Courtesy of Wilson
a registered trademark of Page-Wilson Corporation for sphero- Instrument Division, Page-Wilson Corporation.)
conical diamond penetrators.) (Courtesy of Wilson Instrument
Division, Page-Wilson Corporation.)
FIGURE 3A.10 Izod-Charpy testing machine. (Photograph

courtesy of Tinius Olsen Testing Machine Company, Inc.,
W i I low Grove, PennsyIvania. )

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
25
LESSON 3B
PHYSIC
BPBIECTHVES TABEE 31.1 Some Relative Thermal Good conductors heat up less than
Upon completion of this lesson you Conductivities at Room poor conductors, which is why ca-
should be able to Temperature bles are made from copper or alu-
minum and not from iron or steel.
~~~ ~~
1. Describe a simple test for deter- Relative

mining relative thermal conduc- A simple test of electrical conduc-
Metal Thermal Conductivity
tivity. tivity i s to measure the voltage drop
2. Explain why cables are made Iron Low 1.o across an electrode that is carrying
from copper or aluminum and not Tungsten 2.2 current. The lower the voltage, the
from iron or steel. Aluminum Medium 2.8 higher the conductivity. Table 3B-2
Gold 3.8 lists the relative electrical conductiv-
3. Calculate how many times heav-
Copper 4.8 ities of some common metals.
ier tungsten i s than aluminum. Silver High 5.1
4. Define the Curie point.
THERMAL EXPANSION
When metals heat up, their mole-
A simple test for thermal conduc- cules grow larger and may change
YOUR SENSES
tivity is to hold a match flame to one shape. This is the reason why metal
Physical properties of metals are the
end of a rod while you hold the oth- objects expand when they are heat-
factors that are obvious to your sen-
er end between your fingers. The ed up. The molecular structure of
ses and help identify the metal.
heat will travel toward your fingers some metals does not change back
These are factors that you can see,
faster in aluminum than in steel. to the original shape as the metals
touch, taste, smell, and hear. Some
Copper is a better thermal conductor cool off, and the metals change
metals are shiny, others dull. Some
than aluminum, and silver is better shape permanently.
metals feel heavier than others.
than copper. Table 3B-1 lists the Every welder should understand
Some metals have a "ring" to them
relative thermal conductivities of that as the temperature of the metal
when hit with a hammer; others
some common metals. rises, its size increases in all direc-
make a dull thud. When you
measure and analyze physical fac- tions. It is possible that the pieces
ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY will not fit if "fit-up" allowances are
tors, you can usually identify the
Electrical conductivity, a property not made beforehand.
metal without elaborate chemical
related to thermal conductivity,
tests. This lesson will help you learn For example, you may be called
measures how well a metal con-
how to identify the metals you weld. on to heat the area surrounding a
ducts electricity. Heat is generated bronze bearing. The heat expands
inside a metal that carries current. the surrounding metal so that the
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
The amount of heat generated de- bearing can be removed. It i s im-
The ability of metal to transmit heat
pends on the electrical conductivity.
is measured by thermal conductiv- portant that you heat only the sur-
ity. Lists of thermal conductivities rounding area and not the bearing
can be found in reference books, but TABILE 3B-2Some Electrical itself. You must heat the surrounding
the actual numbers are not impor- Conductivities at Room metal as rapidly as possible to pre-
tant to you. Metals with high ther- Temperature vent the heat from transferringto the
mal conductivity take more heat to Relative bearing: otherwise, the bearing will
weld than those with low conductiv- Metal Electrical Conductivity expand faster than the steel. If the
ity because the heat from the arc or bearing does expand faster, both the
flame is conducted away from the Iron 1 .o bearing and the metal around it
puddle. Puddles of metals with low Tungsten 1.7 should be allowed to cool. The
conductivity heat up faster. Heat is Aluminum 3.7 bearing may reach its elastic limit
not conducted away from these pud- Gold 4.1 and will not return to its original size
Copper 5.8 when cooled. This means that the
dles as fast as from puddles of high-
Silver 6.1
conductivity metals. bearing will have a smaller diameter

than before and can be easily TABEE 35.3 Some Typical Relative You can see why aluminum is dif-
removed. Metal Densities at ficult to weld compared to iron. It
Engineers take thermal expansion Room Temperature melts at a much lower temperature.
~~
into consideration and calculate its Metallurgists can vary the melting
Actual Density, Relative
effects in the design of structures Metal gramskc Density
point of some metals by adding mi-
such as bridges and other large nor amounts of alloy.
weldments. Thermal expansion can Iron 7.86 1.o00
cause all kinds of problems, for ex- Tungsten 19.00 2.400 COLOR
ample, in replacing a section in a Aluminum 2.70 0.340 Metals can also be identified by their
pipeline. If a section of line is re- Gold 19.30 2.455 color. When you scratch metal and
moved in the early morning, the Copper 8.92 1.135 expose a clean surface, you can
Silver 10.50 1.336
temperature may rise dramatically sometimes see its color. Table 3B-5
by early afternoon, and the pipeline shows the color of some typical met-
will expand. The expansion de- TABLE 3B.4 Some Typical Melting als you may weld.
pends on the change in temperature Points of Metals
and the lenath
" of the line. The line MAGNETICS
may have expanded a few feet, and Metal Melting Point Some metals can be attracted by a
the replacement section will have to magnet. The strength of the mag-
,ron 1535°C
be cut to size before it can be placed Tungsten 34 10°C net's attraction depends on the mag-
in position. Aluminum 660°C netic permeability of the metal.
Thermal expansion can affect any Gold 1064°C Some metals are not magnetic at all.
weldment. Knowledge of how ther- Copper 1085°C Iron is magnetic up to about 790°C.
mai expansion affects metal is useful Silver 962°C This is called its Curie point, the
to a welder. temperature at which a substance
loses its permanent or spontaneous
DENSITY TABLE 35.5 Some Typical Clean magnetization. Above this tempera-
Metal Colors
As you know, some metals are heav- ture iron is nonmagnetic. The mag-
ier than others. A piece of steel will Metal Color netic properties of all iron-based al-
obviously weigh more than a piece loys (ferromagnetic alloys) depend
of aluminum with the same shape. Iron silver gray on their chemical makeup, their me-
Density is measured in mass per unit Tungsten steel gray chanical condition, and their heat
volume. A simple measurement is Aluminum silvery white treatment history. Sometimes it is
Gold yellow
weight per cubic foot or grams per helpful to determine whether a
Copper reddish
cubic centimeter. You don't really metal is magnetic. The magnetic
Silver white metallic
have to know what the numbers are field in the metal can cause arc
to separate metals of the same blow. (Arc blow is discussed in Les-
shape. Just sort them out from the which a puddle forms. The temper- son 7A.) It is possible to use mag-
heaviest to the lightest. Table 36-3 ature slightly above the melting netic analysis to detect flaws. Cracks
shows some typical relative metal point is called the working temper- and other discontinuities can con-
densities at room temperature. ature or pouring temperature. You centrate magnetic fields and be de-
can estimate this temperature by tected by iron filings. Magnetic par-
MELTING POINTS various temperature-sensitive cra- ticle inspection is based on this
The melting point is the temperature yons and chalks. Typical melting phenomena.
at which the metal goes from solid points that you will encounter are
to liquid and the temperature at shown in Table 3B-4.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

LESSON 3C
M I
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BbBJECTBIVES bearing on the selection of the weld- Bare hot-rolled steel i s dark gray
Upon completion of this lesson you ing process. and covered by a mill scale from the
should be able to rolling operation. It may also have
1. Name four tests that will help you CRITERIA FOR an oxidized, or rusty, appearance if
identify a metal. IDENTIFICATION it has been exposed to the atmos-
2. Identify two nonferrous metals A number of methods can be used phere for some time. Cold-rolled
that are magnetic. to identify a metal, but they are not steel is brighter in color. It has no
3. Describe the chip test. always available to a welder. Many mill scale and has a smooth surface
methods require special equipment and square edges. Normally it is free
and training. The spectrograph, an of rust and oxidization, unless its
THE IDENTITY CHALLENGE instrument that can accurately de- protective coating has been re-
Often it is necessary to identify the termine the percentage of each ele- moved.
metal you are going to weld on be- ment contained in a metal, is one Other metals such as aluminum,
fore the welding operation begins. example. Another i s a chemical brass, copper, and stainless steel
Knowing the type of metal is impor- analysis kit. have distinctive colors, which can
tant in any welding operation be- There are, however, other test be seen when they are cleaned.
cause the filler metal should be methods that can provide you with
matched with the metal being information to help you identify a MAGNETIC TEST
joined. metal. These are based on the ap- With the exception of cobalt and
In the construction and fabricating pearance of a metal, its hardness, its nickel, most nonferrous metals-
industry the welder doesn’t have reaction to flame or an arc, the pat- metals that do not contain iron-are
many opportunities to apply the tern of grinding sparks, its reaction nonmagnetic; Aluminum, zinc,
identification process. The range of to a magnet, its weight, its color and magnesium, and copper-based al-
metal types ordered is usually lim- appearance when fractured, the loys, are all nonmagnetic metals.
ited, and the properties of the metals ease with which it fractures, and its Iron is strongly ferromagnetic, co-
are known, so the identifying proc- reaction to certain chemicals. balt i s second in this property, and
ess is seldom required. Table 3C-1 lists some base metals nickel is the least magnetic of the
When a welder works for a large and their reaction to some of the three. iron, because of its low cost,
company, metal identification is tests just mentioned. Use this chart is the most commercially important
normally carried out by inspectors as a quick reference to aid in the of the three. Most ferrous metals
or qualified technicians. However, identification of metals. range from strongly magnetic for the
on occasion the welder does the steels, to some stainless steels that
identifying, for example, when mak- APPEARANCETEST are slightly magnetic, and some
ing a maintenance weld. Mainte- Quite often, through practice and stainless steel alloys that are non-
nance welding presents the greatest experience, we are able to identify magnetic.
identification challenge for the a metal part by its color, appear- You may use a small hand-held
welder. Most of the time the type of ance, shape, and intended use. magnet to get a feel of the magnetic
metal isn’t known or the records are Castings such as pump housings, en- properties. The stronger the pull, the
lost. gine blocks and manifolds, and oth- more magnetic is the metal. Practice
Before a repair can be attempted, er parts with mold marks are easily with a small magnet will provide the
the metal must be identified. After recognized. Some parts have grind- welder with the experience neces-
identification the welding process ing marks where the mold marks sary to use this test effectively.
and the filler metal should be se- have obviously been removed.
lected. The type of metal and its ac- Structural beams and supports are HARDNESS TEST
cessibility, the availability of equip- easily recognized by their cross-sec- Accurate tests for hardness of a
ment, and the skills of the welder tional shapes and are usually made metal must be conducted with lab-
must be considered. They all have of hot-rolled steel. oratory equipment such as a Rock-

TABLE 3c.i Summary of Some Metal Identification Tests

Fresh-
Surface cut Melting Heating Speed
Metal or Alloy Magnetic Color Color Sparking Chipping Color from Cold
Aluminum and alloys no light gray white easy no change sudden melting
Brass no yellow to yellow easy red moderate
red to red
Copper, deoxidized no penny penny easy intense red slow
red red
Copper, nickel no nickel nickel easy
white white
Everdur" no gold gold easy
American Brass (yellow) (yellow)
Company
Gold no yellow yellow easy
Inconel@ no white white easy
Inco Alloys Inter-
national, Inc.
Iron, cast Yes white or light brittle dull red moderate
gray gray
Iron, wrought Yes white or light easy dull red fast
gray gray
Lead no white white very no change fast
to easy
gray
Magnesium no silvery silvery easy burns in air -
Monel" slight gray light easy bright red slower than steel
Inco Alloys Inter- gray
national, Inc.
Nickel Yes white white easy turns red slower than steel
Silver no old-dime white easy - -
white
Steel, high carbon Yes dark bright depends bright red fast
gray gray on alloy
Steel, low alloy Yes gray bright depends bright red varies with alloy
gray on alloy
Steel, low carbon Yes dark bright depends bright red fást
gray gray on alloy
Steel, manganese no dull gray see difficult bright red moderate
text
Steel, medium carbon Yes dark gray bright depends bright red fast
gray on type
Steel, stainless see silvery see difficult bright red moderate
text gray text
Tantalum no gray gray difficult -
Tin no silvery silvery easy quickly
Titanium no steel gray steel easy -
color
Tungsten no steel gray does not does not white hot slow
cut chip
Zinc no dark gray gray easy quickly.
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TABLE 3C.2 File Test for Metal Hardness dicates whether the metal is brittle
-~
~~ ~ ~~ ~ ~~
or ductile. For instance, a continu-

Approximate Approximate ous chip, one that does not break
Brinell RockwelI into pieces, indicates that the metal
File Cutting Action Hardness Hardness
is fairly soft and ductile. Mild steel,
Bites metal easily 1O0 65 B aluminum, and malleable iron are
Bites with pressure 200 94B among the metals that easily make a
Bites with pressure, but is difficult 300 32C continuous chip. Mild steel is a rela-
Bites only with great pressure 400 42C tively soft, easily worked steel.
Barely bites, little metal removal 5 O0 51C When the chips break apart, the
Doesn’t bite, file just slides over the metal 600 58C metal is britle. Cast iron is a good
example of a brittle metal.
well or a Brinell hardness tester (see FRACTURETEST

page 40). A welder, however, can If the part to be welded is broken or
use two simple hardness tests-the fractured, look at the metal in the
scratch test and the file test-to break. The appearance of the metal
compare a metal sample with an un- in the fracture will help in the iden-
known metal. tification. Freshly broken metal will
The scratch test requires that the show the true color of the metal.
corner of a known metal, such as the There won’t be any oxidation
keystock in Figure 3C-1, be drawn present until the break has been ex-
across an unknown metal sample. If posed to the atmosphere for an ap-
the sample i s not scratched, use it to preciable time. Samples of metal
try to scratch the keystock, as in Fig- structures that will be encountered
ure 3C-2. This test is comparative. It when examining breaks in cast iron
will tell you only which of the rnet- are shown in Figures 3C-3 and 3C-4.
als is the hardest. If you have metal FIGURE 3C-2The sample is now (See photos on following page.)
scratched against the keystock as an The results of the fracture test
additional test, and it does scratch the should be compared with those in
keystock. (From Practical Metallurgy Table 3C-1 as an aid in identifying
and Materials of Industry, 2nd ed., by the metal. When an unknown metal
John Neely. Copyright O 1984 by John
is encountered, it is often possible to
Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by per-
mission of John Wiley & Sons, inc. and
remove a small piece from it in order
John Neely.) to perform a fracture test.
samples of varying hardness, you CHEMICAL TEST

will be able to match the unknown The average welding shop does not
metal with a sample. have the chemicals necessary to
A good file can be used to deter- conduct a chemical analysis of met-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
mine the hardness of steels and thus als. Commercial testing kits are
identify them. Draw the file across available, however. If there is an in-
the edge of the metal, and note its dividual in the welding shop who is
B”iI(68TBBE 3c.n A piece of keystock reaction to the metal. Compare it trained in their use, the tests are very
(usually mild steel, a soft, easily with the reactions in Table 3C-2. valuable in determining the identity
worked steel), is scratched across an of metals.
unknown metal sample. Because the CHIP TEST
sample is not scratched, it i s harder The chip requires a small sharp chis- SPARK TEST
than the keystock and is probably an
el and a hammer. Using these tools, The grinding wheel spark test is a
alloy or tool steel. (From Practical Me-
attempt to remove a chip from the popular test. It provides the welder
tallurgy and Materials of Industry, 2nd
edge of the sample. The difficulty with the opportunity to separate fer-
ed., by John Neely. Copyright O 1984,
by John Wiley & Sons, inc. Reprinted with which the chip is removed is in rous and nonferrous metals rapidly.
, by permission of John Wiley & Sons, direct proportion to the hardness of Aluminum, copper, and other non-
inc. and john Neely.) the metal. The nature of the chip in- ferrous-based alloys do not give off

spark streams like those obtained

from ferrous metals.
For example, monel, and stainless
steel are difficult to tell apart visu-
ally. However, stainless steel gives
off spark patterns, monel does not.
Spark tests are conducted by
pressing a sample lightly against a
grinding wheel, as shown in Figure
3C-5. It is best to view the sparks
FIGURE 3C-3Fracture of gray cast iron. (From Practical Metallurgy and Materials against a dark background; a piece
of Industry, 2nd ed., by John Neely. Copyright O 1 9 8 4 by John Wiley & Sons, inc. of black cloth or a board painted
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and John Neely.) black will do very well. The inten-
sity, color, and shape of spark pat-
terns help identify the metal.
A spark test is correctly performed
in an area where the light i s sub-
dued, for the color of the sparks is
important. A grinding wheel, wheth-
er portable or fixed, should have a
surface speed of at least 5000 feet
per minute. You can calculate the
speed by multiplying the circumfer-
ence of the wheel, in feet, by the
FIGURE 3C-4 Fracture of white cast iron. (From Practical Metallurgy and Materials number of revolutions per minute.
of Industry, 2nd ed., by John Neely. Copyright O 1 9 8 4 by John Wiley & Sons, inc. Always take proper safety precau-
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and John Neely.) tions when making this test, espe-
cially when using a pedestal grinder
as shown in Figure 3C-5.Wear eye
protection and watch out for other
people. The spark patterns of some
ferrous metals are shown in Figures
3C-6 through 3C-13 and described
in the legends,
I
FIGURE 3C.6 Wrought iron. Long,
FIGURE 3C.5 The proper way to make a spark test on a pedestal grinder. (From straw-colored carrier lines, usually
Practical Metallurgy and Materials of Industry, 2nd ed., by John Neely. Copyright O whiter away from the grinding wheel.
1 9 8 4 , by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Carrier lines usually end in spearhead
Inc. and John Neely.) arrows or small forks.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

I
PHQBTIWE 8C.1 Low-carbon steel or PFHQiiUIE3C-8 Low-alloy steels (medi- K'PGURE 3C-9 High-carbon steel.
mild steel. Long, straight carrier lines um carbon). Each alloying element has Short, very white, or light-yellow car-
having a yellowish color, a very small an effect on the appearance of the rier lines with considerable forking and
amount of branching, and very few sparks, and very careful observation i s abundant starlike bursts. Many of the
carbon bursts. required. Type 41 30 steel has carrier sparks follow around the wheel.
lines that often end in forks and sharp
outer points with a few sprigs.
PIIGUIE 3C.BúD Manganese steel.

o 0 o
F ~ B ~ B T W3C.B
I E li Stainless steels. The FIGURE 3C.12 Nickel alloys. Nickel
Bright-white carrier lines with fan- chrome-nickel steels give off short car- alloys have extremely short spark
shaped bursts. rier line3 that sometimes make a dotted stream and orange carrier lines. There
line without buds or sprigs. are no forks or sprigs, and the sparks
may follow the grinding wheel.
FPIBiiWIE 3GB3 Cast iron. Short car-

rier lines with many bursts, which are
red near the grinder and orange-yellow
farther out. Considerable pressure i s re-
quired to produce sparks on cast iron.
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LESSON 3D
QI=LASSHFII[CAW
BbIBJECTBVES in many industries. The American carbon and alloy steels will be cov-
Upon completion of this lesson you Society for Testing of Materials ered in this text. Learningto use this
should be able to (ASTM), the Society of Automotive system will help you more easily to
1. Identify the type of steel from its Engineers (SAE), the American Iron understand the other systems. They
SAE-AISI numerical designation, and Steel Institute (AISI), and the will not be covered in this lesson. A
for example, 41 30 steel. American Society of Mechanical En- discussion of all the systems would
2. Explain the meaning of the last gineers (ASME) are typical organ- be too complicated for the purposes
two digits in the numerical des- izations. of this text.
ignations for steels. The AISI and SAE have developed Aluminum and its alloys are de-
3. Describe the meaning of the letter a system of numbers and prefix let- scribed by a system published in
or letter-number combination ters that identify the type and com- ANSI specifications. This system will
that follows a four-digit alumi- position of the steel, as well as the be discussed after the steel classifi-
num alloy designation. process used in its manufacture. If cation system.
4. Explain how you can tell whether you work for someone who uses an-
an aluminum alloy is wrought or other system, you will have to learn THE AISI-SAE CLASSIFICATION
cast. to use that particular system. SYSTEM FOR STEELS
Because of its widespread use, the Steels are classified according to
AISI-SAE numerical designation of their chemical content. A four- or
THE IMPORTANCE OF
CLASSIFYING METALS
It is important that the composition TABLE 3D-B AISI-SAE Numerical Designation of Carbon and Alloy Steels
of the metal is known before weld-
ing takes place. Some metals need Numerical
special treatment, such as preheat- Designation Description
ing, postheating, controlling tem-
1oxx non-resulphurized carbon steel grades (plain carbon)
peratures between passes, certain 11xx resulphurized carbon steel grades (free cutting)
travel speeds, and certain rates of 13xx manganese 1.75%
heat input, if the desired results are 23XX nickel 3.50%
to be obtained. 25XX nicket 5.00%
There are hundreds of metal com- 31 XX nickel 1.25%, chromium 0.65 or 0.80%
positions available to fit just about 33xx nickel 3.50%, chromium 1.55%
every application. Fortunately there 40XX molybdenum 0.25%
are classification systems that can 41 XX chromium 0.50-0.95%, molybdenum 0.12 or 0.20%
describe the metals used. 43xx nicket 1.80%, chromium 0.50 or 0.80%, molybdenum 0.25%
46XX nicket 1.55 or 1.80%, molybdenum 0.20 or 0.25%
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Several professional societies and

47xx nickel 1.05%, chromium 0.45%, molybdenum 0.25%
trade associations develop material
48XX nicket 3.50%, molybdenum 0.25%
specifications for steels and other
50XX chromium 0.28 or 0.40%
metals. Some of these groups give 51XX chromium 0.80, 0.90, 0.95, 1.00, or 1.05%
specifications only for a particular 5xxxx carbon 1.OO%, chromium 0.50, 1.OO, or 1.45%
industry, such as the American Pe- 61 XX chromium 0.80 or 0.95%, vanadium 0.10 or 0.15% minimum
troleum Institute (API), the Aero- 86XX nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.50 or 0.65%, molybdenum 0.20%
space Materials Specifications 87XX nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.50, molybdenum 0.25%
(AMs), the American Bureau of 92XX manganese 0.85%, silicon 2.00%
Shipping (ABS), and the Association 93xx nicket 3.25%, chromium 1.20%, molybdenum 0.12%
for American Railroads (AAR). 94xx manganese 1.OO%, nickel 0.45%, chromium 0.40%,
Others, such as the American Na- molybdenum 0.1 2%
97xx nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.1 7%, molybdenum 0.20%
tional Standards Institute (ANSI), de-
98XX nicket 1.OO%, chromium 0.80%, molybdenum 0.25%
velop specifications that are useful

five-digit number is used as an aid dicates that the nickel content for that midrange numbers are given
in classifying them. The first digit this particular steel can be as little throughout.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
generally indicates the type of steel. as 3.25 and as much as 3.75 As an other example, look up
For example, 1 denotes carbon percent. 4140 steel in Table 3D-2 to deter-
steel, 2 nickel steel, 3 nick- Carbon is an important element of mine its composition. The first two
el-chromium steel, 4 molybdenum steel because it hardens steel. The digits of the classification system in
steel, 5 chromium steel, and so more carbon the steel contains, up Table 30-1 show it is a chromi-
forth, as listed in Table 3D-1. The to a maximum of 2 percent, the um-molybdenum steel, Table 3D-2
second digit generally indicates the harder and stronger it is. However, shows chromium with a range of
percentage of the main alloying ele- a steel with more carbon than 2 per- 0.80 to 1.10 and molybdenum with
ment in the steel. However, it is usu- cent i s less ductile. The carbon con- a range of 0.15 to 0.25. The last W o
ally better to use the first two digits tent of the steel is indicated by the digits indicated carbon content. The
together to identify the steels, as is last two digits of a four-digit number table shows carbon with a range of
done in Table 3D-1. and i s expressed in hundredths of 1 0.38 to 0.43. The carbon midpoint
A review of Table 3D-1 will show percent. Once again, the figure giv- is about 0.40. Sometimes this i s
that, in the AISI-SAE number 23XX, en i s not the actual carbon content called ‘‘forty points” of carbon.
the 3 indicates a nickel content of but somewhere near the midrange. Study the chart until you are able to
3.5 percent. This value is normally As an example, look at the first entry look up information quickly and ac-
the midrange and is not always the in Table 3D-2. The 1330 steel has a curately. Similar tables for other
actual content. One of the many carbon content ranging from 0.28 to steel types are available from the
AISI-SAE numerical classification ta- 0.33 percent. If you look at the other AISI.
bles is shown in Table 3D-2. It in- entries in the table, you will find
TABLE 3Bb-2 A AISI-SAE Numerical Classification Table

~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~~ ~~ ~ ~
Composition of Standard Alloy Steels

Steel Chemical Composition, percent
Designation UNS P S
AISI or SAE Number C Mn Max. Max. si Ni Cr Mo
1330 G13300 O. 28iO.33 1.6011.90 0.035 0.040 O. i5i0.35 - - -

1335 Cl3350 O. 3310.38 1.6011.90 0.035 0.040 0.1 5/0.35 - - -
1340 G 1 3400 O .38/0.43 1.6011.90 0.035 0.040 O. 1510.35 - - -
4023 G40230 0.2010.25 0.70i0.90 0.035 0.040 0.15i0.35 - - O. 20/0.30
4027 G40270 0.2510.30 O. 70i0.90 0.035 0.040 O. 1510.35 - - 0.20/0.30
4028 G40280 0.25/0.30 O. 7010.90 0.035 0.035 0.1 5i0.35 - - 0.2010.30
0.050
4037 G40370 0.35/0.40 0.7010.90 0.035 0.040 O. 1 510.35 - - 0.20/0.30
4047 G40470 0.4510.50 O. 7010.90 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 - - 0.2010.30
41 18 G41180 O. 1810.23 O. 7010.90 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 - 0.40/0.60 0.0810.15
4120” G4 1200 O. 18/0.23 0.9011.20 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.35 - 0.40/0.60 O. 13/0.20
4121‘ G41210 O. 1810.23 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 O. 15/0.35 - 0.45i0.65 0.20i0.30
41 30 (341300 0.28i0.33 0.4010.60 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.35 - 0.8011.1 O 0.1 5i0.25
41 31 G41310 O. 28iO.33 O. 5010.70 0.035 0.040 O. 1510.35 - 0.9011.20 O. 1510.25
41 37 G41370 0.35i0.40 O. 70iO.90 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 - 0.80/1.10 0.1 510.25
41 40 (341400 0.38i0.43 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.15i0.35 - 0.80/1.10 O. 15/0.25
41 42 G41420 0.40i0.45 0.75i1 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 - 0.80A.l O 0.1 510.25
41 45 G41450 0.43i0.48 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.35 - 0.80A.1 O 0.1 510.25
41 47 (341470 0.45iO.50 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.15i0.35 - 0.80/1.1 O O. 1510.25
41 50 (341500 0.4810.53 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 O. 1510.35 - 0.80A.l O O. 15i0.25
4320 (243200 0.1 710.22 0.45i0.65 0.035 0.040 O. 1510.35 1.65/2.00 0.40/0.60 0.20/0.30
4340 G43400 0.38/0.43 O. 6010.80 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 1.6512.00 O. 70l0.90 0.2010.30
E4340 G43406 0.3810.43 0.6510.85 0.025 0.025 0.1 5i0.35 1.6512.00 0.70/0.90 0.20/0.30
4620 G46200 0.1 7i0.22 0.4510.65 0.035 0.040 0.15/0.35 1.65/2.00 - 0.2010.30
471 5‘ G47150 O. 1310.18 O. 70/0.90 0.035 0.040 O. 1510.35 O. 70/1 .O0 0.4510.65 0.4510.65

TABLE 3D.2 A AISI-SAE Numerical Classification Table (continued)
Composition of Standard Alloy Steels

Chemical Composition, percent
Steel
Designation UNS P S
AISI or SAE Number C Mn Max. Max. si Ni Cr Mo
4720 G47200 O. 1710.22 O. 50l0.70 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 0.9011.20 O. 3 510.5 5 0.15/0.25
481 5 G48150 0.1 310.18 0.40l0.60 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 3.2513.75 - O. 2010.30
4820 G48200 O. 1810.23 O. 5010.70 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 3.2513.75 - 0.2010.30
51 20 G5 1200 O. 1710.22 O. 7010.90 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 - O. 70l0.90 -
5130 G51300 O. 2810.3 3 0.7010.90 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 - .8011.10 -
51 32 G51320 O. 3010.3 5 O. 6010.80 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 - 0.7511 .O0 -
5140 G5 1400 O. 3810.43 0.7010.90 0.035 O. 040 0.1 510.35 - O. 7010.90 -
51 50 G5 1500 O. 4810.53 O. 7010.90 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 - O. 7010.90 -
5160 G5 1600 0.5610.64 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 - O. 70l0.90 -
E51 100 G51986 0.9811.10 0.2510.45 0.025 0.025 O. 1510.35 - 0.9011.15 -
E52100 G52986 0.9811.1 O 0.2510.45 0.025 0.025 0.1510.35 - 1.3011.60 -
61 50 G61500 O. 4810.53 O. 70l0.90 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 - 0.8011.1 O (0.15 min. V)
8615 G86150 0.1 3/0.18 0.7010.90 0.035 O. 040 0.1510.35 0.4010.70 0.4010 .60 0.1 510.25
861 7 G86170 O. 1510.20 O. 7010.90 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 0.4010.70 O. 4010.60 0.1 510.25
8620 G86200 O. 1810.23 O. 7010.90 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 0.4010. 70 0.4010. 60 0.1 510.25
8622 G86220 0.2010.25 O. 7010.90 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 0.4010.70 0.40l0.60 0.15/0.25
8630 G86300 O. 2 810.3 3 O. 70tO. 90 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 0.40t0.70 O. 40t0.60 0.1 510.25
8637 G86370 0.3510.40 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 O. 1510.35 0.4010.70 0.4010.60 0.1510.25
8640 G86400 O. 3810.43 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 0.4010.70 0.4010.60 0.1 510.25
8645 G86450 0.4310.48 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 0.40tO. 70 O. 4010.60 0.1 510.25
8720 (387200 O. 1810.23 O. 7010.90 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 0.4010.70 0.4010.60 0.2010.30
8822 G88220 0.2010.25 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 O. 1510.35 0.4010.70 0.40/0.60 0.3010.40
9259 G92590 0.5610.64 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.7011.10 - 0.4510.65 -
9260 G92600 O. 5610.64 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 1.8012.20 - - -
ComDosition of Standard Allov Boron Steelsd
50646 G50461 0.4410.49 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.1510.35 - O. 2010.3 5 -
51 660 G51601 0.5610.64 0.7511 .O0 0.035 0.040 0.1 510.35 - O. 7010.90 -
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
aFormerly EX 15.
"Formerly EX 24.
CFormerly EX 30.
dThese steels can be expected to contain 0.0005 to 0.003 percent boron.
Note 1. Grades shown in this table with prefix letter E are made by the electric furnace process with maximum limits of 0.025percent phosphorus
and sulfur. All other grades are manufactured with the maximum limits of 0.035 percent phosphorus and 0.040 percent sulfur, unless otherwise
indicated above.
Note 2. If electric furnace process is specified or required for grades other than those designated (¡.e. E4340), the limits of phosphorus and sulfur
are 0.025 percent, respectively, and the prefix E is added).
Note 3. For acid electric and acid open-hearth steels, the limits for phosphorus and sulfur are 0.050 percent, respectively.
Note 4. Small quantities of certain elements that are not specified or required are present in alloy steels. These elements are considered as inciden-
tal and may be present to the following maximum amounts: copper, 0.35 percent; nickel, 0.25percent; chromium, 0.20 percent; and molybde-
num, 0.06 percent.
Note 5. Standard alloy steels can be produced with a lead range of 0.1 Y0.35 percent. Such steels are identified by inserting the letter L between
the second and third numerals of the AISI number, e.g., 41 L40. Lead is generally reported as a range of 0.1 5í0.35 percent.
Note 6. Where minimum and maximum sulfur content is shown, it indicates resulfurized steel.
Source: Pocketbook of AISI Standard Steels, August 1985. Reprinted by permission of American Iron and Steel Institute.

CHAPTER 3 MATERIALS
TTIE ANS I[ C I,hSS I FI C A T I 0 N Cast-aluminum alloys have a four- TADELLIE 38b.fr Cast-Aluminum Alloys
SY ST 1SM 143R A 1,lJ M I N II M digit identification in which a deci-
Group Designation
Wrought- and cast-aluminum alloys mal separates the third and last num-
have classification systems that ap- bers. These designations are listed in Aluminum, 99.00% 1xx.x
pear almost identical. Both use a Table 30-5. The decimal shows that minimum
four-digit numerical designation to the alloy is a casting alloy. Letters of Aluminum and 2xx.x
identify the alloys. Table 3D-3 de- the alphabet are used to indicate copper
scribes the system for wrought-alu- modifications of the alloy. A single Aluminum with 3xx.x
minum alloys. Note that the first letter is put in front of the numbers. silicon and
number indicates an alloy group. The modifying designation can be copper or
The second number is used to iden- any letter from A to Z except for I,
Aluminum with 3xx.x
silicon and
tify a specific modification of the O, Q, and X. For example, A514.0 magnesium
group, or an impurity limit. The describes one of the aluminum- Aluminum and 4xx.x
third and fourth numbers further magnesium alloys, and B443.0 i s silicon
identify the alloy or the purity of the one of the aluminum-silicon alloys. Aluminum and 5xx.x
aluminum. The fourth-digit number One last point to remember is that magnesium
will usually be followed by a letter, casting alloys have the same temper Aluminum and 7xx.x
or a letter and a number, identifying designations as wrought alloys. This zinc
the temper that results when the al- is why the terms wrought and cast Aluminum and 8XX.X
loy is produced. Table 3D-4 lists the are not used in the title of Table tin
various temper designations that you 3D-4. Other alloys 9xx.x
may encounter.
'íi'AflEU,U~: :%[ID4 Temper Designations for Aluminurn Alloys
Designation Meaning
Group Designation
F As fabricated
Aluminum, 99.00% 1xxx O Annealed
minimum H1 Strain-hardened
Aluminum and 2xxx H2 Strain-hardened, partially annealed
copper H3 Strain-hardened, thermally stabilized
Aluminum and 3xxx W Solution heat-treated
manganese T1 Cooled from high-temperature shaping, naturally aged
Aluminum and 4xxx T2 Cooled from high-temperature shaping and cold-worked
si Iicon T3 Solution heat-treated, cold-worked, naturally aged
Aluminum and 5xxx T5 Cooled from high-temperature shaping, artificially aged
magnesium T6 Solution heat-treated, artificially aged
Aluminum with 6XXX T7 Solution heat-treated, stabilized
magnesium and T8 Solution heat-treated, cold-worked, artificially aged
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
silicon T9 Solution heat-treated, artificially aged, then cold-worked
Aluminum and zinc 7xxx T1O Cooled from high-temperature shaping, cold-worked, then
Other alloys 8XXX artificially aged

CHAPTER 4
INSPECTION
. AND TESTING
LESSON 4A
DESTRUCTIVE 'II'ES'IC'S
OBJECTIVES THE WELDER'S ROLE and equipment is available for the
Upon completion of this lesson you Welders should visually inspect use of the inspector. These range
should be able to each and every weld they produce. from visual inspection and weld
1. Identify five destructive tests. The inspection should be auto- measurement to more complicated
2. Explain why grinding, machin- matic. It should be done between destructive and nondestructive test
ing, and file marks must be re- passes, as well as after the weld i s methods. Proper use of tests can
moved from the test specimen. completed. determine whether the welds are
3. Define the term elongation. Between passes the welder should strong enough.
4. Describe the Charpy test. check for undercut and the possibil- Welding inspectors are trained to
5. Identify the code that states "Any ity that slag has been included. The use specialized inspection equip-
specimen in which a crack or oth- welder should also check for prop- ment. Sometimes these inspectors
er open discontinuity exceeding er bead contour and smooth con- are called weld technicians or qual-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
'/in.
i (3.2 mm) measured in any nections. The experienced welder ity control personnel; it all depends
direction is present after the should constantly inspect the weld on the company they work for.
bending shall be considered as during its formation. The welder can Sometimes, with proper training, a
having failed." see whether the penetration and fu- welder can become an inspector.
sion are proper. Although any large Although welding inspection is an
QUALITY IS ESSENTIAL gas pockets that form can be seen, additional cost, it can save money
Welding inspection and testing are the welder has no way of detecting in the long run. It can eliminate or
of great importance to the manufac- fine porosity. at least reduce the need for field re-
turer. They help to keep costs down Completed welds should be pairs. Common sense tells you that
by finding unacceptable welds be- checked carefully for things such as it is better to find and repair defects
fore items are shipped. The shipping even bead appearance, uniform before the product leaves the shop
destination may be some distance width and height, uniform size of or i s placed in service. Sometimes
away. The cost of repairs made in the legs on fillet welds, as well as the welding inspector administers
the field is quite high. It might be proper contour of the weld face. welder performancetests. Almost all
necessary to send a factory crew to Also check for undercut, surface po- employers require that a welder pass
the customer's plant. The cost of rosity, and slag inclusions. a qualification test. The test shows
travel, lodging, meals, and premium The connections should be sound whether the welder has the ability to
pay can add up to a sizable amount. and conform with the appearance of weld at the quality level required by
A good quality assurance program the rest of the weld. the employer.
is essential. In many companies it is In addition to these visual inspec- Qualification testing annoys some
carried out by the inspection de- tion steps, the welder may take part welders. However, a good welder
partment. Manufacturers should hire in the measurement of welds. need not fear the test or the welding
only qualified welders and welding inspector. Cooperate with inspec-
inspectors. In addition, there should THE INSPECTOR'S ROLE tors; they know requirements such
be a good working relationship be- The welding inspector is the watch- as
tween the welders and the welding dog of the welding industry. The in-
spector makes sure that only items 1. 'Metal preparation.
inspectors.
with high-quality weldments are 2. Fit-up.
shipped. A wide range of methods 3. Root faces and root openings.

CHAPTER 4 INSPECTION AND TESTING
4. Welding position.
5. Type of bead required.
6. Bead sequence.
7 . Method of cleaning allowed.
8. Type of metal removal allowed.
9. Preheat and postheat.
10. Time limits for the test.
11. Special rules governing the test.
WELD TESTING
In addition to welder testing, quality
control requires weld testing. This
lesson describes the destructive tests
that can be made on the weld. The
next lesson describes the nondes-
tructive tests that can be made. You
cannot ask a weld to answer ques-
tions, but it can be evaluated by a
wide range of tests. The tests will
help determine whether the weid is
sound and fit for service.
Guided bend tests are used to evaluate the soundness of the weld.
DEFINITION OF
DESTRUCTIVE TESTING
In destructive testing the sample is
destroyed during the test, and before
that the weld was destroyed when
the sample itself was obtained. This
type of test provides us with impor-
tant information about the mechan-
ical properties of steel.
Tensile tests, bend tests, chemical
analysis, hardness tests, V-notch
tests, microscopic and macroscopic
tests, and in some cases hydrostatic
tests are used. They determine
whether the weld properties are
equal to, greater than, or less than
the properties of the base metal.
THE BEND TEST

The first test you encounter may be
FEGURE 4A.B Guided bend.
either the free bend test or the guid-
ed bend test. In these tests a prop-
FIGURE 4A-2 Free bend.
erly prepared specimen is bent. The
specimen can be flame-cut or saw-
cut across the length of the weld. the two methods of bending are is on the outside and is bent the most
The conditions during bending are shown in Figures 4A-1 and 4A-2. in order to stress it the most. The
controlled. The ways in which they Three types of bends are used in root bend puts the most stress on the
are to be controlled are normally de- these tests. They are the face, root, root pass and is probably the most
scribed in the code governing the and side bends. Figure 4A-3 shows important of all the tests. The side
weld service. Coupon specimens for a face bend. The finished weld face bend places most of the stress on
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

This is a rigid test, but the welder

who does a good job and prepares
the samples properly will pass the
test. Figure 4A-4 shows the correct
method for preparing a bend test
specimen.
In addition to grinding or milling
the weid reinforcement to the plate
surface, be sure to put a radius on
the four edges along the coupon.
Without rounded edges a crack may
start in one of the sharp edges, and
the weld may fail. Here is an im-
FIGURE 4 A - 3 Face bend. portant precaution to take in prepar-
ing a specimen. Be sure all grinding,
machining, or file marks are in line
with the length of the coupon. (See
Figure 4A-5.) Marks across the weid
may act to start a crack. Even fine
one weld side or the other. It is used marks can cause an otherwise sound FIGURE 4 A - 5 Grinding marks should
mainly when testing heavy plate weld to crack and fail. The marks act be in line with the coupon.
1 inch or more in thickness. How- as crack starters.
ever, the side bend test can be used The bend test is simple to per-
on thinner plates. Normally, the form, and the equipment is not very
bend test determines whether a expensive. It should be available in THE TENSILE TEST
weider can produce sound welds. your school. It is good practice to When you make a test plate, espe-
This is the reason that it is one of the test your own welds as often as pos- cially if it is to qualify a procedure,
first tests the welder encounters. The sible while you are training. This there is a possibility that it will be
weld is acceptable when will build your confidence and also tensile-tested. This means that a
help you to develop your ability to sample from the welded plate will
1. Single cracks in the stretched sur- produce quality welds. With confi- be prepared as shown in Figure 4A-
face are less than one-eighth of an dence in your ability, you will not 6. Notice that the center portion of
inch long, or be apprehensive about the test when the coupon has been narrowed,
2. No group of cracks has a com- you seek employment. These tests which causes it to break somewhere
bined length of one-eighth of an will be discussed in more detail in within that section. Take all meas-
inch. the next lesson. urements with care. Measurements
L ----- 2L --___ 2
FIGURE 4 A - 4 Face and root bends, transverse. (From Sec-

tion IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 1986
edition. Courtesy of The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 4 INSPECTION AND TESTING 39
metal begins to neck down. A fur-

ther increase in force is needed to
break the specimen. After the spec-
¡men breaks, the operator calculates
the yield strength of the metal. The
computations depend on the equip-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ment used and the measured cross

section of the coupon.
ELONGATION
Elongation is another factor that can
be determined by a tensile tester.
Elongation is the increase in length
of the specimen, measured as a per-
centage, when it is stretched until it
breaks. Elongation is determined
from two center punch marks on the
specimen. The marks are placed at
least 1 inch apart. After the speci-
Grind marks should be lengthwise on FIGURE 4A-7 A specimen secured in
men has broken, the pieces are
bend coupons. the jaws of a tensile tester.
placed together. Then the distance
between the two marks is measured.
(See Figure 4A-8.) The increase in
distance is used to calculate the
elongation, as shown by the follow-
ing equation:
k----t----4APPROX.
l/4' 1 W I L D REINFORCEMENT
SMALL BE MACMINED FLUSH
WITH 0ASEMETAL ',
,C
LENGTM SURICIENTTO EXTENO
INTO GRIP EQUAL TO APPRO¶.
2/3ROS GRIP UNGTM(MIN.41.
I
P----'----l Percent elongation
1 ? /
---EDCE Of WIDEST
F U E OF WELD
=( increase in length
Original length
) x 100
For example, if the center punch

I , THICKNESS O F TEST P L A T E
W i APPROX. I i/2' W T NOT A W E 0 LENGTH.
marks were 1 inch apart before the
%E%&:
- --- - - --- - - specimen was pulled, and they
W = APPR0X.I' If t EXCEEDS i:
stretched 'A6 inch farther apart after
TENSION-REDUCED SECTION-PLATE breaking,
PPGUBE 4A.6 Tension-reduced section plate. (From Section
IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 1986 edi-
tion. Courtesy of The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers.) = 6.25 percent elongation
. .
must be accurate if you are to cal-
culate the actual pounds per square
inch required to pull the coupon
apart.
The correctly prepared specimen
is placed in the jaws of a tensile test-
ing machine, as shown in Figure 4A-
7. Most of these machines use hy-
draulic power. They exert the force
needed to pull the specimen apart.
The force increases until the yield PPGUIRE BA-8 Measuring elongation. (Courtesy of Union County Vocation-
point is eventually reached and the al-Techn ¡cal School.)

Or if they were 1Va inches apart after

breaking;
(% + 1) x 100
= 12.5 percent elongation
-
Or if they were 13/16 inches apart af-
ter breaking;
= 18.75 percent elongation
The American Welding Society

electrode classification system re-
quires the elongation percentage to
be specified by the manufacturer.
This specification is in addition to
the tensile strength, yield strength,
reduction in area impact value and,
in some cases, the hardness of the
filler metal.
HARDNESS
Hardness is the ability of a metal
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to withstand penetration. A harder

metal or a diamond i s used as a pen- FIGURE 4 A . 9 Air-O-Brinell air-oper- FIGURE 4 A . 1 0 Rockwell hardness
etrator and pressed into the test sam- ated metal hardness tester. (Photograph tester. (Courtesy of Wilson Instrument
ple using a predetermined force. courtesy of Tinius Olsen Testing Ma- Division, Page-Wilson Corporation.)
Two common testing machines are chine Company, Inc., Willow Grove,
the Brinell and the Rockwell hard- Pennsylvania.)
ness testers. These are shown in Fig-
ures 4A-9 and 4A-10.
The equipment in the two ma-
chines is different, but the results are
similar. The Rockwell tester uses a
hardened steel ball, 'A6 inch in di-
ameter, for softer metals, a conical-
shaped diamond for harder metals.
(See Figure 3A-8.) The Brinell hard-
ness tester uses a l/a-inch-diameter Izod
hardened steel ball for all metals.
.0.25mm R
IMPACT VALUES
The Charpy test and Izod procedure
are used to determine the impact FIGURE 4 A . 1 1 Izod method. (Courtesy of Union County Vocational-Technical
School)
strength of metal. For both these
tests a notch or groove i s cut into the
specimen, but, the shape and posi- The Charpy method holds the ods. The tests use the energy stored
tion of the grooves are different. The specimen at both ends. The Izod in a pendulum. The pendulum is
Charpy method uses a square method holds one end only. raised a measured distance and then
groove with a round hole at the bot- Figures 4A-11 and 4A-12, show released, to swing down and strike
tom, the Izod method a V notch. specimens prepared with both meth- the specimen. If the specimen fails

Load
r 1
FIGURE 4A.12 Charpy V notch. (Courtesy of Union County

VocationaCTechnical School)
Root Face
to break on the first swing, the pen-
dulum is raised to a greater height
and released. The height of the pen-
dulum is increased until the speci-
men breaks. The pendulum energy
absorbed by breaking the specimen
determines the impact strength.
MACROSCOPIC AND
MICROSCOPIC TESTING
Macroscopic and microscopic test-
ing methods are very similar to each
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
other. They use instruments to mag-

nify the samples so that porosity,
slag inclusions, lack of fusion, the FHGUBE QA.13 Root bend. FIGURE 4A.14 Face bend.
grain structure of the metal, and oth-
er discontinuities may be seen.
The main difference between the
two visual testing methods is in the shown in Figure 4A-14. The side set up the testing procedures provide
equipment used. The macroscopic bend test applies force to stretch one exact information about the size
equipment magnifies the samples of the side surfaces. and shape of the specimen. Test-
from 10 to 30 times and views a All three tests are simple to per- ing equipment and methods of pre-
larger area than when the micro- form. Welding students should be paring the specimen are also
scopic method is used. However, it able to prepare and test their own recommended.
has limitations. Although a large specimens, as well as those of oth- Specimen thickness is determined
area is visible, the magnification is ers. The more welds you make that by the welded plate or pipe. Width
not as great as with the microscopic pass the tests, the more confident and length are specified by the
method. The microscopic equip- you will become. Confidence will codes.
ment provides magnifications of help you pass the required qualifi- Section IX of the ASME Boiler and
from 50 to as many as 5000 times. cation tests. Pressure Vessel Code, and of AWC
D1.1, Structural Welding Code-
DEFINITION OF ROOT, SPECIMEN PREPARATION Steel, requires test specimens with
FACE, AND SIDE BENDS In industry you probably will not the same measurements, configura-
Root, face, and side bends are all prepare your own test specimens. In tions, and preparation. In addition,
part of the destructive testing pro- small shops and in your school both codes use bending equipment
cedure. The name of the test is de- shop, however, you will have to with similarly shaped anvils. The
termined by which surface of the prepare the specimens. Therefore it specimen is bent over the anvil.
specimen is stretched the most. is important that you learn and fol- Sometimes the anvil i s called a die.
For example, if the root is to be low procedures that give you the The equipment must be constructed
tested, the root side of the specimen best chance to pass the tests. in the same manner and subjected
will be bent to stretch it the most, as Many a good weld has failed a test to the same forces during the testing
shown in Figure 4A-13. A face bend because specimen preparation has procedure.
stretches the face pass the most, as been poor. The organizations that Figure 4A-15 and Figure 4A-16

No reproduction or networking permitted without license from IHS i
Not for Resale, 09/13/2005 16:44:07 MDT
Tapped ~ o / eto soit Hardened Rollers, / j ’ k o
Testing Machine m a y be subsh’tuted for
J i 9 Shoulders
AS required+ 7As
have been taken from these AWS

and ASME codes. Note that the
shape and size of the dies are the
same. At first glance some of the in-
formation may seem to be different,
but it is not. it is just expressed in a
s Iight Iy d ifferent manner.
METHODS OF
PREPARING SPECIMENS
All test specimens or coupons must
be prepared in the same manner,
whether they are to be subjected to I i
the root, the face, or the side bend
test. The code will specify how to I Thickness of
Specimens, In.
A
in.
B
In.
C
In.
D
In. Material Refer To I
remove the specimen from the test
piece. it will also tell which surfaces
must be ground or machined. The
codes are exact; follow them.
Radius preparation i s of great im-
portance to the welder or student
preparing the specimens: Both
codes call for specific shapes on all
test specimens. Examine the end
views of the specimen shown in Fig-
1 ‘1‘6 - ’ l n in. &i 101 5t 121 + ‘I8 61 + ‘Ilo P-52 QW-422.52 I
ure 4A-17.
Notice that the lengthwise edges GUIDED-BEND JIG
of the specimen are showr as round- FIGURE 4A-15 Guided-bend jig. (From Section IX of the ASME Boiler and Pressure
ed. Sharp edges on weld specimens Vessel Code, 1986 edition. Courtesy of The American Society of Mechanical
can cause cracks to start. The cracks Engineers.)
can and will lengthen and cause fail-
ure of the specimen.
Side bends are often made on
specimens from heavy plate. There-
fore, the specimen must be cut to a Tapped hole to suit
size that will fit in the die of the testing machine
bending jig.
Figure 4A-18 shows a specimen
reduced to 3/8 inch across the weld
and to between 3/4 inch and I’/’
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
inches wide. The symbol for thick-

ness is t.
ROOT BEND TEST

The root bend test determines the
welder’s ability to produce sound
FIGURE 4A.16 Bending jig for U

bends as per AWS specifications. (From
AWS D1.1-86, Structural Welding
Code-Steel. Courtesy of American
Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)

CHAPTER 4 INSPECTION AND TESTING
structural welding in general, as

6
-t min (Note 114- I well as buildings and bridges.
5.28.1 Root-, Face-, and Side-
Bend Tests. The convex surface of
the bend test specimen shall be
visually examined for surface dis-
continuities. For acceptance, the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
surface shall contain no disconti-
nuities exceeding the following
dimensions:
1 . '/s in. (3.2 mm) measured in
any direction on the surface.
2. 3/8 in. (9.5 m m b s u m of the
greatest dimensions of al/ dis-
continuities exceeding 1/32 in.
(0.8 mm), but less than or
equal to '/8 in. (3.2 mm).
3. Y4 in. (6.4 mm)-maximum
corner crack, except when that
corner crack resulted from vis-
ible slag inclusion or other fu-
- 1. a. For Procedure qualification of materials other than

P-1 in QW-422. If the surfaces of the side bend test
Dimensions specimens are gas cut, removal by machining or grinding
of not less than 118 inch from the surface shall be required.
Test weldment Test specimen width, in. (w)
Plate 1-112
1. b. Such removal is not required for P-1 Materials but
Test pipe 2 in. and 1
any resulting roughness shall be dressed by machining or
3 in. in diameter
grinding.
Test pipe 6 in. and 1-112
8 in. in diameter 2. For performance qualification of all materials in
QW-422 if the surfaces of side bend tests are gas cut, any
FPGUBHE 4A-117Face and root bend specimens. (From AWS resulting roughness shall be dressed by machining or
D1.1-86, Structural Welding Code-Steel. Courtesy of Ameri- grinding
can Welding Society, Miami, Florida.) f min. R, = 5max
root passes. The specimen is placed

on the die with the root facing
downward, into the gap. The plung-
er is brought into contact with the
specimen and bends it into a U
shape. It is important to center the
weld in order to place the maximum Cut along line indicated by arrow. Edge may be flame cut
stress at this point. and may or may not be machined.
The method used to evaluate the 2. Specimens may be cut into approximately equal strips be-
result of a root bend test as well as tween </4" and l Y? wide for testing or the specimens may be
of a face or a side bend test is as bent at full width (see requirements on jig width in QW-466.1.)
follows. It is a direct quote from PPGüJBE4A.18 Side bend. (From Section IX of the ASME
AWS D 1.1-86, Structural Welding Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, 1986 edition. Courtesy of
Code-Steel. This code covers The American Society of Mechanical Engineers.)

sion type discontinuities, then For this test the specimen face must be removed from the weld face
% in. (3.2 mm) maximum shall must be placed downward on the surface of the specimen.
apply. The specimens with cor- die. The plunger touches the root
ner cracks exceeding Y4 in. (6.4 side of the joint. The results are eval- MISCELLANEOUS
mm) with no evidence of slag uated in the same way as for the root There are other tests, such as hydro-
inclusions or other fusion type bend test. static tests, chemical etches, and so
discontinuities may be disre- on. Whatever test is used, it i s im-
garded, and a replacement test SIDE BEND portant that you follow the test pro-
specimen from the original TEST cedures without deviation. The pro-
weldment shall be tested. Side bend tests are used mainly for cedures have been well thought out
tests on heavy plate. Side bend spec- and represent the accumulated long-
FACE BEND TEST imens are prepared differently from term experience of a large group of
The face bend specimen i s prepared those for root or face bend tests. knowledgeable and highly qualified
in about the same manner as the They must be reduced to 3/8 inch in individuals. The codes that govern
root bend specimen. Metal that is re- width so they will fit in the die test- the procedures are under constant
moved to reduce the specimen to ing equipment. Material must be re- revision.
the required 3/s-inch thickness must moved from 'both sides in order to
be taken from the root side, as accomplish this. If the test plate is
shown in Figure 4A-4. thicker than /'z inch, all excess metal
LESSON 4B
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTS
OBJECTIVES Nondestructive welding inspec- MAGNETIC

Upon completion of this lesson you tion methods include visual, mag- PARTICLE INSPECTION
should be able to netic particle, liquid penetrant, ra- As the name implies, magnetic par-
1. Identify five nondestructive tests. diographic, ultrasonic, eddy cur- ticle inspection uses magnetism.
2. Describe the type of defect that rent, proof, and leak test techniques. The piece to be inspected is mag-
can be detected by liquid pene- The method chosen depends on netized by placing it in a magnetic
trant inspection. the availability of equipment, the field or by passing electric current
3. Describe the appearance of position of the defect, the shape of through it. Then the surface to be
GTAW tungsten inclusions on the weld, and the cost of the test. inspected i s sprinkled with fine rnag-
radiographs. Only well-qualified people should netic particles. The particles are at-
4. Explain how water-soluble flu- perform the procedure and interpret tracted to places where the magnet-
orescent dyes can be used to de- the test results. ism is strongest, such as at the edges
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tect leaks. The American Welding Society of a crack or other discontinuity.

has developed material, courses, Only metals that can be magnetized
NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING standards, and tests to ensure that may be tested with this method.
Nondestructive testing is used to de- welding inspectors have the knowl- Both large and small weldments
tect discontinuities in material with- edge and ability to make and eval- may be tested.
out destroying it or impairing its use- uate the tests. The American Weld- Magnetic particle inspection can
fulness. Because these methods ing Society also has a certification be used to inspect the surface
are nondestructive, inspection and program to ensure that welding in- and edges of metal plates before
quality control costs are reduced. spectors are well trained and quali- welding.
Destructive test methods increase fied. The certification program Typical defects that can be
the cost because the article must be and tests are offered periodically detected include surface cracks,
replaced or repaired after the testing. throughout the country. undercut, incomplete fusion, and

inadequate joint penetration. Lami-

nations and other defects may be de-
tected on the edges of the base
metal. Cracks sfightly below the sur-
face of the piece being tested may
also be detected. Detection of dis-
continuities depends on their shape
and depth below the surface. For ex-
ample, cracks running perpendicu-
lar to the surface can be easily de-
tected, but round or spherical flaws
are difficult to detect.
LIQUID PENETRANT
INSPECTION
The liquid penetrant testing method
uses special types of liquids that can
enter cracks and crevices by capil-
lary action. Some will remain even
when the excess i s cleaned away.
This is a reliable method of detecting
discontinuities that are open to the
surface.
FIGURE 4B.1 Crack, transverse. FIGURE 4B.2 Porosity. (From Weld-
RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION (From Welding Inspection- 7 980. ing Inspection-7 980. Courtesy of
Radiographic inspection methods Courtesy of American Welding Society, American Welding Society, Miami,
make use of both X-rays and gamma Miami, Florida.) Florida.)
rays. They can detect discontinuities
inside of solid materials, such as
weld metals. X-rays come from an
X-ray machine, gamma rays from Two radiographs taken from verse cracks are those that run
radioactive isotopes. slightly different positions are need- across the weld from side to side.
Both rays have the ability to pene- ed to calculate the depth of the
trate solids. The penetration is de- discontinuity. Porosity
pendent on the type and thickness The secret to an inspector’s suc- As we have indicated earlier, empty
of the material. A special film placed cess in effective by using radiogra- spaces in the cooled weld metal,
behind the surface to be radio- phy is to be competent. The inspec- caused by trapped gases, constitute
graphed can make a permanent in- tor should be trained in the safe porosity. These spaces can be
spection record. Radiation passing usage of the equipment and have the shaped like spheres or holes, or
through the part causes the film to ability to interpret the radiographs. elongated like wormholes or pipes.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
“photograph” internal differences in The AWS (Structural Welding Porosity can be located along the
density; these differences show up Code-Steel), ASME (Boiler and weld in a line or scattered about.
as shades of light and dark. Our abil- Pressure Vessel Code), various gov- Figures 48-2 through 49-5are radio-
ity to interpret the meaning of these ernmental groups, and private or- graphs of various types of porosity.
contrasting shades make radiogra- ganizations have developed radiog-
phy an important inspection tool. raphy acceptance standards. Some Slag Inclusions
When X-rays or gamma rays strike states license individuals who oper- Slag, foreign material trapped in the
an object, some pass through, some ate the radiographic equipment. cooled weld metal, comes from the
are absorbed, and others are scat- welding process. As indicated ear-
tered. Those that pass straight Cracks lier, it can become trapped in the
through are the ones that expose the A crack, a narrow separation in solid weld through improper welding or
film. With training an inspector can metal, is likely to elongate with by failure to clean the joint. A radi-
interpret the dark and light areas on time. Figure 48-1 is a radiograph of ograph of a common type of slag in-
the film and identify internal flaws. a transverse crack in a weld. Trans- clusion is shown in Figure 48-6.

FIGURE 4B.3 Porosity, vertical. FIGURE 48.4 Porosity, mismatch, FIGURE 4B.B Elongated slag and po-
(From Welding Inspection-1980. and inadequate penetration. (From rosity. (From Welding Inspection-
Courtesy of American Welding Society, Welding Inspection-1 980. Courtesy of 1980. Courtesy of American Welding
Miami, Florida.) American Welding Society, Miami, Society, Miami, Florida.)
Florida.)
Tungsten Inclusions Inadequate Penetration

The small particles of tungsten that Inadequate penetration, a condition
drop off the electrode when condi- in which the welding puddle does
tions are wrong during gas tungsten not penetrate properly, occurs in
arc welding, and then imbed them- both butt and fillet welds. Fine
selves in the weld, have a high den- radiographs of inadequate penetra-
sity. Radiographs of the inclusions tion are shown in Figures 46-7 and
appear lighter than the weld metal. 46-8.
Undercut
Incomplete Fusion Undercut, a groove melted by the
Radiographs of incomplete fusion, flame or arc and left unfilled, forms
the failure of the molten weld pud- a crevice along the toes of a weld.
dle to bond to the base metal, and The dark lines in Figures 46-9 and
of slag inclusions are similar in ap- 4B-10 are an example of undercut.
pearance; sometimes they cannot be
distinguished. ULTRASONIC INSPECTION
Ultrasonic testing can be used to de-
tect weld discontinuities. This in-
FIGURE 4B-6 Elongated slag. (From spection method uses a beam of
Welding Inspection-1980. Courtesy of high-frequency sound waves that
American Welding Society, Miami,
Florida.) G are projected into the test part.
The sound waves are reflected by
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PEGURIE 4B.7 inadequate penetra- FIGURE 4B-8 Mismatch and inade- FIGURE 4B.B Internal undercut.
tion. (From Welding Inspection-I 980. quate penetration. (From Welding (From Welding Inspection- 1980.
Courtesy of American Welding Society, Inspection-1 980. Courtesy of Ameri- Courtesy of American Welding Society,
Miami, Florida.) can Welding Society, Miami, Florida.) Miami, Florida.)
discontinuities. The reflections are to detect discontinuities such as

received by a transducer in the test- cracks, seams, voids, and so on.
ing equipment. A trained operator It is difficult to separate the two
can determine the size, type, and effects in magnetic materials-eddy
position of the defect. If there are no currents and magnetic fields-but
defects, the sound waves will be re- using the correct magnetizing fre-
flected by the opposite surface of the quency and a properly designed test
part being tested. circuit makes separation possible.
The most important characteristic
of the ultrasonic testing method is its PROOF TESTS
ability to determine the depth and Proof testing is used to see whether
position of the defect. This ability the weldment can withstand its
makes it a valuable tool in planning service load, without permanent de-
the repair of the defect. formation or failure. This testing
uses stresses higher than those ex-
EDDYCURRENT pected in service but below the elas-
(ELECTROMAGNETIC)TESTING tic strength of the material.
Eddy current or electromagnetic
testing uses an alternating electro-
magnetic field to induce eddy cur- FIGURE 4B.10 Mismatch and inter-
rents in the part. If the part is ferro- nal undercut. (From Welding Inspec-
magnetic, a magnetic field will also tion-1 980. Courtesy of American
be induced. These effects are used Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

!
Closed containers such as cylin- open containers is the kerosene test. used for leak tests. it has a low cost
ders, tanks, vessels, and closed pip- A small amount of kerosene is and is readily available.
ing systems can be proof-tested by brushed on the inside of the weld Chemicals can be added to re-
either the pneumatic or the hydro- seams. If there is a leak, the kero- duce the surface tension of water,
static method. sene will bleed through in a few which makes it easier to detect
The pneumatic method uses air to minutes. Because kerosene is flam- leaks. Water-soluble fluorescent
pressurize the vessel. This method is mable, care must be taken that no dyes can also be used. They can be
normally used where test pressures hot work is being done in the vicin- seen with black light (ultraviolet) if
do not exceed 50 pounds per square ity. The remaining kerosene should they leak through a flaw.
inch (psi). be covered and removed from the Special gases are sometimes used
The hydrostatic method uses hot work area immediately after the to detect leaks, Extremely small
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
water at very high pressures. First, testing is completed. Do not use this leaks can be detected by means of
the vessel is filled to capacity with test without careful attention to fire gas detectors. Tracer gas may also
water; then the pressure i s in- prevention. be added to the air or test gas. A
creased. Precautions are necessary, sensor probe, passed over the out-
such as installing a pressure relief LEAK TESTS side of the vessel, can detect the
valve. A pressure gauge is also need- There are many types of leak tests, presence of a tracer gas that has
ed to help determine the watertight- including the kerosene test just men- leaked through a flaw.
ness of the vessel. After the vessel is tioned. A simple test is to pressurize When any gas i s used in the test-
filled and pressurized, it should be the vessel or piping system slightly ing procedure, including inert gases,
allowed to sit for a day. If the pres- with air or inert gas and then to cov- all proper precautions must be taken
sure does not change, the vessel is er the welds with a soap bubble so- in order to carry out the operation in
watertight . lution. Bubbles will show up at any a safe manner.
Open containers may be proof- point where air leaks through the
tested for leaks by filling them with weld.
water. Another simple proof test for Water is the most popular liquid
LESSON 4c
CRITICAL WELDING VARIABliES
OBJECTIVES years by such organizations as the construction, of boilers and unfired
Upon completion of this lesson you American Welding Society (AWS), pressure vessels.
should be able to the American Society of Mechanical AWS D i . 1, Structural Welding
1. Define the term critical variable. Engineers (ASME), and the American Code-Steel of the American Weld-
2. identify four things that can Petroleum Institute (API), to name a ing Society, covers welding require-
change arc power. few, They produce some of the most ments applicable to any type of
3. Explain why dimensional chang- important and widely used codes. welded structure. it may be used in
es can be an essential variable. These organizations set the conjunction with any complemen-
4. Explain the effect of changes in standards for welding on all types of tary code or specification for the de-
travel speed. pressure vessels, bridges, buiIdings, sign and construction of steel
and oil and gas transmission lines. structures.
Section IX of the Boiler and Pres- The code of the American Petro-
CODES AND STANDARDS sure Vessel Code of the American leum Institute covers the petrochem-
Today all the critical welding per- Society of Mechanical Engineers ical industry and pressure piping,
formed is governed by codes. These governs the design, fabrication, con- especially in the area of oil and gas
codes have been developed over the struction, and inspection, during transmission lines.

These codes generally specify Included

which welding variables are critical, _-
or considered as essential variables.
angle
They are the variables that, when
changed too much, require you to
establish a new procedure and qual-
ify all over again. This lesson dis-
cusses these variables.
ELECTRICAL VARIABLE§
Arc welding power and weld heat
input depend on the arc parameters.
Things that alter the current and Root opening
voltage will cause a shift in power. FIQUJfWE 46.8 Defining bevel angle, root opening, and root face.
Typically a change of more than 10
percent in current or a change of
Pre position
more than 7 percent in voltage is
considered an essential change.
Arc voltage and current can be al-
tered by electrode diameter chang-
es, arc length, shielding gas, posi-
tion, and so on. But there are many F'HGKJWE4C-2Prepositioning of plates prior to welding.
things that can change arc power in-
directly. These are discussed in the
following paragraphs.
mensions, you should treat the al- electrical variables, consumables,
CONSUMABLES teration as a critical variable. and dimensions-has an effect on
Just as with electrical variables, Dimension changes include the the heat input. A few other things
changes in consumables will have examples shown in Figure 4C-1 and can also affect heat input, such as
an effect on arc power and heat in- 4C-2, which are described as the angle between the flame or arc
put. For example, a significant follows. and the workDiece. You can use a
change in filler metal can have an leading or lagging work angle, for
1. Bevel angle. The amount of be-
effect on voltage and current. A example. The travel speed, the
vel, or slant, in degrees, that is
change in electrode diameter can al- speed with which you weld, has a
required on each plate. (See Fig-
ter the power distribution in the arc very strong effect on heat input. Typ-
ure 4C-1.)
system. The arc power and elec- ically, changes of about 10 percent
2. Root face size. The size of the flat can be tolerated. More change than
trode extension heating will vary if
surface on the leading edge of the that will alter the metal structure of
the diameter of the electrode is
bevel, that is, the portion of the the weld too much. It is important
changed.
groove face adjacent to the root. for you to realize that each of the
Fluxes, and shielding gases, affect
(See Figure 4C-1.) variables can affect the others. Some
the arc operation and in turn vary
the voltage and current. You should 3. Root opening. The distance be- of the interactions are weak, some
consider any change of materials as tween the two plates at the root strong. The best thing for you to do
being a possible critical variable. face. (See Figure 4C-1.) is to treat all changes as having a
4. Preposition amount. The amount chance to ruin a weld. Don't make
DIMENSIONS the plates need to be bent before changes unless they are approved,
Heat distribution and heat flow de- welding in order to reduce the ef- or unless they are tested and found
pend on the mass of the item you fects of heat .distortion. (See Fig- to be tolerable.
are welding. Dimensions help de- ure 4C-2.)
termine the weld mass. Thin metal
heats up faster than thick metal. HEAT INPUT
Changes in alloy can effect the ther- Changes in heat input will alter the
, mal conductivity. Whenever you structure of the weld metal. Each of
change a joint design or groove di- the variables already mentioned-
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CHAPTER 5
@&UECTllVES reason it is important that you un- tions. You are tested on these basic
Upon completion of this lesson you derstand the material given in this positions when you take qualifica-
should be able to lesson. tion tests. This way everyone takes
1. Describe the l G , 2G, 3G, and the same type of test. It is not prac-
4G positions. STANDARD POSITlONS tical to teach you about all the
2. Describe the 1F and 3F positions. The position of the weld joint usu- standard positions that have been set
3. Identify the simplest and the most ally dictates the welding position up. This lesson will show you some
difficult welding positions. you have to use. Because welds can of the positions that are used much
4. Explain why it is necessary to be located in almost an infinite num- of the time. You will find out about
use the forehand and backhand ber of positions, the American the other positions in the practical
techniques. Welding Society has set up lessons of this book.
standards to describe basic posi- Figures SA-1, 5A-2, and SA-3 il-
PUDDLE POSITION
All welding action takes place in the
Plates horizontal
puddle. Here the materials from the
two pieces you are welding mix to-
gether. When necessary, the added
filler metal is also mixed in the
puddle. The bottom of the pud-
dle is what controls penetration.
Everything depends on the puddle
dimensions. (A) Tat podtion 10
Puddle size i s determined by how
you control the heat input. It is also
controlled by material properties
Platesvertical;
such as thermal conductivity and axis of weld Plates horizontal
surface tension. You can control the
puddle with your welding position
and welding technique. This lesson
discusses the various positions you
will encounter when you are using
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a flame or an arc as a heat source.

Good designers understand how
some weld puddles are more diffi- (C) T a t position 3ci (Di Tatpodtion40
cult to use than others. Obviously, IFIIIIiiüJRiE SA-1 This Page (Top): Positions of lest plates for groove welds. fa) Test
it is easier to weld downhand than position 1G (b) Test position 2G. (c)Test position 3G. (cl, Test position 4G. Bottom:
overhead. But sometimes it is not Positions of test plates for fillet welds. Opposite Page (Right): (a) Flat position 1F .
possible to move the weld joint (b)Horizontal position 2F. (c) Vertical position 3F. (cl) Overhead position 4F. (From
around. You may be forced to weld AWS D1.1-86,Strrrctural Welding Code-Steel. Couriesy of American Welding so-
in the overhead position. For this ciety, Miami, Florida.)

--
r-.
I
!
--_
ia)
Tabulation of positions of g r m e welds Tabulations of positionsof fillat wolds

Potition Diagram Inclination Rotation Diagram Inclination Rotation
refasnee of axis of lace Univanal positiondiagram Position reference of axis of face
Fiat A 0'1015' 150'toîlCY for fillet welds in plata Flat A @to 15' 150' to 210'
8(P to 1w Horizontai 8 O'to 15' 125* to 150'
Horizontal û O' to 15' z,O to 28(p
210' to 235'
Overhead C O'to80. O' to 125'
235' to 380"
D i s t o 80' 125. 10235'
Vaticai 5 ao'toso' O'to360'
WIIG~JEII~5kì-z Positions of groove and fillet welds. (From AWS A3.0-85, Standard
Welding Terms and Definitions. Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami,
Florida.)
Axis of weld
Axis of weld
Note: One plate must be horizontal
(A) flat position I F (BJ HaizontaipwitionZF
Axis of weld vertical

I
Axis of weld horizont

\
Note: One plate must be horizontal IFUGWHBIE SA-3 V-groove butt joint,
(c) Vaical position 3F ID) ovatiradpodtion4F 3G test position.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

lustrate some typical plate positions FLAT OR

and show the limits of the weld axis. DOWNHANT) WE:I ,I) INC
The axis i s the line that passes The most commonly used welding
through the center of the weld, from position is the flat, or downhand,
end to end. The figures also show position. The metal to be welded
the limit to which the joint can be will be positioned in front of you just
rolled or turned around the axis. like a book on your desk or food on
For example, in Figure 5A-2a a the table. Employers prefer that you
groove weld in the vertical position use this welding position as much as
can be tilted forward. It can move possible. It is very efficient because
from the perpendicular (straight up), high rates of deposition can be used.
forward 10 degrees, and rotate 360 This means you deposit weld metal
degrees according to E. But if it is faster than in other positions. This
tilted forward from 15 to 80 degrees welding position is also less tiring for
according to axis limits for D, it can the welder and requires the least
only be rotated from 80 to 280 welding skill, two other reasons for
degrees. its popularity. Welders with little
Look closely at the tabulation of training can be hired to do down-
positions for fillet welds in Figure hand welding.
5A-2b and check overhead C. Note Employers often purchase expen-
that the weld must be lying face sive fixtures to position heavy parts
down and between O to 80 degrees for welding in the flat position; this
to be considered overhead. Now equipment is illustrated in Figure
look at the axis indicated by C, on 5A-4. Liw; RIIIR 115 U A - ~ We Iding pos i Iio tier.
the rotational line around the axis, The flat position i s usually the first (Courtesy o1 I<. N. Aionson, hic.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
on the lowest weld on the drawing. one you will be taught in welding
Note that the face of the weld can class. It is important that you learn
be turned only from O to 125 de- your tasks well. Everything you learn
grees or from 235 to 360 degrees. will be helpful in the other phases of
Basically the face of the weld points your welder training. The good hab- welding i s a "technique in which
125 degrees on either side of a line its you develop will stay with you, the welding torch or gun is directed
perpendicular from the bottom or but so will the bad ones. Do the best opposite the progress of welding.'' It
face of the weld. Quite often these you can from the beginning. Bad is sometimes referred to as the "pull
positions are used in qualification habits are very difficult to break. gun technique'' in GMAW and
tests. Welding in the flat position is fair- FCAW. This means that you aim the
One of the most commonly used ly simple. The molten metal depos- arc or flame to push the metal ahead
positions for plate is shown in Figure ited transfers into the weld. Gravity of the puddle. In this way you can
5A-3. Once the test has begun, the does most of the work for you. In keep the heat of the arc or flame on
weldment may not be moved, not out-of-position welding, such as the new metal in front of the puddle.
even for inspection or cleaning. horizontal, vertical, and overhead, The backhand position i s shown in
Some test positions, such as the you have to combat the force of Figure SA-5.
1G and l F , qualify the welder only gravity, which makes learning to Forehand welding is just the op-
for that position. Other tests can weld in these positions more posite of backhand. It forces the
qualify the welder for positions re- challenging. puddle away from the unwelded
quiring less skill and ability. For ex-
ample, according to AWS D1.l FOREHAND ANI)
Structural Welding Code-Steel, the BACKHAND 'rR AV 15 I A
3G position qualifies the welder to Sometimes weld metal does not au-
weld in the 1G and 2G positions as tomatically go where you want it.
well as in the 3G position. The weld You can help move the puddle
thickness limit for plate is described around by changing the angle the
in the various codes for each type of flame or arc makes with the puddle.
joint and welding position. By definition (AWS), backhand

CHAPTER 5 BASIC POSITIONS AND JOINTS
Direction of travel Practice will increase your ability

-
Direction of to weld all thicknesses of metal in
the vertical position. it will also
make it possible for you to pass the
code welding tests. Vertical welding
FüGUURfE SA-@ Forehand welding. of plate is also excellent training for
pipe weldi ng.
FBGBTIE %Am7 Pad of stringers, hori-
HOHIZONTAL POSTTTON
zontal position.*
joint and it piles the puddle toward Welding in the horizontal position
the bead you’ve just welded. In a requires more skill than downhand
sense you are trying to delay the welding. However, it is not very dif-
puddle so that it can heat up and ficult if you apply yourself to the Some fillet welds are horizontal
become more liquid. Forehand task. welds. In these joints one leg of the
welding is shown in Figure SA-6. Horizontal welding is done on fillet weld is vertical and the other is
vertical plates. The weld bead is
on a flat plate. Two examples, the
VE:lZTICAI, POSITION placed on the vertical surface, run-
T-joint and lap joint fillet welds, are
(UP AND C)OWN) ning from either left to right or right shown in Figures 5A-8 and 5A-9.
Welding plate in the vertical posi- to left. A series of parallel overlap- You will notice two differences
tion is another true test of a welder’s ping beads i s called a pad. A pad of
ability. The molten puddle is fluid horizontal stringers is illustrated in *Welding symbols are described in Lesson
and wants to run downhill. The pud- Figure SA-7. SE.
dle is difficult to control at first, but
after some practice you will be able
to control it. You can learn to pro-
duce quality welds.
When you heat the base metal, it
changes to liquid at the melting
point. As you know, liquids tend to
flow downhill in response to the
force of gravity. However, surface
tension tends to keep the weld pud-
dle in the same place. Surface ten-
sion i s the force that holds a droplet
of water on the end of your finger
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
after you dip it into a glass of water.

When welding uphill, you start at
the bottom of the joint and weld to-
ward the top. in downhill welding
you start at the top and weld down-
ward toward the bottom. Do not
confuse “downhill” and ”down-
hand,” which i s the flat position.
The downhill method is used ex-
tensively by pipeline welders. it was
used on some construction of the
Alaskan pipeline. It is used mainly
with fairly thin wall pipe in which a
small included angle keeps the size
of the weld bead to a minimum.
Downhill welding is not suitable for
every job; when it can be used, it is
a fast, economical method. Horizontal butt joint, ZG position.

FFHQBTIE SA-% T-joint fillet weld, hor- IFIIGUJíBiE SA-@ Lap joint fillet weld, ü ~ i ï ~ i s;/\\-R@
~ i i ~ i1-joint
~ fillet weld,
izontal position 2F.* horizontal position 2 F. :li overhead position 4F.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
between horizontal welding and

downhand welding. First, in hori-
zontal welding the weld bead has a
tendency to sag, and second, there
is a tendency for an undercut to ap-
pear at the top edge of the bead. It
all depends on whether you manip-
ulate the flame or arc correctly or
iFii@iïiüïiiE % & n l Groove weld, over- iiWÌXJIIEli< $Amii2 Square-groove butt
use an improper rate of travel, or too joint weld, overhead position 4G.
head position 4G.
high a heat setting.
You can keep the weld bead from
sagging and prevent an undercut by
paying close attention to details-by is deposited on the underside of the ing in any position. They are abso-
using the proper heat, angle, and horizontal surface and against the lutely essential for your safety when
manipulation, and the correct travel vertical surface, as shown in Figure you weld in the overhead position.
speed. 5A-10. Always use and wear all the re-
For the overhead position, quired protective equipment and
OVERHEAD POSITION groove-welded plates should be ap- clothes.
Many people feel that the overhead proximately horizontal and the weld Industrial use of overhead weld-
position is the most difficult of all metal deposited on the underside, as ing is kept to a minimum for a num-
welding positions to master. This is shown in Figures 5A-11 and SA-12. ber of reasons. Welding overhead is
not necessarily true, but welding As in other welding positions, an- slow. This increases the time re-
overhead takes considerable prac- gles, arc length, flame size, and quired to complete a job. Muscle fa-
tice and is physically tiring. travel speed are extremely impor- tigue tends to decrease the welder's
The most difficult part of learning tant. Heat input is very important in output.
overhead welding is that your arms overhead welding. Too much heat Skilled overhead position welders
get tired. It takes time to develop the will cause the molten pool to be- are difficult to find. The welder who
strength to hold the flame or arc come too large and fluid, and the can produce quality welds in the
steady in this position for the length puddle will become difficult to con- overhead position is not an ordinary
of time required to run a pass. trol. It will sag badly or even fall welder. Such an individual has a
Welding procedures for the over- away. Maintain the correct heat at fairly high degree of ability and is
head position are similar to those all times when welding overhead. sought after by those who require
used for the horizontal position. Proper protective clothing and welders for out-of-position welding.
With fillet test plates the fillet weld equipment are required when weld- 'Welding symbols are described in Lesson
SE.

CHAPTER 5 BASIC POSITIONS AND JOINTS -55
LESSON 5B
@&JECTHVES All plate or sheet joints may be basic T. (See Figure 56-2.) The dif-
joined by bead, groove, or fillet ference is that the vertical plate is
welds. However, flat sheets and beveled. With this type of joint, the
should be able to
plates may also be joined by plug or beveled area is filled with weld
1. Name the five basic weld joints.
slot welds. Semicircular plug welds metal. Then fillet welds are added to
2. Explain why a plug weld or slot
and elongated slot welds extend the sides. This type of joint has max-
weld i s sometimes used on a lap
through a hole in one member of a imum strength because the entire
joint.
lap joint, joining it to the surface of cross section is weld metal. There
3. Explain how distortion stresses
the other member exposed through are no voids or spaces. Heavy plate
can be equalized.
the hole. (See Figure 56-1.) These may be beveled from both sides.
4. Define the effective throat of a
welds leave the joint edges un- (See Figure 56-2.)
concave fillet.
touched. At times a slot weld i s used
PROPER PROCEDURE§ instead of a plug weld in order to JQINT DESIGN
obtain more holding surface. Joint design is very important in the
You should be aware of the proce-
Sometimes combinations of joint fabricating industry, especially
dures and preparations for the type
preparations are used OR a single where cost is important. Low cost is
of joint you are to make before you
weldment. For example, the single- the principal reason that T and lap
start to weld. it i s especially impor-
bevel T joint is a variation of the joints and to some extent the square-
tant that you understand the proper
procedures for preparing, fitting,
and tacking the plates that are to be
joined. The preparation must meet
the standards of the industry or a
particular code. In addition, you
should be aware of the economic
factors involved in the welding of
joints.
There are many types of joints and
they may be welded in many posi- Butt joint
tions. Follow the prescribed details
and learn to apply the proper pre-
paratory procedures. Do not deviate
or make any changes. If you follow
the procedures, you will have no
trouble in producing acceptable
welds. Working with joints similar
in design will give you good
practice. Lap j o k
TYPES OF JQINI'S
Configuration is a term meaning the
shape of an object or the relative ar-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
rangement of its parts. The configu-

ration of a weld joint is the shape of
the joint, or how the parts are
placed. There are five basic joints
for welding plates. They are the butt, Edge joint
lap, T, corner, and edge joints. iFiíGUJì7GiE LmmnBasic weld joints.

Basic tee joint

1 Single bevel tee
Bead sequence
Bead sequence in a double
PEú?dïiiii&511~~18
V-groove butt joint.
gering or alternating the sides being

welded. Figure 58-4 shows how the
Single bevel with Heavy platedouble bevel proper bead sequence, the method
fillet, other side used to deposit the beads, will
-o
PHGU'BE 8B.2 Variations of the basic T joint. achieve the best results.
groove butt joints are popular de-

signs. These joints require the least
preparation, which tends to keep 00
welding costs down.
Butt
Some other money and time sav- Sauare T
ers are the single and double J- and
U-groove joints. (See Figure 58-3.)
These joints are designed so that
large-diameter electrodes can get
deep into the joint. This lets you de-
posit metal at a high rate of speed
and increase your work output. u
U
Single bevel T
O
Double bevel T
O Single bevel butt
JOINTS WELDED
FROM BOTH SIDES
Notice that some of the joints, such
as the double V and the double U,
are grooved from both sides. (See
Figure 58-3.)This type of design re-
na Single V butt
Double bevel butt Double V butt
duces distortion and warping. Ex-

perience has shown that plate 5/8
inch (15.9 mm) thick and over tends
to distort toward the welding side.
The distortion stresses are equal-
ized, and bending is reduced by
DO DEI Da
Double J butt Single U butt Double U butt
welding from both sides and stag- BEM Variations of joints.

IFHGILJHBE
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

,- Face
l-Toe
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-1 +Rootopening
Fï~GüiBií~
$liB& V-groove weld parts.
face of the completed weld is called

the face. The weld throat is the dis-
tance from the heel or root to the
surface of the face. Notice that two
throats are indicated. The throat is
the distance from the root to the
face, the effective throat the dis-
tance from the root to a line running
at a 45-degree angle or from toe to
toe. It is used in determining the
strength of the weld.
The V groove has a face and a
root. (See Figure 58-6.) The root is
Effective throat for somewhat different from that of the
concave fillet T joint. With the T joint both parts
ngnGwnfíE SU!% Top: Parts of a lap joint. Bottom: Parts of a should be fused to a depth sufficient
lap joint íillet weld. to join them without leaving any
voids at the heel.
Not only must the root of a
V-groove weld be fused, but the fill-
PARTS OF able to understand your instructor er metal must penetrate through.
JOINTS ANI) WELD§ throughout your training period. The weld should form a slightly con-
The T and lap joints and the The lap joint in Figure 58-5 has a vex (outwardly curved) bead on the
V-groove butt joint can be used to heel, two legs, and two toes. The side of the joint opposite the face. A
learn the parts of joints and welds. fillet weld used to make this joint V groove that lacks penetration will
It is important that you know these has two legs, two toes, and a root at fail a test and may also fail in
parts. When you do you will be the same point as the heel. The sur- service.
QBBBIECTIIVIES 2. Define the terms preheating and 5. Describe a backing ring.

Upon completion of this lesson you postweld heat treatment.
should be able to 3. Name four reasons for using THE PUDDLE
1. Explain the importance of the preheat. The bottom of the puddle deter-
proper gap in a joint fit-up. 4. Discuss the need for tacking. mines the depth of penetration.

Anything that has an effect on the V, J AND U GROOVES an angular edge preparation. A bev-
puddle depth has an effect on pen- Weld edges can be prepared by me- eled edge can have a straight slope
etration. When heat is drawn away chanical cuts or flame cuts. When or a curved slope. These basic edge
from the weld zone, the puddle two prepared plate edges are preparations are illustrated in Figure
shrinks. You can compensate for brought together, they form a 5C-1. The basic edges can be modi-
heat lost to surrounding weld metal groove. The groove can have one of fied by adding a root face at the
by your technique. many shapes, depending on the sharp edge, as shown in Figure
Torch movement and travel speed shape of the plate edge. Weld joints 5C-2.The root face, the portion of
can be used to build up heat or keep are made from a few basic edge the groove face adjacent to the root
it from building up. But in addition preparations. The simplest i s the of the joint, is also called a nose,
to what you can do while welding, straight or square edge. The bevel is shoulder, or land. The basic shapes
there are things that can be done be-
fore welding begins. These include
deciding the shape of the weld joint
and how the joint will be fitted, de- Root face
-(nose, shoulder)
termining the weld zone preheat
Straight edge or
temperature, and choosing how to square edge
tack the parts of the joint and wheth- fa) (a)
er or not backup bars or backing
rings and inserts will be used. This
lesson discusses how each of these
factors affect penetration. Beveled edge,
- Rootface
flat surface
íb) fbì
GAPS AND SPACES
The surface tension of molten metal
PIG8TlE Sác3 Basic plate edge
acts like an elastic membrane, hold-
preparations w i t h an added root
ing molten metal in place. There is Beveled edge, face.
a limit to how much weight it can curved surface
support, however. Molten metal (cl
runs to the bottom of grooves and
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
gaps. When the gap i s small, surface FHGUtE S(C-B Basic edge
tension can keep the metal from es- preparations.
caping. When the gap i s large, there
isn’t much you can do. The metal
can spill through the gap like water (a) Single square groove
through a pot with a hole in it. This
is why you must be very careful with
joint fit-up. Do not exceed the gap (6) Single V groove
limits, for otherwise penetration will
be uncontrollable.
EDGE PREPARATION (c) Single J groove

When two pieces of metal are
placed together to make a joint, the
gap between them depends on their
edge preparation. Crooked cuts, jag- (d) Single U groove
ged edges, and variations in thick-
ness are all negative factors. Edges
should be straight, uniform, clean, (e) Single V groove
with backing
and smooth. Otherwise, the gap at
the bottom of the joint will vary and
penetration will not be uniform. FHGBTIE 5@-3 Typical weld grooves.

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
can be combined to give you the

weld grooves normally used in
weld ing.
Figure 5C-3 shows you a few of
the more popular groove combina-
tions that you can obtain with the
edges shown in Figures 5C-1 and
5C-2. These various-shapedgrooves
are used to control heat input, weld
penetration, and the quantity of filler
metal. A one-shape combination
may be less expensive to use than a , / M . /--x / /
combination of two different shapes.
PREHEATING
One additional way to control pen-
etration is to preheat. Preheatingcan
FaGUBm 5ú%î Heat being rapidly drawn away from the weld area by the mass of
also affect the quality of the weld
metal.
metal. Preheating is the act of rais-
ing the temperature .of the welding
zone by applying heat before weld-
ing. Postweld heat treatment, on the dictated by the qualification welding which is the area immediately ad-
other hand, is the act of applying procedure.) jacent to the weld. (See Figure 5C-6.)
heat after welding. This treatment As you learned previously, stress- The other is the weld metal itself,
may be applied anytime before the es are created by heat in the weld which usually is less prone to
weld is placed in service. area, both in and adjacent to the cracking.
The weldment is heated by a joint. This heat is relatively local- The three zones of a welded joint
number of methods. The method se- ized. There is a sharp difference be- are shown in Figure 5C-6. Zone A is
lected will be determined by the size tween the temperature in and near the area that has been brought to the
and configuration of the weldment the weld zone. This difference in melting temperature of the metals
and the availability of facilities for temperature is known as a temper- involved and includes both the base
heating purposes. ature differential. metal and the filler metals that make
Small weldments can be placed in When a weld is made, especially up the weld deposit. Zone i3 is the
an electric or gas furnace, but it is in a thick piece of metal, the mass heat-affected zone (HAZ) which, al-
sometimes necessary to construct a of metal adjacent to the weld area though it was not heated to the melt-
temporary furnace around very large quickly draws the heat away from ing point, was raised sufficiently in
weldments. The heat in most in- the weld. This action is what is temperature to change its original
stances can be supplied by a torch called a quick quench. (See Figure microstructure and physical proper-
or series of torches using natural gas, sc-4.) ties. This is the danger area.
propane, acetylene, or a similar type Although not as dramatic, quick Zone C is the area next to the
of fuel mixed with either air or quench is similar to dousing a weld- HAZ. It has not been affected by the
oxygen. ed plate into cold water immediately heat of the welding operation to the
Electric strip heaters, induction after welding. Quick quenching extent that its original microstructure
heaters, and radiant heaters are also causes weld metal to become very or physical properties have been
used for this purpose when hard and brittle. The grain structure aItered.
applicable. of the metal actually becomes Notice in Figure 5C-6 the differ-
needlelike, coarse, and extremely ences in the structure of the metals
T H E PURPOSE sensitive to cracking. (See Figure in the different zones. Welds on
OF PREHEATINC sc-5.) steel can cool rapidly, especially
Preheating is used to raise the weld- Two areas of a welded joint are when made on larger and heavier
ment to a temperature ranging from the most vulnerable to cracking as a sections. Rapid cooling causes hard,
just below 100°F to slightly over result of the welding procedure. brittle grain structures to form within
, 700°F. (Specific temperatures are One is the heat-affectedzone (HAZ), the metal. This type of grain struc-

Metal subjected to a low ambient

temperature should always be pre-
heated. Metal brought into a shop
from the outside or metal that is
being welded in the field on cold
winter days should be preheated be-
fore weld ing.
The need to preheat increases if
the weldment fits any of the follow-
ing categories.
1. if it is heavy or has a large mass.
2. if is cold or damp owing to at-
mospheric conditions.
3. If it is going to be welded with
low heat.
4. If it i s to be welded at great speed.
5. if it has a complicated shape or
design.
6. If the parts to be joined have var-
ious thicknesses.
7. if the weldment has a high-car-
bon content.
8. If the metal has a high-alloy
content.
TACK1N G 'L'ECHNIQUES
Tack welds are needed to hold the
plate edges in place. Well-placed
-w tack welds will ensure that your joint
does not change shape when you
F~GBTIE5C-S Typical microstructiires in the heat-affected zone of a butt weld. make the weld. Anything that
(From Introductory Welding Metallurgy-1968. Courtesy of American Welding Soci- changes the joint shape will have an
ety, Miami, Florida.) effect on penetration and the overall
shape of the weld. Tack welds act
as little clamps that hold weld plate
ture gives the metal low ductility The more carbon in the metal, the edges in proper alignment until the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and a poor ability to withstand greater the chance that brittle struc- final welds are made. This part of
stresses. It is usually found in zone tures will form. Longer cooling in- the lesson discusses tack welding of
1 of the HAZ in Figure 5C-6, which creases the opportunity for the metal a few typical joints. It does not cover
is between the weld metal and the to transform to other structures. every kind of tack welding there is.
refined structures in zone 2. Another important reason for pre- You will get proper tacking instruc-
Zone 1 has the greatest danger of heating is to remove moisture. Mois- tions in your practical lessons.
cracking. Preheating can eliminate ture can be a source of hydrogen,
or at least minimize the danger. Pre- which can increase the possibility of Tacking Fillet Welds
heating to high temperatures helps cracking. Because of the slower As you know, in a T joint a plate
to slow the rate of cooling. The slow cooling rate, distortion and shrink- is placed perpendicular (at a 90-
cooling rate, because it gives time age stresses are reduced, and hydro- degree angle) to another plate, and
for the desired grain structures to gen and other gases have a longer its cross section looks like the letter
form, keeps the metal from becom- time in which to escape from the T. (See Figure 5C-7.) It is important
ing brittle. The weld metal and the metal. Preheating is recommended that the bearing surfaces, the points
adjacent metal will be softer and where there is the slightest possibil- where the two plates touch, fit well.
more ductile with preheating. ity of any weld defect being present. A poor fit with a too large, or an

CHAPTER 5 BASIC POSITIONS AND JOINTS B
Beginning of columnar Solidified weld metal

nrain nrawth Heat flow DrinCiDailY /
Original Heat- Weld Heat- Original

structure affected metal affected structure
I zone ,Columnar grain
I
-c -c-
I I rain growth
rain refinement
,Transition zone
. + a m
a a a
Liquid c c c
Melting temperature, "F

2000°F
155O'F
1300'F
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
F€iGKHfíiEI C - 7 T-joint fillet tacks.

SECTION I GENERAL THEOBY
uneven, opening between the plates

will make welding difficult. There
should be little or no space between
the pieces, and what space there is
should be uniform.
Tack-weld the vertical, or perpen-
dicular, plate while it i s held in
place. Tacks, at least 1 inch long,
should be placed at each end, on
one side of the joint. The side op-
posite these tacks should be welded
first. After the first weld, on the other
side, the tacked side may be weld-
ed. Tacking on one side and then
welding the other side reduces the
chance of distortion.
In the lap joint fillet (Figure 5C-8)
one plate overlaps another. Remem-
ber, it is important that the welding
surfaces of the plates be free of rust,
scale, paint, and so on. When both
sides of the lap joint are to be weld-
ed, follow the same procedure as
used for the T joint.
Tack Welds for

V-Groove Butt Joints
Before a V-groove butt joint is tack-
welded, the prescribed bevel angle
must be flame-cut, machined, or II”II(TTrüJRIE
P;(c=IIûû V-groove butt joint weld with spacers in place.
ground on the two edges to be
joined. The bevel angle is the angle
formed between the prepared edge
of a member and a plane perpendic-
ular to the surface of the member.
Then the area next to the bevel, on
both sides of the plate, must be \$ Electrode
sanded or ground clean. Next, a
scmn
~fi(TTrïiJiìii~ n Prepositioning of the plates by bending them slightly in the direc-
root must be sanded or filed on the tion of the root.
feather edge of the bevel, as shown
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
in Figure 5C-9.
When both plates have been
properly prepared with equal-size unevenly. This causes distortion, BACKUP BARS
root faces, they are ready to be difficulty in welding, and poor fit-up AND BACKING RINCS
tack-welded. First, the plates should for the next joint. All welders should be familiar with
be placed facedown as in Figure The final step before welding can the use of backup bars and backing
5C-1 O. Then spacers should be be started is prepositioning of the rings. They are an important factor
placed between the plates 1 in. in plates. With a V-groove test piece, in the proper fit-up of plate and
from each end. Hold the plates in a good procedure is to bend the pipe.
place and tack at each end. (Weld plates slightly in the direction of the Both items have wide industrial
from the end toward the center.) root. (See Figure 5C-1 i1, The heat of use for a number of reasons. Backup
After tacking remove the spacers. welding will cause the plates to bars can simplify plate preparation
if they are removed before welding, straighten up, and the finished sur- and help hold the weld plates in po-
the heat will pull the plates together face will be flat. sition. Good fit-up means uniform

penetration. Depending on the Back-up bar

welding position, backup bars allow
the use of larger and more econom-
ical electrodes.
Backup Bars
Backup bars, also known as backing
strips or backing straps, are simply
bars or strips of metal. Similar in
composition to the plates being
joined, these bars are placed across Paient
the root gap, as shown in Figure metal or plate
5C-12. They are tacked in place to I E I E Square-groove butt joint with a backup bar.
I F ~ ~ ~ ~ W%E.H~
help in maintaining the correct root
opening, the separation between
members at the root of the joint. In
addition, they hold the plates in po-
sition and sometimes help contain lows you to weld with high heat, Backing Rings
the weld metal. Occasionally, the right from the start. There is no root A backing ring is a narrow strip of
backup bar is removed after the joint opening to require extra care in metal that has been rolled into a cyl-
is welded, especially on test pieces. welding. You do not have to use less inder. Nubs of various lengths, se-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Preparingjoints with backup bars al- heat input. lected according to how the ring is
IWEUUKIE %Lìi:E Solid-type (above) and split-type backing rings (below). (Courtesy of Robvon Backing Ring Company, P.O. BOX
271, Avencl, New Jci-sey0700 I .)

used, stick out from the ring, as reduce fit-up time, and help ensure
shown in Figure 5C-14. The nubs correct joint fit-up.
are used to set the gap width. The rings have from 3 to 21 nubs,
Backing rings are used extensively depending on the diameter of the
to weld piping, a procedure in ring. Backing rings are made for use
which restrictions of the fluid flow with pipe of from Y4 inch to over 64
are an important factor. inches in diameter. They are avail-
Notice that the outside of the ring able in carbon steel, wrought iron,
is machined smooth and flat. It fits stainless steel, aluminum, and var-
snugly to the inside wall of the pipe. ious alloys. The rings are available
The inside of the ring is beveled on in either solid or split shapes. Solid
the outer edges to provide a smooth rings are machined to fit the inside
transition for the fluid flowing diameter of the pipe. Split rings have
through the pipe. The ring is placed an opening to allow for some un-
inside one of the pipes to be joined. evenness or out-of-roundness of the
Then the other pipe is butted up pipe. (See Figure 5C-13 on previous
against the first pipe and in contact page.) When rings with long nubs,
with the nubs. The dimension of the are used, the nubs are removed by
nubs determines the root gap width. striking them with a hammer, but
FñGUHBE SGB4 Backing rings with
three different lengths of nubs. (Courtesy Backing rings set the gap forthe root only after the spaces between nubs
of Robvon Backing Ring Company, P.O. pass automatically, eliminate the have been welded. Otherwise the
Box 277, Avenel, New Jersey 07001.) “icicles” of excessive melt through, gap might shift.
LESSON 5D
B)IBJE@TPVEB original shape. Sometimes it fails to After the ends of the bar are se-
Upon completion of this lesson you do so. The manner and rate at which cured firmly in the jaws of the vise,
should be able to the heat is applied, the shape of the the restrained bar should be heated
1. Define the term upset as it per- weld, and other factors affect the fi- until it is cherry red or a little over
tains to heated metals. nal shape of metal after cooling. 1000°F. It can be brought to this
2. Explain why there is more distor- No hard and fast rules describe temperature by using a neutral oxy-
tion at the top of a weld than at how distortion can be controlled, fuel flame. After the bar reaches the
the root. but there are some general guide- required temperature, remove the
3. Explain the benefit of backstep lines that can be followed. In the flame and allow the bar to cool
end only experience will give you SI ow Iy.
welding.
4. Describe the purpose of peening. the ability to predict the effects with As the restrained bar was heated,
any degree of accuracy. its diameter increased more than it
HEATING AND COOLING would have had its ends not been
The temperature changes of metal HOW HEATING AND held between the vise jaws. Because
during welding, cutting, and heating COOLING AFFECTS METAL the bar couldn’t expand normally,
operations can cause distortion and A good example of the effect that as it would have had it been unre-
warpage, the bending out of shape heating and cooling have on metal strained, it was “upset.” Upset is a
or position of the weldment. When is shown in Figure 50-1.3. The piece condition in which heated metal
heat i s put into metal, it expands in of round bar stock, between the held in restraint in one direction ex-
all directions. As the metal cools, it jaws of the vise, is restrained from pands more than is normal in anoth-
contracts and should return to its moving along its length. er direction. (See Figure 5D-lb.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

EJD.~Pulling effect of weld

~~WIXJBE
metal.
h d i ) - ~Distoi'tiori caused by single-pass welding in a V-groove butt joint.

li~ll(G1iiìEi~
As the bar cools it contracts. Even- metal and stagger the tack welds, as Normally, weld metal solidifies from
tually it will fall from between the in Figure 5D-2c. Notice how the the root outward to the face of the
jaws of the vise. It is shorter than free end of the bar moves from side weld.
before because it was upset. It was to side as the tacks are welded. As the weld metal freezes it
not allowed to expand by the vise; shrinks. The weld is pulled toward
its length was reduced and the F;FFKCT OF WEI,DBNG the center, causing the weldment to
diameter increased. (See Figure ON a We51,DlUII;NT warp.
5D-lc.) During the welding procedure the Figure 5D-3 shows the vertical
Another example of the effects of base metal of the weldment and the member of the fillet weld tilting in
heat on metal i s to tack a piece of filler metal are heated to very high the direction of the weld. This is due
%inch bar, 1 to 2 inches wide and temperatures. (Steel melts at approx- to the shrinkage forces within the
about 12 inch or more long, to a imately 275OOF.) When metal is weld.
plate as indicated in Figure 5D-2a. close to its melting point tempera- Figure 5D-4 shows a good exam-
After tacking one end only, weld to- ture, it has very little strength. The ple of the distortion encountered in
ward the free end. As welding pro- strength increases when the temper- welding a single V-groove butt joint
gresses the bar will gradually curve ature decreases during the cooling with a single pass. The amount of
toward the side on which the weld- cycle. contraction at the root of the weld is
ing is taking place. (See Figure Heated metal expands and cool small, because only a small amount
50-26.) metal contracts, but weld metal of weld metal is present. Because
Next, take a thinner piece of does not heat and cool uniformly. there is a greater volume of weld
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

FIIGüJIE 5DmSDistortion caused by multipass welding in a V-groove butt joint.
FliGlUm~!DnD.ab Double fillet welds.
I I I l
(A) (E1 very popular. The extra time and

FHGUIE 8ühB Distortion caused by weld metal shrinl<age. material increase the cost.)
3. Weld the joint intermittently as
shown in Figure 5D-7. With short
,
, -Intermittent welds
welds placed on opposite sides of
the vertical member, the shrink-
age forces tend to neutralize each
other. Intermittent welds may be
used when a the point need not
be watertight or when the weld-
ment need not be continuous to
have the strength required.
4. Weld the fillets with two passes
BEIGKiRE ID-%Intermittent welds reduce distoriion.
on each side of the vertical mem-
ber. Notice the welding sequence
of the beads in Figure 5D-8. Al-
ternating the placement of weld
beads reduces the shrinkage
forces.
metal at the top of the weld, the PROBLEMS ANTI SUQ;Ck~S'F[ONS
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PROBLEM: When an inside-corner
shrinkage will be greater at this PROBLEM: The T joint in Figure joint is welded with a fillet, the ver-
point, and the weldment will distort 5D-6a has had its vertical member tical member has a tendency to be
toward the centerline of the weld. pulled out of position by the shrink- pulled toward the welded side, as
Distortion still occurs when weld- age forces of the fillet weld. shown in Figure 5D-9a.
ing a V-groove butt joint with mul-
SUGGESTIONS: SUGGESTIONS: Preposition the up-
tiple passes, but with slight differ-
ences. The first weld pass causes 1. To offset the shrinkage forces and right member away from the side to
very little, if any, distortion because avoid the condition in Figure be welded. Shrinkage will cause the
the amount of heat and metal is 5D-6a, use correct prepositioning member to be drawn into the de-
small. The second pass does not cre- so that the vertical member will sired position, as in Figure 5D-9b.
ate much distortion, because the be pulled upright. (See Figure Another method uses a single bevel
first pass holds the joint in posi- 5D-6b.) The proper amount of on the upright member, as in Figure
tion-unless the first pass is com- prepositioning is usually found by 5D-9c. Weld the beveled side care-
pletely remelted by the second pass. trial and error. fully. Overwelding will cause dis-
All passes create some shrinkage. tortion in that direction.
2. Weld the joint from both sides.
As the number of passes increases, When the weld on the second PROBLEM: A single-pass weld in a
the shrinkage forces increase. A side is larger than that on the first V groove in light metal tends to pull
multipass weld tends to distort more side, the additional shrinkage toward the centerline of the weld.
than a single heavy pass. (See Figure may overcome the forces of the Weld metal shrinkage at the top of
5D-5.) first weld. (This procedure is not the joint causes the sides of the

CHAPTER 5 BASIC POSITIONS AND JOINTS 67
plates to pull upward, as in Figure

5D-10.
SUGGESTIONS: Change the shape
of the weld groove. The more simi-
lar the opening at the bottom of the
joint is in size to the opening at the
top, the more nearly equal the
(A) (6) (Cl shrinkage forces will be as the weld
5UBn?D (a) Distorlioii without prebend. (b) Correct alignment with prebend.
!FB(G;~JJII%E metal cools. Use the smallest groove
(c) Single bevel and Cillet. angle possible, within reasonable
limits. For example, a square-groove
butt joint would be excellent on very
light-gauge metal. The weld metal
would tend to have equal shrinkage
forces. (See Figure 5D-11 .I
Preposition the plates in the direc-
tion opposite the face of the weld,
as in Figure 5D-12. Plates bent in
this manner will pull into the desired
position as the weld metal cools.
PROBLEM: Multiple-pass welds in a
V groove in heavy plate tend to pull
toward the centerline of the welds.
-- Great shrinkage force
> <
Although there is a greater mass,
heavier plate sections will also
n
- DnD
-- t-
Small shrinkage force Equal shrinkage forces
warp. (See Figure 5D-13.)
SUGGESTIONS: Many small passes
greatly increase the distortion in a
FIIaXJIlGK %iiD-Ii II UncqLial shiiiikagc forces, equal shrinkage forces. single V-groove butt joint welded on
one side of heavy plates. One meth-
od of offsetting this distortion is to
use larger electrodes and fewer
passes. However, the use of larger
electrodes and wider passes may not
be as applicable when welding out
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of pqsition and when using low-hy-
drogen and alloy electrodes. The
best way to cure warpage in heavy
I
plate is to double-bevel the joint and
r--------
weld from both sides, as in Figure
5D-14. Use the double-beveled
joint on all metal 5/a inch or more in
li"n(Ti;[uiIBI% L;ílü-ìi:E Multipass single V-groove butt joint. thickness when access can be
gained to the second side.
With double V-groove butt joints
it is important to use the proper weld
sequence, whether welding with the
weave or stringer method. Weave
beads are made with transverse
v movements. Stringer beads are de-
Weave Stringers posited without any weaving mo-
INKGIUUGIIS W>-114 Bead sequeiices in doublc V-groove butt joints. tion. Notice in Figure 5D-14 that the

6% SECTION I GENERAL THEORY
welding alternates sides. Applying

the heat evenly throughout the joint
equalizes the shrinkage forces. Dis-
tortion does not become a problem.
GENERAL SUGGESTIONS
1. Backstep welding-depositing
beads in a longitudinal sequence
in a direction opposite to the
progress of the welding-is effec-
tive in some instances. It tends to
keep distortion to a minimum. In
backstepping, the welds are
made in short increments. Notice
in Figure 5D-15 that although the
progress of the weld is from right Backstep welding sequence
to left, the direction of travel for
each bead is from left to right.
Welding starts a short distance to FïiGUEE EPiibñ5 Backstep welding reduces distortion.
the left of the right-hand side of
the plate.
A single bead is run to the end
of the plate, then the bead is
cleaned. Another bead is started are heavy pieces of metal, usually metal is reshaped slightly. This re-
to the left of the first starting point copper, that absorb heat rapidly. lieves most of the stresses. Care
and welded toward that point. These heavy sections are securely must be taken that peening is not
The short welds are continued clamped near the area to be overdone. Excessive peening can
until the first pass is completed. welded. They are normally used harden the weld metal. The root
The following pass i s welded in in the welding of light-gauge or finish pass should never be
the same manner. Remember to metal and are very effective. peened.
stagger the beads in the passes so 4. Restraints of different types are SUMMARY: As you read in the be-
that the starts and stops do not oc- used to hold the metal in the de- ginning of this lesson, there are no
cur in the same places. sired position until the welding i s set rules that apply to all conditions.
2. When welding in a wandering se- completed and the weldment has The ability to reduce the effects of
quence, the welder skips around. cooled down. Heavy tack welds, welding distortion caused by heat-
Small segments of the longitudi- clamps, and fixtures are used for ing and cooling i s gained only by
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
na1 sequence are welded here this purpose. trial and error. As you fit and tack
and there. This method distrib- 5. Peening is an operation whose various joints, you will gradually
utes the heat throughout the en- purpose i s to release the locked- learn the techniques necessary to
tire weldment, instead of concen- in stresses within the weld. Peen- control distortion. As you repeat op-
trating it in one place. ing means hammering the weld erations, you will learn the tech-
3. Heat sinks are used in some ap- metal, usually with an air ham- niques that produce the desired
plications to draw the heat away mer. As the hammering is done resuIts.
from the weld metal. Heat sinks over the surface of the weld, the

@EJECTBVES THE PIJKPQSE OF SYMBOL§ Tail

Upon completion of this lesson you Symbols are given on design draw- Specification, process, and other
should be able to ings to provide information such as reference
1. Identify the source of complete 1. Type of welds. The position of the arrow or the
information on symbols for weld- 2. Weld position. tail may be reversed. But the rest of
ing and nondestructive testing. the elements must always be placed
3. Process to be used.
2. Identify which side of the refer- as shown.
ence line is the arrow side and 4. Joint preparation.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Letter F at the top center of Figure
which is the other side. 5. Type and method of finish. 5E-2 indicates the position where
3. Identify where the welding 6. Dimensions the method of finishing will always
process to be used is located on 7. Type of filler metal and other ma- be found. The letter A for angle
a welding symbol. terials to be used. shows that the groove angle will be
4. Explain the meaning of a symbol found at this point. The same holds
with a circle around the junction It is poor drafting practice to write
true for the other letters on the weld-
of the reference line and arrow out all the information on the draw-
ing symbol.
line. ing because the drawing becomes
crowded and difficult to read. Sym- Supplementary symbols, such as
5. Explain the use of multiple refer- field weld, weld-all-around, and
ence lines. bols are a shorthand method used to
deliver information from the design- contour symbols, are shown in their
proper location.
er to the welder.
THE IMPORTANCE The welding symbol can be just a
OF SYMBOLS reference line, with a weld symbol
It is important for a welder to un- DISTINCTION BETWEEN and arrow, or it can contain many
derstand the meaning of the welding WELD SYMBOL AND of the elements shown. When there
symbols. Welding symbols present a WELDING SYMBOL is no information to be placed in the
great deal of information in a limited The weld symbol is a part of the tail, the tail is omitted.
space. They can be used to describe complete welding symbol. The weld When you learn the standard in-
the process, type of welds, weld symbol indicates only the type of formation locations, you will under-
sizes, and types of filler metal, as weld required. (See Figure 5E-1.) stand the meaning of the various
well as the testing methods to be The complete welding symbol symbols.
used in the manufacture of a passes on the rest of the information
product. needed by the welder. In addition to
Welding symbols are used on the weld type, it includes all the oth-
blueprints to conserve space. They er information required. WEED LOCATION
give the fabricators all the informa- There are two sides to the reference
tion they require. line. They are known as the "arrow
"!E' WET,DING SYMBOL side" and the "other side." The side
The ability to understand welding
The complete welding symbol of the line closest to the reader is
symbols can be a great advantage.
shown in Figure 5E-2 is made up of called the arrow side, the side far-
You can develop this ability with a
the following parts: thest from the reader the other side.
reasonable amount of study and
practice. This lesson will give you Reference line (See Figure 5E-3.)
the highlights of symbol practice. The arrow points to a particular
Arrow
Complete details of symbols can be place on the drawing; it indicates
Basic weld symbols
found in the American Welding the weld location. The position of
Dimensions and other data the weld symbol shows which side
Society's document A2.4, Symbols
for Welding and Non-destructive Supplementary symbols of the joint will be welded. (See Fig-
Testing. Finish symbols ure 5E-4.)

3%) SECTION I GENERAL THEORY
Gr ve
Square
I Scarf 4 Bevel
Flare- Flare-
bevel
~~
Flange
+&
Back
Seam or Surfacing '
Projection Backing Edge Corner
- w - 1-L- -,IL
--I7 -e- -w-
-A-
-7-7---77-
-77--
BBGUUBBE BE-ii Basic weld symbols. (From AWS A2.4-86, Standard Syinbols for
Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examination. Courtesy of American Welcling
Society, Miami, Florida.)
Other side Other side

/ Arrow side /Arrow side
Other side
Other side
Arrow side
side
lFiI<I;;IUWllCS I 1 3 4 Fillei, groove, and Ilange welcl symbols show-

ing location of arrow side and other sicle. (From AWC
~~ ~~~ A2.4.-06, Standard Symbols for Wclding, Brazing zinc/ Non-
IFIIG;uT~ESE=Z Standard location of elements of a welding destructive Exainination. Courtesy of American Welding Soci-
symbol. ety, Miami, Florida.)
5 1 E 4 (Opposite Page) Application of fillei welcl symholc. (From AWS

PIIG~LJ~WII~
A2.4-86, Standard Symbo/s for Welding, Urazii-rg and Nonclcslrirctive ~Xa~JIination.
Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami, IFIorida.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 5 BASIC POSITIONS A N D JOINTS
I
& 1
Desired weld Symbol
(A) Fillet weld in hole (or slot)
I
3/4&16 Desired Welds Symbol
(6) Double fillet weld symbols for one joint
1/4 \
318 3/16
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Desired weid Left side view Front view
(A) Arrow side V-groove weld symbol
Desired weld Left side view Front view
(6)Other side V-groove weld symbol
Desired weid Left side view Front view
(C) Both sides V-groove weld symbol
pHQiiBTHBEZia.% Application of the convention for arrow side and other side. (From
AWS A2.4-86, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing and Nonclestructive Examina-
tion. Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)

(A) Arrow side
( 6 )Other side
(C) Both sides
BPGtiïIIBIE $E& Application of the convention showing a break in the arrow line of
the welding symbol. (From AWS A2.4-86, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing
and Nondestructive Examination. Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami,
Florida.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Desired welds Symbol
(A) Back or backing, single-J-groove and fillet weld symbols
(6) Fillet and double-bevel-groove weld symbols
(C) Single-bevel-groove and double-fillet weld symbols

i
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

n R
S
S
R
(D) Double square-groove with double fillet welds
F'I[BILTwE5 E - a Combination of weld symbols. (From AWS A2.4-86, Standard Sym-

bols for Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examination. Courtesy of American
Welding Society, Miaini, Florida.)
IFHQiiïlJitW 59-81 Symbols with references.
When the weld symbol for a V- Some welds must be welded from specified for this particular weld.
groove butt joint is above the refer- both sides. Such welds are indicated Symbols may be used without ref-
ence line, the desired weld is on the by placing the weld symbol on both erences if a note appears on the
side opposite from where the arrow sides of the reference line. (See Fig- drawing. For example, "UNLESS
is pointing. (See Figure 5E-5b.) De- ure SE-6c.) Other examples of sym- otherwise designated all welds ARE
sired welds for the symbol below bols for welding on both sides are TO BE MADE IN ACCORDANCE
and on both sides of the refer- shown in Figure 5E-7. WITH SPECIFICATION NO. m m . "
ence line are shown in Figures SE-Sa References are not needed when the
and 5c respectively. SYMBOLS WITH AND welding procedure is described in
A break in the arrow line, as in WITHOUT REFERENCES detail elsewhere. These descriptions
Figures 5E-6a and b, indicates that When a specification, process, or may be found in shop instructions
the part the arrow points to is io be other reference is used with a weld- and process sheets.
beveled, grooved, and so on. In ing symbol, the reference is placed Notes such as "Unless otherwise
these figures the weld symbol calls in the tail. (See Figure 5E-8.) The indicated, all fillet welds shall be % 6
for a single-bevel groove weld. Its meaning of specification A-2 i s inch in size" may also be placed on
position below the reference line in- shown elsewhere on the drawing. It the drawing.
dicates that the weld is to be placed may even be on a separate sheet that
where the arrow touches the line. shows drawings for the project. SUPPLEMENTARY SYMBOLS
The broken arrow line points up, to- The GTAW reference is self- Other symbols such as weld ail
ward the top riember of the weld- explanatory. It is the abbreviation of around, field weld, melt through,
ment, indicating that the top mem- gas tungsten arc welding, the arc backing, and spacer material, as
ber is the one to be beveled. welding process that the engineer well as contour symbols, give more
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

~~ ~
Backing Contour
Eonsumable
I
or
i-e-
Weld all Melt
Field Weld Insert Flush
around Through Spacer
(Square) Convex Concave
(Rectangle)
FIGURE DE-9 Supplementary symbols. (From AWS A2.4-86, Standard Symbols for
Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examination. Courtesy of American Welding
information about the desired weld.
(See Figure 5E-9.) The weld-all- F I ~ ~ U P I5&i1(9
E (Opposite Page) Symbols designating a fillet weld all around. (From
around symbol means to weld com- AWS A2.4-86, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examina-
pletely around the joint. The symbol tion. Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
shows a circle around the junction
of the reference line and the arrow
line. In Figure 5E-10 the symbol be-
low the reference line indicates that
a fillet weld is desired. It is posi- sired shape for the finished weld. Ure 5E-12. The letters and methods
tioned on the side closest to the When the symbols are as shown in of finishing are
reader. The weld should be in the Figure 5E-9, it means that the welds C chipping
joint that the arrow touches in the are to remain in an as-welded con-
M machining
drawing. The circle indicates weld dition. Nothing is to be done to the
all around. welds other than cleaning them. H hammering
Field welds are indicated by a Other methods are sometimes G grinding
small flag that extends upward from called for to obtain the desired fin- R rolling
the junction of the reference line ish. When one of these methods is
and the arrow line. It indicates the to be used, a letter denoting the MULTIPLE: HlWEKLiNCE IAN ES
particular weld that will be made, method of finishing is placed over When there is a sequence of oper-
and that it will be made at the final the finish symbol, as shown in Fig- ations, more than one reference line
job site.
Sometimes a large, cumbersome
weldrnent may be fabricated in sec-
tions for ease of handling. It is weld-
ed together at the final destination.
The melt-through symbol is used
to indicate that 1O0 percent pene-
tration, plus reinforcement, is re-
quired. This symbol is normally L&
Reinforcement
or melt through
Symbol
used on joints welded from one
side, such as pipe welds. Melt FBGUIRE 5E.Pìi Desired weld.
through is weld metal at the root that
ti M
sticks out past the face of the mate- A -
rial being welded. Notice that the
melt-through symbol in Figure 5E-11
calls for a 3/32-in~hreinforcement on
the other side. Grinding Hammering Machining
Contour symbols denote the de- FFHGUWE SE.12 Methods of finishing joints.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Symbol
-~ ~ ~
Desired weld
L I
Symbol
Desired weld
I 1
Desired weld
Symbol
(B) Weld all around symbol
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

may be used, as shown in Figure

SE-13. These multiple lines show
3rd operation
the type of welds, the welding se-
F
quence, and, if a tail is added, the
2nd operation / ?1dn2 process required.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3 rd
Figure SE-14a indicates that a
Weld symbol
U-groove field weld is to be made
on the arrow side in the first opera-
FHGUWE BE-13 Multiple reference lines.
tion. The second operation will be a
field back gouge of the other side
and then a field weld of the joint.
Figure 5E-14b indicates an all-
,F
FPGUEWE 6?&IL4Supplementary symbols.
(A)
Back gouge around groove on the arrow side
and ultrasonic testing all around.
OTHER INFORMATION
The depth of joint preparation and
the effective throat size can also be
shown on the welding symbol. In
Depth of penetration
Figure SE-15a the depth of prepara-
tion is shown by figures to the ex-
treme left of the weld symbol. The
Effective throat
r- sire
effective throat size is shown next,
to the right and in parentheses.
When it is difficult to describe the
desired weld with weld symbols, the
weld and other necessary informa-
Pki6irUWE S&iì% Dimensioning welds: (a) depth and effective throat of a groove
/ (B)
tion can be shown in a drawing, as
indicated in Figure SE-16.
weld, (b) fillet weld with unequal legs. DIMENSIONING FILLET WELDS
Unless there is a general note on the
drawing, such as “Unless otherwise
noted, all fillet welds 5/i6 in. in
size,’‘ all fillet welds must be
dimensioned.
Weld size is shown directly to the
left of the weld symbol, except
when the fillet has unequal legs.
Then the dimension of each leg is
given in parentheses, as shown for
a fillet with unequal legs in Figure
IFIIGUIE BE-BI Extent of fillet welding indicated by symbols and dimension lines. SE-1 5b
EXTENT OF FILLET WELDING

Fillet weld lengths may be indicated
by symbols and dimension lines, as
in Figure SE-16. in this drawing the
structural member lines have been
broken to indicate greater length.
The overall dimension gives the true
PBGUIE BEOB% Extent of fillet welding denoted by hatching. (From AWS A2.4-86, length. Also note that only 24 inches
Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examination. Courtesy of are welded at each end.
American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.) The size and type of weld can also

CHAPTER 5 BASIC POSITIONS AND JOINTS 7%
be indicated on a drawing by means the welds will be 2 inches long. The welds are 2 inches long and 5 inches
of a shaded area and a pointing ar- pitch, or distance from center to from center to center.
row. This type of designation is center, will be 6 inches. In all inter- Figures 5E-18c demonstrates the
shown in Figure 5E-17. mittent welding, the end welds weld symbol for staggered intermit-
should be longer, so that they ter- tent welding. Staggered intermittent
Iri TER M1'8"rOCwr minate at the end of the joint. welding places the weld increments
PIB,I,ET WPl!,IIPS Figure 5E-186 demonstrates the in the center of the spaces opposite
Intermittent welds on only one side weld symbol for chain intermittent the welds on the other side of the
of a member are indicated by the welding. Chain intermittent welding member. In the example shown, the
symbol given in Figure 5E-18a. This places the increments directly op- distance between the center points
weld symbol shows that the welding posite each other on the two sides of the increments on the upper part
will be on the other side, and that of the member. Notice that the of the member is 10 inches. The
I'
L
Desired Welds Symbol
(A) Length and pitch of increments of intermittent welds
(B)Length and pitch of increment- of chain intermitten. welds
SIGI~% Interinittent fillet weld :;ynilmls with diineiisions for lengths and
~~~H~;IUTR.IIE
pitch. (From AWS A2.4-86, S[arit/ard Symbols for Wekling, Brazing and Nondestriic-
tive Exan7ination. Courtesy oí American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

(C)Length and pitch of increments of staggered intermittent welds
FHGUREBE-18 (continued)
Effective throat - Included angle

PIBirUJRBIE S E . ~ O(Opposite Page) Sym-
bols specifying groove weld size but
not the depth of preparation. (From
AWS A2.4-86, Standard Symbols for
Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive
J Examination. Courtesy of American
FIQ'üIE IE-PIB Typical groove weld symbol. Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
center point of the space between the far left signifies the depth of the Figure 5E-21 shows variations in
the increment center points is 5 groove preparation, the figure in pa- the depth of preparation and the ef-
inches. The 3-inch weld increments rentheses the effect ive th roat. fective throat of the weld. in Figure
on the opposite side are centered on When the groove dimensions do 5E-21a the depth of preparation and
this point. not appear in a note on the drawing, the effective throat are the same, in
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
they will be shown on the welding Figure 5E-21b the depth of prepa-
TYPES AND DIMENSIONING symbol. When depth of preparation ration is less than the effective
OF GROOVE WELD§ and effective throat are not on the throat. The groove is only 5/8 inch
A group of groove weld symbols was welding symbol, complete penetra- deep. The groove must penetrate
shown in Figure 5E-1. It is important tion is required. deeper, so the effective throat is 314
that you understand their meaning inch.
and the methods used to dimension SOME APPLICATIONS Figure 5E-21 c indicates the depth
them. All information concerning a OF GROOVE WELD of preparation to be more than the
groove weld is placed on the same SYMBOLS AND I)iMENSlONS effective throat. This means that a
side of the reference line as the There are a great many variations in small space at the bottom of the
weld symbol, as indicated in figure designating groove welds. figure groove does not have to be filled
CE-19. 5E-20 shows groove weld symbols with weld metal. In Figure 5E-21d
A figure in the groove symbol, that indicate the required effective the weld has no preparation but an
such as '18, indicates the root open- throat but not the depth of prep- effective throat of Y4 inch.
ing. The figure above it, given in de- aration. Either the supervisor or Figure 5E-22 indicates both the
grees, indicates the included bevel the welder determines the joint preparation and the effective throat.
angle of both plates. The figure to preparation. Notice that the effective throat in all

L71a
Desired weld Sy in bol
Desired weld L3/8 Symbol
Desired weld Symbol
Desired weld
L3/4
Svmbol
Desired weld Symbol

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
L3/4
Desired weld Symbol

I Desired weld Symbol

(A) Depth of preparation equal to groove weld size
Desired weld Symbol

(B) Depth of preparation less than groove weld size
Ei sl -'
Desired weld Symbol

(C) Depth of preparation more than groove weid size
Eb-y-{+
Desired weld
T+{ Symbol
(D) No preparation
FHGWIRE 51~~211 Examples of different relationships between the depth of prepara- F'TIGUIIÛUS S i E 4 % (Opposite Page) 1 !S-
tion S and groove weld size E. (From AWS A2.4-86, Standard Symbols for Welding, ignation of the size and depth of prep-
Brazing and Nondestructive Examination. Courtesy of American Welding Society, aratioii of groove welds. (From AWS
Miami, Florida.) A2.4-üG, Standard Symbols for Weld-
ing, ErUzing and Nonclcstriictive Exami-
nation. Courtesy of Amcrican Welding
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Desired weld 3/8 Groove weld size Symbol

[A)
i r1l4
Groove weld size 7 / 1 6
Groove weld size 7A6-1 LI14

Desired weld Symbol
Pl
note
-
4
4,
3/16 1 /2 Groove weld size Note: The total groove weld

L N o t e overlap
size = 7/8
Desired weld Symbol
CI
three drawings exceeds the depth of formation. Notice the notes indicat- will require an excessive amount of
preparation. Also look at the bottom ing that the effective throat is never filler metal.
right of the drawing for the note greater than the plate thickness. Figure 5E-25 shows the methods
in the tail of the welding symbol. Figure 5E-24 shows how root of dimensioning groove angles. The
It states that this i s a complete openings are designated. It i s im- correct groove angle combined with
penetration joint, welded from both portant to adhere to root opening di- the correct root opening produces a
sides. mensions. Too small a root opening joint with the proper size.
Figure 5E-23 indicates the effec- can keep penetration from being
tive throat, without preparation incomplete. Too large a root opening
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

I
c Note
overlap
overlap
1
1
Q
'tlf
1
5 / 3 2 Groove weld size
7 / 3 2 Groove weld size

,/?
I Desired weld
(A) Butt joint with no root opening

Symbol
Note: Total weld size = 114"
Desired Note: The total weld size cannot be

weld greater than thickness T.
(B) Arrow side bevel-groove weld with root opening

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Desired Note: The total weld size cannot be

weld greater than thickness T.
(C) Both sides V-groove weld with root opening

iI

I
-clL1/16
Desired weld
- 3/16
Symbol
Desired weld
(BI Symbol
,
Desired weld Symbol
1 / 8 1I-
Desired weld
Symbol
Desired weld Symbol

(E)
Desired weld
Symbol
IF)
WHGüJRE S E m t 4 Designation of root opening of groove welds. (From AWS A2.4-86,
Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examination. Courtesy of
American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

45" I
45"
¿
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Desired weld Symbol
Desired weld Symbol
(BI
r""7
Desired weld Symbol

(Cl
Desired weld Symbol I
FIGURE 5E.25 Designation of groove angle of groove welds. (From AWS

A2.4-86, Standard Symbols for Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examination.
Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)

Desired weld L Backweld Symbol

Note: Groove weld made before
welding other side
(A) Use of back weid symbol
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Desired weld L Backing weld Symbol
Note: Groove weld made
after welding other side
(B) Use of backing weld symbol
I
E2
Symbol
Desired weld
(C)Use of backing weld with root opening
F I G U ~ ~5E.26 Application of back weld and backing weld symbols. (From AWS A2.4-86, Standard Symbols for Welding, Braz-
ing and Nondestructive Examination. Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
APPLICATION OF BACK WELD is backing in the form of a weld. In In Figure 5E-26c the backing weld
AND BACKING WELD SYMBOLS Figure 5E-26a the note indicates the i s used with a root opening. Either
Figure 5E-26 shows how the back single-pass back weld is made after the arrow side or the other side may
weld and the backing weld symbols the groove weld. Figure 5E-26b in- be welded first, but the welder must
are applied to groove welds. A back dicates that the backing weid will be be sure the joint is carefully cleaned
weld is deposited at the back of a made first, and then the groove weld to reduce the chance of retaining
single groove weld. A backing weld will be welded. slag.

Symbol
II
--i (A) Size (Thickness) of surfacing weid
4 -21
-
W
Symbol
(B) Width and length of surfacing weld

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-f-
1
5/16 f Desired Weld
-
(C) Multiple layer surfacing weld
Reduce root
opening to 3116
max.
(D) Correction of dimensions

FEBVRE 0&87 (Opposite Page) Application of surfacing weld symbol to indicate

surfaces to be built up by welding. (From AWS A2.4-86, Standard Symbols for
Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examination.)
SURFACING WELDS If only a portion of a surface is to provide information about the back-
The surfacing weld symbol is used be built up, the size and area loca- ing material and its size and some-
to indicate surfaces that require tion information shall be shown as times about its removal.
buildup by welding. The buildup in Figure 5E-276. The left drawing in Figure 5E-28
may be in a single layer or in mul- sh0ws.a V-groove butt with a back-
tiple layers, depending on the thick- JOINTS WITH BACKING ing bar on the root side. The tail may
ness desired. The thickness is indi- Some butt joints call for backing. note the backing material and di-
cated by figures to the left of the The square-groove butt, especially mensions. The R in the right drawing
weld symbol. When no specific when heavy plate is being used, re- indicates that the backing is to be
height is indicated, the buildup will quires backing in the form of a bar removed after the weld is
consist of one layer. or strip. A backing symbol is used to completed.
BñGUIE té&28 Typical backing symbols. (From AWS A2.4-86, Standard Symbols
for Welding, Brazing and Nondestructive Examination. Courtesy of American Weld-
ing Society, Miami, Florida.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 6
POW s
LESSON 6A
s
OB3EC’BTHVES high, you release more thermal en- them with amperes and volts. In
Upon completion of this lesson you ergy. You don’t actually vary the about 1809 Sir Humphrey Davy dis-
should be able to flame temperature. covered that he could sustain an arc.
1. Describe the purpose of a With an arc, whatever you do to At that time the only decent source
standard cell. the electric energy is instantly done of electric energy was the “Great
2. Name the organization in the to the arc energy. For all practical Battery,” which filled the entire
United States that i s responsible purposes there is no time lag be- basement of the Royal Institution in
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
for providing standards for cali- tween the electrical change and the London. The Great Battery and the
bration purposes. arc change. That is why you can run arcs it could sustain were used for
3. Identify the electrical unit that is an arc with direct current of either chemistry and physics experiments.
measured by electroplating silver. polarity, or with alternating current. During the next fifty years, or so, the
4. Correctly write three versions of You can even mix up the polarities, basis of electrical science was de-
Ohm’s law. pulse the power, and so on. What- veloped. But it wasn‘t until the last
5. Define an ac rms ampere. ever can be done by a power source decade of the nineteenth century
can be done by the arc. Since arcs that arcs were used for welding. Up
are such good energy conversion until that time they were used as
ARCS AND POWER
devices, they can be made to do light sources and for experimen-
All electrical welding processes
many different things. That is why tation. By then the measuring units
need a source of electric power. An
there are so many different types of for electric energy were in common
arc is a sustained electric discharge.
electric power supplies available. use.
Welding and cutting arcs can be
The other lessons of this chapter will In the year 1902, a woman named
thought of as simple energy conver-
teach you basic principles that apply Hertha Ayrton published the book
sion devices. They convert the pow-
to all power supplies. When you on “electric arcs.” It described all
er supplied by the power source into
have an understandingof these prin- sorts of arcs, but they were almost
heat and light. Whatever happens to
ciples, you will be able to make an always used for lights and furnaces.
the electric power happens to the
arc do wonderful things. Only in our century were arcs de-
arc. When power increases the arc
As you should already know, veloped into the useful welding
seems “hotter.” When the power
electricity is dangerous and can kill tools that they are today. We still use
decreases the arc seems “colder.”
you. Just because you know how to the same electrical units to describe
Actually, the temperature of the arc
weld and how to operate the equip- arcs as Mrs. Ayrton did, however.
itself doesn’t really change. Instead
ment doesn’t mean you can be care- This lesson will describe these units
the amount of thermal energy re-
less. Always treat welding power of measure as they apply to welding
leased by the arc goes up or down.
with respect. It could end your life power.
Most operators refer to high-energy
if you are careless.
arcs as “hot“ arcs and low-energy
arcs as “cold” arcs. You can com- IDEFIIN1TIO N§
pare the energy of arcs to the energy THE Most dictionaries give definitions of
of the flame on the burners of your “GREAT BATTERY” volts, amperes, and ohms.
kitchen stove. The temperature of a Electric arcs were discovered before
low flame is as hot as that of a high we knew very much about current Volt-the unit of electromotive
flame. When you turn the gas on and potential, and how to measure force, which will cause a current

CHAPTER 6 POWER SOURCES
of one ampere to flow through a measurement exist for current, time, verse. By weighing an electrode
resistance of one ohm. length, mass, and other properties. before and after current passes, you
Ampere-the unit of current They are used for calibration pur- can get a measure of the current that
strength, the current produced by poses. In the United States of Amer- passed. In the first decade of this
an electromotive force of one volt ica most units of measure are main- century, scientists and engineers de-
acting through a resistance of one tained and developed by the veloped a special silver electroplat-
ohm. National Bureau of Standards (NBS) ing system that could be used as a
Ohm-the unit of resistance, the in Washington, D.C. Other coun- standard anywhere in the world. It
resistance of a conductor in which tries have their own organizations became one of the worldwide cur-
one volt produces a current of one that provide the same standard val- rent-measuring standards. Today
ampere. ues as our NBS. In this way all the there is a new current standard
volt meters in the world mean the based on principles of physics. Just
When you look at these definitions same thing when they are used for as the volt, however, the ampere is
carefully, you will see they don’t measurements. One last point to re- defined by measurements made at
really tell you a thing. They are like member is that voltage may be rep- the National Bureau of Standards
a dog who chases his tail. Each def- resented by V or by € for electro- (NBS). Amperage may be represent-
inition uses the other two to tell you motive force. Both mean the same ed by A or by I for intensity. Both
what it is, which doesn’t get us anything. letters mean the same thing.
where. The rest of this lesson gives
you working definitions that will AMPERES OHMS
help you understand electric power The ampere is named after André- The ohm is named after Georg Si-
and electric arcs. Marie Ampère (1 775-1 8361, a mon Ohm (1 787-1 8541, a German
French scientist. The ampere is real- physicist. It is a measure of a con-
VOLTS ly a measurement of how many ductor’s resistance to the passage of
The volt is named after Alessandro electrons flow past a point in one current. Until the mid-twentieth
Volta (1 745-1 8271, an Italian phy- second. Since you can‘t see an elec- century the ohm was represented by
sicist. He found that two metal con- tron, it is a little tricky measuring a column of mercury in a glass tube.
ductors in dilute acid could develop them as they flow past. Instead, sci- When the tube was built to the cor-
an electric current. Volta’s contrap- entists measured the electron flow rect dimensions, the mercury had a
tion, the first operating battery, was by the work it did. One of the ways resistance of one ohm. (See Figure
called the voltaic pile. (See Figure in which they determined current 6A-2.) You can measure off a piece
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
6A-1.) Today we call the metal con- was to measure the force between of conductor that will have the re-
ductors in a battery the plates and two current-carrying conductors. sistance of an ohm by choosing the
the dilute acid the electrolytes. It Another way measured how much
was discovered that different plates time it took current to electroplate
and electrolytes developed stronger silver. In electroplating, molecules
and weaker currents. Engineers and of a metal are moved from one elec- Glass tube filled with mercury
scientists developed special batter- trode to another through an electro-
ies with standard combinations of lyte. In a sense it is a battery in re-
materials that were able to produce Temperature = 0°C
precise voltages and that could be of mercury = 14.4521grams
built anywhere in the world. They
-
called these special batteries
standard cells. The voltage they pro-
duced was used to calibrate electric Layers of
meters. Until about the middle of I 1- flannel soaked
Copper with salt water
the twentieth century, the various Zinc
standard cells were used to define a c--
L U
Copper and zinc
disks
volt. Today more precise standards -C
1
based on principles of physics are

used. Just as with the standard cells,
however, the new physics standards
- 3
-
FflGumlE ú8to.n The structure of Volta’s FIGURE OA.2 The standard for the
can be reproduced anywhere to ob- voltaic pile. ohm in the first half of the twentieth
tain precise values. Standards of century.

92 SECTION I 6ENERAL THEORY
This simply means that voltage (E) multiply it by current ( I ) , you get the
equals the current ( I ) multiplied by power ( P ) equation for watts:
the resistance (R). You can rearrange
equation 1 into several other forms (4) P = E I = watts -
for convenience. (See Figure 6A-3.)
For example; You can obtain the other versions by
rearrangingthe terms in equations 1
through 4. Other power equations
are
FIGURE 6A-3Ohm’s law triangle.
Cover over any letter and the remain- which means that the current ( I )
ing letters tell you h o w to calculate its equals the voltage (E) (5) P = ( E S E ) + R = E2 i R
value. Covering € gives IR, covering divided by the resistance (R).
(6) P = I . I * R = I * * R
I gives €IR, and covering R gives €/I. One other version is
ALTERNATING CURRENT
which means the resistance (R) AND DIRECT CURRENT
correct length and diameter of the equals the voltage (E) divided by the Current can flow steadily in one
conductor. For example, a four- current ( I ) . dkection, or it can alternate di-
mile-long piece of 4/0 copper weld- Now, if you refer back to the def- rections. The first is called direct
ing cable has the resistance of about initions given earlier in this tesson, current (dc). The other is called al-
one ohm. (The term “4/û“ is a cable you can see how these equations ternating current (ac). Meters are
manufacturer’s standard for cable match up with them. calibrated to measure ac values or
size. It is called “four-ought” cable dc values, as the case may be. By
and has a cross section a little more WATTS definition one ampere of alternating
than one square centimeter.) The The power of an arc, or anything current, technically called the root-
ohm is represented by the symbol a, that uses electric power, depends on mean-square (rms) ampere, pro-
for omega, which i s the last letter of the voltage and current. One watt is duces the same heat in a resistor as
the Greek alphabet. In equations the the power produced by one volt and one ampere of direct current.
letter R is used for resistance. one ampere. Multiply voltage and What this all means is that ac arcs
current to obtain power. For exam- and dc arcs can have similar weld-
OHM’S LAW ple, a 30-volt arc, operating at 200 ing energy, voltages, and currents.
The volt, ampere, and ohm are re- amperes, uses 6000 watts of elec- In a general sense all arcs work and
lated in the law discovered by Georg tricity. This is the same amount of . behave in the same way. The spe-
Simon Ohm. It is usually written as power needed to light a hundred 60- cific differences between ac and dc
watt light bulbs. arcs will be covered as needed in
If you take the voltage (E) and other lessons.
LESSON 6B
ENERGY SOURCES
OBJECTIVES 2. Describe current flow and its removing a magnet.

Upon completion of this lesson you lation to electron flow. 5. Name five sources of mechanical
should be able to 3. Describe where the first arc was power for producing electric en-
1. Explain how the presence or ab- discovered. ergy by electromagnetic induc-
sence of electrons determines 4. Name the person who discovered tion.
charge polarity. how to generate electricity from
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 6 POWER SOURCES 93
CURRENT FLOW of electric energy. Many ingenious 1786 by Luigi Galvani, a physician
Arcs need electric power to operate. experimenterstried to generate large of Bologna. He found that it was
They were not discovered until static charges and store them. You possible to cause flow of current by
about 1809 because until then there may have heard of how Benjamin the connection of two different met-
were no sources of electric power Franklin flew his famous kite and als through any separating moist
with energy enough to run an arc. it proved that lightning was electricity. body, although he was unable to
was only possible to produce sparks. Well, he also set up a rule about cur- formulate the principle. in Galvani’s
Human beings had for thousands rent flow. He stated ”current flows work the moist body was a frog‘s
of years been aware of static elec- from positive to negative.” He had leg, the points of contact nerve and
tricity and how to generate it. Static only two directions to choose from. muscle, the metals iron and copper.
electricity had been produced by the It was either plus to minus or minus The current caused the leg to move
ancient Greeks. In fact, the term to plus. He picked the wrong one! violently. Galvani thought that the
electricity comes from the Greek We have been stuck with the rule force observed was unique to ani-
word elektron for amber. Back in ever since. Actually electron flow, mals. Later his friend Volta, a pro-
600 B.C. Thales of Miletus men- which i s current, is from negative to fessor in the University of Pavia, was
tioned that bits of straw could be at- positive. We still speak, however, able to state the principle. Then in
tracted by amber when it was about current flowing from positive the year 1800 Volta discovered how
rubbed against a piece of wool or to negative. Just remember, conven- to make his battery. Although there
fur. (See Figure 68-1.) We now tional current is the opposite of elec- still wasn’t enough energy to discov-
know that the mechanical energy of tron flow. (See Figure 66-2.) This er an arc, the entire scientific world
rubbing moved electrons from one lesson will discuss the sources of was in an uproar over Volta’s bat-
place to another. The location of the electric energy that we have avail- tery. It was as exciting as when
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
piled up electrons is negatively able today. atomic energy was discovered in
charged, and the place where elec- this century.
trons have been stripped away is CHEMICAL Within a few years the Great Bat-
pos¡tive1y charged. Electricity derived from chemicals tery of the Royal Institution in Lon-
Until the late eighteenth century, was the first new source of electric don was built. During chemistry ex-
static electricity was the only source energy. It was discovered about periments by Sir Humphrey Davy
the electric arc was discovered. For
the first time a steady electric dis-
charge could be maintained. It is
still possible to run an arc from a
battery, but it is not too efficient.
Amber rubber with Mechanical sources of electric pow-
a piece of fur
er are more useful.
MECHANICAL
Michael Faraday was a student of Sir
Davy and was hired by his teacher
to work at the Royal Institution. Far-
aday turned out to be one of the
world’s great inventors. One day in
IFHGUIE 6B.P An example of static electricity.
1831 he noticed that a moving mag-
net made the indicator on one of his
electric meters move. From that ob-
servation he discovered the princi-
ple of electromagnetic induction.
When a conductor moves through a
magnetic field, current may be pro-
Electronflow duced. Faraday found out that three
things are needed to generate elec-
tricity, a conductor, motion, and a
magnetic field. (See Figure 68-3.)
ìFP6Wü6E @B.% The conventional directions of current flow and electron flow. The first generators were built within

rectly useful for operating welding boilers. They can be driven by the
arcs. It must be converted by power heat from atomic energy. Wherever
sources to something that can be the driving mechanical energy
used to run welding arcs. Portable comes from, almost all commercial
generators are available. They can electricity is produced by genera-
generate power that can be used di- tors, working on the principles dis-
rectly for arcs. The operation of all covered by Faraday.
1 1 1 , generators, large and small, is based
1 1 1 1 1
on the discoveries of Sir Michael NEW SOURCES OF ENERGY
Faraday. Construction of sources of Someday we may use solar panels
welding power will be covered in to drive a generator and thus run
another lesson. arcs from sunlight. Or we might use
photocells that convert light to elec-
POWER STATIONS tricity without a generator. We
All the electricity generated by pow- might use fuel cells that convert fuel
er stations comes from generators. into electric energy without a flame,
The generators can be driven by me- or an atomic battery that converts
chanical energy from many different atomic energy directly to electricity.
a few years. It wasn’t long before sources, such as a water wheel or a No matter where the electricity
generators that could run arc lamps windmill. The generation stations at comes from, however, an arc is sim-
for lighthouse searchlights and other Niagara Falls are an example of pro- ply an energy conversion device. It
purposes were constructed. ducing electricity from water power. does not care about the source of its
Today great power stations gen- Modern windmills on farms and power. Electricity is electricity. An
erate the electricity we use in our along the crests of windswept hills arc works the same way whether the
homes and factories. The power is generate electricity from wind pow- power comes from the wind, water,
delivered by a network of power er. Generators can be driven by batteries, or whatever.
lines. This power, however, isn’t di- steam engines with coal or oil-fired
LESSON 6C
DEVICES
OBJECTIVES ALTERNATING CURRENT alternating current could be distrib-

Upon completion of this lesson you OR DIRECT CURRENT? uted over long distances more eco-
should be able to As was discussed in the previous les- nomically than direct current. Con-
1. Explain why a generator produces son, almost all commercial power sequently, alternating current be-
alternating current. comes from generation stations. The came the dominant source of com-
2. identify the shape of the ac wave power i s developed in very large mercial power. This does not mean
produced by most ac generators. generators. The generators are usu- that you cannot get direct current to-
3. Explain how a transformer works ally called alternators because they day. It only means that alternating
even though i t has no moving generate alternating current. current is the preferred form of pow-
parts. Early in this century power gener for distribution. Strange as it may
4. Explain how to decrease the eration companies produced both seem, direct current is having a
transformer output voltage. direct current and alternating cur- comeback. New materials and new
5. Explain the function of a diode. rent. Then it was discovered that insulation have made it possible to
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

transmit direct current economically

over long distances. High-voltage dc
transmission may become competi- Direction of A or B
tive to ac transmission before the field at the top
year 2000.
with conductors
GENERATORS A and B
AND ALTERNATORS
Direction of A or B
Most generators work on the basis of
a rotating armature. This means that field at the bottom
the generator conductors are forced
to generate alternating current. The Pl
armature conductors automatically FHGUiRE 5C-B Rotating armatures cause conductors to cut magnetic fields in oppo-
cut the lines of magnetic force in site directions. This generates alternating current in each conductor.
two different directions. Alternating
current is produced in the conduc-
tors as the armature rotates. (See Fig-
ure 6C-1.)But as the armature ro-
tates, there are times when no
magnetic field is cut and therefore
no electricity is generated. (See Fig-
ure 6C-2.)When you analyse the
way each conductor generates elec-
tricity, you will note that between
each reversal in direction of current
Direction1
of B
0 I
bT-r-4
I
@
N
I I I 1
t
&
I
Direction
ofA
Top position
there is a zero generation point. This
m
can be described on a piece of graph \ i l i l FHGURE 6C.3 Representation of the
paper with a picture, as given in Fig- electricity generated in conductor A as
it rotates in the generator.
ure 6C-3.The shape of the electric
wave shown has a special name. It
FEGFURE QIC.1 During part of the ar-
is called a sine wave, or sinusoidal mature rotation, conductors A and B
wave. All this means is that the elec- d o not cut any lines of magnetism. The
tricity has a maximum value in one lines of magnetism and the conductors
direction and falls to zero before it both run in the same direction.
builds to a maximum in the opposite
direction. If the power shown in Fig-
ure 6C-3were used to run an arc,
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the arc would have to go out each ical welding transformer develops other, as shown in Figure 6C-4.
time the sine wave passed through about 70 to 80 volts alternating cur- Usually an iron core is used to
zero. rent. The manufacturer?s nameplate strengthen the magnetic field. One
gives this information. winding is called the primary wind-
TRANSFORMERS A transformer works on the same ing, the other the secondary wind-
The power distributed by the power electromagnetic induction princi- ing. The primary winding is con-
company is the wrong current and ples (conductor, motion, and a mag- nected to the alternating current
voltage for welding arcs. Trans- netic field) as a generator, but a from the power company. As the al-
formers, similar to those on poles transformer has no moving parts. ternating current flows, it changes
near your house, are able to change You might well ask, ?How does a direction each half cycle. The
the power from the utility company transformer work if it doesn?t have a changing direction sets up a mag-
to something an arc can use. conductor moving in a magnetic netic field in the primary coil that
For most houses the transformer field?? The answer is ?It does!? It also reverses. Each time the mag-
changes the ?line? power to either moves the magnetic field instead of netic field of the primary coil builds
220 volts or 110 volts alternating the conductor. Here is how. A sim- up, falls off, and reverses direction,
current. Welding transformers come ple transformer has two coils of it sends out lines of force that cut the
in different sizes and ratings. A typ- wire. Both are wound around each secondary coil. The secondary coil

96 SECTION I 6ENERAL THEORY
Actual windings
-Current flow
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FPGuBE BC.B The symbol for a diode. The arrowhead shows the direction of cur-
J-'"
3I
rent flow. The bar indicates a barrier to current flow in the other direction.
7-
Schematic
representation
FIGURE 6C.4 A sketch of a simple DC output

transformer. to the arc
AC input
- *,i
./ II
* il I $
circuit of first
half or arc cycle
-g- /
current input
Alternating-
current output
/
O
.,
Arc
1
FIGURE 6C.5 Representation of transformer action. FIGURE 6 C . l A typical full-wave rectifier. (JI Complete cir-
cuit, (b) circuit during the first half of a cycle, (c) circuit dur-
ing the second half of a cycle. Note how the arc current is
always in the same direction. Current cannot flow in the
diodes shown with broken lines.
is cut by magnetic lines that run in more turns, the voltage goes up, and Luckily, everything is in the right
opposite directions each time the vice versa. direction for running a welding arc.
field of the primary coil reverses. Transformers are almost perfect For example, if an industrial trans-
The reversing magnetic field around machines. They have no moving former has an input of 440 volts al-
the secondary winding has the same parts and can last as long as their ternating current and 50 amperes, a
effect that the secondary winding insulation holds up. They cannot 10 to 1 transformer can put out 44
would were it rotating in a stationary create power, however, which volts alternating current and 500
magnetic field. Transformer action is means that if the secondary coil in- amperes. You can look at the name-
schematically represented in Figure creases the voltage, it must decrease plate of a welding transformer and
6C-5. The ac input produces a mov- the current in order to hold power see numbers like these.
ing magnetic field in the iron core, constant. Otherwise the voltage in-
and an ac output is generated in the crease would increase power. The RECTIFIERS
secondary conductors. Electrical en- reverse i s also true. When voltage is Many welding arcs require a source
gineers control the output of a trans- decreased, current must be in- of direct current. Where does it
former by the number of turns each creased to keep everything in come from when the power com-
coil has. When the secondary has balance. pany produces alternating current?

Well, it comes from devices that have commutators, making them dc they can last forever. Alternators on
convert alternating current into di- generators. Another way to change automobiles use diodes to rectify the
rect current. Rectifiers are electrical alternating current to direct current alternating current into direct cur-
devices which can route electrons in is to use something called a diode to rent. Welding power supplies com-
a circuit just as toll booths route cars build a rectifier. (See Figure 6C-6.) bine transformers and rectifier sys-
on a highway, or turnstiles route A diode is a one-way gate for elec- tems to produce direct current for
people in a subwáy system. Conven- trons. When the diodes are put in welding. One typical diode arrange-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tional generators generate alternat- the correct place, they can reroute ment that routes electrons in a cir-
ing current. A mechanical device all the electrons and make them run cuit is shown in Figure 6C-7. It in-
called a commutator changes the al- in the same direction. There are no dicates how single-phase alternating
ternating current into direct current moving parts to wear out. If diodes current is changed to direct current.
before it leaves the generator. Gen- are not allowed to overheat and are
erators on automobiles and trucks not stressed with too high a voltage,
LESSON 6D
TYPES OF COMTROIL
0B.BECTIVEB MECHANICAL physically move the output lead
Upon completion of this lesson you VOLTAGECONTROL from one coil to another on a ter-
should be able to Generally, arc length and voltage go minal board.
1. Identify four mechanical means hand in hand. Long arcs need large
of changing transformer voltage. amounts of voltage, and short arcs ELECTRICAL CONTROL
2. Describe what is meant by SCR. need smaller amounts. If you were There are electrical devices that can
3. Name three ways to control pulse to lengthen an arc and the voltage be turned on and offby means of
wave average output. was not available, the arc would go small control signals. When they are
out. Most welding power supplies ON, they will permit current flow;
give you a way to adjust the voltage. they will stop the flow when they are
POWER IS IMPORTANT Some of the adjustments are me- OFF. One such device is called a sil-
As you probably know, there are chanical and some are electrical. iconkontrolled rectifier (SCR). (See
dozens of arc welding and cutting Transformer voltages are usually Figure 6D-2.) It ,has the same char-
processes. Each of the processes has adjusted by mechanical means. For acteristics as a diode, but with the
its own special power requirements. example, there can be taps on the added feature that you can delay
You cannot use just any power sup- secondary coil connected to a turning it on. It has an extra connec-
ply that happens to be available. switch. A tap is a connection in an tion for a control signal. When a
Arcs convert the electric power into electric coil making it possible to proper signal is used, you can turn
heat for welding and cutting. They place only part of the coil in circuit. on the SCR whenever you want.
do it efficiently and accurately. If When you change switch positions, (See Figure 6D-3.) A delayed turn-
you have pulsed power, the arc will you connect up or unconnect taps on reduces the average voltage to
provide pulsed heat. When the pow- and increase or decrease the output the arc.
er is stable the arc i s stable. voltage. (See Figure 6D-1.) Another Some electrical devices can be
You cannot get the most out of an way is to change the number of turns used to absorb part of the power out-
arc unless you are able to control the in the secondary coil with a sliding put. The absorbed portion is dissi-
power. This lesson discusses some brush mechanism. A third way is to pated as waste heat through a fan
of the various types of power that are use receptacles connected to the system. Others can be used to by-
available and how you can control coils and a "jack plug" that fits into pass the power around the arc. (See
that power. the receptacle. Sometimes you can Figure 6D-4.) Whatever the control

Secondary coil
-c- Basic sine wave
Primary coil conducted by a diode
',\ Rectified
half cycle
i
/
Input
'\
'--/
,'
Sine wave with short

conduction delay before
SCR is turned on
Sine wave with long

conduction delay before
SCR is turned on
FIGURE 6D-3The SCR can be used to control the turn-on

point.
Primary
d
-3
,e
E- %Control' Control
output knob
Input
I
Terminal
board
Primary
Input 1, pnt.y12, Control

signal knob
rc
FIGURE 6D.P Various methods of changing transformer
voltages.
PHGUBBE 6D.4 Typical electrical control devices.
-=-, SCR ut
i
i Gate for
turning on SCR FHQKJWE 6D-5i A simple waveshape control system. Alternat-
FPGURE 6D-3The silicon-controlled rectifier is an elec- ing current is converted to direct current to make control of
trically controlled diode. The gate lead is used to turn it on. waveshape easier.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

does depends on your adjustment of come across some others such as One important point to remember
a small dial or knob. ones in which coils or iron cores are is this. Just because a power source
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
moved. Anything that changes the is old does not mean that it will be
WAVESHAPE CONTKOIJ basic relation between motion, a poor welder. It actually may be a
Some power sources change the magnetism, and a conductor will better welder. Welding power
sine wave power supplied by the change the output of a transformer. sources last a long time. Good ones
utility company. The sine wave is Over the years designers have made should be cared for by you. You
converted to square waves as well movable coils, movable cores, flux may find that you prefer an old one
as to other shapes. diverters, saturable cores, magnetic to the new commercially available
First, the sine wave i s rectified and amplifiers, and so on. Many of these units.
turned into direct current. Once devices are still in use today.
the alternating current has been
changed to direct current, the direct
current can be chopped up and
made into other shapes. (See Figure
6D-5.) The chopped up dc wave can
take many forms. It can have differ- Change in pulse width
ent heights and widths as well as dif-
ferent pulse rates. Some systems
have waves of only one height. The
output can be varied by changing
Change in pulse frequency
the on-off time of individual pulses.
Other waves can vary in height but
have the same on-off time. (See Fig-
ure 6D-6.)
Change in pulse amplitude
It doesn’t really matter how the
actual circuit works. What matters is
that the average direct current can
be varied with waveshape. The par-
ticular waveshape that works best Change in pulse shape
depends on the process. You will be
taught about specific waveshapes as
necessary.
OTHER CONTROL METHODS Combinations of pulses

There are a large number of ways to
control a power supply. This lesson
has covered only a few. You may PñGtUIWE 6H)-6 Variations in pulse shapes.
LESSON 6E
@B19EC?fE(VES 2. Explain how slope is measured. POWER SUPPLIES ARE TOOLS

Upon completion of this lesson you 3. Identify the terms CP and CA. Most people can drive automobiles
should be able to 4. identify an organization that pub- and operate cameras or television
1. Define the term slope in electrical lishes guidelines for manufactur- sets. Each has its own special char-
terms. . ing welding power supply units. acteristics of operation. Cars used to

lic
have stick shifts, now most have

automatic transmissions. Some cam-
eras are loaded with adjustments,
-
others you just aim and click. The >”
performance of these devices i s de-
scribed in sales brochures, instruc-
Current __t
tion literature and handbooks. The
same i s true of the devices that sup- FIGURE BE.1 The volt-ampere curve
ply power for welding. of a perfect battery.
This lesson discussed the overall Current
features of the power that is supplied FIGURE BE4 Typical Volt-ampere
for welding. It gives you the basic curve of a realistic power source.
classifications so that you will be
able to understand their uses and
t I
limitations. You should always use
the correct tool for any job. Consid-
er a power supply as a tool. Learn
I Rise = volts
Run = amperes
1
its characteristics and you will weld 100 amperes
better. Current
FIGURE 6E2 The volt-ampere curve
VOLT- of a perfect constant-current source.
AMPERE CURVES
Power sources can be classified
according to their output character-
istics, as well as their size. A con-
venient way to group them is ac- FIGURE BE-4 Definition of slope.
cording to their voltage and cur-
rent output. Most of the time this i s
done by showing a curve of the volt- SLOPE in current. It is usually discussed as
age and current on a graph. The The term slope is commonly used in “so many volts drop per 700 am-
curve is called a VA curve, a volt- describing power supply output. peres”-for example, 3 volts drop
ampere curve, or some other similar The term has two meanings. One re- per 100 amperes. (See Figure 6E-3.)
name. fers to the way current is pro- All this discussion of slope comes
Figure 6E-1 shows the curve for a grammed with time. If current in- about because real power sources
perfect battery. This is referred to as creases with time, its increase is are not perfect. They have losses.
a constant-potential power supply, referred to as “up slope.” When cur- Their output falls off as current draw
which means that no matter how rent decreases with time, the de- is increased. (See Figure 6E-4.) The
much current i s used the voltage re- crease is called “down slope.” term slope comes from the compar-
mains the same. Whenever The words “up“ or ison of the curve to the slope of a
Some electronic power sources “down“ are- used with the world hill. The slope of a hill is its rise,
that have constant current output “slope,” you should automatically divided by its run, for example, a
can be purchased. The curve of a understand that the terms refer to 100-foot rise/l -mile run. In a power
perfect constant-current unit is current programming. supply the rise is voltage and the run
shown in Figure 6E-2.It indicates The other definition for slope is is current. You should remember
that no matter how much voltage is more complicated, but it is very im- from Ohm’s law that volts per am-
needed, the current is always the portant that you understand this sec- pere is a measure of resistance.
same. ond definition. The second slope The slant or slope of the volt-
Real power sources are not per- is “volt-ampere slope,”or “power ampere line represents the total re-
fect devices. They have limitations. supply slope,” and it refers to the sistance to welding current flow. If
They cannot provide an unlimited slant of the power supply the volt-ampere curve is measured
amount of current or voltage. The volt-ampere curve. The curve at the power source, it represents the
power supplied by real power shown in Figure 6E-1 has a flat internal resistance of the source.
sources are discussed in the rest of slope. Slope i s defined as the change When the volt-ampere curve i s
this lesson. in voltage compared to the change measured at the arc, it includes the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 6 POWER SOURCES Il@N
cables and connections between the over a range of about i O to 15 volts varying combinations is to keep you
arc and the power source. As far as up to 45 to 55 volts. (See Figure from being confused by advertise-
the arc is concerned, when it looks 6E-5.) ments. You should be aware of the
back toward the power source, it terms that may be used and what
sees the total system slope. Anything CONSTA N T C UlZRENT they mean. it is a little like the ter-
that adds resistance to the system The term constant current is some- minology chosen by the navy but ig-
adds slope from the arc's point of times referred to as constant amper- nored by others. The navy prefers
view. age. The preferred term is current. the term ships, but a great many
Different power sources have dif- Current refers to the electrical phe- people call them boats. Most people
ferent slopes because they are not nomena, amperage to how it is use the terms for electric power
built identically. However, when measured. Very often these terms interchangeably.
some adjustment is designed into are abbreviated as CC or CA. Constant-current power supplies
the power source, it is possible for We prefer you use the term CC have slopes that look more constant
you to "tune"'wo different units to because it is more technically cor- in current than in voltage. They gen-
the same slope. rect. just remember when you see erally originate from one voltage
The uses of slope, and its effect on CA that it means the same thing. point on a graph. (See Figure 6E-6.)
arcs, are discussed in the chapters Sometimes you will see terms mixed Instead of being straight lines, they
and lessons for specific welding in sales brochures and advertise- are usually curved. The term slope
processes. The principal use of slope ments. For example, CP and CA, CV is used for the slant of a small piece
is in controlling welding spatter and and CC, or CV and CA may appear. of the total curve at the point where
arc response to length changes. They all mean the same as the com- the arc operates.
There are two main classificationsof binations CP and CC. CP and CC are
power sources according to their more technically correct because COMBINATION CURVES
slope ranges. These are called con- they refer to the phenomena and Designers of electrical devices have
stant-potential and constant-current don't mix in terms of measurement. produced units with combination
units. The reason for pointing out these
CON STANT POT 13 N1'1 h P A

Constant potential is sometimes re-
ferred to as constant voltage. The
preferred term is potential. Potential
refers to the electrical phenomena,
voltage to how it is measured. Very
often these terms are abbreviated as
vz5k 100
I
ZOO
--. Typical slope
adjustment range
for any voltage
300 V
75
I
Siope at
- Typical constant-
current curve
150 operating point

CP or CV. We prefer that you use
the term CP because it is more tech- 10 for any slope line
nically correct. Just remember when
you see CV that it means the same Range of typical
thing. I CC curves
Constant-potential power sources
have slopes that look as though they
are more constant in voltage than Composite curves,
covering every
they are in current. When the curves combination
get very steep, they should be called Composite curves for
constant-currentf or CC, power CC supply with several
voltage ranges
sources. Somewhere in between CP I
and CC there is a crossover. The flwIÏXJffiB CIblE-s Typical coiistant-po-
place where CP changes to CC is not tential volt-ampere curves for welding
well defined. However, the change- power sources.
over i s not too important. You
should just remember that it is the 300
I
steepness of the slope that counts. FUGUWE 6E-6Typical constant-cur-
Usually CP-type power sources rent volt-ampere curves for welding
can have adjustable voltage outputs power sources.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CP and CC curves. In fact, some CP NEMA, publishes many standards NEMA-rated, you know it meets
units have curves that run uphill, for power source manufacturers. safety and performance require-
and some special units have truly NEMA documents tell a manufac- ments. NEMA ratings also give you
constant current outputs. Usually, turer how to classify power sources a way of comparing units made by
multiple-purpose units are more according to performance and size different companies. The ratings
complicated to design and build, as characteristics. Some power units help you to see whether you are get-
well as more costly to buy. Just be- are intended for short-time intermit- ting value for your money. A 300-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cause a power source salesperson tent duty cycles. Some units are ampere, 32-volt, 60 percent duty
says “My unit can do everything” used almost continuously, and some cycle unit shouldn‘t cost more than
doesn‘t mean that the unit is what are used continuously. There are ac a 300-ampere, 40-volt, 1O0 percent
you need. Sometimes arc per- and dc sources. Some units have duty cycle unit. Don’t base your de-
formance is sacrificed in order to get special features. NEMA has cisions on current ratings only. Take
versatility. standardized testing and design all factors into consideration. Usu-
guidelines and duty cycle ratings. ally the higher the power (volts times
NEMA CLASSIFICATIONS The next lesson covers this subject amperes) and the more nearly con-
The National Electrical Manufactur- in more detail. tinuous the duty cycle, the higher
ers Association, referred to as Whenever you buy a unit that is the cost.
LESSON 6F
STATICS AND DYNAMICS
OBJECTIVES however, in how fast they can come with time. Static characteristics in-
Upon completion of this lesson you up to speed and in how quickly they clude such things as
should be able to can stop. It is the same with power
1. Type of current provided - is it
1. Define static power supply sources for arc welding and cutting.
alternating or direct current?
fea tures. Your favorite power source and
my favorite power source can sup- 2. Type of volt-ampere curve - is
2. Define dynamic power supply
ply welding current. Each has on-off it CP or CC?
features.
3. Explain why large power sources controls and adjustments. They are 3. Type of control - is it mechani-
have more inductance. similar in many ways. However, cal or electrical?
4. Identify the special electrical when it comes to how fast the cur- The term dynamic refers to the
characteristic that is like mechan- rent can rise, and how fast it can fall, power source features that change
ical inertia. our power sources are probably dif- with time. Dynamic characteristics
5. Give three terms for inductance ferent. It is convenient to talk about include such things as
in weld circuits. the static and dynamic characteris-
6. Identify the duty cycle period tics of power sources. These char- 1. Type of current response - are
used in the United States. acteristics will help you to select the swings in current fast or slow?
proper source for the job you intend 2. Type of control response - is it
to do. For example, you wouldn’t fast or slow?
POWER SOURCE RESPONSE want to use an ac unit for dc weld-
Your favorite automobile and my fa-
3. Voltage recovery after a short cir-
ing. This lesson discusses some of cuit - i s it fast and high, or low
vorite automobile can both travel at the static and dynamic features of and slow?
the legal speed limit. Each of the ve- power sources.
hicles has four wheels and can prob- It has become customary to refer
ably carry a passenger or two. The DEFINITIONS to the volt-ampere curve as a static
vehicles are very similar in many The term static refers to the power characteristic. It has also become
ways. They may differ considerably, source features that don’t change customary to refer to the power

source response to a short-circuit

current change as a dynamic
characteristic.
The previous lesson on volt-
ampere characteristics gives you a
good basis for understanding the
term static characteristic. This lesson I
gives you similar information on dy- Time-
namic characteristics. FIIGUJIWE m ~ . nInductance controls the
rate of change of current from level A
DYNAMIC to level B.
CHARACTERISTICS
All power sources are made from
magnetic material and conductors. PHGBTRE BF-2 Various forms of in-
The magnetic material is usually ductance are (a) a welding cable
iron. The conductors are usually of wound around pipe, íb) a commercial
copper or aluminum. Large power inductor, (c) an extra-long welding
sources need more iron and copper cable.
and therefore cost more than small
units. Because they use more iron other words its best dynamic it to ”tune in” a good arc. Some
and copper, large units usually have response. power sources already have too
more inductance. The effect of inductance on cur- much inductance for some arcs to
Inductance is a term used for a rent response can be simulated with begin with. You cannot get rid of it
special electrical characteristic. It is special electronic circuits. The cpe- without changing the insides of the
the thing that keeps changes from cial circuits cannot duplicate all the power source. Some power sources
happening too fast. The term in- effects of inductance, but they can don‘t have enough inductance. You
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ductance is a little like the mechan- give practical results. can add external inductance to help
ical term inertia. Big, heavy things Generally, a welding operator out. There are some manufacturers
have lots of inertia. It i s difficult to says that “The arc is too harsh,” who sell extra inductance to put in
make them change speed or direc- “There is too much spatter,” or the weld circuit. The extra induct-
tion. For example, a large ship has “The puddle i s unstable” for low- ance has been cal led by names such
a great amount of inertia, and a row- inductance systems. When there is as
boat has only a little bit. When it too much inductance, the operator 1. Reactors.
comes to electrical things, those says “The puddle is slugglish,” “The 2. Stabilizers.
with large amounts of iron and cop- arc seems to overshoot,” or “The
3. Inductors.
per have considerable inductance. It arc doesn’t have any zap.” As far as
is difficult to change the current the arc is concerned, it doesn’t care 4. Dynamic reactors.
from one level to another when a where the inductance comes from. 5. Weld stabilizers.
circuit has a great amount of in- It could be in the power supply or 6. Chokes.
ductance. When inductance is low, in the weld circuit. Any conductor
current can change rapidly. (See Fig- with a magnetic field has induct- What it all comes to is this. In-
ure 6F-1.) ance. Some welders know that they ductance is for the most part respon-
Different welding arcs need dif- can change an arc’s response by sible for the “dynamic” character-
ferent current responses if the arcs rearranging the welding cables. istics of the power supply. Fast-
are to be at their best. This means When extra cable in the welding response units have less of it than
that power sources must be built circuit is coiled up, extra inductance slow-response units. Generators
with different amounts of in- is created. It is also created when usually have more inductance than
. ductance. Fast-responding power cable is wrapped around iron or rectifiers because generators use
sources have low inductance and steel pipe. (See Figure 6F-2.) Any- more iron and copper and have larg-
can cause welding spatter. Slow-re- thing that adds to the magnetic field er magnetic fields than rectifiers.
sponding power sources have high around a welding cable adds in- Batteries have the least inductance.
inductance and can cause arcs to ductance. You cannot do anything Batteries make very bad consuma-
, stumble. Each process has its own about the inductance designed into ble-electrode process welders. They
best amount of inductance, or in a power source, except learn to use don’t have enough inductance.

SECTION I GENERAL THEOBY
The current response is too fast, and When the duty cycle test is run, Or, you can calculate the duty
a great deal of spatter is created. the power source is loaded to a spe- cycle at another current. For exam-
cific current and test voltage. The ple, what is the duty cycle of a 200-
SIZES OF load is left on continuously in a 100 ampere, 60 percent duty cycle unit
POWER SOURCES percent duty cycle test. When the operated at 250 amperes? Equation
The most popular way for rating load is turned off for a part of the test i is rearranged
power sources is by current capaci- period, the duty cycle is reported as
ty. Historically, current ratings have a percent of the period. For exam- (3) Duty cycle at current B
not been consistent. There is no ple, having a 60 percent duty cycle 2
mandatory system that tells a man- means that the unit can run for six
ufacturer what current should be minutes out of ten (when a ten-min-
supplied, but the National Electrical Ute test is run). A 60 percent duty x Duty cycle of current A
cycle unit can be run for six minutes
Manufacturers Association does tell
a manufacturer how to rate the unit
that was manufactured. Typical rat-
on, four minutes off without over-
heating or overloading the power
=(%) 2
X60
ings start with a current size. The source components. = X 60 = 0.64 X 60

current size i s loosely based on the The duty cycles of two different
arc process current range. For ex- currents can be compared by the fol- = 38 percent duty cycle
ample, there are units with 100, lowing equation:
One thing to remember, when
150, 175, 200, 250, 300, 350, and you calculate new currents and duty
so on amperes. There are no uni- Duty cycle at current A
(1 1 cycles, is not to exceed a manufac-
versal standard sizes. Duty cycle at current 6 turer’s ratings. Just because the cal-
You cannot compare two different culation gives you the new current
units based on current rating only. and duty cycle combination does
For example, you might find a 200- not mean that it is safe to overload
ampere unit rated at 60 percent duty a power source. As long as the cal-
For example, if you had a 200-am-
cycle, or a 175-ampere unit rated at culated current is within the name-
pere unit rated at 60 percent duty
100 percent duty cycle. How can plate rating, the power unit i s safe to
cycle, you can calculate its ampere
you tell which one really gives the operate.
rating at 100 percent duty cycle.
most power for your money?The an-
swer depends on the duty cycle. This is done as follows, rearranging
equation 1 as
DUTY (2) Current 6

CYCLE
The duty cycle by which manufac- Duty cycle of current A
turers rate a power source is based Duty cycle of current B
on a timed test at rated current. The
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
x Current A
results of the test are reported as a
1/ 2
percent duty cycle. In the United
= 200(=)1 O0
States a ten-minute test cycle is
used. Other parts of the world use
other periods. For example, a five- = 200 X 0.775
minute cycle is also popular. = 155 amperes

CHAPTER 6 POWER SOURCES HL05
LESSON 66
SIB&
BBBJECTWES ing parts and can cause wear and tiny spot weld. Dirt can prevent you
Upon completion of this lesson you tear on all kinds of moving equip- from opening the connection when
should be able to ment. A good preventative mainte- you want to reconnect the leads. It
1. Identify three causes of poor nance program includes first and fo- can also act as an electric insulator.
connections. remost the simple step of keeping It can stop the flow of current in one
2. Explain the effect of a poor con- equipment clean. place and cause it to crowd into a
nection on the system’s volt- much smaller place. The concen-
ampere curve. CONNECTIONS trated current can cause local hot
3. identify two hazards of poor ca- One source of trouble in power sup- spots.
ble insulation. ply systems is poor electrical con- Oxide from reactions with the
4. Discuss how polarity effects the nections. Any connection that car- room air can build up in layers on
welding operation. ries current is a possible source of the surface of metal connectors. Ox-
5. Explain why the workpiece clamp problems. The input leads that con- ide layers build up more quickly on
is a frequent source of problems. nect to the power supply unit, hot connections. The oxide acts as
the output leads in the weld circuit, an insulator and causes heat to build
KEEP IT CIXAN and any cable splices are such up as current passes through the
In any electrical or mechanical sys- connections. connector. You should keep cable
tem things can go wrong. Most of There are three major causes of connectors in relatively shiny con-
the time what goes wrong is very poor electrical connections. These dition. Don’t let the connectors be-
simple, something that can be cor- are dirt, oxide layers, and mechan- come dull and dingy-looking. Clean
rected in a few minutes. If you have ical wear. Poor electrical connec- connectors make good connections
a good understanding of how a sys- tions overheat and can actually and help keep the static
tem works, it i s usually easier to fig- cause the connection to melt. Poor volt-ampere curve stable.
ure out what might be wrong. connections can cause fires as well Mechanical wear and careless fit-
A good technician has a list of as poor welding conditions. When ting of connections will make con-
simple potential problems to check connections have intermittent prob- nections loose. A good, tight con-
out first, before going on to more lems, the system slope will vary and nection carries current without any
complicated possibit ities. Unless change the arc length. (See Figure overheating. Loose connections and
you have had the same trouble hap- 6G-1.) connections that can “jiggle and
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
pen before, and know the solution, Dirt causes a connection to be bounce” make poor current paths.
start with the simple problems. It is poor by preventinggood contact be- Such connections will overheat and
amazing how many times the simple tween surfaces. If the dirt is metallic can even spark and arc internally.
solution i s the correct solution. (from grinding and chipping), the Loose connections can become hot
Most problems can be prevented metal can actually melt and make a enough to melt themselves or weld
from happening in the first place. A themselves together.
good preventative maintenance pro-
gram is an asset to any piece of com- CABLES
plicated equipment. For example, The volt-ampere slope of the power
the simple step of keeping things supply will be changed if the cables
clean and free from dirt buildup will are undersized or have frayed wires.
extend the operating life of most Volt-ampere Anything that can change the cur-
equipment. Oil, dust, and dirt will urve with a
rent-carryingcapacity of a cable will
act as a thermal insulator. The affect the slope of the system.
equipment will run hotter. Heat is a Current Cables with damaged insulation
major cause of insulation failure in FEGUIE 6G.ñ Volt-ampere curves can also be a shock hazard as well
electrical equipment. Dirt and dust are effected by the resistance of poor as a fire hazard. Most people are
can also act as an abrasive in mov- connections. aware of the shock hazard and know

-
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Switch off
Power
Direct current, source
electrode positive
(DCEP), reverse
polarity
/-Open connector
II I
Direct current,
electrode negative
(DCEN), straight
polarity
6G-2 Welding polarity has a

EFHGUJRIE
strong effect on arc heat because of the
change in the direction of electron flow. í ~ ~ Check for the simple things first.
i F ~ Q ü . @t?ùm8
that they should never touch live FUSES AND they are turned on the power supply
electrical parts. But many people CIRCUIT BREAKEIL§ won’t work. Sometimes the gas
don’t realize that damaged insula- Every electrical system should be metal arc welding wire feeding
tion can cause fires. Accidental con- protected from overload by some mechanism i s not properly adjusted.
tact between a current-carrying ca- sort of overcurrent cutoff device. It is always a good step to check for
ble and a metal surface connected Most of the time the protection is proper wire feeding before starting
to ground can cause arcing at the provided by fuses and circuit break- an arc.
contact point. The unexpected arc- ers. The protection can also be pro- At times you may find that a cable
ing can ignite a fire. It can also star- vided by electronic circuits that de- is missing. People forget to make the
tle you and cause your reflexes to tect overcurrent and turn off the worklead connection to the work-
knock things over, drop things, and power supply. Whenever power is piece. They also leave connectors
so on. Cables should always have lost to the arc, check for input power unfastened. Always check to make
their insulation in good repair and to the power source. Many power sure that all the cables are hooked
be the correct size. units have-panel lights that indicate up and properly corinected. (See
when input power is correct. Some Figure 6G-3.)
POLARITY units have cooling fans that run only The workpiece clamp is a fre-
Welding polarity has a strong effect when input power is turned on. You quent source of problems. It is very
on arc heat. (See Figure 6G-2.) should learn the signs for detecting easy for dirt to get between the jaws
Whenever you find that there has whether line power is all right. of the clamp and the workpiece. The
been a big change in arc heat from Otherwise you must check the input principal lesson to learn from this
the last time you welded, be sure to fuses or circuit breakers. discussion is to look for simple
check polarity. Someone could have things first.
reversed your cable connections ac- MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS
cidentally. You might have done it Believe it or not, memory is one of
yourself when changing welding the biggest sources of power supply
guns or moving your setup to anoth- problems. People forget to turn on
er location. Always double-check the power, or the shielding flow, or
your connections for proper cooling water. Many systems have
polarity . interlocks for gas and water. Unless

aDmmcirnvyIs could also be called the work lead
Upon completion of this lesson you effect, but most people call it the
should be able to ground effect. The ground effect is
1. Explain the terms forward blow not as noticeable or disturbing to the
and back blow. welder as the end effect, which will
2. Explain what causes arc blow. be discussed. Most of the time the
3. Describe ground effect. effect can be remedied simply by
4. Describe end effect. changing the position of the work-
piece clamp. When the clamp is
moved, the current path in the work
WHAT 1s ARC BLOW? is also moved, which, in turn,
Arc blow is a conditon all welders moves the magnetic field.
encounter from time to time. When Figure 7A-3 shows examples of
arc blow occurs, the arc reacts wild- end effects. Notice that there is no
IFiiQüJEìUE 7.4-ii Forward arc blow at
ly. it wavers and seems to blow the beginning of a V groove. (From arc blow near the center of the plate.
away from its normal path. Weld Welding Inspection- 1968. Courtesy of The flux lines distort at the ends be-
metal can pile up on the trailing American Welding Society, Miami, cause they are crowded together.
edge of the weld bead or be blown Florida.) The strong, unbalanced field pushes
ahead of the weld pool. Th,e arc acts the arc toward the opposite end of
as though it has been blown aside the plate.
the field of the arc interact, the arc
by a jet of air, but the movement As you can readily see, the flux
will bend. The amount of bend de-
is actually caused by magnetic concentrations at the end are more
pends on the amount of current
deflection. forceful than in the center of the
being used. (See Figure 7A-2.) This
There are two kinds of arc blow: plate. In large weldments the effect
condition is customarily known as
When the arc is bent forward, in the of the work lead connection disap-
the ground effect. (This term is based
direction of travel, it is called for- pears almost completely. When
on the improper use of the term
ward blow. When the arc is blown both concentrations of flux are
ground for the work connection.) It
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to the rear, it is called back blow.

(See Figure 7A-1 .)
-conductor
THE CAUSES QF ARC I M 3 W
F/ux Concentration
Whenever current flows, a magnetic Occurs As Currant
field is created. Magnetic lines of anductor Changes
force surround the path of the cur- Dirac tion
Elect rka I Arc Blow.
rent. Even current in the plate you Current OC
€/ectriCal
are welding can have a magnetic Currant
field. When the plates are made of DC -Flux lines
iron or steel, the magnetic field can Currant changas
Dkaction Ot the A K
be very concentrated. The arc also
, has its own surrounding magnetic FIIGBIIIGETA-8 The work lead, or ground, effect on arc blow. (Courtesy of Tlie Lin-
field. When the field in the plate and coln Electric Company.)

PI IConcenttu t ion
Flux
Concentrat ion \ I
@ u
f l u x Lines
- - I I
-
FIGURE TA03 The effect of end effects on arc blow. (Courtesy of The Lincoln Elec-
tric Company.)
TRAVEL
present at the same time, the strong-
er one dominates.
In Figure 7A-4 we see examples
of the effect of moving the work lead
connector from one end of the plate
to the other. In Figure 7A-4(a) the
direction of travel is away from the
workpiece connection. Both the
concentration of flux at the plate
end and the workpiece connection
cause the arc blow. As the arc nears
the center of the plate, the unbal-
ance present at the end is reduced
to a minimum. There is a possibility Ground 6f f r e t
of some arc blow from the ground
effect. As the welding arc approach- FIGURE 7A.4 The effects of moving the worklead connection from one end of the
es the other end of the plate, the end plate to another. (Courtesy of The Lincoln Electric Company.)
concentration becomes forceful,
blowing opposite to the direction of
travel. The ground effect exerts force
toward the end of the plate opposite
the work lead connection. Arc blow
at this point i s strongest in the back- METHODS OF REDUCING 3. Place the work lead connector
ward direction. ARC BLOW at the end of the weld to reduce
In Figure 7A-4(b) the work lead Arc blow makes the welder's job forward blow. This reduces the
connection has been moved to the more difficult and can cause bad strength of the arc blow.
side of the plate where the weld will welds. A number of steps can be tak- 4. Place the work lead connector
end. The direction of travel will be en to reduce the effects of arc blow, at the start of the weld to reduce
toward it. With the work lead con- but they are not always successful. back blow.
nection in this position, forward
blow i s reduced by the ground ef- 1. Reduce current. This reduces 5. Hold as short an arc as possible.
fect. Any blow is then toward the the strength of the arc blow Short arcs are stiffer than long
start of the weld. The combined effect. arcs.
forces of end concentration and 2. Move the work lead connection 6. Set up another magnetic field to
ground effect may cause arc blow at to a position as far as possible help neutralize the one causing
the center of the plate and at the end from the joint being welded. the arc blow by wrapping a few
where the work lead connection i s This reduces the flux density in turns of the work lead around
located. the plate at the point of welding. the piece being welded.
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CHAPTER 7 ARC BLOW
7. Weld toward a heavy tack or 10. If none of these remedies is suc-

completed section of the weld. cessful and the amount of arc
8. Use the backstep method of blow is substantial, switch to al-
welding on long welds. (As in- ternating current. There is prac-
dicated in Lesson 5D, backstep- tically no arc blow when using
ping means to start the welding an ac arc because the current
a short distance from the far end changes direction 120 times a
of a joint. After the end of the second.
joint is reached, the operator
welds another short section trav-
eling toward the one already
completed.) Continue to weld in
this manner until the joint is fin-
IFHGUUHPE äA=$ The effect that placing
ished. (See Figure 5D-15.) a steel block across the path of the
9. Place a steel block across the weld has on the arc. (From Welding In-
path of the weld and weld to- spection-l968. Courtesy of American
ward it. (See Figure 7A-5.) Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
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1. List at least four major welding hazards. (1A) 27. What i s the effect of heat treatment on metal grains?
2. Name three types of radiation. (1A) ( 2Dì
3. Name four gases produced near, or in, some arcs. 28. What i s meant by stress? (3A)
(1 A) 29. Name five mechanical properties of metal. (3A)
4. Name three pieces of equipment that you can use 30. How is hardness measured?(3A)
to protect yourself from fumes and gases. (1B) 31. What metal property is measured by the U-bend
5. What are the hazards of clothes made from plastic test? (3A)
fibers? (1 B) 32. Describe a simple test for determining relative ther-
6. Why should cleaning solvents be removed from the mal conductivity. (38)
welding area? (1 B) 33. Why are welding cables made from copper or alu-
7. Describe two major effects of electric shock. (1 B) minum and not from iron or steel? (3B)
a. How does clean, loose-fitting clothing help combat 34. How many times heavier than aluminum is tung-
heat and fatigue? (TC) sten? (3B)
9. Why should you wear protective gloves, even when 35. What is the Curie point?(38)
you are hot and uncomfortable? (1C) 36. What are four tests that can be used to identify a
1 o. Write a simple definition for a confined space. (1C) metal? (3C)
11. Why shouldn?t you use a carpenter?shammer for 37. Name two magnetic nonferrous metals. (3C)
chipping? ( I C ) 38. What i s the chip test? ( 3 C )
12. What are the full names of the following organi- 39. What is 41 30 steel? (3D)
zations? (1 D) 40. What is the meaning of the last two digits in the
a. AWS. SAE-AISI numerical designation of steel? (3D)
b. CGA. 41. What is the meaning of the letter, or letter-number
c. NFPA.
combination, that follows a four-digit aluminum al-
d. NEMA. loy designation? (3D)
e. ANSI.
42. tiow can you tell whether an aluminum alloy is
13. What is 29 CFR 1910.252 (Subpart QI?? (1 D) wrought or cast? ( 3 0 )
14. Where can you obtain copies of ?recommended 43. Name five destructive tests. (4A)
practices? for the various welding and cutting
processes?(1D)
44. Why must grinding and machining marks be re-
moved from a test specimen?(4A)
15. What is the relation between puddle size and pe-
netration? (2A)
45. Define the term elongation. (4A)
46. What is the Charpy test? (4A)
16. Describe the surface tension force. (2A)
47. What code states ?Any specimen in which a crack
17. What is the effect of heat conduction on a puddle?
or other open discontinuity exceeding l i 8 in. (3.2
(2A)
mm) measured in any direction i s present after
18. Name two factors that control flame force. (2A) the bending shall be considered as having failed??
19. What are three sources of porosity? (2B) (4A)
20. How is wormhole porosity formed? (2B) 48. Name five nondestructive tests. (4B)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
21. What is the effect of freeze rate on porosity? (28) 49. What type of defect can be detected by liquid pene-
22. Define the term weld discontinuity. (2C) trants? (48)
23. Name five types of discontinuities. (2C) 50. What is the appearance of GTAW electrode inclu-
24. What is meant by the term ?dimensional discrep- sions in x-rays? (4B)
ancy?? (2C) 51. Explain how water-soluble fluorescent dyes can be
25. Why i s moisture bad for welds? (2D) used to detect leaks. (4B)
26. Why isn?thigh speed necessarily good for welding? 52. What is a critical variable? (4C)
(2D) 53. Name four things that can change arc power. (4C)

54. Why can a dimensional change be an essential var- 86. Who first discovered how to make electricity from
iable? (4C) a moving magnetic field? (68)
55. What is the effect of changes in travel speed? (4C) 87. Name five sources of mechanical power for pro-
56. What is meant by the l G , 2G, 3G, and 4G posi- ducing electric energy. (6B)
tions? (SA) 88. How does a generator produce alternating current?
57. What are the 1F and 3F positions?(SA) (6C)
58. What are the simplest and most difficult positions? 89. What is the name of the ac waveshape produced
(SA) by most ac generators?(6C)
59. Why do you have to use forehand and backhand 90. Explain how a transformer works. (6C)
welding techniques?(SA) 91. How is the voltage output of a transformer de-
60. Name the five basic weld joints. (SB) creased? (6C)
61. Explain why a plug weld, or slot weld, is sometimes 92. What is the function of a diode? (6C)
used on a lap joint. (SB) 93. Name four mechanical ways to change transformer
62. How can distortion stresses be equalized? (5B) voltages. (6D)
63. What is the effective throat of a concave fillet? (SB) 94. What is meant by SCR?(60)
64. Why is a proper gap important in joint fit-up? (5C) 95. Describe three ways to control the average output
of pulse wave power. (6D)
65. What is meant by preheating and by postweld heat
treatment?(SC) 96. What is meant by volt-ampere slope? (6E)
66. Name four reasons for using preheat. (SC) 97. How is volt-ampere slope measured?(6E)
67. Why is tacking needed?(SC) 98. What is meant by CP and CA?(6E)
68. What is a backing ring? (5C) 99. What organization publishes guidelines for manu-
facturers to follow in constructing welding power
69. What is meant by upset of a heated metal? (SD)
units? (6E)
70. Why i s there more distortion at the top of a weld
than at the root of the weld? (SD) 100. What are static power supply features?(6F)
71. What is the benefit of “backstep welding”? (5D) 101. What are dynamic power supply features?(6F)
102. Why do large power sources have more inductance
72. Why is peening used on welds? (5D)
than small ones? (6F)
73. What is the source of complete information on sym-
bols for welding and nondestructive testing?(SE) 103. What is the electrical characteristic that may be
compared to mechanical inertia? (6F)
74. Which side of the reference line is the arrow side,
and which is the other side?(SE) 104. Name three terms used for inductance in weld cir-
cuits. (6F)
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75. Where i s the welding process located on a welding

105. What is the duty cycle period used in the United
symbol? (SE)
States? (6F)
76. Explain the meaning of the symbol with a circle
106. Name three things that cause poor electrical con-
drawn around the junction of the reference line and
nections. (6G)
arrow line. (SE)
107. What does a poor connection do to the volt-
77. How are multiple reference lines used? (SE)
ampere curve? (6G)
78. What is a standard cell? (6A)
108. Name two hazards of poor cable insulation. (6G)
79. What organization in the United States is respon-
sible for providing calibration standards?(6A) 109. How does polarity effect the welding operation?
(6G)
80. What electrical unit can be measured by electro-
plating silver? (6A) 110. Why is the workpiece clamp a frequent source of
problems?(6G)
81. Write three versions of OHM’S law. (6A)
111. What is meant by forward blow and back blow?
82. What is the rms ampere?(6A)
(7A)
83. How is charge polarity determined by the presence
112. What causes arc blow?(7A)
or absence of charges? (68)
113. What is meant by ground effect?(7A)
84. How are current flow and electron flow related?
114. What is meant by the term end effect?(7A)
(68)
85. Where was the first arc discovered?(6B)

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--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
OXYFUEL GAS
WELDING AND
CUTTING
For thousands of years, the heat of flames has been used for working metal.
During all these many centuries people practicing this craft have invented all
kinds of devices for controlling the temperature and properties of flames. For
example, blacksmiths developed the forced-air bellows to fan the flames and
increase the heat of their forges. But not until the late nineteenth century and
early twentieth did scientists and engineers learn to control flames precisely.
They learned how to manufacture a number of different fuel gases as well as
oxygen, and how to mix them to produce controlled flames.
In the first part of this century, some people tried mixing mysterious com-
binations of other fuel gases to make welding flames that would compete with
the flame of acetylene. But none of the mixtures was able to achieve the high
temperature and efficiency of plain acetylene. Today, in addition to acetylene,
there are only a handful of commercially useful fuel gases for welding and
cutting. These include hydrogen, propane, propylene, methane, and methyl-
acetylene-propadiene stabilized.
Gas welding, as we know it, really became commercially possible in 1892.
It was in that year that JamesT. Morehead and Thomas L. Willson accidentally
discovered how to make inexpensive acetylene. They were trying to produce
metallic calcium in an electric furnace, by using a mixture of quicklime, coal
tar, and carbon. When they dunked the hot substance into a bucket of water
to cool it, it gave off great quantities of gas. This gas burned with billowing
clouds of carbon. Shortly thereafter the gas was identified as acetylene. The
material that Morehead and Willson made was calcium carbide, which when
exposed to water made acetylene.
The entire acetylene industry sprang from this discovery. In a very short time
factories were built to produce calcium carbide. The acetylene it made could
be used for all sorts of things, such as automobile headlights, streetlights, and
of course welding and cutting. The acetylene flame, when supplied with the
correct amount of oxygen, gives a pure white light that is the nearest known
artificial approach to sunlight.

Today oxyacetylene and other oxyfuel gas flames are used for welding,
cutting, brazing, steel conditioning (scarfing), heating and heat treating, and
even soldering. The gases, equipment, and supplies are readily available
around the world.
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@DIlgJIR~C:’Il’UVil~M
should be able to
1. Identify three products of oxyfuel
combustion.
2. Name two sources of fumes and
gases in oxyfuel combustion.
3. Name three hazards of oxyfuel
welding.
4. Discuss what precautionary meas-
ures you can take to reduce the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fire hazard of oxyfuel gas cutting U~I1GUüEU;iilNmUKeep your head out of the fume plume.
and welding.
THE FIAMK ous to your health. Always use plen- to erect sheet metal barriers to keep
Basically, the flame in oxyfuel gas ty of ventilation and keep your head spatter and molten metal from trav-
welding is no different from any oth- out of the fume plume as shown in eling too far. You should also have
er flame. Like all flames, it produces Figure 1A-I. a fire extinguisher nearby and ready
fumes and gases as by-products of to use. Never start to weld unless
the burning process. The burned. I Pi !‘IZA Z
I I) K A DIATI ON you have taken these, and other,
gases are mostly carbon dioxide and The heat rays given off by the flame fire prevention steps, discussed in
water vapor, but they can contain and hot metal are called infrared the earlier chapters on safety in
small amounts of carbon monoxide rays. Infrared rays have been known Section 1.
and unburned fuel gas. In addition, to cause eye damage. You should
some fumes can be created by in- always wear the special protective LABi<l,§
complete burning of the fuel gas. For goggles-that are designed for oxyfuel The American Welding Society and
example, you will get a cloud of welders. The goggles will also pro- the American National Standards In-
black smoke if you forget to turn on tect your eyes from hot particles and stitute recommend that all manufac-
the oxygen when you ignite what spatter, which can fly out of the turers use a special precautionary la-
should be an oxyacetylene flame. weld zone. bel on oxyfuel gas materials and
equipment. A typical label is shown
FUMlr.-j A N D í;ASES S A IX‘W 1Z EMI N 1) E I<§ in Figure IA-2.
When the flame is used to heat the Fire is a hazard that many workers Become familiar with this label,
workpiece, additional fumes and overlook. You should always prac- and look for one on the materials
gases are formed from any oil, tice good fire prevention. Make sure you use. Many of the manufacturers
grease, or other dirt on the work- the work area has been cleared of add additional information, such as
piece. They can also come from the combustibles. If you can’t move the where you can obtain more safety
fluxes you may be using, as well as combustibles away, you must pro- information.
from the hot metal itself. You should tect them by covering them with When safety information i s of-
treat all fumes and gases as hazard- heat-resistantshields. You may want fered, you should acquire copies for

P 16 SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING AND CUTTING
WARNING: PROTECT yourself and others. Read and understand this label.
FUMESAND GASEScan be dangerous to your health. HEATRAYS(INFRARED RADIATIONfrom

flame or hot metal) can injure eyes.
0 Read and understand the manufacturer’s instructions and your employer’s

safety practices.
Keep your head out of the fumes.
Use enough ventilation, exhaust at the flame, or both, to keep fumes and
gases from your breathing zone, and the general area.
Wear correct eye, ear, and body protection.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
See American National Standard 249.1, “Safety in Welding and Cutting,”
published by the American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Rd., Miami,
Florida 33126: OSHA Safety and Health Standards, 29 CFR 1910, available
from U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402.
DO NOT REMOVE THIS LABEL

FIGURE PA.2 Precautionary label for oxyfuel gas materials and equipment.
(Courtesy of American Welding Society.)
yourself. Always obtain and read all hints and other helpful information. helpful if from time to time you re-
the safety literature the manufactur- Don’t be bashful. If the precaution- viewed the safety information in the
ers provide. Very often the safety Iit- ary label says that information is lessons of Section 1 .
erature will also give you operating available, ask for it. It would be
LESSON 1B
SPECIAL SAFETY
OBJECTIVES OXYGEN and soot from his clothes. Never,
Upon completion of this lesson you As you know, oxygen is essential in ever do this. The oxygen will stay in
should be able to oxyfuel gas welding and cutting. the fabric for quite a while. Any
1. Explain why oxygen should not Oxygen itself does not burn, but it little spark or source of ignition can
be called air. will make fires burn faster, a lot fast- set the oxygen-saturated material
2. Discuss the care of gas cylinders. er. Never use oxygen as you would ablaze. Your clothes will literally
3. Name the potential hazards of use compressed air. In fact, you burst into an engulfing fire. The ef-
fluxes used with oxyfuel gas should always call oxygen by its fect will be almost the same as
welding. name; never say “air” when you are dumping gasoline on yourself and
4. Explain why gas cylinder valves referring to oxygen. Occasionally a lighting a match. Never fool around
should be closed when you stop welder may be tempted to use the with oxygen.
work. oxygen jet from a torch to blow dirt

CHAPTER 1 OXYFUEL PROCESS BASICS
A
CYLI NDE It§ Cap in place-
Oxygen and fuel gases are supplied
in pressurized cylinders. The pres-
sure can vary from several thousand
pounds per square inch down to a
few pounds per square inch. What-
ever the pressure is should not make
any difference in the way you treat
your gas cylinders. Always keep Chain
them in good condition. Don't use
them as places to hang your tools
and jackets. Keep them clean and
safe from damage. Never stand them
up by themselves; tie them instead Q?ii(IiikJWEü&!i Use suitable carts and racks when moving cylinders.
to a post or place them in a cylinder
cart. (See Figure 1B-1.) If a cylinder
ruptures in a fall or through mistreat-
ment, you may be killed. The pres- you finish welding. Many fluxes will leave the cylinder valves open when
sure may cause an explosion, or cause metal corrosion when they you shut your torch down and go to
cause the cylinder to act like a rock- come in contact with water or mois- lunch. Gas could leak at the torch.
et. Leaking fuel gas can start a fire ture from the air. Be sure to wash Then when you come back from
that cannot be extinguished. Always thoroughly after handling a flux. lunch, you can set off a big explo-
treat gas cylinders with care and Never get flux in your eyes. Keep sion as you light 'up your torch.
respect. your hands from your face whenever Common sense, which is not always
you use flux. so common, will prevent many
mirx ES accidents.
Fluxes may contain ingredients that LKAKING GAS The materials used in oxyfuel gas
are poisonous or corrosive. Be sure Some fuel gases are heavier than air, welding and cutting have been
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to read the label on the flux con- others lighter than air. Depending around for over seventy-five years,
tainers and follow the precautions. on which it is, leaking gas can col- and used safely by millions of weld-
If there is no label on the flux con- lect in low places, on container bot- ers. If you understand how the
tainer, you should treat the flux as toms, and even in the corner of a equipment works, and don't take
though it is poisonous and corro- room near the ceiling. Always be shortcuts, you will never be the
sive. You should always remove left- sure the gas cylinders are turned off cause of an accident.
over flux on the workpiece when when you complete work. Don't
LESSON I C
@BBECTHVES 3. Name the fuel gas that provides fuels that can be used for welding.
Upon completion of this lesson you the highest flame temperature. When it is used, the process i s called
should be able to 4. Describe the purpose of an OSHA oxyacetylene welding, or cutting as
1. Name four different fuel gases Material Safety Data Sheet. the case may be. Other fuels that
that maybe used for oxyfuel burn well in combination with oxy-
welding. I'U la,§ gen can also be used. Among these
2. Identify two fuel gases that are Oxyfuel gas welding is a general are propane, propylene, natural gas,
lighter than air. term. Acetylene is one of the many and methylacetylene-propadiene

1388 SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING AND CUTTING
stabilized (MPS). Each of the fuel

gases has its own characteristics that
make it useful. Quite often a fuel gas
i s chosen because of its price, but
choosing a fuel gas for this reason
alone is not always economical. The
costs associated with the entire job
must be considered. For example,
different amounts of oxygen are
needed to make the different fuels
burn efficiently. The rate of heat in-
put to the weld varies with the var-
ious gas flames. The temperature of
the flames is also different. Table
1C-1 shows the characteristics of
some of the commonly used fuel
gases.
TYPICAL PROPERTIES
Acetylene and natural gas (methane)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
are lighter than air and can collect

in high places. The other gases are
heavier than air and can travel along
the ground, as well as collect in low
places. (See Table 1C-1 .)
Notice in Table 1 C-1 that the tem-
perature of the flames is different for
the gases. Acetylene provides the
flame with the highest temperature
and for this reason is useful for weld-
ing steel. All flame temperatures will
vary slightly when the proportion of
oxygen to fuel is changed. You will
be taught how to adjust the oxy-
gen-fuel ratio later in this section.
Methylacetylene-propadiene (MPS)
flames have a slightly lower temper- [RBproduœ i h a l ~ OSHA 174. Sed. 1886
ature than acetylene flame. The heat
distribution is a bit more even inside
the MPS flame than inside the acet-
ylene flame. For this reason the MPS
flame does not need as much torch
movement to control the heat input TABLE UGil Common Fuel Gas Characteristics
-
to the workpiece. A natural gas Neutral Flame
(methane)flame has a very low tem- Gas Type Chemical Formula Density, Air = 1 Temperature with Oxygen
perature. It i s used to control the ~ _ _ _ _ ~ -
temperature in preheating as well as Acetylene C A 0.906 3087°C 5589°F

for torch brazing. Propane torch Methylacetylene- C3H.4 1.48 2927°C 5301°F
sets, using air instead of oxygen, are propadiene
popular for home workshops. Pro- (MI'S)
pane also has a low flame temper- Natural gas CH, 0.62 2538°C 4600°F
Propane C,H, 1.52 2526°C 4579°F
ature and i s used for heating appli-
Propylene C3H6 1.48 2900°C 5250°F
cations. Propylene has a flame

CHAPTER 1 OXYFUEL PROCESS BASICS
C%fùnogEilicny: NTP? IARC Monographs? OSHA Repuiatsd?
Precautions io Be Taken in Handling and SIMng
Other Praautionr
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIIQBUIEIC-P A Material Safety Data

Sheet is required by the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration.
temperature that is close to that of details for safe handling of any gas the gases you are using. Figure 1C-
MPS and its uses are similar. Both from the gas supplier. Material Safe- 1 shows a Material Safety Data
MPS and propylene are used for ty Data (MSD) sheets should be Sheet. These sheets contain infor-
oxygen cutting, brazing, hardening, available upon request. Many states mation about the health hazards and
and heat treating operations. require the employer to have the physical hazards of a material, its
MSD sheets available for employee flammability limits and material
SAFETY REMINDERS reference. These sheets may also be properties, how to handle it safely,
Each of the fuels has its own safe- called by other names, such as the ventilation required when work-
handling requirements, which vary “Hazardous Substances Fact Sheet” ing with it, and so on.
because of their different flammabil- or “Product Safety Data Sheet.” Be
ity limits, container pressure, den- sure you read these sheets and un-
sity, and toxicity. You can obtain the derstand the hazardous properties of

LESSON 1D
TYPES OF FLAMES
OBJECTIVES
should be able to
1. Discuss the difference between
primary and secondary flames.
2. List three of the most important
flame characteristics.
3. Draw the zones of a typical
flame.
4. Describe the difference between
neutral, oxidizing, and reducing
flames.
5. Name the basic flame type that is
used for decarburizing steels.
FLAME CHARACTERISTICS
Each of the oxyfuel gas flames can
be operated with various fuel-to-
oxygen ratios. The heat from the
flame depends on the efficiency of
the combustion process. Most of the Correct flame adjustment is necessary.
fuel is burned with the oxygen from
the torch, but some burning takes
place with air that mixes into the
flame. The main flame, or primary the gas flow in order to adjust the you select the right amount of oxy-
flame as it is called, controls the flame size to suit the type and size gen and fuel, The fuel and oxygen
welding and cutting ability. (See Fig- of the job. Heating, welding, and are mixed inside the torch, and the
ure 10-1.) The outer flame enve- cutting all use different flame sizes. shape of the holes in the end of the
lope, or secondary flame, adds to Heating usually needs a large, wide tip of the torch help to shape the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the total heat. The secondary flame flame. Welding uses a smaller, nar- flame. The torch system is designed
is quite useful in helping to control row flame. Cutting requires a tight to keep the flame burning just at the
heat input to the workpiece. flame with lots of "punch." (See Fig- tip of the torch. If the gas came out
Size, shape, and temperature are ure 1D-2.) Flame temperature de- too slowly, the flame could burn
three of the most important charac- pends on the type of fuel and back inside the torch. If the gas
teristics of flames. You can adjust amount of oxygen that is available. came out too fast, the flame would
Oxygen from the air around the be pushed away from the torch tip.
flame is what helps the secondary Details of torch operation will be
flame burn. Air has about 2 1 percent discussed in the next chapter.
Secondary flame- oxygen. The rest of air is mostly ni-
trogen, with a small percentage of FLAMX TEMPERA'I'UKE
other gases. Oxygen, which you ob- The temperature is not the same at
tain from a compressed gas cylinder, all places inside the flame. The out-
i s 100 percent oxygen. When you side edge of the flame is cooler be-
-Primary flame mix the fuel gas with pure oxygen, cause it mixes with cool room air.
FIGURE 1D-1 Fuel gas flames usually you obtain the best combustion. The The flame is also cooler at the torch
have two parts, an inner primary flame welding torch, gas regulators, and tip, because the gas mixture hasn't
and an outer secondary flame. other equipment are designed to let had time to burn completely. The

CHAPTER 1 OXYFUEL PROCESS BASICS 121
Welding Cutting Heating Neutral flame

Nearly colorless to bluish
Torch tip secondary flames with
blue-orange edge
Primary flame
primary flame
-
Secondary flame Oxidizing flame
Bluish-orange
secondary flame,
nearly colorless edge
Oxygen jet Intense-white
primary flame
Reducingflame
Bluish-white
secondaly flame,
light-orange edge
FIúÙWHfiE Uñû-2 A small, single primary flame i s used for \----,Excess-acetylene feather
welding. Multiple primary preheat flames and a central oxy- \Bright-white
primary flame Intense white color,
gen jet are used for cutting. Large, multiple primary flames faint green tinge
are used for heating. IFHBBBTIE ûB-3 The three flame types.
flame is hottest at the tip of the inner carbon dioxide and water are pro- obtain oxygen, the reducing flame
or primary flame core because at duced. (See Figure ID-3.) breaks down metal oxides. It deox-
this point there is enough time for idizes the metal by using the oxygen
complete combustion of the gas OXIDIZ?NG FLAME in the oxides for burning the fuel and
mixture. In addition, the primary When there is too much oxygen, or leaves clean metal behind. When
flame is protected by the secondary too little fuel gas, the flame is called acetylene is the fuel gas, the flame
flame, which prevents the room air an oxidizing flame. Oxidizing types may be called by other names.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
from mixing into it and lowering the flames are not very useful. They add For example, the reducing flame,
temperature. excess oxygen to the molten metal which has too much fuel for the
and cause oxidation. They are available oxygen, releases carbon
NEUTRAL FLAME sometimes used on brasses and into the weld metal. When carbon
As was discussed in Lesson lC, the bronzes. The oxidizing flame can be is added to the weld metal, it is said
type of fuel i s the major factor con- used to burn carbon out of molten to become carburized and harder.
trolling temperature. But, whatever metal. It is said to decarburize the This is why flames with excess acet-
fuel you are using, there are three metal and make it softer. Acetylene ylene are also called carburizing
basic flame conditions. The three flames with too much oxygen are flames.
types depend on the amount of oxy- sometimes called decarburizing You should become familiar with
gen available. When there is exactly flames. the appearance of these flames.
the correct amount of oxygen to When you learn to operate a torch
burn all the fuel, the primary flame I< EL)UCINC, FI,ANIE S and adjust the equipment, a few
is called a neutral flame. With a The third type of flame is called a simple experiments with gas flows
neutral flame, the chemical equa- reducing flame. Reducing flames will show you what they look like.
tion of the primary flame is bal- have too much fuel and need more
anced. All the fuel is burned, and oxygen than is available. In order to

~ ~-
CHAPTER 2
QXYFUE
LESSON 2A
QBBECTIVES when they are used to shut off the I3A I A NC IS I>- PI2 li: SS U HE
Upon completion of this lesson you gas flow. As you know, leaking gas TO I< CHE S
should be able to is to be avoided at all costs. The torch shown in Figure 2A-2 il-
1. Explain why oxyfuel gas torch The gas passages deliver the gases lustrates one of two ways in which
control valves should not be used to a mixing section in the torch. The gases can be mixed. The torch de-
to turn off gas flows for long gas passages and control valves are livers the fuel gas down the center
periods. usually part of the torch handle as- to a mixing chamber. The oxygen
2. Give the reason why oxyfuel gas sembly. The mixer assembly screws enters the mixing chamber through
onto the torch handle as shown in several passages, placed at an angle
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
torches and tips are made from

copper alloys and brass. Figure 2A-1. The mixer section is to the fuel gas passage. This system
3. Identify the two different oxyfuel designed to make sure the gases are aids the mixing action. in this type
gas torch mixer systems. completely mixed. The welding tip, of torch the gases are delivered at
4. List three torch parts and describe which has a single gas passage, car- about the same pressure. The acet-
their functions. ries the mixed gas to the flame end. ylene should be between 1 and 15
The gases are mixed even more thor- pounds per square inch gauge (psig).
oughly as they flow through the tip. The 15 psig is the maximum pres-
TORCH FUNDAMENTALS
The torch body, mixer, and tip are sure at which acetylene can be safe-
Good flames need well-mixed fuel
made of brass and copper alloys. ly used. Oxygen is not restricted to
gas and oxygen. If the gases are not
These metals are good conductors of the same 15-psig limit and can range
mixed thoroughly the fuel may not
heat and will help prevent hot spots up to 2 5 psig for larger torches. Gen-
burn completely and efficiently. in
from occurring in the torch. Hot erally, the pressures are set at about
addition, the flame can vary from
spots could lead to premature igni- the same order of magnitude in
oxidizing to reducing, depending on
tion of the gases inside the torch. these torches. The torches are also
the mixture. Welding torches are de-
signed to mix the gases, as well as
to give you a convenient way of
controlling and directing the flame.
Separate gas hoses bring the fuel /Fuel valve /Torch body Mixer body
gas and oxygen to the torch. The /Fuel gas passage / ,Mixing chamber lTip
hoses connect to threaded fittings on

the torch. Each of the gas passages
I------ Fuel-oxygen
has a control valve to regulate the passage
amount of each gas flowing through
the torch. You can also use the con- xygen passage
trol valves to shut off the gases tem- / Head nut ,Mixer
porarily, but do not use these valves
to shut off the torch for long periods.
You should shut off the gases at the
cylinders when you go to lunch, or
when you quit work for the day. The \Valve handles U
control valves on the torch may leak FHGUJRE 2A.ii Eleinents of a basic mixer oxyfuel torch.

CHAPTER 2 OXYFUEL EQUIPMENT BASICS 123
usually made of a tough copper al-

loy so that they can withstand acci-
0 2 +' acetylene
dental damage and contamination.
They are used to shape the flame
Balanced-pressure torch produced by the burning gases.
Small tips with light gas flows can
produce tiny, pointed flames for
delicate work. Large tips with heavy
gas flows can produce boad, brush-
like flames for preheating and other
Injector-type torch uses. Tips are just like paint brushes;
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FHGWüEf%:%AmtTypical gas passages in the gas-mixing section. they come in all sizes and shapes.
Each one is designed for its own spe-
cial job. You will probably need five
called positive-pressure torches, or fuel gas into the flow stream. The or six tips to cover the wide range
medium-pressure torches. venturi helps to increase the flow of of work that you will learn to do.
the fuel gas, as well as helping to You will find it best to keep your tips
IN JEC'I'OR-TYPE TORCHES mix the gases. A mixer nut attaches stored in the protective containerch
Some torches can use fuel gases at the torch tip to the torch body in which the manufacturer supplied
pressures below 1 psig. This low both the balanced-pressure and the them. If you don't have the con-
pressure presents a problem for oxy- injector-type torches. tainers, wrap the tips in clean, lint-
gen delivery and good mixing of the free cloth. At times, it may be nec-
gases. The problem of low pressure CONN EC'I'IONS essary to clean your tips. You can
is solved by using an injector design. All the torch connections should be use one of the commercially avail-
(See Figure 2A-2.) Injector torches clean and tight. Be careful not to able chemical cleaners or a wire tip
bring the oxygen down the center to damage threads or nick the seating cleaner. Do not use pieces of scrap
the mixing section and supply it at surfaces. Otherwise gas might leak wire or paper clips to clean out the
up to 50 or 55 psig. This type of and cause an unexpected flame. holes. They can damage the tips.
torch creates a pressure drop at the The special wire tip cleaners are de-
fuel gas openings, which surround TIPS signed to clean the holes without
the oxygen outlet. The pressure drop Torch tips are designed and built ac- scratching or damaging them. Re-
is due to the narrowed section in the cording to strict tolerances. Do not member that the flame i s only as
oxygen passageway, which is called use a torch tip as a slag hammer or good as your torch and tips allow.
a venturi. A venturi i s a short tube for other such purposes. The gas Take care of your equipment and it
with a tapering constriction in the passages in tips are carefully sized will take care of you. A more de-
middle that causes an increase in the to meet the flow requirements for tailed description of cleaning an ox-
velocity of the flow of a gas and a the flame you need. The passages yacetylene torch tip is presented in
corresponding decrease in gas pres- are very small and should be kept Lesson 3E.
sure. It is used here to create a suc- clean and in good repair if you want
tion. The low-pressure area pulls the them to work their best. Tips are

LESSON 2B
OBJECTPVES
should be able to
1. Write a brief description of how
an acetylene cylinder i s con-
structed.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Explain why it is safe to store
acetylene at 250 psig in
cy1inders.
3. Give the reason for limiting the
J
acetylene withdrawal rate to one-
seventh of the cylinder capacity.
4. Describe the function and care of >
fuse plugs.
-
5. Explain why acetylene valves
should not be opened all the way,
and why oxygen cylinder valves
must be opened all the way. Fuse plugs
6. Identify the U.S. government FIGURE 2ItB-t Acetylene cylinders
F'IGüJlRE 2B.P Typical fuel gas cyiin-
agency that publishes cylinder ders. They come in many shapes and are filled with a porous mass saturated
design specifications. sizes. with acetone.
ACETYLENE STORAGE into the cylinder where it dissolves

GAS STORAGE In the early part of this century acet- in the acetone. Acetylene can be
Cylinders for storing compressed gas ylene was stored as a gas under pres- stored safely in this way at pressures
are not just metal bottles. They are sure, and there even were attempts of up to 250 pounds per square
carefully designed and tested pieces to liquefy acetylene. During this pe- inch. How can this be, when it is
of equipment. (See Figure 28-1.) riod there were many accidents from unsafe to use acetylene at a pressure
You should treat them with the same exploding cylinders. Then it was dis- above 15 pounds per square inch?
care and respect that you would give covered that acetylene could be dis- Weil, if something happens to cause
to any precision tool. Some gases, solved in acetone and stored safely the acetylene to explode in one of
such as oxygen, are stored in cylin- if the pressure was kept below about the tiny holes in the filler, the explo-
ders as gas under pressure, the way 250 pounds per square inch. To sion i s confined to that tiny hole.
air is stored in an automobile tire make its storage even safer, manu- The energy of the explosion cannot
when you pump it up. Other gases, facturers started filling the acetylene travel through the porous mass and
such as liquefied petroleum gas cylinder with a porous material. The set off the rest of the contents. This
(LPG), are stored as liquids under material was poured into an empty makes it possible to store acetylene,
pressure. Still other gases are stored cylinder, like cake dough into a pan. dissolved in acetone and contained
as a combination of liquid and gas. Then the cylinder and its contents in porous filler, at up to 250 psig.
Finally, there are gases that are dis- were baked like a cake. The liquid
solved in a liquid. These gases are a contents became a solid porous §'KIRACK LIMITATCONS
little like the carbon dioxide in a mass, full of tiny holes like a sponge. The storage of dissolved acetylene
bottle of soda. When the bottle is (See Figure 2B-2). When acetone is places a few limitations on its use.
opened, the gas escapes in the form put into the cylinder, it fills up the For example, you cannot store or
of tiny bubbles. holes. The acetylene is then forced use an acetylene cylinder on its side.

CHAPTER 2 OXYFUEL EQUIPMENT BASICS
If you did, some of the liquid ace- half turns. This will limit the with- old number DOT3A2015. You can
tone would flow out of the valve. drawal rate. Always keep the valve even find the date of first use
Another problem is that you cannot wrench on the valve. In case of an stamped on the neck, for example,
open the valve wide and obtain a emergency, you will be able to shut 1-83, meaning that the cylinder was
large amount of acetylene. If you try the valve quickly, without having to first put into service in January1983.
to do this, some of the acetone will look for the valve wrench. In fact, Other dates are stamped below the
come out in the form of a spray or treat all fuel gas cylinders with the original date to show when the cyl-
mist. This will change the way your same care as you would an acety- inder was retested. All cylinders
flame works and may ruin a weld. lene cylinder. must be retested every so often, ac-
A good rule is to keep the withdraw- cording to the DOT regulations.
al rate to less than one-seventh of OXYGEN STORAGE The valves in oxygen cylinders are
the cylinder capacity. For example, Oxygen is stored in cylinders at up mostly made from brass and are
if you have a container holding 350 to 2200 pounds per square inch. built according to the standards of
to 390 cubic feet of acetylene, you The most popular cylinder is about the Compressed Gas Association/
can safely withdraw about 55 to 60 5 feet tall and 9 inches in diameter. American National Standards Insti-
cubic feet per hour. The capacity of It contains about 244 cubic feet of tute. Because of the high pressure,
the cylinder is not its actual size. It oxygen when it is full. The oxygen you must open an oxygen valve all
is just a measure of how much acet- weighs about 20 pounds and the the way in order to prevent leaking
ylene is stored in the cylinder. Now empty cylinder about 130 pounds. around the valve stem seals. These
that you know how an acetylene Oxygen cylinders are construct- valves are designed with a safety
cylinder works, you will understand ed, tested, marked, maintained, disk in their side. The disk will burst
why you must never store or use one shipped, and filled according to from excess pressure if the cylinder
on its side. regulations of the U.S. Department is overpressurized, or if it is in a fire
Acetylene cylinders have fuse of Transportation (DOT). If you be- and the pressure builds up. The disk
plugs to protect them should there come familiar with these regula- i s needed to prevent the cylinder
be a fire. These plugs are made of a tions, you can decipher the code from exploding from too much pres-
metal that will melt at the tempera- stamped on the cylinder neck. Num- sure. The high pressure in the cyl-
ture of boiling water. Several of the bers are stamped on the neck, where inder makes it potentially danger-
plugs are located in the top and bot- the metal is thicker, instead of on the ous. You should therefore be sure to
tom of the cylinder. If there is a fire, side. You may find a code like keep the cylinder safe from corro-
the plugs will melt and allow the DOT3A2015. The 3A describes the sion, mechanical damage, and heat
acetylene to escape slowly, instead way the cylinder is built. The 2015 and away from accidental arcs. If an
of all at once. Should ice and snow says that it can be filled to 2015 arc is struck on the cylinder, it cre-
collect around the valve and in the pounds per square inch, at 70°F. ates a hard spot that can becomethe
recessed top of an acetylene cylin- This is an old number. During source of an explosive failure. Be
der, you must never try to melt them World War II the rules were sure to review and understand this
by pouring hot water on the cylinder changed and an extra 10 percent in- chapter and the safety rules in Sec-
and thus on the fuse plugs. crease in pressure was allowed so tion 1, Chapter 1, before you begin
Another point to remember about that more oxygen could be shipped. welding .
acetylene cylinders is this-never Instead of remarking all the cylin-
open the valve more than one and a ders as DOT3A2200, they used the --`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

12fì SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING AND CUTTING
LESSON 2C
REGULATORS
(IBBSEGTIIVES Then while the gas i s used up and So, the diaphragm i s pushed not
Upon completion of this lesson you the cylinder pressure falls, the re- with a hard object but with a spring.
should be able to gulator keeps the gas flow constant. When the spring pressure over-
1. Discuss the purpose of gas As was pointed out in Lesson 2B on comes the gas pressure, the valve
regulators. cylinders, some cylinders operate at opens up. This lets more gas into the
2. List the major regulator parts and high pressure and somy at low pres- cylinder side of the diaphragm to
describe their functions. sure. Therefore the regulator used to force it closed again. In a sense the
3. Explain the need for two-stage reduce the oxygen cylinder pressure valve is opening and closing all the
regulators. is different from the regulator used time.
4. Give the reason why regulators to reduce the acetylene cylinder By adjusting the spring pressure
should be pressurized slowly. pressure. with a screw, called the pressure-
5. Describe how you should take adjusting screw, you can change the
care of your regulators. SINGLE-STAGE REGULATORS pressure setting. When there is more
The sketch of a simple regulator is spring pressure, the cylinder gas has
GAS FLOW given in Figure 2C-1. When the gas to push harder to close the valve.
Regulators are needed to control the from the cylinder enters the regula- Otherwise the gas will flow out
flow of gas from cylinders. If gas tor body, it pushes on the flexible without being able to close the valve
were taken directly from the cylin- diaphragm. The diaphragm moves off. When the spring pressure is re-
der, the pressure would drop contin- and pulls the valve stem, which is leased, by turning the pressure-ad-
uously. Maximum pressure would connected to the diaphragm, up justing screw outward, the cylinder
be obtained from full cylinders and against the valve seat. The diphragm pressure holds the valve closed. The
minimum pressure from nearly emp- is made of a tough flexible material full pressure range of the regulator is
ty cylinders. The amount of gas like reinforced rubber or plastic. As obtained by turning the screw in or
flowing through the hoses and torch long as gas from the cylinder pushes out. The regulator designers match
depends on the pressure. If you want on the diaphragm, the valve open- the spring, diaphragm, valve stem,
to keep the flow constant, you must ing remains closed. The valve stem and components to give a smooth
have a constant pressure. Regulators is held tightly against the valve seat. operation. Otherwise the regulator
are designed to provide a steady out- The diaphragm also keeps the gas might “chatter” as the valve is
put pressure while the cylinder pres- pressure from escaping to the out- opened and closed rapidly.
sure falls. side air. The diaphragm must be
Regulator output pressure must be pushed in the opposite direction
TWO-STAGE REGULATORS
adjustable over some range. The ad- from the cylinder gas pressure in or- It is not possible to make the regu-
justment lets you trim the gas flow der to open the valve. However, the lator maintain a constant output
and obtain the flame you need. diaphragm must be free to move. pressure while the cylinder is emp-
tied. A single-stage regulator, as the
one in Figure 2C-1 is called, can do
a good job, but it is not perfect. You
Air pressure equalizer pori
Flexible da
iphragm-,
Valve stem
(attached to d i a ~ h r a n r n ) 7/ /
7 can get better pressure regulation i f
you use a first regulator to feed gas
to a second regulator. The first re-
Pressure- gulator is used to smooth out most
Gas inlet ,adjusting
screw of the pressure changes as the cyl-
L inder empties. The second regulator
i s used to smooth out the pressure
\Pressure-adjusting changes from the first regulator.
Gas outlet spring instead of using two regulators,
FIGURE 2rC-ñ Simple single-stage regulator. the designers put both regulator
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

I I I -Pressure-adjusting screw how the output pressure gauge in-

creases its indication as you turn the
pressure-adjusting screw inward.
Pressure-adjusting spring Always follow the regulator man-
Gas ufacturer's instructions when pres-
outlet Valve stem
surizing a system each time you
weld. Sudden surges of pressure
should be avoided. Pressure surges
Gas inlet can damage a valve seat by slam-
ming the valve stem against it. They
can also cause the diaphragm to
Pressure-adjustingspring rupture and release the cylinder
Flexible
diaphragm pressure into the rest of the regula-
tor. Regulators that are mishandled
\Factory pressure adjustment and abused can rupture and even
Tamper-resistant
Ca P explode. Always take care of your
F'HQKiiíRIE2C-2 Simple two-stage regulator. Actual regulators have many more parts, regulators. Keep them clean and ad-
springs, a n d so on. just them with care. Well-kept re-
gulators can last a very long time.
Some have been known to last a
functions into one housing. These PIZlW3UKIZlNG REGULATORS worker's entire career. Regulator
two-stage regulators are bigger than When you first open a cylinder nuts and fittings are carefully de-
single-stage regulators, and they valve, to pressurize a regulator, you signed to prevent leaks. Be sure that
cost more. Figure 2C-2 shows a cim- should have the regulator valve the cylinder valve outlet is clean and
ple two-stage regulator. Dirt will closed. To do this, you must take the free from dirt and dust before you
ruin the regulators accuracy and can spring pressure off the diaphragm by connect a regulator. Never use oil
also cause regulator fires. Filters turning the pressure-adjustingscrew or a lubricant on connections,unless
made of porous metal are placed in out. When the pressure-adjusting the manufacturer tells you to. Al-
the regulator inlet fitting to keep dirt screw turns freely, it holds the valve ways open valves slowly. Check for
out. Pressure gauges are attached to closed. Open the cylinder valve gas leaks with a greaseless soapy
regulators so that you know how the slowly until the cylinder pressure water or a special leak detector
system is working. A high-pressure gauge settles down to its full read- fluid. And last but not least, never
gauge shows the cylinder pressure, ing. Then you can turn the pressure- ever attempt to repair a regulator.
and a lower-pressure gauge shows adjusting screw inward to set the Regulators should only be repaired
the output pressure. output pressure you need. Notice by trained, qualified technicians.
UDBJJEClTEVLES 3. Describe when large-diameter 6. Name two methods of locating

Upon completion of this lesson you oxyfuel gas hoses should be used. hose leaks.
should be able to 4. Give two reasons why oxygen 7. List four steps that will help you
1. Name the colors used to identify and not air should be used to minimize oxyfuel gas system
oxyfuel gas hoses. purge gas hoses. leaks.
2. Explain the meaning of the letters 5. Explain the difference between 8. Explain the use of reverse-flow
marked on the oxyfuel gas hoses. oxygen and acetylene hose nuts. check valves.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Right-hand nut
cause it helps keep the hose from
TABLE 2D.I Typical Hose Marking
becoming tangled. Do not use this
Ferrule- 1
Letter Meaning hose for other purposes. It is de-
M Oil-resistant cover and liner signed for oxyfuel gases and their Green oxygen hose
RM OiI-resi stant cover normal pressures. Left-hand nut 7
R Not resistant
VD Double hose Sizes
S Single hose Hoses come in different sizes. Most
Red fuel hose
-2-
- nut
Groove cut-in
of them have an internal diameter of FUGRJll8IE2BD-U Typical hose
from 3/16 to 3/8 inch. The larger- connections.
HOSE REQUIREMENTS diameter hose is used for heavy-flow
The gas hoses for oxyfuel welding systems and for long runs of hose. If
and cutting systems are special hos- a smaller-diameter hose were used
es. Do not use general-purpose hose for long runs, the pressure drop explode by itself. However, never
or flexible tubing. Welding hose is would be too great. The pressure use high pressure. First, hold the
designed and manufactured to meet drop could interfere with the correct hose against the regulator outlet,
the standards of the Compressed gas flows and give you a poor flame. then adjust the oxygen regulator to
Gas Association (CGA), and the Small hose i s lighter and more flex- about 5 pounds per square inch. Let
Rubber Manufacturer Association ible. When you need such flexibili- the oxygen flow for a few seconds.
(RMA). The hoses are marked to ty, you can use the large-diameter Then turn off the oxygen by closing
show their grade and type; typical hose for long runs from the regula- the oxygen regulator, and use your
markings are given in Table 2D-I. tor. Then attach a small-diameter own breath to blow the leftover oxy-
hose between the torch and the gen out of the hose. Don't leave any
Colors Iarge hose. oxygen in the hose. Repeat for the
In the United States the oxygen hose acetylene hose, using oxygen to
is green, and the fuel gas hose is red. New Hoses clear it out. Be sure you blow the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Both can be smooth or ridged. They When hose i s new, it may be coated oxygen out of the hose when you are
can be purchased as separate hoses with talc on the inside. You can finished. You don't want residual
or as two hoses joined by a rubber blow the talc out with cylinder oxy- oxygen to mix with the acetylene
web. A double hose is popular be- gen. It is clean and does not burn or when you first connect the system.
Never ever use compressed air to
blow out hoses. Compressed air can
contain oil or other vapors, which
could deposit on the inside of the
hose. This oil could cause a fire
when the oxygen is turned on. Al-
ways be sure to follow the hose
manufacturer's instructions.
Hose Fittings
Hose fittings are specially designed
for welding and cutting service.
Oxygen nuts have right-hand
threads; acetylene (fuel gas) nuts are
left-handed. There is yet another
helpful design characteristic. Acet-
ylene nuts have a groove cut around
their middles, and oxygen nuts are
smooth. This has been established
practice for a very long time. (See
Figure 2D-1.) It is intended to keep
you from accidentally using a fuel
Learning proper hookup i s a necessity. gas hose for oxygen, and vice versa.

I
CONNECT1ON S Screw-type nipple Nut Ferrule Hose

If you make up your own gas hoses
and connections, be sure to use the
correct type of fittings. Do not use
homemade connections or automo-
bile-type clamps. Use only hose
connections that are designed for
cutting and welding. You do not
Push-type nipple Nut Circle Hose
want to take the chance that a hose clamp
will pull off a nonstandard ferrule or P168iRE zD.2 Some standard hose coniiections.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
homemade connection. The escap-

ing gas could be the cause of a
raging fire. Be sure you follow the
fittings manufacturer's instructions
time to drop and be noticed. (See Some reverse-flow check valves are
exactly. Special fittings are also installed on the torch inlet connec-
Figure 2D-2.)
available for making hose repairs
Leaks can be held to a minimum tions, but they prevent only reverse
and splices. Never use tape or rub- flow; they do not arrest flashbacks.
if you
ber patches to repair damaged hose.
Flashback arrestors that are specially
You should cut out the damaged 1. Keep all the fittings clean.
designed to cool the flashback flame
section and replace it with a new 2. Keep all the connections tight. and extinguish it are required. Or-
piece of hose. Sometimes a metal 3. Take care of the hoses and dinary reverse-flow check valves
hose splice can be used to replace a connections. - cannot do this. Periodic testing i s re-
small piece of damaged hose.
4. Check for leaks on a routine quired to check the operation of rev-
basis. erse-flow check valves. Follow the
1, I?A IC3
manufacturer's recommended test
Every now and then you should
CHECK VA I'VES procedure. Never rely on reverse-
check your hoses and connections
Reverse-flow check valves are in- flow check valves to arrest flash-
for leaks. The frequency depends on
stalled in some systems. These backs. Properly maintained and op-
how much use and abuse your hoses
valves are used to prevent a reverse erated hoses, valves, connections,
receive. If the leak i s small, the pres-
flow of gases in a hose. It is possible and torches will not be damaged by
sure will take a long time to drop
to get reverse flow if you do not an occasional flashback. If you fol-
and be noticed. A good way to
maintain your equipment in good low the manufcturer's maintenance
check pressurized hoses is to sub-
operating condition. For example, recommendations, you will not
merge them in a bucket of water and
say there is a small leak in one hose, have equipment troubles.
watch for bubbles. This is the same
and the regulator for that gas i s
as you would do to test a leak in an
closed. You open the regulator for
automobile tire. Use a brush and
the other gas when the torch valves
soapy leak test solution to test the
are open and there is a restriction at
parts of the hose that cannot be sub-
the torch tip. In these circumstances
merged in water. Use the same leak
gas might flow down one hose and
test solution on all the hose connec-
reverse direction into the second
tions. Be sure you promptly repair Outlet
hose. (See Figure 2D-3.) Reverse-
all leaks and holes. Even from small
flow check valves will keep such
leaks large volumes of gas can col-
reversed gas flows to a minimum.
lect in confined spaces. Hose leaks
When gases are mixed in a hose,
are another reason that you should
owing to reverse flow, they could be
always shut off the regulators when
the source of a flashback. A flash-
a job is completed. Pressure loss on
back is a recession of flame into the
a regulator, when the torch valves
mixing chamber of the torch.* Rev-
are closed and the cylinder valve is
erse-flow check valves will not act BBQKJBE2D.3 A simple reverse-flow
shut, i s another indication of hose
as flashback arrestors on a torch. checkvalve.
leaks. Large leaks will cause the
pressure to drop rapidly. For small
'
leaks the pressure will take a long 'See Lesson 3D for a discussion of flashback.

1a30 SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING AND CUTTING
LESSON 2E
BBIJECTHVEB yourself. Many manufacturers sug-

gest that to make sure the valve is
clean, you should "crack" the
should be able to
valve. (See Figure 2E-1.) By cracking
1. Explain how you should move
they mean that you should quickly
cy1inders.
open and close the valve, letting a
2. Describe why all oxyfuel gas con-
puff of gas escape. The puff of gas
nections should be clean.
will blow out any loose dirt from in-
3. Give the reason for "cracking" a
valve on oxyfuel gas cylinders. side the valve.
4. Explain why oxygen cylinder CONNECTING
valves should be opened com- THE REGULATOR
pleteIy. Once you are sure the cylinder
5. Describe how you should check valves are clean and ready for use,
leaking connections in an oxyfuel you can attach the regulators. Check
gas system. the gas named on the regulator to be
certain that you put it on the correct
SAFETY REMINDERS cylinder. If you are using a gas man-
Before you begin to assemble your ifold instead of a cylinder, be sure
oxyfuel gas welding system, you the manifold valve i s clean. The re-
should be sure that you understand gulator connection should fit easily
the lessons in Chapters 1 and 2. by hand. Turn the connection as far
Properly assembled systems are safe Typical portable setup.
as you can by hand. It should not
to operate and almost foolproof. Im- bind or have to be forced. After the
properly assembled systems can connection is hand-tight, you can
lead to fires and explosions, which If the cylinder cart must be moved hold the regulator in place while
could cause serious injury and even over bumpy floors, or over long dis- you use a wrench to tighten the con-
death. These warnings are not tances, you should put the cylinder nection. Never force a threaded
meant to scare you. They are made caps back on the cylinders. One connection. The fact that a connec-
only to help you protect yourself and other point to remember is never tion requires extra force to tighten is
others. Be sure you understand the move a cylinder unless the cylinder a sign of thread damage or dirt on
hazards and their consequences be- valve i s closed. the threads.
fore you begin.
CYLINDER CAKE PRI<§§ UIZIZIRIG REGULATORS
MOVING CYLINDERS Look at the cylinder valve threads to Once you have attached the regu-
The gas cylinders should be placed make sure that they are clean. You lators, you can pressurizethem. First
together. You should secure them in can remove dirt and dust with a check to see that the pressure-ad-
a cylinder cart or tie them to a post, clean, lint-free cloth. Never use a justing screw is released, which
work table, or some other sturdy ob- cylinder that Aas oil or grease on means that the regulator is closed.
ject. After the cylinders have been the valve threads. Oil and grease on Stand to one side, and keep the cyl-
tied down, you can remove the valve threads can be a sign of gas inder valve between you and the re-
valve protection caps. Be sure to put contamination or improper cylinder gulator. Never stand alongside a re-
the caps in a safe place, where you maintenance. Oil and grease can get gulator as you open a cylinder
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
can find them again. You will need into a regulator and cause it to ex- valve. Now you can open the oxy-
to put the caps back on the cylinders plode. Whenever you find oil or gen cylinder valve. Do it slowly and
if they are moved again. You can grease on a cylinder valve, you carefully. This prevents pressure
move a cylinder without a cap only should contact the gas supplier. Do surge and gives you time to close the
when it is on a sturdy cylinder cart. not try to clean the oil or grease off cylinder valve if you suspect some-

After both regulators are pressur-

ized, you can check the cylinder
valves and inlet regulator connec-
tions for leaks. (See Figure 2E-2.)
Use a special leak test solution, or
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Ivory soapsuds. Do not use other va-

riety soaps or solutions; they may
catch fire and burn. Some people
make the leak test after the whole
system is assembled.
Open-turn Close-turn HOSE CONNECTION IFPGBTRE 2E-2 Check all connections

counterclockwise clockwise with a leak test solution or Ivory
The next thing is to connect the hos-
iFEGU!&E t E . 1 “Cracking” the valve. soapsuds.
es to the regulators. If you are using
reverse-flow check valves, they
should be installed at this time. Fas-
ten all connections finger-tight. Be
thing is wrong. Open the oxygen sure you use the correct hose and After all connections have been
cylinder valve all the way. High- threaded connection. Left-hand made and they are wrench-tight,
pressure valves, like the ones on threads are for fuel, right-hand you can check for leaks. This is done
oxygen cylinders, must be opened threads are for oxygen. Remember by closing the torch valves and
completely so that they do not leak. to blow the talc out of new hoses, opening the pressure-adjustingknob
High-pressure valves are designed and never force connections that do (screw) on the regulators. The oxy-
with seals that prevent gas leaks not fit. Make all the connections gen can be set at about 25 pounds
around the valve stem. However, wrench-tight after they have been per square inch and the acetylene at
they must be fully opened and be assembled finger-tight. Now you are about 10 pounds per square inch.
“back-seated” to prevent high-pres- ready for connecting the torch. Use the leak test solution to locate
sure leaks. leaks. When leaks are found, turn
Watch the gauge as the pressure TORCH CONNECTION off the regulators and then retighten
slowly builds up. After the oxygen Inspect the torch for damage, dirt, the connection with the proper
regulator is completely pressurized, and proper tip. Clean off all dirt and wrench. Whenever you find a leak
you can pressurize the fuel gas re- dust with a clean cloth. Do not use that cannot be corrected this way,
gulator. Acetylene cylinder valves torches that are damaged or covered you must turn off all the pressure.
should never be opened more than with oil or grease. Whenever you Then release the pressure by open-
one and one-half turns. Most of the find oil or grease on a torch, the ing the torch valve. Open the leak-
time one turn is enough. Always torch should be cleaned by a qual- ing connection and inspect the
leave the acetylene cylinder wrench ified person. These repeated cau- threads and seats for dirt and dam-
in place. You may have to turn off tions against oil and grease are nec- age. Wipe all connections with a
the acetylene in a hurry. When you essary for your protection. Do not clean cloth, then remake the con-
have several fuel gas cylinders con- bypass any of the safety precautions. nection. Restore pressure and retest
nected to a manifold, you can leave Some systems use reverse-flow for leaks. If the leak is still there, the
the wrench on one of the cylinders. check valves at the torch connec- connection is faulty and must be
You do not need a wrench for every tions. Be sure you use the correct repaired.
cylinder connected to the manifold. valve in the correct gas line.

~~ ~ ~~~~~ ~ ~~
CHAPTER 3
OXYFUEL SYSTEM OPER
LESSON 3A
LIGHTING UJ
OBJECTEVES operating order, you can begin the should flow from the torch tip. As
-Upon completion of this lesson you light-up procedure. Don’t forget to soon as the pressure has been set to
should be able to use your welding gloves and eye the correct valve, close the torch
1. Explain why you should check protection. acetylene valve. Do this as rapidly
your oxyfuel equipment before as possible. You should keep the
lighting up. amount of escaping acetylene to a
2. Give two reasons for beginning PRESSURIZING THIS SYS‘I’ISM minimum. At this point you have
the oxyfuel light-up process with First, you should be sure both valves pressurized the acetylene side of the
cylinder shutoff valves closed and on the torch are closed. This will system and established the correct
regulator-adjusting screws loose. prevent the accidental escape of pressure readings.
3. Explain why you should not open gases through the torch tip. Now it is time to pressurize the
the acetylene torch valve more The next step depends on the oxygen side of the system. First, you
than about one quarter turn, or torch or equipment manufacturer’s should open the torch oxygen valve
the oxygen valve more than one recommendation. You may be di- about a half turn. With a little ex-
half turn before lighting up. rected to turn on the oxygen first and perience you will do this with ease.
4. Describe how to obtain a neutral then the acetylene, or vice versa. It You should not open the torch
oxyacetylene flame from an ex- is good practice at this point to be valves more than about a quarter
cess-acetylene flame. sure that both gas cylinder valves are turn for acetylene and a half turn for
closed, and that the regulator ad- oxygen. You open them with mini-
justing screws are loose. This way mal turns to keep the flame size rea-
SAFETY REMINDERS you will never suddenly pressurize sonable when you first light up. If
A well-trained operator never lights an open regulator or have too much the valves were opened farther, you
up a torch without taking some preflow when you start. We will begin could get a startlingly large flame.
liminary steps. Even if you have just with the acetylene. Open the torch After the torch oxygen valve is
finished assembling your equip- acetylene valve about a quarter turn. opened, you should slowly open the
ment, you should make a few Then slowly open the acetylene cyl- oxygen cylinder valve. Note the
checks before lighting up. Inspect all inder shutoff valve. Look for pres- slow pressure rise on the cylinder
connections and make sure they sure on the cylinder gauge. Remem- gauge. Keep turning the oxygen cyl-
look all right. You should even try ber, don’t open the cylinder shutoff inder valve until it is open all the
to hand-tighten some of the connec- valve more than one and one-half way. Opening oxygen cylinder
tions. This hand-tightening test may turns, and leave the valve wrench valves all the way helps prevent
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
uncover a loose connection. Look at on the cylinder. Hold the torch so them from leaking. Now, hold the
the hoses, regulators, cylinders, and that any escaping gas will be vented torch so that any escaping gas will
torches for signs of damage. Any- to a safe place. There should be no vent to a safe place. Then slowly
thing could have happened to your flow of gas yet. The regulator is still turn in the oxygen regulator pres-
setup since it was last used. You in the closed position. sure-adjusting scew. The pressure
may have stopped for lunch, or a Now, slowly turn the acetylene should rise slowly, and gas should
break. While you were gone some- regulator pressure-adjusting screw. flow from the torch tip. When the
one could have used your setup and As it turns inward, the pressure oxygen reaches the desired pres-
left it in an unsafe condition. When should begin to rise on the pressure sure, immediately close the torch
you are sure that the setup is in good gauge. At the same time acetylene oxygen valve. The oxygen side of

CHAPTER 3 OXYFUEL SYSTEM OPERATION
,Acetylene gin to get black, sooty, smoke at the

flame edge. At this point open the
,
Torch lip valve slightly, to get rid of the soot.
The vanishing soot tells you that it is
time to open the torch oxygen valve.
ADJUSTING THE
OXYGEN FLOW
Open the oxygen valve slowly. AS
NO! the amount of oxygen increases, the
FEGURE 3A.P Use special friction lighters. Do not use matches. The high-velocity yellow acetylene flame will disap-
acetylene could blow out the match flame and let unburned gas accumulate. pear and you will get a nice bright-
blue flame. (See Figure 3A-2.) This
light-up procedure should give you
Slight amount of soot an excess acetylene flame, one in
which you see a whitish acetylene
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Primary flame, feather around the inner flame core,

a bright yellow
all surrounded by a bluish flame en-
velope. You should always try to
start with an excess-acetylene flame
-1 Acetylene plus oxygen because this flame is easier to adjust
to a neutral flame. it is more difficult
No soot to see the difference between an ex-
cess-oxygen flame and a neutral
Bluish envelope flame as you adjust from one to the
with bright-white core other. It is very easy to see the dif-
FHGWIQkD3:BA-2 Always start with a small, pure-acetylene flame. Add oxygen to in- ference between an excess-acety-
crease heat and turn the flame blue. lene flame and a neutral flame. You
can get a neutral flame by slowly
closing the torch acetylene valve. As
the acetylene flow decreases, the
the system is now fully pressurized. the friction lighter to start the flame. excess-acetylene feather will disap-
Always try to keep the amount of es- If for some reason you cannot light pear. Stop decreasing the acetylene
caping gas as small as possible. You the flame, immediately close the flow as soon as the feather is gone.
are now ready to light up the torch. torch valve to stop the gas flow. Try This is a good neutral flow as soon
not to let much acetylene escape in as the feather is gone. This is a good
i,ic wr I IV; ‘rFi i;, i71,AMI the work area. After the acetylene neutral flame. You can also increase
Pick up the torch friction lighter, and has had-a chance to blow away, you the oxygen flow to make the feather
give it a few practice operations. It can try again. disappear. The flame size depends
should feel comfortable in your on how much gas is flowing. There-
hand and operate easily. Never use GI).IUSTINC, n i b ; FUEL FLOW fore you can add oxygen or acety-
matches or a cigarette lighter. Al- Acetylene is very easy to light up. It lene as needed for large flames, as
ways use a friction lighter or a spe- has a very wide flammable range, so long as the combination makes the
cial lighting flame if one is available. you should have no trouble at all. excess-acetylene feather just disap-
The lighter should be held about an You will get a large bushy-looking pear. Do the opposite for small
inch from the torch tip when you are yellow flame. When the torch acet- flames. Always look for the feather
ready to strike a flame. Open the ylene valve is opened correctly, you and adjust the gas flow as needed.
torch acetylene valve about a quar- will not get any black soot. If you do
ter turn. A little more or less is not get black soot, open the acetylene
critical. (See Figure 3A-1.I You will torch valve slightly. This should re-
get to know how much is needed duce the amount of soot or com-
after you have practiced a few times. pletely eliminate it. Then slowly
As soon as the acetylene begins to close the torch acetylene valve. As
flow out of the torch, you should use the gas flow decreases, you will be-

LESSON 3B
OBJECTIVES OXYGEN OFF FIRST COM1'LF:TE SHUTDOWN

Upon completion of this lesson you Some manufacturers tell you to turn When shutting down for longer pe-
should be able to. off the torch oxygen valve before the riods, such as for lunch or overnight,
1. Give the reason for turning off the fuel gas valve is closed. Turning off you should relieve the pressure in all
torch fuel gas valve before turning the oxygen first is said to prevent a systems. First you need to turn off
off the oxygen, as well as the rea- flame "pop" at the torch tip. The the gas flow by closing the torch gas
so for doing the opposite. pop is accompanied by a small shutoff valves. Be sure to follow the
2. Explain why you should relieve amount of soot. These manfacturers torch manufacturer's recommenda-
oxyfuel gas hose pressure when are concerned that the pop could tions. It may be fuel gas first, then
stopping work for more than five throw some soot into the torch tip. oxygen, or vice versa. If you do not
or ten minutes. Over a long period the soot might know what the correct order is, find
3. Describe the sequence for de- begin to block the torch gas pas- out before using that specific torch.
pressurizingthe complete oxyfuel sages. Therefore they tell you to cut After the torch flame is out, close the
gas system. off the oxygen flow first, then the shutoff valves of both cylinders.
4. Identify the substance that is res- fuel gas. Make sure the valves are tightly
ponsibe for long-term oxyfuel gas closed. Then you should open both
deterioration of oxyfuel gas hose. K ELI EV I N PKESS U It E torch valves to drain off the pres-
Whatever sequence you use, the sure. Remember, the gas in the hos-
next step is to release the gas pres- es and torch will escape into your
WHICH WAY? sure in the hoses. You should never work area. Be sure you release the
Strange as it may seem, there are leave the hoses pressurized when gases to a safe place, away from ig-
two ways to shut down a torch when you stop work. Even if you are stop- nition sources.
you are stopping work. It all de- ping for five or ten minutes, you The next step is to release the re-
pends on which torch you are using. should relieve the hose pressure.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
gulator-adjusting screws. Turn them

Some equipment manufacturerssug- This step i s necessary because, even out until they turn freely. This re-
gest one way, other manufacturers with a small leak, gas could escape lieves any residual pressure inside
another. It is up to you to follow the into your work area. Then when you the regulator and hose. You should
manufacturer's instructions for the begin to light up the torch, the leak- always close the torch gas shutoff
torch you are using. ing gas could explode or start to valves as your last step. This will
burn. prevent moisture from entering
FUEL OFF FIRST When you are shutting down for through the torch and contaminating
Some manufacturers suggest that a short time, it is good practice to the hoses. When you close the torch
you first turn off the torch fuel gas close the oxygen regulator first. valves, it is like parking your car
valve. They say this reduces the Then open the torch oxygen shutoff with the emergency brake on. You
chances of unburned fuel gas escap- valve to relieve the oxygen hose may not need the emergency brake
ing from the torch tip. Remember, pressure. Watch the pressure gauge to keep your car from moving, but
fuel gases can be ignited by almost as the pressure falls. Next, close the putting it on is a good safety prac-
any ignition source. Acetylene i s acetylene regulator and open the tice. It is the same with torch valves.
lighter than air and can collect over- torch fuel shutoff valve to relieve the You may not need them closed, but
head in corners of rooms. Other gas- fuel hose pressure. Watch the pres- closing them is a good safety prac-
es, such as propane and proplene, sure gauge as the pressure falls. tice. If a regulator has a slow leak,
are heavier than air. They can fall Now close both torch gas shutoff the gas will not escape because the
toward the floor and collect in low valves. You can stop here, as long torch shutoff valves are closed. Al-
places. Therefore some manufactur- as it is for no more than five or ten ways treat your system and its equip-
ers suggest that you turn off the acet- minutes. When you stop only for a ment as though it could leak at any
ylene at the torch, before you turn short time, it is not necessary to time. Do not take shortcuts. Always
off the oxygen. close the cylinder shutoff valves. close all valves and release all pres-

CHAPTER 3 OXYFUEL SYSTEM OPERATION 135
sure whenever you stop work for an you coil the hoses carefully, and structed box with their welding and
extended period. place the torch where it will not be cutting setups. Save the boxes and
damaged. When you are stopping use them to store your equipment. If
SAFETY REMINDERS for a long time, you should take you make up your own kit, be sure
At this point you may think you are everything completely apart, and to store the equipment neatly. Do
finished. You are not. You should put away all pieces of equipment. not throw everything into the box
always give your equipment a visual Torches and equipment that are and let the pieces bump into each
check to see whether it was dam- cared for can last ten, twenty, or other. Good welders often wrap
aged by the work you were doing. even more years. The only part of their torches in clean lint-free rags.
Hoses can be injured by hot metal the system that will need replace- Some workers put their regulators
or by dragging them over sharp ment i s the hoses. Rubber hose can into clear plastic bags. This keeps
edges. Torch tips can be fouled by deteriorate because of ozone in the everything free of dirt, oil, and the
. spatter and soot. It is good practice air. In time, the hose will lose its dust that may be floating in the air.
to put your torch tips away clean. strength and begin to crack. For this You cannot go wrong if you practice
Clean tips will not be corroded by reason you need to test your hoses the old rule that “cleanliness is next
humidity, but dirty tips can be cor- for leaks regularly. Many operators to godliness’’ when it comes to your
roded by moisture and flux contam- store their torches, regulators, and equipment. The life of clean, well-
ination. You can leave your torch so on in the original boxes. Most maintained equipment will be long
connected to the hoses, as long as manufacturers supply a well-con- and safe.
LESSON 3C
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
MATEWIALS
OB%ECïi”VES flames, but there are times when the minum, and so on. Once you have
Upon completion of this lesson you excess-acetylene flame (also called mechanically cleaned all the weld
should be able to the carburizing, or reducing flame) surfaces, they should be cleaned
1. Give two other names for the ex- or the excess-oxygen flame (also chemically. Fluxes are special
cess-acetylene flame. called the oxidizing flame) are need- chemical mixtures that help you re-
2. Name two ways to clean a weld ed. For best performance you must move remaining contamination, but
joint. match the flame to the materials you must first wipe away all oil,
3. Give the reasons for using a flux with which you are working. For ex- grease, paint, and other residue.
with oxyfuel gas welding. ample, you will need a slightly ox¡- Sometimes you need to use special
4. Explain why oxyfuel gas weld- dizing flame when welding bronze cleaners. These cleaners are usually
ing fluxes should be handled and brass. Aluminum welding is mixed with water, and the mixture
carefuIIy. done with a slight excess of acety- is used to wash away the dirt. Such
5. Describe the process of tinning. lene and a soft flame. cleaners are not the same as those
6 . Identify one cause of puddle you use in your kitchen. They are
spark1ing. CLEANLINESS special materials used for industrial
One essential step, which you must cleaning. Never use them around
FLAME USES never leave out when welding any your home. Trisodium phosphate is
Oxyacetylene flames are able to material, is to be sure the joint i s one of the typical chemicals used for
weld many types of metals. They clean. Contamination from oil and cleaning away dirt and oil. Always
can also be used for brazing and sol- dirt is one sure way to ruin a weld. be sure you follow the instructions
dering. Successful welding, brazing, The material you weld should al- on the container when you use
and soldering depends on your se- ways be clean. Rust should be re- chemical cleaners. Most of the time
lection of the proper flame. Neutral moved from irons and steels, surface you can get good results without
flames are the most often used oxides must be removed from alu- chemical cleaners. Good mechani-

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING A N D CUTTING
~ ~~ ~
I WARNING: CONTAINS FLUORIDES.Protect yourself and others. Readand understandthislabel.
FUMES AND GASES CAN BE DANGEROUS TO YOUR HEALTH. BURNS EYES AND SKIN ON
CONTACT. CAN BE FATAL IF SWALLOWED.
0 Read, understand, and follow the manufacturer’s Instructions and your

employer’s safety practices.
I 0
0
Keep your head out of the fume.
Use enough ventilation, exhaust at the work, or both to keep fumes and
gases from your breathing zone and the general area.
Avoid contact of flux with eyes and skin.
Do not take internally.
Keep out of reach of children.
0 See American National Standard 249.1, “Safety In Welding and Cuttlng,”

available from the American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Rd., Miami.
Florida 33126; OSHA Safety and Health Standards, 29 CFR 1910, available
from the U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, OC 20402.
First Aid: I f contact in eyes, flush Immediatelywith clean water for at least 15 minutes. If swallowed,
induce vomiting. Never give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Call a physiclan.
1 DO NOT REMOVE THIS LABEL.

FIGURE 3C.1 Typical warning label for brazing and welding fluxes containing
fluorides. From ANSI Standard 2491.1-1 983. (Courtesy of American Welding
cal cleaning with a file or steel you. (See Figure 3C-1.) They can from completed welds. Otherwise
brush, followed by wiping with a cause skin and eye burns, and they moisture can combine with the flux
clean rag, will be good enough can do all kinds of damage if they and cause corrosion.
when you have a good flux. are not used properly. You should
always read and heed the manufac- TINNING
FLUXES turer’s recommendations when you Sometimes it is necessary to tin a
Fluxes are chemicals that help mol- use fluxes. Just because a little flux surface before it can be joined. Tin-
ten metal flow where you want it to is good does not mean that a large ning is a process in which you flow
go. They chemically remove oxides amount of flux i s better. Too much a very thin layer of metal onto the
from the metal surface and help flux can be bad for a weld. There- surfaces you want to join. The spe-
keep air away from the metal. Fluxes fore you should use a flux sparingly. cial alloys and filler metals available
are not needed for welding most If you have a flux with a water base, have melting points and surface ten-
steels, but they will help you to tin you can add water to keep the cor- sions that make them flow readily.
a surface when you are braze weld- rect mixture. If the mixture is right, Because the tinning metals have low
ing (see Chapter 6). A flux helps the you will get the right amount of flux melting points, they flow easily over
filler metal to flow into cracks and on the filler rod when you dip it into the surface of a metal that you have
crevices and to penetrate deep into the flux. If the flux is too thick, you heated up with the oxyacetylene
joints. Fluxes are an essential part of will get a heavy glob when you dip flame. The tinning action also takes
good welding practice, but they the rod. Proper use of a flux will also place when you are fusion welding.
have hazardous properties. Some keep your cleanup problems to a You will see this happen when a
fluxes, and their fumes, can poison minimum. Fluxes should be cleaned large puddle overflows. If the sur-

CHAPTER 3 OXYFUEL SYSTEM OPERATION 137
TA5ü.B;: 3C.l Matching Flame to Metal ICNOWN MATKRIALS

ïilier metals are designed tu give
Metal Flame good wetting action when used with
Low-alloy carbon Use a neutral, or slightly carburizing flame. increased the correct welding flame and flux.
steel puddle sparking indicates too much oxygen. Table 3C-1 will help you choose the
Medium- and Use excess acetylene and a high-carbon filler rod. Avoid correct flame for the material you
high-carbon steel oxidizing flames. weld.
Stainless steels Use a slight excess of acetylene or a truly neutral flame.
Wrought iron Use a neutral flame. UNKNOWN MATERTA1,C
Cast Iron Fusion-weld with a neutral flame. Braze-weld with a You should use a neutral flame to
slightly oxidizing flame weld unidentified metals. Truly neu-
Unknown steel Try a neutral flame, or a slight excess of acetylene. tral flames are very useful to start
Aluminum Use a slight excess of acetylene.
with. Then you can try a slight ex-
Brass Use a slightly oxidizing flame.
Bronze Use a strongly oxidizing flame. cess of acetylene, followed by a
Copper Use a slightly oxidizing flame. slight excess of oxygen. As you gain
Hard-facing alloys You will usually need excess acetylene, with a neutral experience as a welder, you will no-
preheat flame. tice puddle activity. You will learn
Lead to read the puddle. For example, a
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Use a slight excess of acetylene.
Soldering alloys Usually use a neutral flame. lot of sparking of the puddle can be
a sign of too much oxygen. Remem-
ber, the proper flame will depend on
rounding metal is clean and hot, the continuous layer on a solid base the thickness of the base metal, the
overflow will wet in well. Wetting metal. The same characteristics of filler rod material you select, and the
is the phenomenonwhereby a liquid metal that allow tinning cause good type of metal you are welding.
metal spreads and adheres in a thin wetting action by the weld metal.
LESSON 3D
OBBEC'aPVES condition. The cause of most prob- be running out of oxygen. When
Upon completion of this lesson you lems can usually be found, and cor- you have plenty of oxygen left, the
should be able to rected, quickly. Most of the prob- drop off in oxygen may be due to a
1. Identify three oxyacetylene flame lems that you encounter will change flow restriction. Make sure the hoses
characteristics that indicate po- the color, shape, or sound of the are not kinked or squeezed by a
tential problems. flame. These changes are your best heavy object. Sometimes, in crowd-
2. Describe the changes that would guide in analyzing troubles. ed, untidy work areas, pieces of
cause a flame to turn yellow. heavy equipment have been set
3. Explain what causes a flame to Color Changes down on top of hoses. Faulty check
"burn away" from a torch tip and Changes in flame color while weld- valves can also restrict gas flow. Be
how to correct the problem. ing usually mean that the gas flows sure you test all check valves on a
4. Describe a backfire. are changing. For example, if the periodic basis, as recommended by
5. Describe a flashback. oxygen flow drops, creating an ex- the manufacturer. Oxygen leaks can
cess of acetylene for the oxygen that also cause the flame to turn yellow.
is flowing, the flame will probably Check to be sure you haven't burned
FLAME CHANGES
begin to turn yellow. Check the cyl- any holes in your oxygen hose, and
You will have very few problems if inder pressure gauge and the oxygen test all the connections for leaks.
you keep your equipment in good pressure regulator gauge. You may Too much acetylene can also cause

138
- --`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 3D-I The shape of the flame is an important factor

when analyzing troubles.
Soft flame, light flow
Stiff flame, heavy flow
Lopsided flame, caused

by a dirty tip
SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING AND CUTTING
torch immediately. The noise comes

from a fire inside the torch. This
trouble, called a flashback because
the flame has flashed back inside the
torch, means that there is something
wrong with the torch or the way you
are using it. Whenever your torch
has a flashback, the torch will get
hot. The flashback flame can dam-
age the internal parts of the torch,
and the heat can even melt a hole
through the torch and cause a severe
fire.
After you turn off your torch, let it
cool down. Never restart the torch
right away. The first thing you
should do after a flashback is to
check all the gas pressures. Make
sure all the adjustments are correct.
a yellow flame. Except for a regu- BACKFIRES Then, after the torch i s cool, you
lator malfunction or the wrong torch Sometimes a flame will go out and should turn on the oxygen. Do not
adjustment, there is nothing much reignite with a loud bang or pop. turn on the acetylene. Let the oxy-
else to cause excess-acetylene flow. The noise sounds like a small fire- gen flow for a few seconds. The flow
Reduced oxygen flow can also cracker or gunshot. The rapid ex- will cool the torch insides even
cause an oxidizing flame to become tinction and flame reignition, called more and blow out any soot left by
neutral. And a greater flow of oxy- a backfire, sends out a strong pres- the flashback flame. You can tap the
gen can change a carburizing flame sure wave, which you hear as a torch lightly to jar loose any soot
to a neutral flame. Look for reduced noise, Backfires can occur when the that may be left inside. When you
acetylene flow when a neutral flame tip gets too close to the work. The are sure that the torch is cool and
begins to look like an oxidizing flame may be forced a short distance clean and that the pressures are cor-
flame. Check for the same causes of into the tip where it is forced back rect, you can relight the flame. You
reduced acetylene flow that were out of the tip and extinguished mo- should be extra careful and take no
discussed for oxygen. mentarily. Or the flame from the tip shortcuts.
is deflected by the work and literally If a normal flame appears, you
Shape Changes blows itself out; the hot work im- probably have corrected the prob-
The flame will "burn away" from mediately relights the flame. Some- lem. Let the torch operate for a rnin-
the tip when there is too much gas times you can get a series of back- Ute or so, and listen carefully to its
flow. Burning away from the tip fires. They will sound like a machine sound. Watch the flame also. If
means that there is a small gap begun or a string of firecrackers going everything appears normal, you can
tween the flame and the torch tip. off. Backfires can also be caused by begin work again. But if anything
You can correct this if you reduce dirt, loose tips, or damaged tips. seems wrong, or if you get another
gas flow gradually until the flame al- Torches that backfire even when the flashback, stop immediately. Shut
most touches the tip. Soft flames tips are clean and when you work everything down and disconnect the
burn close to the tip. Stiff flames with a proper flame distance should torch. Send it to an approved repair
burn away from the tip. Lopsided be removed from service. The torch shop for an overhaul and repair.
flames usually mean the hole in the should be checked and repaired by
tip is damaged or dirty. (See Figure a trained technician. Torches that HEI,PFUI, I-IJNTS
30-1.) A good tip creates a sym- backfire repeatedly should be con- You can check your torch valves for
metrical flame. Strong winds and sidered faulty. leaks by placing the torch tip in a
gusts of air can also change the cup of water. Bubbles will show up
shape of the flame. You should al- FLASHBACKS if the valves leak. (See Figure 3D-2.)
ways look for things that can effect Whenever your torch flame goes out Sometimes you can fix torch valves
the gas flow pattern when there are and you hear a squealing or hissing that leak. Be sure to follow the man-
changes in flame shape. noise, there i s trouble. Shut off your ufacturer's instructions. Generally

CHAPTER 3 OXYFUEL SYSTEM OPERATION B39
you will be told to turn off all the to one reading. Pointers that creep
pressure. Then you can remove the along for a few seconds as the gauge
valve siem assembly and clean all settles down should be repaired. A
seating surfaces with a lint-free “creeping” regulator i s usually a
cloth. Put everything back together leaking regulator. Just because you
and retest. A simple cleaning is very can light a flame and get by with a
often all that is needed. creeping regulator doesn’t mean it is
Never replace or repair torch parts safe. Creeping regulators should be
unless you are qualified. Follow the repaired. They not only are unsafe
-Glass of water
manufacturer‘s instructions careful- but can cause your flame to change
ly. Never substitute parts of mate- while your are welding. Always re-
FHGUIWE 3D.2 Torch gas valves rials. Watch the pressure gauge member, oxyacetylene gauges, re-
should be “bubble”-tight. No bubbles when you close the torch valve for gulators, torches, and so on are pre-
should form when the tip is immersed a pressure leak test. Many gauge cision tools. Treat them carefully
in a glass of water. pointers will jump a few pounds per and they will last a long time-vir-
square inch. “Jumping” pointers are tually forever.
normal as long as they settle down
LESSON 3E
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CETYKE
@BJECTHQrES TWO 1‘YI’ES stock. The hole must be smooth and

Upon completion of this lesson you There are two basic tip types. One uniform if the flame is to be well
should be able to type includes a mixer along with the shaped. Other tips are made by
1. Describe the two basic oxyacet- tip, and the mixer and tip are swaging copper tubing over a man-
ylene torch tip types. matched to each other. The second drel. Swaging i s a process whereby
2. Name two methods of manufac- type of tip system uses one mixer metal rollers are used to squeeze
turing oxyfuel gas torch tips. and a variety of tips. In this second tubing into a smaller diameter. As
3. Demonstrate the correct way tip system the mixer threads are the tubing is squeezed to a smaller
to clean an oxyfuel gas tip matched with the tip threads to pre- diameter, it becomes longer. The
mechanically. vent you from mixing up the tips and process can be compared to your
4. List three things that will cause an mixer combinations. These tips and rolling a ball of clay between your
oxyfuel gas tip to distort the shape mixers must be thought of as form- palms to form a clay cigar. The thin-
of the flame. ing a precision system. You must ner you roll the clay cigar, the long-
take care of both parts. No matter er it becomes. The copper tube is
which tip type you use, you must squeezed onto a steel rod, which is
SOME TIP I W Q U I R l ? M I ~ N ~ S prevent damage to the tip bore. pulled out after the swaging i s fin-
Torch tips come in all sizes and Scratches, metal spatter, and soot ished. When the rod is pulled away,
shapes. They look simple and easy will upset the shape of the flame and it leaves a nice, clean, uniform hole.
to make. They seem to be nothing its heat balance. Holes with very complicated shapes
more than a piece of metal with can be made in this way, by using
some drilled holes. Nothing could TIP CONSTRUCTION different-size rods and multiple
be farther from the truth. Tips are Most tips are made from some type swaging. Cutting tips are more
precision devices. They must be of copper alloy. Copper has a high complicated than welding tips and
properly sized and matched to the thermal conductivity, which helps can have several parts. Just remem-
job of welding or cutting that you to prevent tip overheating. Some tips ber, all tips are designed for a spe-
intend to do. are made by careful drilling of bar cific gas, a specific gas flow rate, a

Loop for holding tip Figure 3E-1.) It could even leave CHEMICAL CI,I<ANKiIS
/ cleaner in a holder
rough file marks inside the hole. If Sometimes a tip will become very
you use a metal drill bit, it could dirty. Special chemical cleaners are
also damage the hole. (See Figure available for cleaning such tips.
3E-2.)Do not use paper clips or oth- Many of the cleaners consist of hot
er pieces of wire. You should use solutions of chemicals that can harm
mechanical tip cleaners that are de- your skin or eyes. Always read the
signed for this purpose. A set of spe- labels on the tip cleaner container.
cial tip cleaners is made up of sev- Follow the instructions exactly. You
eral different-diameter wires; the will not only protect yourself but
wires have smooth and rounded ribs also prevent tip damage through
or ridges. You should first run a chemical action. You want only to
The tip cleaner ends small-diameter wire cleaner in and clean the tip, not to damage it by
are rounded out of the hole. Do not start with a chemical action. Be sure to clean
\__The tip cleaner ribs are cleaner diameter that makes a tight away all chemical residue. You usu-
smooth and rounded fit. Gradually increase the tip clean- ally do this with water as instructed
Set of different-size tip cleaners er size as you run them in and out by the cleaner manufacturer. Chem-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
of the tip. Eventually you will get to icals left on the tip can combine
a size that doesn?t fit. Stop there. with moisture from the air and cause
The smooth edges of the tip cleaner delayed corrosion damage.
ribs will have cleaned the hole and
left it smooth. SOME FINAI, THOUGT-ITS
PHGURE 3E-I Tip cleaners are 1)wci- Tips are not delicate pieces of equip-
cion tools. ment. They will take a great deal of
abuse and still do a reasonable job.
However, you should always be
aware of the hazards of damaged
specific flame size, and a specific tips. Not only do they cut and weld
heat capacity. Follow the torch poorly, but they can also cause
manufacturer?s recommendations backfires and flashbacks. You
when selecting tips for the torch you should always care for your tips as
are using. you would care for any precision
tooI.
MECHANICAI, CLEAN INC,
Do not use ordinary tools to clean a
dirty tip. If you use a round file, it
v
PIIGURE 3E.2 Tip opening damaged
w i l l probably enlarge the hole. (See by a drill bit used as a tip cleaner.-

CHAPTER 4
TTING
BBBJECTHVES In most welding schools oxyfuel welding and cutting
Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to are taught before shielded metal arc welding. The basic
1. Safely assemble, disassemble, test, and operate oxy- theory and practice of oxyfuel flame cutting is reviewed
fuel flame cutting equipment. in this chapter.
2. Make straight and bevel cuts and pierce and elongate The first lesson in this chapter reviews the safe practices
holes. you should follow.
3. Cut and bevel pipe. As a welder, you should be able to sever and cut neatly
and accurately. You will very often have to weld joints
made from metal that you have cut. You will discover
that a great deal of time and effort go into welding poorly
Every welder should understand the oxyfuel flame cutting cut and prepared joints. Proper cutting and joint prepa-
(OFC) process and know about the safe use and handling ration will make your job easier.
of its equipment and gases. There can be no shortcuts if Take pride in your work; cutting is part of that work.
you are to work in safety. It is essential that your cutting ability be on a par with
your welding ability.
LESSON 4A
T MENT
TANK IflAMEùLIíNG break off the cylinder valve, and a Keep cylinders where they cannot
AND SPECURPWTG broken cylinder valve could cause a be struck by falling objects, mov-
Oxygen and the various types of fuel cylinder containing a gas under high ing machinery, vehicles, swinging
gases-acetylene, propane, and so pressure to take off like a rocket. loads, or other hazards. Be sure that
on-must be stored and handled Such accidents can kill or cause seri- the sparks from the cutting or weld-
properly. Do not store oxygen and ous injury. In one instance the cyl- ing operation are not directed to-
fuel gases close to each other. AI- inder traveled through two 8-in.- ward the cylinders. Never hang
ways follow the codes and regula- thick masonry walls before coming either your cutting torch or your
tions. Space should be provided be- to rest. electrode holder on them. The heat
tween them, as well as a masonry An oxygen cylinder that is full i s from the torch or an accidental arc
wall as prescribed by the Fire Un- pressurized to 2200 psi. The thrust strike could cause the cylinder to
derwriters Code. from the gas, were there enough of rupture.
Gas cylinders should be stored in it, could propel the cylinder around Keep cylinders from contact with
an upright position. Secure them the world in 45 minutes, as illus- any metal structure that you, or any-
with a chain or other suitable device trated in Figure 4A-1. one else, is arc welding. There is a
so that they cannot be knocked Fuel gas cylinder leaks can cause possibility of causing an arc be-
over. The caps must be in place a fire or an explosion. Always move tween the cylinder wall and the
while the cylinders are in storage or cylinders carefully by hand, tilting structure. This could cause a cylin-
being moved. Never transport a cyl- the cylinder so that it is leaning to- der explosion or possibly a fire.
inder with the regulator attached; ward your body, or transport them Cylinders should never be placed
the regulator connections can be in a cart designed for this purpose. where their contents can be heated
broken by a sharp blow. The regu- Be sure to secure the cylinders to over 120°F.
lator could provide the leverage to before moving the cart. (See Figure Do not drop cylinders or strike
4A-2.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

142 SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING A N D CUTTING
Oxygen speed
50,000 feet per second ... valve no more than one and one-
quarter turn.)
8. Turn the regulator-adjusting
screws in one at a time. Then
loosen them again to stop the
flow of gases. (The purpose of this
step i s to clean out the regulator
and the hoses.) Do not let the gas
flow uncontrolled. Be sure the
area is well ventilated.
9. Attach the torch to the hoses.
When making connections, use
only the wrench recommended for
oxyfuel connectors. Never use an
Comparison: adjustable wrench. Do not use too
Jet plane = 1000 miles plus per hr
Oxygen speed = around world much leverage on the connector. Be
25,000 miles in 45 minutes. careful not to strip the threads; a
FIGURE 4A-1 Pressurized oxygen has a speed of 50,000 feet per second. The jet snug fit is adequate.
plane travels at 1000 miles plus per hour. Pressurized oxygen, were there enough of
it, could provide the thrust to propel the cylinder around the world's 25,000 mile PRESSURIZING THE
diameter in 45 minutes.
OXYFUEL CUTTING OUTFIT
AND TESTING FOR LEAKS
Once you have set up the cutting
them violently. Never use pry bars treat them roughly. Use only the outfit, and after it is pressurized,
to pry open valves or safety caps or special wrench provided with the check it for leaks by applying a spe-
to pry frozen cylinders loose from, outfit. The following is one of the
the ground. Never use cylinders as correct procedures for assembling
rollers or supports. Never lift cylin- an oxyfuel outfit. (Always follow the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ders by slings or electromagnets. Do manufacturer's instructions.)

not refill cylinders. They should be
filled only by a gas supplier. No 1. Secure the cylinders in an upright
one, other than a gas supplier, may position or in a cart, or tie them
mix gases in a cylinder. Never use to an immovable object.
a hammer or a wrench on a cylinder 2. Wipe off the seats of the cylinder
valve. If a cylinder leaks, remove it valves and the regulator and hose
to an open area. Report the leak to connections.
your instructor, who will call the 3. "Crack" the valve. That is, open
proper authorities. the valve quickly and slightly,
then close it. (Cracking will blow
ASSEMBLING THE out any dust or foreign particles
CUTTING OUTFIT that might cause leaks or damage
When you assemble the oxyfuel cut- the regulators.)
ting outfit, it is important that you
4. Attach the regulators to the cyl-
follow the correct procedure. If you
inders. (Acetylene connections
form safe work habits, there is little
have left-hand threads.)
likelihood of making errors. Re-
member, no oil or grease need ever 5 . Attach the hoses to the regulators.
be used. When oil comes into con- 6. Make sure that the regulator-
tact with oxygen, it can burn with- adjusting screws are loosened.
out having come into contact with 7. Open the oxygen and fuel gas
open flame. Oxygen makes all fires cylinders valves very slowly. FIGURE 4A.2 The proper method of
burn faster. Threads on fittings made (Open the oxygen valve first "all storing or removing cyclinders in a
of brass are easy to strip. Do not the way"; open the acetylene welding shop.

CHAPTER 4 OXYFUEL FLAME CUTTING 143
tion could cause an explosion or a

torch fire or a fire in the regulator or
hoses.)
These steps are not the only meth-
od of safely pressurizing a cutting
outfit; some manufacturers may
have another method. But this meth-
od works if it is carried out as
prescribed.
DEPRESSURIZING THE
OXYFUEL CUTTING OUTFIT
When you leave the cutting outfit for
any length of time, depressurize it.
Some people also remove the regu-
lator-adjusting screws. By doing so
you prevent untrained or unauthor-
FBGUURE 418.3 Soap testing for leaks on an oxygen coniiec- ized individuals from using the
tion. (Do you see the bubble at the bottom?) equipment.
An oxyfuel outfit should always
be purged of all gases after use. This
cial leak-detecti ng solution, wh ich 4. Adjust the oxygen regulator until step releases the pressure in the sys-
you can buy. Some people use soap the pressure recommended by the tem. The adjusting screws should
and water to save money. If soap torch manufacturer is reached on never be left turned in. If the screws
and water are chosen, only a non- the low gauge. Press the cutting are left turned in and the cylinder
petroleum-base soap should be oxygen lever and observe the valves are opened rapidly, there is a
used. (Remember, petroleum prod- pressure gauge. Readjust the re- possibility of an accident. The heat
ucts and oxygen can cause fires.) gulator screw to return the gauge of compression produced when oxy-
Stir the leak test solution until it i s to the recommended pressure. (If gen under pressure (2200 psi in a
foamy; then brush it on each con- you do not do this, the pressure full cylinder) strikes the diaphragm
nection. Bubbles will appear at the will drop slightly when you start can cause a regulator explosion.
leak point. (See Figure 4A-3). Tight- to cut, and you will not obtain a When you shut down a cutting
en the connection and retest. Be quality cut.) outfit, take the following steps to de-
certain that the entire system is leak- pressurize the system safely.
5. Close the oxygen torch valve.
free before you start cutting. Check- 6. Open the fuel gas cylinder valve,
ing for leaks is a simple but impor- one and one-quarter turns or less.
tant process. It should be done each
i. Open the fuel gas torch valve one
time a connection is made. It is good
turn.
practice to check for leaks at the be-
ginning of each workday or class 8. Adjust the fuel gas regulator until
session. the pressure recommended by the
The following steps must be per- torch manufacturer shows on the
formed in sequence to pressurize gauge.
and leak-test an oxyfuel cutting out- 9. Close the fuel gas torch valve.
fit safely.
The outfit i s now pressurized.
1. Make sure that the regulator- Moreover, the gas that flowed
adjusting screws are loosened. through the system put a supply of
2. Open the oxygen cylinder valve pure gases up to the torch mixing
slowly "all the way." When the chamber. In addition, air was re- -INLET FROM CYLINDER
valve i s opened all the way, oxy- moved from the system, and the FHGUIE 4A-4 Cut away drawing of
gen cannot leak around .the valve chance of there being oxygen in the double-seated oxygen cylinder valve.
stem. (See Figure 4A-4.) fuel gas line or fuel gas in the oxygen (Courtesy of Airco, a division of the
3. Open the oxygen torch valve. line was eliminated. (Either condi- BOC Group.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

1. Close the fuel gas cylinder valve. and fire may burst through the fuel
2. Open the fuel gas torch valve. gas hose. A flashback is much more CuttingTip
3. Release the fuel gas regulator- dangerous than a backfire, because
adjusting screw. the fire burning inside the torch can
progress into the hoses. Flashbacks Heavy Preheat
4. Close the fuel gas torch valve.
may happen when Cutting Tip
(No pressure should show on
either fuel gas regulator gauge.) 1. There is a small speck of stray hot
5. Close the oxygen cylinder valve. metal inside the torch tip. (The
General Preheat
6. Open the oxygen torch valve. hot speck can ignite the gases be- Cutting Tip
fore they leave the torch tip.) *
Y--
---
-
7. Release the oxygen regulator-
adjusting screw. 2. The tip or the head of the torch FPGIIIIBE 4.44 Oxyacetylene Cutting
overheats. (The torch tip be- tips showing both the preheat and the
8. Close the oxygen torch valve. (No high-pressureoxygen orifices. (Courte-
comes overheated by holding the
pressure should show on the oxy- sy of Harris Calorific Division of Erner-
tip too close to the workpiece.
gen regulator gauges.) son Electric Company.)
Working in a tight place, such as
These steps relieve all pressure in a cavity, can force the flame
downstream, making the outfit safe backward and heat the tip.) the tip while it is attached to the
for the next person to use. When you hear a whistling or torch, because dirt particles may be
squealing from inside the torch, shut forced into the torch head. The par-
BACKFIRES AND FLASHBACKS it off immediately. Close the oxygen ticles could be blown back into the
Before starting to cut, you should be torch valve first, then shut off the tip when the torch i s used. Use a flat
aware that mishandling of the torch fuel gas valve. The flashback can file to keep the tip bottom even. Be
can cause either backfires or continue. The reason for stopping careful to use the file sparingly or the
f lashbacks. the oxygen first is that flowing oxy- tip will be worn down rapidly.
A backfire, a momentary flameout gen continues to support cornbus- Rounded tip cleaners should be
accompanied by a loud snapping or tion. The metal speck and the metal selected to fit very loosely into the
popping noise, may happen when of the torch itself become the fuel. orifices of the tip. Figure 4A-5 shows
Clean the tip when it is cool; then tips with a large hole, the high-pres-
1. The fuel gas flow is inadequate relight the torch. Do not under any sure orifice, in the center. It is sur-
(less than that recommended by circumstances cool the tip or torch rounded with a number of preheat
the manufacturer). by immersing them in water. if the holes.
2. The torch tip touches or is held flashback happens again, stop work Hold the cleaner very close to its
too close to the work. immediately. Remove the torch end, between your thumb and fore-
3. Oxygen pressure i s insufficient. from service and return it for repair. finger, as shown in Figure 4A-6. Slip
4. The cutting tip is not screwed it gently into one of the holes, and
firmly into the torch. THE IMPORTANCK feed it in gradually until an obstruc-
5 . There is dirt on the seat. OF CLEAN CUTTING TIPS tion is reached or until it moves free-
You cannot produce quality cuts ly. If the tip cleaner cannot penetrate
6. The tip overheats.
with a dirty cutting tip. Lazy welders any farther because of an obstruc-
To remedy the situation, do not who don't bother to clean their cut- tion, do not force it. Remove the tip
allow the torch tip to touch the ting tips pay for their negligence. cleaner and try one with a smaller
workpiece. Hold the proper flame Cuts will be poor and weld joints diameter.
length, and use the recommended will fit badly, making welding diffi- If the cleaner moves freely,
gas pressure. Make sure the joint be- cult. Poor cuts can be fixed with a choose one with a larger diameter
tween the tip and head is clean. chipping hammer and a grinder, but and put it into the same orifice. Re-
Screw the head and tip together all the extra work is expensive. peat the cleaning steps. increase the
securely. Clean the cutting tip often; a clean diameter of the cleaner gradually
In a flashback the flame burns tip will help you to obtain good cuts until the maximum-size cleaner is
back inside the torch, making a hiss- and will make welding a joint sim- reached. Continue until all orifices
ing or squealing sound. Sparks may ple. Before cleaning the tip remove are cleaned. Hold the cleaner care-
come out of the torch tip. Heavy it from the torch. Position the torch fully. Do not let it bend or break off
black smoke can come from the tip, to let any loose particles fall out of in the torch tip, which will ruin the
the blowpipe handle may overheat, the end. It is bad practice to clean tip.
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CHAPTER 4 OXYFUEL FLAME CUTTING
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PBGURE 4A.6 Correct method for holding a tip cleaner

when cleaning a torch tip.
Reassemble and light the torch,

and then check the size of the
flames. Each of the preheat flames
should be the same length and di-
FIGURE 4A.7 Top: Properly adjusted, neutral cutting flame,
ameter, and they should come the preheat stage. Bottom: Neutral cutting flame with cutting
straight out from the tip. When the oxygen stream, (the cutting stage). (Courtesy of Victor Equip-
cutting oxygen lever is depressed, ment Company.)
the oxygen stream should be straight
and in the center of the preheat
flames (Figure 4A-7). 2. Open the fuel gas valve one flame jumps away from the torch
quarter turn to one half turn. tip or whether the preheat cones
ADJ U%" N(; IWR 3. Use a friction striker to ignite the become longer. If they do, open
A Nli~U'I'HAI~ FI,AMI - mixture. Never use a match.
gas the oxygen torch valve a little
After you have pressurized the oxy- more; this increases the amount
4. As soon as the flame ignites, open
fuel cutting outfit according to the of oxygen to the flame. Momen-
the fuel gas valve until the flame
suggested procedure and tested for tarily depress the high-pressure
i s clear of black smoke.
leaks, the torch may be ignited. To 5. Open the oxygen torch valve un- oxygen lever again. Repeat until
light the torch properly, follow the til the flame shortens and the in- the preheat cones remain the
manufacturer's instructions. Gener- ner cones of the preheat flames same size. When they do, you
ally, follow this simple procedure: are bright blue. have not only a neutral flame but
a properly set cutting flame.
1. Open the oxygen torch valve very 6 . Depress the cutting oxygen lever
slightly. momentarily. See whether the

LESSON 4B
MAKING STRAIGHT CUTS AND
BEVELED CUTS ON STEEL PLATE
Being able to make straight cuts and
beveled cuts in steel plate is as im-
portant as being able to make qual-
ity welds. The welder who can make
precision cuts will always have weld
joints with good fits. Good-fitting
joints are much easier to weld. A
poor fit makes welding more diffi-
cult because you will have to work
longer and harder. Jointsthat are not
fit correctly also use more filler
metal than joints that are fit correct-
ly. Such excuses as "Well, I'm in a
hurry" or "It's going to get filled in
anyway" are poor ones to justify
poor cuts.
The key to good cutting is to relax.
Position yourself so that you are as
comfortable as possible. Do not hur-
ry a cut, and do not attempt to make
cuts longer than 4 to 5 in. without Correct posture is important when cutting.
changing your position.
Before you start, consider the cut-
ting torch you are going to use. It is
a precision tool and finely made. It use a cutting torch for any purpose 4. Oxyfuel cutting outfit.
was designed to flame-cut metal. It except cutting. 5. Chipping hammer.
was not designed to be used as a 6. Tongs or pliers.
hammer to knock off pieces of poor- 7.Soapstone.
ly cut metal. If you cannot cut well MATERIAL A N D EgWHPMEN'F 8. Straight edge.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
enough for the scrap portion of the 1. Proper clothing. 9. Tip cleaner.
metal to drop off, after the cut is 2. Safety glasses and welding gog- 10. Scrap plate V4 to 1/z in. thick and
completed, try again or use a chip- gles with a number 5 or 6 lens. about 4 in. wide.
ping hammer to remove it. Never 3. Leather gloves.
MAKING S T R A I G H T CUTS
PROCEDURE 3. Make sure that your goggles fit the width of the piece of scrap.
1. Assemble the oxyfuel cutting well and that they are clean and 5. Wear your gloves while practic-
outfit according to the instruc- in good condition. There should ing and making cuts.
tions of the manufacturer or of not be any openings for sparks 6. Lay the piece of scrap metal on
your teacher. to enter. the cutting table as shown in
2. Pressurize the cutting outfit, 4. Using the straight edge and the Figure 4B-1. Arrange it so that
following the suggested pro- soapstone, mark off a number of the lines run from left to right as
cedure. lines about Y 2 in. apart across you face them.

CHAPTER 4 OXYFUEL FLAME CUTTING
FPQiiILTwE4B.n Plate with lines in position for cutting. PB16irUIWE 4B.2 Head over the plate.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FiïGW8%E4B-g Correct hand and torch positions for cutting FHGUIE 4B.4 The flame cone distance above the plate is
plate. from 1/16 to 1/8 in.
7. As shown in Figure 48-2, pick 9. Practice moving the torch across the feel of the torch and your
up the unlit torch. Hold the the plate from right to left. Fol- body position. Now you can
tubes of the blowpipe in front of low a line as shown in Figure proceed to make the first cut.
the handle between the thumb 48-3. Do not slide your left Light the torch and set a neutral
and first three fingers of your left hand along. Keep it in one po- cutting flame. Hold the torch as
hand. Don't grab the blowpipe sition and allow it to pivot in a you have just learned to do. Po-
tightly; just hold it gently be- rolling motion while your right sition the tip about '/in.
i in from
tween the tips of your fingers. hand moves the torch slowly to the right side of the plate. Place
The back of your hand should the right. When you move your the preheat cones approximate-
rest on the plate, with the tips of hands in this way, the torch tip ly 'A6 in. above the plate, as
the fingers pointing upward. moves smoothly across the shown in Figure 4B-4.
8. Spread your feet apart and lean metal. If you allowed the left 11. Move the flame in a small circle
over the plate. Place yourself so hand to slide across the metal, a little larger than the size of the
that you look straight down at the torch movement would be tip. When the metal is heated
both the torch tip and the soap- jerky. cherry red, move the tip to the
stone lines. Put your right hand 10. Practice the movement a few right-hand edge of the plate.
on the handle of the torch. times to acquaint yourself with Next, depress the cutting oxy-

can deflect the oxygen stream

and cause unacceptable gouges
in the kerf and plate surfaces.
The kerf is the space or gap left
by the stream of cutting oxygen.
13. Practice on the remaining lines.
Become familiar with the feel of
the torch.
14. To obtain the most accurate
cuts, watch the side of the kerf
nearest you. The edge of the kerf
should touch the soapstone line.
Do not try to follow the center
of the line. You will find that the
FIGURE 45.5 Position of hands for the right-handed welder. cut is not straight, and the piece
being cut may be the wrong
length, depending on how well
gen lever and immediately be- After you have made a cut of you followed the line and how
gin to move the torch tip slowly about 4 in., you will reach a thick it was drawn.
and steadily toward the left. (See point where it is no longer com- 15. Practice until you can produce
Figure 4B-5.) fortable to handle the torch. At a straight cut with an acceptable
12. If you move the torch too rap- this point move the torch tip at edge. See the examples of good
idly, you will lose the cut. a right angle, and cut away from and bad cuts in Figure 48-6.
When this happens, release the the line. Move into the scrap 16. When you are finished, shut off
cutting oxygen lever and go side of the cut for a distance of the torch as you have been
back to where the cut was lost. no more than 3/8 in. At this point taught. Cool off any specimens
Preheat that spot, depress the move the torch tip in a small cir- that you wish to show to the in-
cutting oxygen lever, and move cle to form a hole approximately structor. Always use the tongs or
the torch along the line again. in. in diameter. Then release pliers to pick up any hot metal.
Do not move too slowly. The the cutting oxygen lever. This
metal will fuse together as the hole will give you a place to re-
torch moves along and will not start the cut. it is located away
separate when you reach the from the slag that may be on the
end of the plate. opposite side of the plate. Slag
BEVELING PLATE
Many of the joints you weld must amount of filler metal that must be centration and effort on the part of
first be beveled. Beveling will allow deposited and to make welding the welder. Your efforts will pay off
you to fill in the entire joint and, in easier. in dividends, especially when you
most welds, penetratethrough to the it is important to bevel the plate weld a set of test plates or weld a
other side. Precision is more impor- on as straight a line as possible and joint in a difficult position.
tant in beveling than in making to hold the same bevel angle for the
straight cuts. The accuracy of the be- entire length of the joint. When the
vel determines the type of root open- bevel angle changes, the root face PROCEDURE
ing you will weld. of the plate will vary. It will become 1. The best method for obtaining a
The root or first pass is the most either shorter or longer, depending good bevel with a minimum of
important pass in welding a joint. on how the bevel angle changes. slag is to cut and bevel at the
The root opening or gap must be as Beveling is not a difficult opera- same time. Some welders first
even as possible to minimize the tion to learn, but it does require con- make a square cut and then bevel
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CHAPTER 4 OXYFUEL FLAME CU'ITING
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149
PRODUCTION CUT has moderately sloping

drag lines and reasonably smooth surface.
This type represents best
combination of quality and economy.
PERFECT CUT shows regular surface with

slightly sloping drag lines. Surface can
;j~ yL'I,cii,
4.- -,
* )
be used for many purposes without machining.
I '
bad cuts. (Courtesy of Harris Calorific

Division of Emerson Electric
Company.1
DIRTY TIP or scale in the tip will

deflect oxygen stream and cause excess
slag, pitting and undercutting.
SLIGHTLY TOO FAST makes drag lines

incline backwards, but a "drop cut"
is still attained. Quality is satisfactory
for production work.
EXTREMELY FAST. Not enough time

is allowed for slag to blow out of the kerf.
Cut face is often slightly concave.
SLIGHTLY TOO SLOW produces high

quality cut, although there is some surface
roughness caused by vertical drag lines.
EXTREMELY SLOW produces pressure

marks which indicate too much oxygen
for cutting conditions.

15@ SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING AND CUTTING
along this cut. This procedure re-

quires more work than beveling
and cutting in a single operation.
(The two-step operation is ineffi-
cient and unacceptable.) Making
two passes with the torch means
that you have to chip the slag off
after the cut is made, then chip it
off again after the bevel is made.
2. Assume the same practice posi-
tion as you did when cutting
plate, but line your shoulders up
at a 45-degree angle to the line
of the plate, as shown in Figure
4B-7.
3. Hold the torch in the same man-
ner as when cutting plate but tilt
it 30 to 37% degrees off the per-
pendicular, as shown in Figure
40-8. PHGUIE 4B-7Proper stance.
4. The side of the torch tip nearest
to you should almost touch the
plate, as shown in Figure 48-9.
The torch should be held gently
in the left hand. It should slide
through the fingers in the same
manner as a pool cue. Practice
moving the torch over the line,
across the plate. When you feel
you are ready, light the torch.
Make sure that the tip is clean and
that you have the correct cutting
flame.
5. Start heating the plate as de-
scribed for cutting plate. When
the spot becomes cherry red, de-
press the cutting oxygen lever and
begin to cut toward the left side
of the plate. Advance the torch as
shown in Figure 48-10, pivoting
your left hand and sliding the
torch gently through your fingers.
Do not grip the torch too tightly with slag behind the tip, increase
with the left hand. A tight grip the rate of travel.
may cause your movements to be 7. Do not stop when you reach the
jerky. end of the plate. Continue on past
6. As you cut, look directly into the the end of the plate for about 112
kerf behind the advancing torch in. Otherwise a small section at
tip. You will be able to see the bottom left side of the plate
whether you are making a clean will not be completely severed,
PiiGüRb;'48.3 Torch movement
cut. If the kerf seems to be filling as shown in Figure 46-1 1. sequence.
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CHAPTER 4 OXYFUEL FLAME CUTTING P51
PIGURE 4B.1 I An incomplete cut. FIGURE 4B-I2 The correct method

of removing slag with a chipping
hammer.
8. When you are finished, shut off 9. Compare your bevel with the
the torch as you have been samples in Figure 48-1 3. Practice
taught. Cool the plate. Chip off until you are able to produce
slag by striking it at a right angle, good-quaIity bevels.
as shown in Figure 48-12.
GOOD QUALITY is shown by excellent

top edge and extremely smooth cut face.
The cut part is dimensionally accurate.
Beveling sequence.
k'16iriüWg 48.114~
&"Bi;BTRE 4mn3 Examples of good

and bad bevels. (Courtesy of Harris
POOR QUALITY results in gouging is the
most common fault, and is caused by
A
Calorific Division of Emerson Electric either excess speed or too mild preheat flame. 7
Company.)
LESSON 4c
LES
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IA'FEIHAE A N D EQBUBIPMIDIIIEWIT 3. Leather gloves. 7. Tip cleaner.

1. Proper clothing. 4. Oxyfuel cutting outfit. 8. One piece of steel 9' toY 2 in.
2. Safety glasses and welding gog- 5. Chipping hammer. thick of random length and
gles with a number 4 or 5 lens. 6 . Tongs or pliers. width.

152 SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING AND CWTY'ING
PIERCING HOLES
PROCEDURE
I . Assemble, pressurize, and light
the oxyfuel cutting outfit as you Preheat plate Depress oxygen lever
have been taught in Lesson 4A.
2. Hold the torch over the area Pierce hoie
where you want the hole until a FIGURE 4C.1 Piercing hole.
bright-yellow spot with a molten
center appears.
3. Pierce the plate in the center of
the hole and not on the edge.
Piercing will cause an irregular
hole, and therefore you want it in same time raising the torch about When the hole is formed, lower
'
the area that will be discarded. 1 in. the torch to the proper distance
2. Slowly depress the high-pressure 3. The metal will blow out of the above the plate and continue the
oxygen cutting lever while at the puddle until a hole is formed. cut. (See Figure 4C-1,)
ELONGATING HOLES
PROCEDURE the torch on your glove. Allow

1. With a soapstone mark on the the torch to travel at an even rate
material the shape to be cut. to produce a smooth, even cut.
2. Light the torch and obtain a neu- 5. Travel along the soapstone line,
tral flame. returning the cut to the oppo-
3. Bring the torch to the edge of the site side of the hole, to produce
hole and, using the preheat an elongated hole. (See Figure
flames, heat the metal in prepa- 4C-2.)
ration for beginning the cut. 6. It may be necessary to tap the slug
4. When the metal is ready, begin lightly with your chipping ham-
the cut and advance the torch mer to remove it.
along the soapstone line. Position
your hand so that you can slide FIGURE 4 C 3 Elongated hole.
LESSON 4D
FLAME CUTTING AND BEVELING PIPE
Cutting pipe requires more care than control the straightness of the cut important to place yourself in a
almost any cutting operation. Usu- and the angle of the bevel, while comfortable position. If you are not
ally the welder cuts and bevels the closely following the line for the cut fairly comfortable, your straining
pipe in a single operation. This pro- around the pipe. muscles can begin to shake. It is dif-
cedure saves time and produces Care is also required if you wish ficult to follow a line accurately
superior cuts, relatively free of slag. to obtain quality cuts. As with any when you are not relaxed.
A great deal of skill is needed to welding or cutting operation, it is
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CHAPTER 4 OXYFUEL FLAME CUTTING Ei53
ANIIBwpuomvmrwr
MATEHRHAFL ly 30 to 37 degrees away from 12. Cut along the line until your
1. Proper clothing. the perpendicular, pointed to- movements feel uncomfortable.
2. Safety glasses and welding gog- ward the scrap piece, as shown Then cut away from the line into
gles with number 5 or 6 lens. in Figure 4D-3. Light the torch, the scrap zone, moving the
3. Leather gloves. making sure you have a neutral torch into the scrap zone the
4. Oxyfuel cutting outfit. flame. same distance you started with.
5. Chipping hammer. 10. Start at a point near the top cen- Finish the cut with a small circle
6. Ballpeen hammer. ter of the pipe and begin to pre- or keyhole. By starting and fin-
7.Tongs or pliers. heat the metal. As shown in Fig- ishing the cut sections in the
8. Soapstone. ure 4D-4, the distance from the scrap side of the pipe, you can
9. Wraparound straight edge. top should be no more than 3 or establish the correct bevel angle
10. Tip cleaner. 4 in. You can comfortably cut before you reach the actual cut
11. One piece of 4- or 6-in.-diame- that much pipe without moving line. You eliminate the blow-
ter standard pipe. your position. back and gouging problems
11. Heat the pipe until the zone caused by slag. (See Figure
PROCEDURE along the line is cherry red. 40-5.)
1. Assemble and pressurize the Then move the torch tip away 13. Rotate the pipe after each cut.
oxyfuel cutting outfit according from the line, about l/4 in., and Start again and make cuts until
to the manufacturer's instruc- pierce a hole in the scrap end of the next cut will be the last. (See
tions or as you have been the pipe. As soon as you pierce Figure 4D-6.) Before you begin
taught. the pipe, rotate the torch to form the last section, strike the uncut
2. Make sure that your goggles fit a small hole. Then move the area with a ballpeen hammer.
torch toward the line to be cut The hammer blows should re-
well and are clean.
and start. Cut the bevel from move most of the slag on the re-
3. The area should be free of com- maining section. Look inside the
right to left.
bustibles before you start to cut.
4. Make sure the cutting tip is
clean before you start to cut.
5. Provide a piece of channel, a
rest made from an angle bar, or
some other device to hold the
pipe while you make the cut.
(See Figure 4D-1.)
6. Use the torch flame on the pipe
surface. Burn away any coating
along the path where the cut is
to be made. Thoroughly wire-
brush the path after burning. U~UC;UU&IE:4 U D - R Pipe secured in a FHGURE 4D-2A welder in position
7. Use the wraparound and a prop- channel on a table. on the right side of the pipe and with
erly sharpened soapstone to the left forearm on the pipe.
scribe a straight line around the
pipe. Keep the line as narrow as
possible.
a. Stand to the right of the pipe.
(The position for the left-handed
welder is reversed.) Place your-
Torch tip
self so that you face toward the
I
I-
Cut line
end that will become scrap.
Practice the cutting motions un-
til you feel comfortable. --
9. Rest your left forearm on the
pipe, as shown in Figure 4D-2.
Hold the torch tip approximate- U'UU6üJIIGIIs 4 U D - 3 Torch angle. ¡FIIGEILT!XE 4D.4 Starting point.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

FIGURE 4D-5Kerf with keyholes at FIGURE 4D.6 The last Y? in. of the
the start and end of a cut. cut is left until the slag is removed.
BBGUBBE 4BIB-7 A hammer is used to

remove slag and even up the cut.
pipe to see whether there is any ue to cut the last section. Clean also be used to even up the cut,
slag left in the cut area. Remove the cut face and remove the re- if needed. (See Figure 4D-7.)
any slag you find, or it can spoil maining slag. 16. inspect the cut for straightness
the end of your cut. 15. Tap the bevel lightly with the and evenness of the bevel. After
14. When you have assured yourself ballpeen hammer to remove any cooling it, show it to your
that the inside of the cut area is slag that may adhere to the instructor.
relatively free from slag, contin- feather edge. The hammer may
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

~-
CHAPTER 5
@BJECTIVEB PER88NAL EQUnPMENT

Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to When personal equipment is called for in this chapter, it
1. Weld beads, corner joints, and square-groove butt shall consist of
joints in the flat position with and without filler metal. 1. Proper clothing.
2. Weld corner and fillet joints and square-groove butt 2. Safety glasses and welding goggles with a number 4
joints in the horizontal position. or 5 lens.
3. Weld corner and fillet joints and square-groove butt 3. Leather gloves.
joints in the vertical up and vertical down positions. 4. Oxyacetylene torch, tips, and regulators.
4. Weld corner and fillet joints and square-groove butt 5. Pliers or tongs.
joints in the overhead position. 6. Spark lighter.
7. Wire brush.
FLAT BEADS WITHOUT F I L L E R METAL
MATE~~BHAIL
AND ~a~uruu~wniiswa Safely Note: OxyfueO mixtures
mum body movement to aid in
1. Personal equipment. are highly explosive and extremely
controlling the torch. Hold the
2. A carbon steel sheet, 3 / 3 ~in. X flammable. Do not neglect this im- torch securely with the open
3 in. X 6 in. long. p ~ r t ; ~ step.
n t Failure to check for
end of the tip pointed away from
leaks cowld result in serious bodily
you.
injury and severe property damage.
7. Light up the torch and adjust it
PROCEDURE 4. With a wire brush clean the sur- to obtain a neutral flame. Be
1. Assemble the oxyacetylene face of the plate you are going sure your safety glasses and gog-
welding (OAW) outfit according to weld on, to remove mill scale gles are in place.
to the manufacturer's instruc- and oxides, and place the plate 8. Lower the torch until the inner
tions or the instructions of your on the welding table. core of the flame i s about 3/3z in.
teacher. 5. Check the area around you and above the surface of the plate.
2. Select the correct tip size from your welding table to make sure The torch tip should be at a 40-
the manufacturer's chart, and it is free of all combustible to 50-degree angle pointing to-
adjust the regulators to the cor- materials. ward the direction of travel.
rect working pressure. 6. Position yourself comfortably in (Thetip points toward the left for
3. Check all connections with a front of your welding station. A a right-handed person and to-
leak detection fluid or soapy standing position, feet slightly ward the right for a left-handed
water to ensure tightness. spread, is best. It allows maxi- person.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Direction of travel
4
PHGUWE 5A.U Some typical weave

patterns.
9. Hold the torch there until a

round puddle develops. Use
one of the side-to-side motions
shown in Figure 5A-1 to estab-
lish the puddle. BIIQtíJEE 6A.Z Samples of weld bead defects. (a) This is a fairly satisfactory weld
10. When the puddle has been es- bead, although the ripple of the bead could be more uniform. íb) The poor quality of
tablished, progress at a uniform this bead-it has excessive melting-may be caused by too slow a speed of travel or
rate of travel toward the left by too large a torch tip for the particular thickness of material being used. íc) This
defective bead is too narrow. Narrowness i s generally caused by moving the torch
(right for left-handed welders),
too rapidly and not allowing a proper weld bead to form. (d) This weld is satisfactory
being careful to adjust the rate except for the burned section at the end. This defect is caused by not moving the
of travel to obtain a bead of uni- weld bead fast enough as the weld i s being completed. (From Welding Fundamentals
form width. and Procedures, by Jerry Galyeii, Garry Sear, ancl Charles A. Tuttle. Copyright O
11. Continue to run beads until the 1984, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons,
plate is filled up. Inc.)
12. When the plate has cooled, ex-
amine the appearance of the
bead. (See Figure SA-2.)
hot or have sharp edges that will Even when YOU are not welding
Safety Note: Do not handle the burn or cut your hand. (Use your or cutting, wear your safety equip-
metal with bare hands. It may be pliers OF tongs to handle the metal. ment and observe all safety rules.
F L A T B E A D S WITH F I L L E R METAL
WATEREAL A N D E@UJHPMEN'E' the wire to melt off and mix with

1. Personal equipment. the puddle. (See Figure 5A-3.)
2. Carbon steel sheet, 3/32 x 3 in. Withdraw the wire slightly, keep-
x 6 in. long. ing the end of the wire in the sec-
3. %-in. carbon steel filler rod. ondary flame envelope to protect
it from the atmosphere. (See Fig-
PROCEDURE ure 5A-4.) Do not keep the wire
1. Lower the torch to the plate and too close to the flame, or the end
establish a weld puddle. Hold the will melt and ball up. A large ball
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
filler metal in your left hand. As makes it very difficult to add filler
the puddle develops, move the FI(QURE 5A.3 Correct addition of the metal to the puddle. (See Figure
end of the filler metal to the lead- filler metal to the leading edge oí the SA-5.)
ing edge of the puddle and allow puddle. 2. Continue to add filler metal to the

CHAPTER 5 OXYACETYLENE WELDING OF CARBON STEEL 157
leading edge of the puddle by

dabbing it in the puddle as the
torch is advanced along the
sheet.
3. Try to maintain a uniform width
and height of the bead by coor-
dinating the rate of travel and the
addition of filler metal.
4. When nearing the edge of the
FIGURE 5A-4The hot end of the fill- Flr6811E l A . 5 The filler metal is too sheet, gradually withdraw the
er metal is protected by keeping it in close to the flame, causing a large ball flame and add filler metal to fill
the crater.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the secondary flame envelope. to form on the end of the wire.

5. Continue to run beads until the
plate is filled up.
6. When the plate has cooled, ex-
amine the appearance of the
bead. (See Figure 5A-6.)
NOTE: There are many types of
filler metals to weld a variety of ma-
terials. Filler metals are classified by
the American Welding Society.*
Filler metals for gas welding range
in diameter from 'A6 to %6 in. and
are usually 36 in. in length. Mild
steel welding rods are often copper-
coated to inhibit rusting. The size of
the rod you use will depend on the
thickness of the metal to be welded
and the position it is to be welded
FIGUIIRE SA-6 Defects in weld beads made with filler rods. (a) This i s a fairly satis-
factory weld. Try to obtain a more uniform ripple surface than ihis sample has. (b)
in. Too large a rod will cool the Pud-
Holes and heavy weld deposits are generally caused by moving too slowly across the dle, decreasing penetration and fu-
workpiece. (c)A proper molten puddle was not established and maintained. The sion. If the rod i s too small, heat will
speed of travel was too fast. Cu', This is a satisfactory weld. Attempt to keep the bead become excessive, resulting in too
width uniform, and do not allow too much buildup of filler metal. (From Welding much penetration and too wide a
Fundamentals and Procedures, by Jerry Galyen, Garry Sear, and Charles A. Tuttle. weld bead.
Copyright O 1984, by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Reprinted by permission of John
Wiley x< Sons, Inc.) *American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.
FLAT OUTSIDE=CORNERJOINT
MA'I'EBPAL ANID RMgUlPMEN9 2. Lower the torch to the joint, so 3. Continue using one of the weav-
1. Personal equipment. that the inner cone is about ing motions you have learned
2. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, 'A6 in. above the surface of the earlier. Watch carefully to see
3/32 in. x 11/2 in. X 6 in. long. joint. Move the torch in a slight that the puddle forms behind the
circular motion until you estab- flame to complete the weld. (See
PROCEDURE lish a puddle. Observe the puddle Figure SA-8.) Regulate your
1. Tack the two pieces of steel sheet and make sure that you melt the speed of travel so that the bead
together as shown in Figure groove faces and the root of the has an even width. Too rapid a
5A-7. joint. travel speed will not allow the

. bead toform, but too slow a trav-

el speed will develop an exces-
sively large puddle, which will
fall through and make a large
hole.
4. Continue moving the torch along
the joint until you reach the end.
When you reach the end, contin-
ue your weaving motion and
gradually lift the flame away from
FHGURE 3A.7 Outside-corner joint setup, flat position
the surface until the puddle
solidifies.
5. After the weld cools, clean it with
your wire brush and examine it.
Observe, as you practice, that the
tip-to-work distance can be used as
an aid in controlling the weld pud-
dle. If the puddle becomes too large,
an increase in flame-to-puddle dis-
tance will cool off the puddle. If the
tip gets too close to the puddle, the
sparks and spatter that come off the
puddle can enter the tip and clog it,
causing backfires or backflashes. Be
sure to set the correct gas pressures.
Excessive pressures will produce a
FHGURE CA08 Outside-corner joint without filler rod, flat position. strong flame, which will make the
weld puddle difficult to control.
F L A T OUTSIDE=CORNER JOINT WITH FILLER METAL
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT large that it will fall through. The

1. Personal equipment. resulting hole will be extremely
2. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, difficult to repair. If you do not
3/32 in. x 11/2 in. x 6 in. long. watch the puddle carefully to
3. 3/3z-in. carbon steel filler metal. make sure that the surfaces of
the groove and the root are weld-
ed, you will not achieve full
PROCEDURE penetration.
1. Tack the two pieces of steel sheet S.'Progress along the joint, adding
together as shown in Figure filler metal as you learned earlier
5A-7. and being careful to obtain com-
2. Lower the torch to the joint and plete penetration. Watch that the
establish a puddle. Carefully note width and reinforcement of your
when you establish the puddle bead are uniform. (See Figure PHGUWIE SA-9 Outside-corner joint
that you melt all areas of the joint, 5A-9.) with filler rod, flat position.
including the root. This will de- 4. Weld the complete joint, being
termine your penetration. Be careful to withdraw the flame add filler rod to the puddle to fill
careful not to allow the torch to slowly at the end of the joint so the crater.
remain in one spot too long, or that you do not melt the end. 5. After cooling inspect the weld
you will develop a puddle so While withdrawing the flame, and show it to your instructor.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 5 OXYACETYLENE WELDING OF CARBON STEEL
F L A T SQUARE=GROOVE BUTT JOINT WITH F I L L E R METAL
MA’ITIEIHAH,A N D BQRJIRDMEN~
1. Personal equipment.
2. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet,
3/32 in. x 3 in. X 6 in. long.
3. Kz-in. carbon steel filler metal. Place tacks at the ends
and in the center
PROCEDURE equal to the thickness of the sheet

1. Tack the two pieces of steel sheet FIIGUWX SA-UúD Tacking sequence for a square-groove butt joint, flat position.
together as shown in Figure
5A-1 O.
2. Lower the torch to the joint and
establish a puddle. To ensure pe-
netration, you will want to use
the keyhole technique. In the
keyhole technique you allow the
puddle to penetrate through the
joint until a keyhole (see Figure
SA-1 1) is established.
3. Once you have established a key-
hole, begin adding filler metal to
the leading edge of the puddle. tiPno;ï~JiWE5n.n n The keyhole technique.
Carefully control the rate of travel
along the joint, and the rate at
which filler metal is added, to
produce an even, consistent 4. When the plate has cooled, clean penetration and for the appear-
bead. the weld and examine it for joint ance of its face.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
HORIZONTAL OUTSIDE=CORNERJOINT
IATE ARUA DA A IPTUD BQWU RDW EIS N‘F 2. Lower the torch to the joint so speed to produce a bead of con-
that the tip of the inner core is sistant width, with even ripples.
2. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, about ‘A6 in. above the surface of 4. When you reach the end of the
3/32 in. x 1% in. X 6 in. long. the joint. Move the flame in one joint, gradually lift the flame
3. 3h-in. carbon steel filler metal. of the weave patterns you have away from the surface until the
learned until you establish a puddle solidifies.
PROCEDURE puddle. 5. Set up another horizontal corner
1. Tack the two pieces of steel sheet 3. Continue the weld, using one of weld as shown in Figure 5B-1.
together and position as shown in the weave patterns you learned Begin the weld as in step 2, but
Figure 5B-1. previously. Regulate your travel this time add the filler metal to the

160 SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING AND CUTTING,
puddle as you progress along the the weld and examine it for joint
joint. Make sure you completely penetration and face appearance.
melt the filler metal and thor-
Safety Note: If you force-cool
Ough'y mix it with the weldPud-
your welds by immersing them in
dle before advancing the flame
water, be sure to wear your gloves
along the joint.
and stand off to the side to prevent
When the plate has 'lean steam burns to your hands and face.
OAW
FIGURE 5B-I Outside-corner joint,

horizontal position.
HORIZONTAL SQUARE=GROOVE BUTT JOINT
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT

3/32 in. x 3 in. x 6 in. long.
3. %z-in. carbon steel filler metal.
PROCEDURE
1. Tack the two pieces of steel sheet FIGURE 5B.3 The torch angle for
together and position them so that welding a horizontal square-groove
the weld joint is in the horizontal butt joint.
2C position. (See Figure 58-2.)
2. Position the torch so that the tip FIGURE 511.2 Square-groove butt
joint, horizontal position.
is pointing up at about a 10-de-
gree angle. (See Figure 58-3.) The
flame angle will help to control
the weld puddle, to provide even
reinforcement, and to prevent un- a. You can add less filler metal 4. Complete the weld, being careful
dercut at the toe of the weld on and work the puddle you have to fill the crater as you complete
the top side of the joint. with the flame. the joint.
3. If the puddle becomes too large b. YOU can move the fhme far- 5 . Cool the plate, clean the weld,
and begins to sag, you can do two ther away from the plate. This and show the weld to your
things. will reduce the amount of heat instructor.
put into the joint.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
HORIZONTAL F I L L E T JOINT
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT 2. Lower the torch to the joint and

1. Personal equipment. establish a puddle. Note in Figure
2. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, 58-5 that you must angle the
y 3 2 in. X 3 in. X 6 in. long. torch differently to obtain equal
3. 3h-in. carbon steel filler metal. melting at the joint.
3. Add filler rod and progress along
PROCEDURE the joint, carefully observing that
1 . Tack the two pieces together as both legs and the root are being
shown in Figure 58-4. Tack both fused, that the width of the bead t-1 in.+
sides. is even, and that the face is flat or FIGURE 5B.4 Tacking a lap joint.

CHAPTER 5 OXYACETYLENE WELDING OF CARBON STEEL P6P
WRONG p
Heat will conduct away from the joint in the
bottom sheet, causing the top to heat more
quickly
RIGHT
Directingthe flame toward the bottom

sheet will make the melting more even
FI(~;UJHIE8B-5The torch angle for
welding a horizontal lap joint fillet.
slightly convex. Weld both sides.

4. After cooling inspect the weld
and show it to your instructor. Welding a horizontal fillet.
LESSON 5C
WE N
VERTICAL OUTSIDEXORNER JOINT, U P H I L L WELD
IATEREAL A N D EQWHPMlENT
y32 in. X 1 % in. X 6 in. long.
3. 3/32-in. carbon steel filler metal.
OA
PROCEDURE
1. Tack the two pieces together
and position as shown in Figure
5C-1.
2. Move the tip to the joint and po-
sition the torch as shown in Fig- IFUdE871E ZC-ü Outside-corner joint,
Ure 5C-2. vertica I positi on.
3. Establish a puddle, making sure FIGURE SC.2 The torch and filler
that the sidewalls are molten to 4. When a puddle is established, wire angles for welding an outside-
the root of the joint. add the filler wire to the leading corner joint uphill.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

B62 SECTION II OXYFUEL GAS WELDING AND CUTTING
edge of the puddle. (See Figure to keep the bead width uniform 7.When the plate has cooled, clean
5C-2.) Add the wire as needed; and the contour even. the weld and examine it for joint
do not use a continuous feed. 6. Progress to the top of the joint, penetration and face appearance,
Dab the wire in the puddle. and gradually pull away the and show it to your instructor.
5. Use a side-to-side weave and torch, adding filler wire to build
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
progress vertically up, taking care up the crater.
VERTICAL OUTSIDE=CORNER JOINT, DOWNHILL WELD

2. Two, pieces of carbon steel sheet,
%2 in. x 1 V 2 in. x 6 in. long.
PROCEDURE OAW
1. Tack the two pieces together

and position as shown in Figure
5c-3.
2. Move the tip to the joint and po- FBGUWE Be-3 The torch angle for B'EGUR!B BC.4 The torch angle and
welding an outside-corner joint filler wire angle for welding an outside-
sition the torch as shown in Fig-
down hiI I. corner joint downhill with filler metal.
ure 5C-3.
3. Establish a puddle, making sure
that the sidewalls are melted
completely to the root of the 5. Use a side-to-side motion to gin the downhill progression,
joint. help the weld form. If you need begin adding filler metal as
more control over the weld pud- shown in Figure 5C-4.
4. Begin moving downward at a
dle, increase the torch angle 9. Complete the weld, being care-
rate of speed that will ensure a
and use the flame to help sup- ful to watch the addition of the
complete weld. Be careful, for a
port the puddle. filler wire and travel speed to
travel speed that is too slow will
develop a large puddle that will 6. Complete the downhill progres- provide an even, consistent
drop out, leaving a hole. A trav- sion, using a weaving motion bead.
el speed that is too fast will re- until the joint is complete. 10. Upon completion of the welds,
sult in only partial melting of the 7. Tack two more pieces together clean them, examine them for
joint. The metal will not then as shown in Figure 5C-3. root penetration and face ap-
flow behind the flame to form a 8. Establish a puddle as you did in pearance, and show them to
completed weld. step 3, but this time, as you be- your instructor.
VERTICAL S Q U A R E 4 R O O V E BUTT JOINT
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT 2. Move the torch to the bottom of Figure 5C-6.) Use one of the
1. Personal equipment. the groove and establish a weld weaving motions you learned to
2. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, puddle. Continue to develop make sure that the puddle fuses
y 3 2 in. X 3 in. X 6 in. long. the puddle until you see the key- to both sides of the joint.
3. %2-in. carbon steel filler metal. hole that indicates complete 4. Progress upward at an even rate
penetration. of travel while adding filler me-
PROCEDURE 3. When you achieve the desired tal to produce a bead of even
1 . Tack two pieces together and po- penetration, begin adding fil ler width with good contour and
sition as shown in Figure 5C-5. metal and progress upward. (See appearance.

5. End the weld, being sure to taper

off at the end to fill the crater and
complete the joint.
Caution: ûnadequately filled cra-
ters are often the source of cracks
and blisters. Tacks
OA
*Root opening should be up to half

the thickness of the sheet used. P8[4UlìE 5C.48 The filler wire position
F ü ~ t ü 5 Sc.8
~ í ~ Square-groove butt and torch angle for welding a vertical
joint, vertical position. square-groove butt ioint .
VERTICAL FILLET JOINT
MATEEUAIL m ~ ~apmwmwr
m
2. One piece of carbon steel sheet,
3/32 in. x 3 in. x 6 in. long; one
piece of carbon steel sheet, %2
in. x 1 % in. x 6 in. long.
PROCEDURE
1. Tack the assembly together and
position it as shown in Figure
5c-7.
w
iFUGüJUGílCSC-8 The torch and filler inetai 2ingles for welding a vertical fillet joint.
2. Position the torch as shown in Figure 5C-8. Keep the rate of trav-
Figure 5C-8 and establish a pud- el even, and add the filler metal
dle. Note: Extreme care must be in consistent amounts so that an
taken to observe that melting oc- even bead is deposited.
curs all the way into the root of 4. Apply a %in. leg fillet on both
the joint. The sidewalls will melt sides of the joint, as indicated by
first, but you must avoid adding the welding symbol.
filler metal until the root is 5. When you have completed the
molten. welds, clean them, examine
-Tack boths sides 3. Begin the vertical progression them, and show them to your
~ I W G K J8~ E~ Vertical
7 fillet joint. adding filler metal as shown in . instructor.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

164 SECTION II OXYFUEL 6 A S WELDING AND CUl"IN6
LESSON 5D
WELDING IN THE OVERHEAD POSITION
O V E R H E A D OUTSIDE=CORNER JOINT
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT lished, begin adding filler metal

1. Personal equipment. as shown in Figure 5D-2.
2. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, 7. When you have completed the
3/32 in. x 1% in. X 6 in. long. beads, clean them, examine
3. Yx-in. carbon steel filler metal. them, and show them to your
instructor.
PROCEDURE
1. Tack the two pieces together and
position as shown in Figure FIGURE 5D.I Outside-corner joint,
5D-1. overhead position.
2. Bring the torch to the joint and
establish a puddle. Look for com-
plete melting and the keyhole.
3. Use the weave technique com-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
fortable to you, and begin pro-
gressing along the joint in an even
manner.
4. Fuse the entire joint, looking for
complete penetration and even
bead width.
5. Tack two more pieces together as
shown in Figure 50-1, and again
establish a puddle. FIGURE 5D.2 The torch angle and filler metal placement for welding an overhead
6. When a puddle has been estab- outside-corner joint.
O V E R H E A D SQUARE=GROOVE BUTT JOINT

1. Personal equipment. FIGURE 5D.t (At left) Square-groove
2. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, butt joint, overhead position.
3/32 in. x 3 in. x 6 in. long.
PROCEDURE
1. Tack the two pieces together and 3. Add filler metal as shown in Fig-
position as shown in Figure ure 5D-4, paying attention to
5D-3. bead width and surface contour.
2. Bring the torch to the plate and Note that the flame can be used
establish a puddle, being careful to aid in controlling the puddle.
to obtain the keyhole. Position 4. Complete the weld, dean it, ex- FIGURE 5 ~ . 4The torch angle and
the torch as shown in Figure amine it, and show it to your filler metal placement for welding an
5 D-4. instructor. overhead square-groove butt joint.

OVERHEAD FILLET JOINT FIGURE 5D-5Overhead T joint.
MATERIAL AND EqUJIPMENT
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3/32 in. X 3 in. x 6 in. long; one
piece of carbon steel sheet, 3/3~
in. X 11/2 in. x 6 in. long. Tack both sides
3. V'2-in. carbon steel filler metal.
FIGURE 5D-6(Bottom) The torch
PROCEDURE angle and filler metal placement for
welding an overhead T joint.
position as shown in Figure
SD-5.
2. Bring the torch to the joint and
establish a puddle, being careful
to develop the molten puddle to
the root of the joint. Note: By
now you have observed that in T
joints the sidewalls become mol-
ten much more quickly than the
root. The natural tendency i s to
begin adding filler metal to avoid
excessive sidewall melting. To do 3. Continue along the joint, using 4. Weld both sides of the joint.
so usually keeps root penetration the torch and filler metal and po- When you have completed the
from being complete, for the sitioning them as shown in Figure welds, clean them, examine
puddle will bridge across be- SD-6. Use one of the weave bead them, and show them to your
tween the two members of the techniques you have learned in instructor.
joint and not reach the root. the earlier lessons.

CHAPTER 6
OXYACETYLENE BRAZE WELDRNG
OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to first method the end of the brazing rod is heated slightly
1. Run beads and braze-weld a V-groove butt joint in the in the flame and then inserted into a container of dry
flat position. granulated flux. Some of the flux will adhere to the
2. Braze-weld T-joint lap joint fillets and V-groove butt warmed filler rod and will provide the necessary fluxing
joints in the horizontal position. action for the braze weld. In the second method filler
3. Braze-weld T-joint fillets and V-groove butt joints in metal already encased in a flux coating is used. Flux from
the vertical position. the coating is added continuously to the puddle.
Although we will limit our practice to oxyacetylene
BRAZE WELDING AS COMPARED braze welding, it should be noted that other gases may
TO FUSION WELDING be burned with oxygen to provide the necessary heat for
Up to this point we have practiced fusion welding of braze welding. Braze welding is often used to repair cast
carbon steel with the oxyacetylene process. We heated irons and for the repair of heavy parts or sections.
the carbon steel until a molten puddle was established,
then added a filler metal that closely matched the chem- PEBSUDNAL EQïUIPMEN'I'
istry of the base metal. When personal equipment is called for in this chapter, it
Braze welding may be defined as a process in which shall consist of
metals are joined by using a filler metal that melts above I . Proper clothing.
840°F but below the melting point of the base metal. In 2. Safety glasses and welding goggles with a number 4
brazing the filler metal is drawn into the joint by capillary or 5 lens.
action, but in braze welding the filler metal is deposited 3. Leather gloves.
in layers. The filler metal wets the surface of the base 4. Oxyacetylene torch, tips, and regulators.
metal but does not mix with it as in fusion welding. The 5. Pliers or tongs.
surfaces to be joined must be clean, and a flux is used. 6. Spark lighter.
The flux is applied usually by one of two methods. In the i . Wire brush.
Flux is needed when braze welding.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 6 OXYACETLYENE BRAZE WELDING 167
LESSON 6A
NG
WUJNNHNG FLAT
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT your welding table to make sure join without your heating the
1. Personal equipment. it is free of all combustible surface to the molten point.
2. ?&-in.-diameter brazing rod materiaIs. 13. Manipulate the flame to work
(flux-coated or with a can of flux). 7. Position yourself comfortably in the filler metal so that it wets the
3. One piece of carbon steel sheet, front of your welding station. A surface and gains the desired
standing position, feet slightly buildup and bead width. Heat
in. x 6 in. x 6 in. long.
spread, is best. It allows rnaxi- control is important. If the heat
PROCEDURE mum body movement to aid in is insufficient, the braze metal
1. Grind the surface of the plate to controlling the torch. will not wet the surface or flow
remove mill scale. The surfaces 8. Light up the torch and adjust it properly. Excessive heat will
to be joined by braze welding to obtain an oxidizing flame. Be cause the braze metal to flow
must be clean or a good bond sure your safety glasses and gog- excessively and not allow it to
will not be achieved. gles are in place. build up. You can control the
amount of the heat you apply by
2. Assemble the oxyacetylene 9. Lower the torch so that the inner
varying the distance between
welding outfit according to the cone of the flame is just above
the torch and the plate.
manufacturer's instructions or the surface of the plate.
the instructions of your teacher. 14. Continue the bead to the end of
10. Use a circular motion to heat
the plate. Because the plate will
3. Select the correct tip size from the plate to a dull red.
become very hot, it is a good
the manufacturer's chart, and 11. Bring the brazing rod to the sur- idea to quench the plate after
adjust the regulators to the cor- face and melt off a bit of the rod every bead. This step will also
rect working pressure. with the flame. help remove the flux from the
4. Check all connections with a 12. Use the flame to manipulate the bead.
leak detection fluid or soapy braze metal. If the plate is at the 15. Clean the bead and examine it.
water to ensure tightness. proper temperature, the metal Be sure to wear your safety
5. With a wire brush clean the sur- will immediately wet the surface glasses when you remove the
face of the plate you are going of the plate. Note: Wetting, flux. Chip the flux and wire-
to weld on, to remove mill scale which was mentioned earlier, i s brush it thoroughly.
and oxides, and place the plate the-ability of the filler metal,
16. Fill the plate with beads, clean
on the welding table. with the help of the proper flux,
it, examine the beads, and show
6. Check the area around you and to coat the surface you desire to
them to your instructor.
FLAT V=GROOVEBUTT JOINT
IATERHAL AND EQUBPMEN'ñ' PROCEDURE the root of the joint. When this
1. Grind the surfaces to be joined. occurs begin the first pass, mak-
2. Tack the assembly together. ing sure to wet all the joint
2. 3/32-¡n.-diameter brazing rod
3. Heat the metal to a dull cherry surfaces.
(flux-coated or with a can of flux).
3. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, color. When the proper temper- 4. Complete the first pass, being
Y4 in. x 3 in. x 6 in. long with ature has been reached, begin careful to obtain a concave weld.
a 30-degree bevel on one 6-in. adding braze metal. Observe that 5. Complete the j,oint, adding passes
side. the braze metal wets through to 2 and 3.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

6. Clean the plate thoroughly and serve that filler metal has pene- face of the weld should be
examine it. if you have welded trated through the root of the joint smooth and have even ripples.
- thepieces properly, you will ob- and has wet all the surfaces. The
LESSON 6B
BRAZE WELDING IN THE
HORIZONTAL POSITION
HORIZONTAL TBJOINT

Tack both ends on both side
2. 3/32-in.-diameter brazing rod
3/32 in. X 1% in. X 6 in. long;
TB
one piece of carbon steel sheet,
Y32 in. X 3 in. X 6 in. long.
FEGUBE 6ll.1 Horizontal T-joint fillet.
PROCEDURE
1. Grind or sand the areas to be
braze-welded.
position as shown in Figure 6B-1.
3. Heat both sides of the joint to a
dull cherry color and add filler puddle to ensure that it wets all 5. Complete both sides of the joint,
metal. Use the torch angle shown the surfaces to the root of the fil- clean it thoroughly of any remain-
in Figure 6B-1. let. Remember to use the flame- ing flux, examine it, and show it
4. Use one of the weave motions to-work distance to control the to your instructor.
you have learned to work the heat input.
HORIZONTAL LAP JOINT FILLET
MATERIAL A N D EQUIPMENT PROCEDURE heat in the joint. (See Figure

1. Personal equipment. 1. Grind or sand the areas to be 68-2.)
2. 3/32-in.-diameter brazing rod welded. 4. Use one of the weaving motions
(flux-coated or with a can of flux). 2. Tack the two pieces together and to work the puddle to ensure wet-
3. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, position as shown in Figure 6B-2. ting on all areas of the joint.
3/32 in. X 3 in. X 6 in. long. 5. Concentrate on keeping the fillet
3.1 Heat the joint to a dull cherry col-
or and add filler metal. Remem- small, with the leg of the fillet not
ber to concentrate the flame on exceeding the thickness of the
the lower plate to balance the sheet. This will not be easy, for
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CHAPTER 6 OXYACETLYENE BRAZE WELDING 199
TB the flux will spread out and clean

an area considerably larger than
the immediate joint area. Use the
flame to contain the filler metal
to the immediate joint area.
6. Weld both sides of the joint,
clean it, examine it, and show it
to your instructor.
Concentrate flame on the

bottom plate
BICUIRE 6B.t Horizontal lap joint
Tack both ends on both sides fillet.
HORIZONTAL V-GROOVE BUTT JOINT
IPh'Li'ERRflAIL ANJDD IICQUJilRDEtíENfi'

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2. Y32-i n.-d iameter brazing rod

1/4 in. x 3 in. x 6 in. long with
Tack both ends
a 30-degree bevel on one 6-in.
side.
PROCEDURE
1. Grind or sand the areas to be
welded.
position as shown in Figure 66-3.
3. Heat the joint to a dull cherry col- FKGURE GIB-3 Horizontal V-groove butt joint.
or and add filler metal. Use the
torch angle shown in Figure
68-3. ward the top piece and withdraw weld, and show it to your instruc-
4. Use a weaving motion on the the torch to allow it to cool and tor. If you have properly spaced
torch. Direct the flame toward the remain in place. the root opening and made sure
upper piece so that you can apply 5. Do not attempt to complete the that the filler metal wets all the
the filler metal to the upper sur- joint in one pass. Put several lay- joint surfaces, you will see a line
face. Remember that the puddle ers in, ending with a convex face of braze metal protruding through
will be very fluid and will tend to surface that is smooth and has the root and joining both root
run down toward the lower even ripples. surfaces.
piece. Push the filler metal to- 6. Clean the plate, examine the

LESSON 6 C
BRAZE WELDING %[Ri
THE VERTICAL PQSBTI@N
VERTICAL T = J O I N TFILLET
Tack both ends

MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT on both sides
2.3/3z-in.-diameter brazing rod
(flux-coatedor with a can of flux).
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TB
3/3~ in. x 1 % in. x 6 in. tong;
one piece of carbon steel sheet,
y32 in. x 3 in. X 6 in. long.
\.
PROCEDURE \
1 . Grind or sand the areas to be
braze-welded.
Torch angle and
2. Tack the two pieces together and filler wire
position as shown in Figure 6C-1. FLGUPIE 6C.I Vertical T-joint fillet.
3. Heat both sides of the bottom of
the joint and add filler metal.
Make sure the joint is wet to the position. The puddle is very fluid 6. Complete the fillet on both sides.
root with the filler metal. and can easily become uncon- (it will be necessary to cool the
4. Pull away the torch and allow the trollable if excessive heat is ap- joint before working on the sec-
filler metal to freeze and form a plied. The torch flame has ond side.) Clean the welds, ex-
shelf upon which to continue to enough stiffness to move the pud- amine them, and show them to
build the vertical bead. dle. Proper manipulation of the your instructor.
5. Observe that torch manipulation torch will turn this into an advan-
is very important in the vertical tage. (See Figure 6C-1 .I
V E R T I C A L V=GROOVE BUTT JOINT
MATEWPAE A N D EQUIPMENT 2. Tack the two pieces together and that the puddle covers the joint.
1. Personal equipment. position as shown in Figure 6C-2. Withdrawing the torch will help
2. V4n.-diarneter brazing rod 3. Heat the joint until it is a dull to keep the plate cool. If the plate
(flux-coatedor with a can of flux). cherry color and then begin add- becomes too hot, the braze metal
3. Two pieces of carbon steel sheet, ing filler metal. Make sure that all puddle will become too fluid and
'LI in. x 3 in. x 6 in. long with areas of the joint have been wet will fall from the joint. Use the
a 30-degree bevel on one 6-in. by the filler metal, including the shelf technique that you learned
side. groove faces and root. in the preceding procedure.
4. Manipulate the torch to control 5. Weld the joint in two passes. (See
PROCEDURE the amount of heat put into the Figure 6C-3.) Pay particular atten-
1. Grind or sand the areas to be plate. One of the weaves you tion to the sidewalls or groove
braze-welded. have learned will help to ensure faces of the joint. if you keep the

CHAPTER 6 OXYACETYLENE BRAZE WELDING 171
FEBUIRE 6C-3Bead placement.
I
6 in.
Joint preparation
puddle too cool, or allow the
weld face to become too convex,
you may trap slag in these areas.
6. After completing the joint, clean
it, examine it, and show it to your
instructor.
both ends
Torch angle and FIIGUWE 86.2 Vertical V-groove butt
filler wire joint.
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CHAPTER 7
XYACETYLENE
4BBJEC'ITPVE
Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
weld a V groove to join two pieces of pipe in the flat, the
vertically fixed, and the horizontally fixed positions.
LESSON IA
A
W
IA'H'ERHAL AND EQUIPMENT Thisedgemaybe machine- 9.Two pieces of pipe approximately

ground or flame-cut 2 in. in diameter by 3 in. long.
1. Proper clothing.
2. Safety glasses and welding gog- Prepare the joint as shown in
gles with a number 4 or 5 lens. Figure 7A-1.
3. Leather gloves.
4. Oxyacetylene torch, tips, and
32 8
regulators.
5. Pliers or tongs. *The root face thickness may vary according
to the thickness of the pipe
6 Spark lighter.
7. Wire brush.
8. V32-in. carbon steel filler metal. FEGQlURE 7A.8 Pipe joint prepciration.
16 POSITION, AXIS OF T E E P I P E HORIZONTAL
PROCEDURE and oxides, and place the pipes 7. Light up the torch and adjust it
1. Assemble the oxyacetylene on the welding table. to obtain a neutral flame. Be
welding outfit according to the 5. Check the area around you and sure your safety glasses and gog-
manufacturer's instructions or your welding table to make sure gles are in place.
the instructions of your teacher. it is free of all combustible 8. Tack the assembly together and
2. Select the correct tip size from materials. position the pipe flat, with the
the manufacturer's chart and ad- 6. Position yourself comfortably in axis of the pipe horizootal. (See
just the regulators to the correct front of your welding station. A Figure 7A-2.) Support the pipe
working pressure. standing position, feet slightly so that you can turn it for weld-
3. Check all connections with a spread, is best. It allows maxi- ing. You may use a piece of an-
leak detection fluid or soapy mum body movement to aid in gle to support it, or support it
water to ensure tightness. controlling the torch. Right- internally on a rod.
4. With a wire brush clean the sur- handed welders should hold the 9. Weld the pipe from the 2
face of the pipes you are going torch in the left hand to light up o'clock position to the 11
to weld on, to remove mill scale and the right hand to weld. o'clock position. (See Figure

CHAPTER 7 OXYACETYLENE WELDING OF P I P E 173
90” its location on the pipe. At 2

o‘clock the puddle will want to
run downhill, at 12 o’clock the Single pass
root will want to sag toward the
1G position
inside of the pipe, and at 1 1
FIGURE 7A-2 IG position, axis of o‘clock the puddle will again
pipe horizontal. The pipe is rolled as it want to run downhill. To con-
is being welded.
trol the contour and width of the
bead, you may try one or a
combination of the following
techniques. Multiple passes
a. Alter the flame-to-pipe FIGURE 7A.4 Weld bead sequences.
distance.
b. Change the torch angle and
use the flame to control the
puddle.
I
FIGURE 7A.3 Welding pipe in the IG
12. When you reach the 11 o’clock
position, taper off your weld. 15. Repeat the steps until the pipe i s
Do this by moving the inner welded.
position. cone away from the crater and 16. Depending on the diameter and
allow the weld there to solidify. wall thickness of the pipe, it
Be careful to keep the crater in may be necessary to use a multi-
the flame’s secondary envelope ple-pass technique, examples of
7A-3.) Establish a puddle before to prevent it from oxidation which are given in Figure 7A-4.
adding filler metal. Look for the while it is cooling down. 17. When you are finished, clean
keyhole, which will indicate 13. Rotate the pipe to move the 11 the pipe and examine it. You
root penetration. o’clock position to a new posi- should see evidence of root pe-
1o. When a keyhole has been estab- tion at 2 o’clock. netration and root reinforce-
lished, begin adding filler metal. 14. Bring the flame to a point ahead ment around the entire inside
Use one of the weave tech- of the crater and reestablish a circumference of the pipe. The
niques you have learned. keyhole while melting the cra- outside surface or face of the
11. As you weld from 2 to 11 ter. When this is done, begin weld should have fine ripples,
o’clock, you’ll notice that the welding toward the 11 o’clock an even reinforcement, and a
bead will change in relation to position. constant width.
26 POSITION, AXXS OF THE P I P E VERTICAL

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PROCEDURE 3. During welding, you may rotate I FIGURE 7A.5 2G
the pipe about its axis, but you i position, axis of pipe
1. Tack the two pieces of pipe to-
vertical.
gether and position as shown in
Figure 7A-5.
may not turn it end for end. To
start and stop your weld, use the
i
same technique you learned in
2. Begin the puddle using the key-
the preceding procedure.
hole technique to ensure proper
root penetration. Add filler wire 4. Depending on the wall thickness
and begin the weld. Observe that of the pipe, you may use single-
as with the horizontal plate, or multiple-pass techniques. (See
groove weld, the puddle will Figure 7A-4.)
want to sag. Build the weld from 5. When you have completed the
the bottom up, using the bottom weld, clean the pipe, examine it,
as a shelf to support the rest of the
weld.
and present it to your instructor. i
2G position

5 6 POSITION, A X I S OF TEE PIPE HORIZONTAL
PROCEDURE
1. Tack the two pieces of pipe to-
----- @-=-)-- $2
Jq
4. When stopping and restarting the
welds, be sure to use the methods
you learned earlier. it will be nec-
gether and position as shown in tk f .1.
essary to stop and start frequently
Figure 7A-6. 5G position to reposition yourself and the
2. To ensure a good weld in the 5G FIGURE 7A.6 5G position, axis of torch.
position, the weld must be over- pipe horizontal. The pipe is horizontal-
lapped by going beyond the 6 ly fixed and cannot be rolled in the 5. Depending on the thickness of
welding process. the pipe, it may be necessary to
and 12 o'clock positions. (See
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use a multiple-pass technique.

Figure 7A-7.) Begin the first weld
at about the 7 o'clock position 6. When you have finished the
and begin welding vertically up- weld, clean it, examine it and
ward around the pipe. Use the show it to your instructor.
keyhole technique before adding
filler metal.
3. Observe that the weld puddle will Second weld
act differently in relation to its po-
sition on the pipe. To control the
puddle, use one or a combination
of the techniques you learned in FIGURE 7A-7 Weld overlap ce-
the earlier lessons. quence in pipe in the 5G position.

REVIEW EXERCISES
1. Name three products of oxyfuel combustion. UA) 27. Which U.S. government agency publishes cylinder
2. Name two sources of fumes and gases in oxyfuel design specifications? (28)
combustion. (1A) 28. What is the purpose of gas regulators?(2C)
3. List three hazards of oxyfuel gas welding. (1A) 29. Name the major regulator parts and their function.
4. What precautionary measures shouldiyou take to re- (2C)
duce the fire hazard of oxyfuel gas welding and cut- 30. Why are two-stage regulators needed?(2C)
I
ting. (1A) I 31. Why should regulators be pressurized slowly? (2C)
5. Explain why you shouldn’t refer to oxygen as air. (1B) 32. Discuss the care of regulators. (2C)
6. Describe how you should take care of gas cylinders. 33. What colors are used to identify oxyfuel gas hose?
(1B) (2D)
7. What are the potential hazards of oxyfuel gas weld- 34. Explain the meaning of the letters marked on the oxy-
ing fluxes? (1B) fuel gas hoses. (2D)
8. Why should gas cylinder valves be closed when you 35. When should you use large-diameter hoses?(2D)
stop working? (1B) 36. List two reasons why you should use oxygen, and
9. Name four fuel gases that may be used for oxyfuel not air, to purge hoses. (2D)
gas welding. (1C) 37. How are oxygen and acetylene hose nuts different?
10. Name two fuel gases that are lighter than air. (1C) (2D)
11. Which fuel gas provides the highest flame tempera- 38. What are two ways to detect hose leaks?(2D)
ture? (1C) 39. Give four steps that will help you to minimize oxy-
12. What is the purpose of OSHA material safety data fuel gas hose leaks. (2D)
sheets? (1C) 40. What are reverse-flow check valves used for? (2D)
13. What is the difference between primary and second- 41. How should you move cylinders? (2E)
ary flames?(1D) 42. Why should all oxyfuel gas connections be clean?
14. Name three of the most important flame character- (2E)
istics. (1D) 43. Why should you “crack” a valve on oxyfuel gas cyl-
15. Draw the zones of a typical flame. (1D) inders?(2E)
16. What is the difference between neutral, oxidizing, 44. Why should oxygen cylinder valves be opened com-
and reducing flames? (1 D) pletely? (2E)
17. Which of the flame types is recomyended for de- 45. How should you check for leaks in an oxyfuel gas
carburizing steels?(1D) system? (2E)
18. Why shouldn’t oxyfuel gas torch valves be used to 46. Why should you check your oxyfuel equipment be-
turn off gas flows for long periods?(2A) fore lighting up? (3A)
19. Why are oxyfuel gas torches and tips made from cop- 47. Give two reasons for beginning the oxyfuel light-up
per alloys and brass? (2A) procedure with closed cylinder shutoff valves and
20. Name the two different types of mixer systems. (2A) loose regulator-adjusting screws. (3A)
21. Name three oxyfuel gas torch parts and their func- 48. Why should you open the acetylene torch valve by
tion. (2A) a mere quarter turn, the oxygen valve by a mere half
22. Describe how an acetylene cylinder is constructed. turn? (3A)
(28) 49. How can you get a neutral flame from an excess-
23. Why is it safe to store acetylene at 250 psig in cyl- acetylene flame? (3A)
inders?(28) 50. Give the reason for turning off the torch fuel gas valve
24. Why is acetylene withdrawal limited to one-seventh before turning off the oxygen, as well as the reason
of the cylinder capacity? (2B) for doing the opposite. (3B)
25. What is the function and care of fuse plugs?(2B) 51. Why should you relieve oxyfuel gas hose pressure
26. Why should acetylene cylinder valves be partially when stopping work for more than five or ten min-
opened, and oxygen cylinder valves be opened all utes?(38)
the way? (2B) 52. What i s the sequence for depressurizing the com-
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plete oxyfuel gas system? (38)

176 SECTION II REVIEW EXERCISES
53. What substance is responsible for the long-term de- 61. What will cause the color of a flame to change to
terioration of oxyfuel gas hose?(38) yellow? (3D)
54. What are two other names for the excess-acetylene 62. What causes a flame to "burn away" from a torch
flame? (3C) tip, and how can you correct the problem?(3D)
55. What are two ways to clean a weld joint? (3C) 63. Describe a backfire. (30)
56. Why do you use a flux with oxyfuel gas welding? 64. Describe a flashback. (3D)
(3C) 65. What are the two basic oxyfuel torch tip types? (3E)
57. Why should oxyfuel gas welding fluxes be handled 66. What are two ways to manufacture oxyfuel gas torch
with care? (3C) tips? (3E)
58. Describe the process of tinning. (3C) 67. What is the correct way to clean an oxyfuel gas torch
59. What will cause a puddle to spark? (3C) tip mechanically?(3E)
60. What are three flame characteristicsthat indicate po- 68. Name three things that will cause an oxyfuel gas
tential problems?(3D) torch tip to distort the shape of the flame. (3E)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SHIELDED METAL ARC

WELDING PROCESS
IPNTRQBDUCTION
The shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) process is commonly known as stick
welding or covered-electrode welding. It is one of the most popular methods
of welding and has the capability of welding many types and thicknesses of
metal. It can do this in all positions, with a minimum investment in equipment.
Shielded metal arc welding coalesces the metals of the coveredmetal electrode
and the workpiece by heating them with an arc that extends between them.
The decomposition of the electrode covering provides the shielding, the melt-
ing electrode the filler metal.
Because of its widespread use and its low cost, the shielded metal arc
process is taught in most schools. In addition, the shielded metal arc process
requires a high degree of welding skill. The welder who learns the skill of stick
welding will have little difficulty in mastering the other types of arc welding.
A large percentage of welding in construction, fabrication, maintenance,
job shops, refineries, and chemical, pharmaceutical, and power plants is ac-
complished using the shielded metal arc process. Figure 111-1 shows a fine
example of an intricate weldment on which the shielded metal arc welding
process was used to great advantage.
This welding method evolved from the bare-electrode welding methods of
the late nineteenth century and early twentieth. The first arc welding was done
with carbon electrodes. (See Figure 111-2.) The use of carbon electrodes in arc
welding was a natural outgrowth of their use in arc lamps. There were many
experiments and inventors working with arcs and welding between about 1880
and 1900, among them the Russians Nikolai Benardos and Stanislaus Olszew-
ski, who received one of the first British welding patents, and N. Slavinoff,
who began to use bare metal electrodes instead of carbon electrodes. There
was Charles Lewis Coffin, of Wayne County (Detroit), Michigan, who received
many U.S. patents. One of Coffin's patents used bare electrodes. Much of the
early work was done independently. Communications were not what they are
today. Inventors worked without knowing what was being done by others.
However, they all knew that the welds were full of porosity, not very good,

FIGURE 111.1 The shielded metal arc
welding process was one of the many
joining methods used in the fabrication
of this giant supertanker.
and that the arcs were unstable. Spatter was a serious problem. Operators
needed a great deal of skill just to keep the arc alive. Welding in the early
twentieth century was not very satisfactory by our present standards.
Then a technological breakthrough came along. One of the experimenters,
a Swede by the name of Oscar Kjellberg, began to use a coating on the
electrodes. The first coatings, called arc stabilizers, were used to help keep
the arc going. In no time at all everyone was experimenting with electrode
coatings. The coatings became useful for reducing spatter, making the arc
more stable, decreasing porosity, as well as making welding easier.
Today you can buy a coated electrode for welding almost anything. New
ones are being developed all the time. However, they are all based on the
work that began about 1900 to 191O.
Because of its ease of use, the simple equipment required, the wide variety
of coatings available, and the relatively low cost, shielded metal arc welding
is the most popular of the arc welding processes. It will remain so for years
to come.
FIGURE III-2 The first electrode

holder. Set Power
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cable

CHAPTER 1
SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING PROCESS BASICS
LESSON IA
REVIEW UBF T
BBJECTIVEB electrode coatings produce very sta-
Upon completion of this lesson you ble arcs with only a little spatter, but
should be able to other coatings cause the arc to give
1. Describe the first aid for "arc off a great amount of spatter and
eye." sparks. Always protect yourself from
2. Tell why you should not have a spatter burns and the work area from
ventilation fan blow at your face, fire. Be sure you keep the work area
or at the back of your head. clean of things that burn and can
3. List three hazards of SMAW stub catch fire easily. in addition, you
disposaI. should know where the fire extin-
4. Explain why sweaty clothes and guishers are located, just in case a
wet gloves are dangerous. PHGüiJWE 1A.B Arc radiation causes fire does start.
eye burns called "arc eye" or "arc
flash.'' HAZARDS FROM STUBS
KADíA'I'íON
The hazards in shielded metal arc When you are finished welding with
welding are not much different from condition is painful, but you will re- the electrode you are using, you
those in any arc welding process. cover without permanent damage. should be careful of how you throw
Like all arcs, the SMAW arc pro- away the stub. The stub is still hot
duces a considerable amount of ra- FUMisS ANT) GASES on its tip. (See Figure 1A-2.) It can
diation and bright light. You must Fumes and gases can harm your easily cause paper to burn, as well
protect your eyes from the infrared health. The materials in the elec- as give you or someone else a blis-
and ultraviolet rays or you will get trode coating add to the fumes from
/,
arc eye," also called "arc flash." the metals being welded. Learn to
The radiation can burn your eyes keep your head out of the fume
and skin, just as the sun can give plume. Do not breathe any of the
you sunburn. it does not take much fumes and gases caused by the arc,
time to get an eye burn (see Figure and always use plenty of ventilation.
1A-l), so you should always wear if you use a fan, place it at your left
your safety glasses and use a proper or right side. Do not let it blow at
welding shield. if you do get arc your face or on your back. Air from
eye, call a physician. Don't rub your behind you can cause a low-pres-
eyes or use a home remedy. Your sure spot near your face. The fumes
doctor can prescribe special eye will collect there and give you trou-
drops and ointments. For temporary ble. Air from the side helps to blow
relief you can cover your eyes with the fumes away.
clean, cold compresses for five to
ten minutes. Use ice water to wet S1'ArïTK H A N i)S P A R I G PBQBTïiRE 1A.t Hot stubs can ignite
the compresses. You can repeat this The SMAW process has a tendency paper and other flammable material.
treatment until you get help. The to produce spatter and sparks. Some They are tripping hazards as well.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

182 SECTION III SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
ter. it is good practice to have a

metal container available for the
stubs. Toss your leftover stubs into
the can, never on the floor where
they can become a tripping and slip-
ping hazard. If you are working in a
high place, the stubs you toss away
can fall and hit someone down be-
low. Stub disposal is always a prob-
lem on construction sites. Careless
welders toss their stubs all over.
Don't be a careless worker.
ELECTRIC SHOCK
Electric shock is more of a hazard in
SMAW than in some other forms of
electric welding. Most operators
change electrodes while the power
supply is still energized. The elec-
trode holder itself is usually well in-
sulated and will not be much of a Always wear the proper safety clothing.
hazard. However, if the holder is
still electrically energized when you
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
change electrodes, you can be
shocked. Be sure that you always sweat can dampen your clothes and
wear gloves when changing elec- make good electric contact between
trodes, and be sure that the gloves the electrode and your armpit. You
are dry. Wet gloves, or gloves that must always be on the alert for elec-
are damp from sweat, can conduct tric shock. When you change elec-
electricity. They will not protect you trodes (see Figure IA-3) while the
from electric shock. Some operators holder i s electrically energized, be
change electrodes the wrong way. sure your hands are well insulated.
They hold spare electrodes under One final reminder is worth men-
their arm, between their upper arm tioning. Do not immerse a hot 'lec- p~~~~~~~ Always wear gloves
and side. They change electrodes by trade in a bucket Of water, in when changing electrodes, unless you
dropping the stub, reaching around order to cool off the holder. This is the power is
are positive off,
with the holder, and clamping a poor practice. It can ruin the holder
new electrode in the holder. This is insulation and can give you an elec-
done in one motion while the electric shock if the holder is still ener-
trode is held under their arm. Don't gized. lust remember, moisture can
ever do this. It is a very dangerous conduct electricity, and electricity
practice and can kill you. Your body can kill.

CHAPTER I SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS 183
LESSON 1B
OBJEG'B'IV~S WE1' ~ l , K ~ : T l ~ o l ~ f ~ s supply to the item you are welding.

Upon completion of this lesson you Moisture can be bad for electrodes. This cable should be called the work
should be able to Wet or damp electrodes will cause lead. (See Figure 1 B-2.) Many rnan-
1. Explain the use of a Material Safe- all kinds of welding problems, and ufacturers supply work leads with a
ty Data Sheet. in addition they can be a safety haz- spring clamp on the end. This clamp
2. Describe why damp CMAW elec- ard. The moisture in damp elec- should be called the work clamp or
trodes are hazardous. trodes can be turned to steam, by workpiece clamp. Unfortunately,
3. Discuss the meaning of "ground the heat of the arc and the heat the work clamp is frequently called
clamp." caused by the flow of welding cur- the "ground clamp." The term is
4. Give two reasons why too much rent through the electrode. The found in many catalogs and instruc-
current can cause problems with steam can cause the electrode coat- tion books, but the clamp is not real-
SMAW electrodes. ing to chip off and even explode. ly a grounded clamp. In electrical
Pieces of electrode coating can have work the term ground means some-
sharp edges and be very hot; they thing very special. A ground is used
MATEKIA1,S can burn, cut, and cause severe eye to provide a measure of safety. An
SMAW electrodes come with all damage. For these reasons you object that is grounded is in some-
sorts of coatings and core rods and should never use a wet or damp way connected to earth. Things that
in many colors and thicknesses. The electrode. Always recondition them are grounded are usually thought of
colors are usually those of the chem- first by using an electrode oven. (See as being near zero potential. They
icals in the coatings. Figure 1B-I.) Follow the manufac- are normally safe to touch and can-
Some coatings are made of chem- turer's recommendations for the re- not give you a shock. This is why
icals that are more hazardous than conditioning heat treatment cycle. many electric hand tools have
others. For example, electrodes for grounding circuits and ground
stainless steels can have chromium li I ,E(;'I' I< I C A I, (1 ()N S IT) E; I< A T LONS leads.
and nickel compounds in them. You Electrode holders usually come The ground clamp in electric
should always know what is in the equipped with a power cable and welding, however, does not
electrodes you use and how to pro- plug or lug. This cable is called the "ground" the workpiece. It is not an
tect yourself from the fumes and gas- electrode lead. A second cable is electric ground, in the sense that it
es. Don't be afraid to ask your em- needed for connecting the power provides safety, but only a way to
ployer to look at a copy of the
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS).
MSDSs are provided by the elec-
trode manufacturer and should be
available in your workplace. The
MSDS should tell you what mate-
rials are in the electrodes and how
you can protect yourself from the
material hazards. The MSDS is re-
quired by OSHA and by the laws of
many states. These sheets are de-
signed for your protection. At one
time they were called OSHA form
20s. (See Figure 1C-1 in Section I I . )
Many employers use MSDSs as part
of their safety training program and
have them readily available for your ~WiWRfis nm.sI Electrode ovens are used to keep electrodes dry. (Courtesy of
use. Phoenix Products Comapny, tnc.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

I
s
FIGURE nB.3 Water on a hot rock

can cause pieces to break off, a
UJ process called spalling. Moisture can
FIGURE 1B-2A representative group of work clamps. (Courtesy of Tweco Company.) cause electrode coatings to spall.
connect the work lead to the work- ground connection, you must use tice, for the extra current causes the
piece and power supply. It doesn’t another lead. electrode to heat up along its length.
ground anything. We don’t know The lessons in Chapter 2 on Sometimes the extra current can
when the term ground clamp came equipment basics will cover this cause the coating to break down and
into use. It has been around for over matter in more detail. For now, you spall away. Spalling is what happens
fifty years, but perhaps in another fif- should always remember that the when you pour water on a hot rock.
ty years it will not be. It is very im- ground clamp is not grounded and (See Figure 1B-3.) The rock chips
portant for you to realize that the should really be called the work away, with the chips flying every-
ground clamp and ground lead used clamp, no matter how the equip- where. Hot electrode coatings can
in welding are not really grounded. ment catalogs list it. also react with the air, producing
For example, the same lead could fumes hazardous to your health.
be used for direct-current, elec- PROBLEMS FROM Both the spalling and reactions with
trode-negative (straight polarity) TOO MUCH CUKKEN‘I’ the air can lessen the quality of
welding or for direct-current, elec- SMAW electrodes are always de- welds. Be sure the current and po-
trode-positive (reverse polarity) signed for use over a specific current larity are correct when you use an
welding. In one the workpiece is range. Some welders try to use too SMAW electrode.
positive, in the other negative. in or- much current so that they can weld
der to provide a proper electric faster. This can be a dangerous prac-
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CHAPTER 1 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS 185
LESSON I C
BQBEgEECTEVEB COATING FUNCTIONS

Upon completion of this lesson you It gradually became clear that the
should be able to coatings could be tailored to give al-
1. List six functions of SMAW elec- most any type of arc needed. Some
trode coatings. coating ingredients would help sta-
2. Name four types of SMAW elec- bilize the arc. Others would provide
trode coating materials. gas shielding and slag protection for
3. Describe two ways to coat an the weld bead. Still others were used
SMAW electrode. to improve the weld chemistry. Ta-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Explain why SMAW electrode ble lc-l lists the typical effects that
ovens are needed. can be obtained by controlling the
coating chemistry.
II:voIm[oN OF CoArrTNcs FUGURE 8c.QSome early electrodes
The electrodes that were used in the
COATING MATERIAL
were wrapped with paper or string to CHARACTERISTICS
late nineteenth century and early provide cellulose.
twentieth were bare metal 'rods. Op- Coatings are formulated so that they
erators had to hold a very short arc will provide a combined set of ad-
range of materials coating electrodes vantages. New coatings are still
and use a great deal of skill to keep
was rather amazing-things like being developed. The coating ma-
the arc alive. Some of the early pow-
sawdust, cotton lint, sugar, starch, terials are grouped according to
er sources had voltage outputs that
flour, clay, iron powder, and so on. their characteristics. Some materials
would be considered high by to-
day's standards. The high voltage can have more than one character-
was needed to keep the arc going. TABELE UC-E Functions of Electrode istic. Typical material characteristics
The arcs did not use any form of Coatings are shown in Table 1C-2.
shielding gas or flux to help keep 1. Stabilize the arc-allows the use of
them alive. The first electrode coat- alternating or direct current or any
MANUFACTURING
ings were used to help stabilize the type of power, depending on the TECHNIQUES
arc. They kept the arc from going coating. Today, most electrode coatings are
out and made it easier for an Oper- 2. Control penetration-helps to focus put on the electrode by extrusion. A
ator to weld. the arc energy.
As coatings became more popu- 3 . Provide slag covering for the weld- TABLE IC-2 Types of Coating
helps to keep the air away and Materials
lar, operators began to notice that
prevents weld oxidation.
the coatings did more than stabilize 1 . Binders-to hold the coating
4. Remove oxide-helps to clean the
the arc. Some coatings helped the workpiece and gives a fluxing materials together.
metal transfer, and the weld beads action. 2. Alloying ingredients-to control
were more uniform and had less po- 5. Add alloys to the weld-helps to weld chemistry.
rosity. Electrodes were coated with control weld chemistry and strength. 3. Fluxes-to control puddle fluidity
all sorts of materials-whitewash (a 6. Provide arc shielding-generates a and remove oxides.
lime coating), paper (a cellulose gas to shield the arc. Also helps 4. Slag promoters-to provide puddle
coating) (see Figure 1C-11, cotton direct metal transfer. protection.
string, hemp, asbestos cord-to see 7. Increase deposition rate-adds extra 5. Deoxidizers-to prevent porosity
whether their welding metal by the addition of iron and make welds stronger.
- action could 6. Stabilizers-to make electrodes
be improved. Some coatings were powder.
8. Lower the voltage requirements- more usable.
thin, others very thick. Some people
helps to decrease power supply 7. Gas formers-to provide better
began to mix chemicals together costs and improves safety. shielding.
and glue them to the electrode. The

TABLE 1C-3 Typical Oven Guide for Flux and Electrode Stabilization
Air-conditioned After Exposure to Moisture a

Storage Sufficient Time to Affect Weld
Dry Rod Oualitv
Before Opening
RH = Relative Oven Holding Recondition Rebake
Type (AWS) Humidity After Opening Step #1 Step #2
Cellulose
EXX1O
EXX11 70"-1 10°F"
EXX2O (21"-43°C) Not Not Not
EXX30 50% MAX. RH recommended recommended recommended
Titania
EXX12
EXX13
Iron Powder 1 hour @

M.S. 70"-110°F 1lO0-l75"F 25O0-3O0"F Yi to 1 hour @
EXX14 (2 1"-43°C) (43"-7 9°C) (12 1"-1 49°C) 350°F (177°C) This table is offered as a
EXX 24 50% MAX. RH general guide to proper
EXX27 1% to 2 hours total
storage and oven holding
temperatures for the most
Iron powder- common electrodes in use
low-hydrogen today. In addition,
EXX18 reconditionhebake procedures
EXX28 for electrode coatings that
low-hydrogen have been exposed to
EXX15 moisture for a sufficient
EXX16 70"-110°F 1 hour@ hour @
period of time to affect the
low (21"-43°C) 250"-3 50°F 500"-600"F 65Oo-750"F weld quality are included.
hydrogen- 50% MAX. RH (121"-1 77°C) (260"-3 16°C) (343"-399"C)
Electrode coatings should
High-tensile not be exposed to the
EXXX15 1% hours total
rebaking temperature without
EXXX16 first having been
EXXX18 reconditioned at a lower
Stainless 4Oo-120"F 250°-400"F temperature. Failure to
EXXX-15 (4.5"-49°C) (12 1"-205°C) (3 16°C) recommended observe this rule may result in
EXXX-16 60% ( 2 10) RH breakdown of electrode
coati ngs.
Inconelb 1 hour @ 1 hour @ After REBAKE, lower
Monelb 4Oo-120"F 150"-200°F 325"-375"F 500"-600"F temperature to HOLDING
Nickel (4.5O-49"C) (66"-93"C) (163"-191 "C) (260°-316"C) LEVEL until reissue.
Hard- Do not place electrodes in
surfacing 60% (10%)
i RH 2 hours total any oven unless removed
~ ~~ ~~
from cardboard containers.

Brasses 4Oo-120"F 150"-200°F Not Not Where vents are provided,
Bronzes (4.5O-49"C) (66"-93"C) recommended recommended use to release moisture.
60% ( 2 1 0 ) RH Phoenix Products
I
Company, Inc. does not
G ranuIated 40"-1 20°F 200"-300°F 2 hours @ accept liability for damage to
or agglomerated (4.5"-49"C) (93O-149"C) recommended 60O0-8O0"F electrodes and welded
60% ( + l o % ) RH (3 16"-427"C) manufactured products
~
resulting from use of this

Flux-cored
Wire 40"-1 20°F
table. CONTACT YOUR
ELECTRODE
EXXT-1 (4.5O-49"C) 200"-300°F 35Oo-450"F Not
MANUFACTURER FOR
EXXT-2 60% ( + l o % ) RH (93O-149"C) (177"-232"C) recommended
SPECIFIC INFORMATION
EXXT-5
INVOLVING CRITICAL
EXXT-G
OPERATIONS.
aTemperaturesand time are not guaranteed to be correct or safe.
bRegisteredtrademarks of International Nickel Company, Inc.
Source: Copyright 1982, by Phoenix Products Company, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Phoenix Products
Company, Inc.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

long time ago most electrodes were

coated by dipping, in the same way
as candles are made by dipping.
Some electrodes were wrapped with
cords and ribbons. Wrapping and
dipping require considerable time
and labor and are expensive com-
pared to extrusion. Extruded coat-
ings begin with a "pasty" doughlike
material which i s squeezed out of a
@ board box
machine and around the metal core
rod. It would remind you of a very FIGURE I C 3 Some electrodes are FIGURE 1C.3 A typical electrode
thick, almost dry toothpaste. The packed in air-tight metal containers, drying oven is temperature-controlled
electrodes with their freshly extrud- others in cardboard boxes. Most con- and electrically heated. Shelves are
ed coatings are baked in an oven. tainers have tops that are easy to open. perforated for better air circulation.
The baking drives off any moisture
and causes the coating to become
hard as rock. Some of the coating is
ground off one end of an electrode opened, you must protect the coat- should carry only enough electrodes
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
to make it easier to start. The other ings from moisture in the air. (See to supply you for the immediate job.
end is left bare to provide a place to Figure 1C-3.) Many companies sell Read the manufacturer's instructions
clamp it in a holder. "holding" containers and ovens for to see how long you can keep them
use in storerooms and toolrooms. It out of the holding oven. There is
PACKAGING is important for you to keep the elec- some leeway in the time, depending
The electrodes are inspected care- trodes clean and dry after the con- on where you work. Tucson, Ar¡-
fully and labeled with a code or tainer is opened. zona, does not have the same hu-
name. Most electrodes are usually midity as Seattle, Washington. Do
packed in air-tight containers. RECONDITIONING not guess at the condition of an elec-
The weight of the container de- Many electrodes can be recondi- trode coating-a sure way to ruin a
pends on how many electrodes are tioned by baking them again, but weld. Get fresh electrodes and re-
packed in it. (See Figure 1C-2.)Elec- this is time-consuming and uses en- turn the old ones for reconditioning.
trode manufacturersdo not normally ergy. Protecting the electrodes in ad- Follow the electrode oven manufac-
pack and sell one electrode at a vance will save you money. Some turer's guide when reconditioning
time. Some electrodes, like low-hy- electrodes are more resistant to electrodes. A typical guide is shown
drogen electrodes, easily pick up moisture, but sooner or later they all in Table 1C-3.
moisture. Once their containers are pick up moisture. Therefore you
LESSON ID
ELECTROEBE SSIFPCATION
OBJECTIVES 3. Determine an SMAW electrode's THE AWS SYSTEM
Upon completion of this lesson you characteristics from its identifica- The most widely used electrode
should be able to tion number, for example, an classification system is the one de-
1. Describe the dimensions of a typ- E701 4 electrode. veloped by the American Welding
¡cal SMAW electrode. 4. Specify the meaning of the letters Society. Once you understand the
2. List the various AWS specifica- in a stainless steel SMAW elec- AWS system, it becomes easier to
tions for SMAW electrodes. trode identification number. choose the right electrode for the

job. If it were not for the AWS sys- FABEE in-i AWS Covered-Electrode TABLE üUD.2 Third-Digit Welding
tem, it would be very difficult to Specifications Position Meanings
pick the correct electrode. There are
Specification Type of Electrode Digit MeaningJ
hundreds of combinations of flux
coating materials and metal core A 5.1 Carbon steel 1 F, V, OH, H
rods for you to choose from. A 5.3 Aluminum and its 2 H fillets, F
alloys
TYPICAL DIMENSIONS A 5.4 Corrosion-resistant "Abbreviations mean
Core rods vary in diameter from steels F, flat position H, horizontal
A 5.5 Low-alloy steel V, vertical
about y 3 2 to VIOinch. They can be
A 5.6 Copper and its alloys OH, overhead H fillets, horizontal
anywhere from 9 inches up to 36 fillets
A 5.11 Nickel and its alloys
inches long, but they usually fall be-
A 5.15 Cast iron
tween 9 and 18 inches. The bare
A 5.13 Surfacing, solid core
end, which is needed for electric A 5.21 Surfacing, composite
contact, is between 3/4 and 1 % avoid errors. For example, many
core
inches long. if you want to learn texts show the digit O as meaning
about the details of an electrode's high cellulose, sodium for DCEP
dimensions, you should obtain its (DCRP). This would be all right for
AWS specification. A list of the AWS an E6010 electrode. It would be
specifications for covered electrodes The last digit usually tells the type wrong for an E6020 electrode. An
is shown in Table 1D-i. of current that can be used and the E6020 can be used with alternating
type of covering. It should always be current as well as direct current,
TYPICAL ELECTRODE considered in combination with the straight polarity; an E6010 can be
DESIGNATIONS third (or fourth) digit. Table 1D-3 used only with DCEP. The same
All electrode identification numbers shows the meaning of the last two type of thing happens with E6012
begin with the letter E, meaning digits in combination. and E6022 electrodes. The E6012 is
electrode. The E i s followed by a Note in Table 1D-3 that, except used with alternating current or
four- or five- digit number, for ex- for EXX10 and EXX20, and EXX12 DCEN. The E6022 can be used with
ample E6010. The first two digits of and EXX22, the last digit alone tells DCEP, in addition to alternating cur-
a four-digit number indicate the ten- you what you want to know. You rent or DCEN.
sile strength of the weld metal in really should use the last two digits
thousands of pounds per square inch in combination, however, to tell you STAIN I,II:SS S'ïEEL
(ksi). In this example the 60 means everything. Many books use only E l ~ l ~ ~ ~ ')E O lIGN A T 1 ON
ï l I)~ ES
that the deposited weld metal has at the last-digit method. You should al- Stainless steel electrodes are classi-
least 60,000-psi strength, in the as- ways use the two-digit method to fied by AWS specification A-5.4.
welded condition. An E l 201O has a
weld meta) strength of 120 ksi, not
12 ksi. You can tell that the strength TABLE 11)-3 Meaning of Last Two Digits
is 120 ksi because the last two digits
always describe the type of current Number ~ Covering Current Type"
and the type of covering on the elec-
EXX 10 High cellulose, sodium DCEP
trode. When you remove the last
EXX 11 High cellulose, potassium ac, DCEP
two digits, you are left with three
EXX 12 High titania, sodium ac, DCEN
digits in this designation. Do not EXX 13 High titania, potassium ac, DCEP or DCEN
read the first two or three digits be- EXX 15 Low hydrogen, sodium DCEP
fore removing the last two. Other- EXX 16 Low hydrogen, potassium ac, DCEP
wise you could make a mistake. EXX 18 Low hydrogen, potassium, iron powder ac, DCEP
The third digit (or the fourth when EXX 20 High iron oxide ac, DCEN
you have a five-digit number) des- EXX 22 High iron oxide ac, DCEP or DCEN
ignates the welding position you EXX 24 Iron powder, titania ac, DCEP or DCEN
should use. The third digit can be a EXX 27 High iron oxide, iron powder ac, DCEN
1, or a 2, such as EXX1X, or EXX2X. EXX 2a Low hydrogen, potassium, iron powder ac, DCEP
Table 1D-2 describes the meaning aDCEP = direct current, electrode positive (direct current, reverse polarity).
of the third (or fourth) digits. DCEN = direct current, electrode negative (direct current, straight polarity).
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Their classification always begins 2. Series 300, chromium-nickel, Suffix Meaning

with an E for electrode, and the first austenitic, nonhardenable, non- L Low carbon
three numbers describe the type of magnetic. ELC Extra-low carbon
stainless steel, according to the 3. Series 400, chromium, marten- Cb Columbium
American Iron and Steel Institute sitic, hardenable, magnetic. Mo Molybdenum
(AISI) code. This code is also used 4. Series 400, chromium, ferritic,
by the American Welding Society in The last two digits will be a 15 or
nonhardenable, magnetic.
its publications. 16. The 15 number indicates that
5. Series 500, chromium-molyb- the electrode is lime-coated and is
The sets of three numbers are and
denum, martensitic, magnetic. used with DCEP (DCRP). The 16 in-
their meanings are
The EXXX number can be fol- dicates that the electrode is titania-
1. Series 200, chromium-nickel- lowed by some letters, for example, coated and is used with alternating
manganese, austenitic, nonhar- E308L. The letters have the follow- current or DCEP (DCRP). Both codes
denable, nonmagnetic. ing meanings. can be used in all positions.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
LESSON 1E
@BJBEC"BVISB other job. Even though excessive Other selection factors include
Upon completion of this lesson you cost is not a problem, the wrong 1. Position of the weld.
should be able to electrode will make welding very
2. Quality requirements.
1. List four factors to be considered frustrating.
3. Rate of deposition.
in selecting the correct electrode
groups. The position of the weldrnent has
2. List the characteristics of each of some influence on the deposition
FAC'I'ORS ZNVOILYII:l)
the SMAW groups. rate. Out-of-position weld joints
1N SKLECTINC, AN
3. Give the AWS specification gov- may prevent you from using elec-
E mc'r it o» E (; mur
erning carbon steel and low-alloy trodes with a high deposition rate.
The shielded metal arc welding
steel SMAW electrodes. electrode not only adds filler metal
4. Explain how a "cup" forms on to the weld but also helps control GROUP CHARACTERISTICS
the end of an electrode. the shape of the weld. With the cor- The American Welding Society
5. Explain the easy way to pick the rect electrode and welding tech- specification AS. 1, Specifications
right SMAW electrode for the job. nique you have complete control for Carbon Steel Covered Arc Weld-
over the bead shape. ing Electrodes, governs the mild car-
Tl-llC I MC'Ol<TANt;b; The core wires of low-alloy steel bon steel electrodes. Specification
01; iciAl:(moim electrodes are similar. Alloying ele- AS. 5, Low-Alloy CoveredArc Weld-
CKOU I' SI~I,l:CTION ments are added by the electrode ing Electrodes, governs low-alloy
What electrode should be used for coating. Other coating materials re- steel-covered electrodes.
the job assigned to you? Someone duce porosity and spatter, make Groupings of electrodes have
must select the electrode to use. The starting the arc and removing slag F numbers assigned to them based
selection is important to both you easier, control penetration, and ease on their usability characteristics.
and your employer. The wrong operation. These characteristics determine
choice will make the job more dif- The materials in the coating can whether welders are able to make
ficult and increase welding time, as be used to classify electrodes into satisfactory welds with a given filler
well as cost. four groups, according to their in- metal.
Your employer must run a profit- tended use. Take these groups into The characteristics of the elec-
able business. Otherwise it won't be consideration when you wish to se- trodes vary from one group to an-
long before you are looking for an- lect the best electrode for the job. other, although the electrodes from

more than a single group can often

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
be used for a given weldment. The

electrodes are placed in groups ac-
cording to their ability to supply a
filler metal that deposits in large
amounts, freezes or solidifies rapid-
ly, penetrates moderately or deeply,
or welds hard-to-weld steels.
Group F-1
High-deposition electrodes: E6020, F M an¿ lap Wald6 on matari41
E6027, E7024, and E7028. These fighter thon tOguqe
electrodes have a high deposition
rate. They have a considerable
amount of iron powder, or iron ox-
ide, in their coatings, sometimes as
much as 50 percent. The iron pow-
der melts as the electrode is con-
sumed. Most of it becomes part of
the weld puddle. You can deposit
up to 50 percent more weld metal
with these electrodes.
Electrodes in this group do not flat 6mour Butt U d s &ea mm poor fìt-clp
provide a forceful arc. Because of PIGUIWE IIE3.n Group F-I, high- FflGüJüW 8E.2 Group F-2, mold-
their high deposition rate, they can deposition electrodes. (Courtesy of penetration electrodes. (Courtesy of
be used only for welds in the flat The Lincoln Electric Company.) The Lincoln Electric Company.)
(downhand) position or for horizon-
tal fillets. (See Figure 1E-I .)
The Characteristics of electrodes
in this group are as follows. rate of mild-penetration electrodes is 7. The slag is easily removed from a
somewhat less than that of elec- flat surface but is somewhat dif-
7. The weld puddle is very fluid and ficult to remove from fillet welds.
trodes in Group F - l . The puddle is
solidifies slowly.
less fluid than that of electrodes in
2. The slag is heavy and solidifies Group F-3
group F-1 and tends to "freeze" rap-
before the weld metal. For this Deep-penetrationelectrodes: E601O,
idly. MiId-penetrationelectrodes are
reason the weid metal takes on an excellent choice for out-of-posi- E6011. The arc of deep-penetration
the shape of the solidified slag. It tion welding. (See FigGre 1E-2.) The electrodes digs deep. This action i s
acts in the same way as lead or good for butt joint welds in plate,
characteristics of the electrodes in
wax poured into a mold. this group are as follows. pipe, and vessels. It gives excellent
3. Slag is easily removed. meit-through on root passes.
1. The weld pool i s slightly fluid. It The puddle is deep and highly
4. The arc is soft with little spatter.
solidifies more rapidly than the agitated but freezes quickly, making
5. Penetration is shallow to mod- pool of group F-I electrodes. it easy to control out of position.
erate. (See Figure 1E-3.) The electrodes are
2. The arc is slightly stiffer than that
6. The bead appears smooth and of group F-I electrodes. It is fairly good for downhill welding. They are
free of large ripples. quiet with minimal spatter. widely used for out-of-position butt
7. The electrodes can be used on 3. Penetration i s shallow to mod- joints on pipe.
crack-sensitive metals, when erate. The characteristics of these elec-
low-hydrogen (group F-4) electrodes are as follows.
4. Weld quality is good.
trodes are not available.
5 . It is possible to use the drag tech- 1. The arc digs deeply and harshly
8. X-ray quality welds are possible.
nique to good advantage. with a high level of spatter.
Group F-2 6. The electrodes are excellent for 2. Penetration is deep, and there i s
Mild-penetration electrodes: E6012, use on sheet metal and structural excellent melt-through on root
E601 3, and E7014. The deposition steel, and for general fabrication. passes.

CHAPTER 1 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS El91
7. The electrodes can be used to

HIGH CL@" STEEL weld steels not readily welded
HIGH SULPHUR STEEL
by the electrodes in the other
groups.
HEAVY STEEL
The groups of electrodes are listed
in the order of difficulty of use. It
follows then that those in group F-1
are less difficult to weld with than
those in group F-4.
When a welder passes a certifi-
cation test, he or she is qualified to
weld the joint configuration used in
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the test, in the position in which the

test was conducted, using the same
electrodes employed in the test or
electrodes of a lower group number.
For example, if the electrodes used
in the test were from group F-4, the
welder would be qualified to use all
the electrodes in the remaining
#*@
@netumtat k+,cbmor and e & ! d s Walds in Oll pos¡tkms
groups.
BBQEBIUWüE-3 Group 5 3 , deep- BPiiGUWIE BE4 Group F-4, electrodes OTHER ELECTRODE FACTORS
penetration electrodes. (Courtesy oí for hard-to-weld steels. (Courtesy of You should also consider cost fac-
The Lincoln Electric Company.) The Lincoln Electric Company.) tors when you select an electrode.
For example, the electrode diameter
(core wire diameter) and coating
composition help determine the
3. The weld pool freezes quickly. welding pipe at extremely low tem- deposition rate. The correct deposi-
4. The weld deposit is fairly rough. peratures, F-4 electrodes are better. tion rate will improve your produc-
(Because the weld pool freezes These electrodes are the obvious tivity. Another factor to consider is
quickly, it shows every move- choice when the best mechanical joint position. The position of the
ment the electrode made.) properties and X-ray quality is joint limits you to certain electrodes.
5 . Mechanical properties are excel- desired. You cannot use an electrode in any
lent. (X-ray quality i s possible.) The characteristics of the elec- position you desire. It must be de-
trodes in this group are as follows. signed for that type of duty. Refer to
6 . The electrodes require a high de-
gree of operator skill. 1. The electrodes should always be Table 1D-2 for help in selecting an
7. The electrodes are excellent for stored at the temperature recom- electrode for certain positions.
all types of open-root joints. mended by the manufacturer. Still another important factor to
This reduces the possibility that consider is your welding skill. Weld-
Group F-4 the coating will pick up moisture. ing repairs mean extra costs for you
Low-hydrogen electrodes for steels 2. The arc force is medium or or your employer. Don't be tempted
that are hard to weld: E7016 and moderate. to try and make do with a substitute
E701 8. Low-hydrogen electrodes electrode. For example, iron pow-
3. Penetration is medium to moder-
are known for their ability to weld der electrodes usually have thick
ate. It is difficult to obtain excel-
the "hard to weld" steels. These in- coatings. When the electrode is
lent melt through on open-root
clude free-machining, high-sulfur- burned away by the arc, a deep cup
passes.
bearing steels, high-carbon and low- is left on the end of the electrode
alloy abrasion-resistant steels, and 4. Deposition rate is moderate. because the metal core rod melts
armor plate. (See Figure 1E-4.) 5. There is less spatter than with the faster than the coating. You can see
These electrodes are less crack- group F-3 electrodes. the hollow space, or cup, on the
sensitive than the group F-3 elec- 6. The weld metal has superior me- electrode stub when you stop
trodes. In some instances, such as chanical properties. weld ing.

Fumes and A complicated and slag removal may

be difficult. Ease of slag removal can
vary from the electrodes of one man-
ufacturer to those of another. Even
when electrodes have the same clas-
sification, slag removal can be dif-
ferent, depending on the brand. For
example, E601 3 electrodes are sim-
ilar to E6012 electrodes, but they
make flatter fillets than E6012s.
IBase metal I They make slag removal easier and
~~ ~ ~
are better for making groove welds
FHGUWE iiE.5 Cross-sectional sketch of the “drag” technique. than E6012s. You should learn the
shortcomings of electrodes to help
you pick the correct one.
These iron powder electrodes al- electrodes you use. The sheet will
low you to use the “drag” tech- usually give you useful information PICK ‘fHE RIGilT
nique. (See Figure 1E-5.) You drag about current range, deposition, pe- EI,ECTROT)E
the edge of the cup along the work- netration, polarity, position of weld- There is no easy way to pick the
piece, which makes it easy for you ing, and so on. It will also tell you right electrode for the job. It takes
to maintain a good arc length. Other whether the electrode is good for skill and practice. Try to find out all
electrodes have a small cup, or no weld ing certain joints. you can about the products you use.
cup at all. You must be more skillful Keep notes on the different brands
to hold the correct arc length. SLAG REIMOVAI, of electrodes. After a while you will
Slag removal is easier with some learn which electrodes suit your
MANUFACTURER’S DATA electrodes than with others. You skills and at the same time meet the
You should always try to obtain the should try to use electrodes that welding requirements.
manufacturer’s data sheet for the make it easy where joints become
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
LESSON IF
THE ARC ANE) ME
(PBJECTIVES SPECTACU1,AH the drops are large, other times
Upon completion of this lesson you K A NS Fi<:I< small. When the electrode coating is
should be able to Metal transfer in SMAW is spectac- formulated well, and mixed well,
1. Explain the cause of, and the ef- ular when seen with high-speed the drops become more uniform.
fect of, the cavity on the end of photography. It is not anything like The metal core of the SMAW elec-
an SMAW electrode. the transfer in gas metal arc welding trode melts faster than most coat-
2. Describe the SMAW “drag” (GMAW). In GMAW the electrode ings. Therefore the arc operates in-
technique. melts in a relatively steady way. The side the hollow space formed by the
3. Discuss the effects of travel speed average arc length does not change unrnelted coating. Sometimes,
on the shape of the SMAW very much. In SMAW the electrode when you stop welding and look at
weld. usually melts unevenly. The mate- the electrode stub, you will see a
4. identify the effects on the weld rials in the electrode coating have a cavity on the arc end. (See Figure
bead of changing the angle of the dramatic effect on the surface ten- 1F-1 .) The arc was inside this cavity
SMAW electrode. sion of the molten metal. Sometimes when you were welding.

FIGURE 1F.l A typical electrode FIGURE IF-2 Cross section of the arc zone showing the effect of arc force on
stub end with an arc cavity. metal-flux transfer. Drop5 are irreguhr because of fluctuating forces and variations in
surface tension.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ARC FORCES
When you are welding, gas pressure piece rather than using the drag thing unusual in the arc behavior or
builds up inside the electrode cavi- technique. You should try to hold a the metal transfer.
ty. The gases come from the hot steady gap between the electrode tip
CONTROLI,INC, PENETRATION
metal and electrode coating and and the workpiece. When you run
The metal transfer and arc force are
produce a jetting action on the mol- the electrode at a steady travel speed
also controlled by arc length and
ten core metal. The gases push the and hold a stable arc length, the
current. When the current i s low,
melted electrode metal out of the weld will look better. Every time you
the arc has less force. Penetration
hollow space and toward the work- pause in one place the weld bead
falls off. The bead becomes narrow
piece. The hollow space i s not com- gets wider. Every time you jump
and metal can pile up. The electrode
pletely uniform. The gases may form ahead the weld bead gets narrower.
can even stick to the workplace.
faster on one side than the other. When the weld metal freezes, you
When there is too much current, the
Therefore the metal jetting action can see every place your travel
arc has too much force. It digs into
will act in different directions. speed changed. The metal transfers
the workpiece and creates a great
Sometimes it will be straight ahead into a nicer weld bead when your
amount of spatter. Too much current
and into the weld puddle. (See Fig- travel speed is steady. Don’t be a
can cause the arc to undercut along
ure 1F-2.) Other times metal can be “jerky” welder.
the edges of the weld and can cause
thrown sideways. It is this random
you to burn through the workpiece.
character of the transfer that helps to EI,ECTRlCAI, FACTORS
When the arc is too short, it digs
make a wide bead and create spat- Arc energy and metal transfer
into the workpiece. A short arc can
ter. if the electrode is held close to change with the direction of current
cause uneven metal transfer and big
the workpiece, however, and even flow. Be sure to use the correct po-
ripples in the weld bead. It tends to
dragged along the workpiece, the larity when using direct current. Al-
produce slag holes and porosity.
hollow space at the electrode tip can ways use the correct type of current.
When you hold a long arc, the pe-
help focus the arc forces. The arc Do not change direct current for al-
netration forces decrease. The arc
will penetrate better, and metal ternating current, or vice versa.
can wander along its intended path.
transfer will be more uniform. Electrodes are designed for a specif-
The bead becomes irregular and un-
ic amount of current and polarity. If
even along its edges.
TRAVEL FACTORS you use the wrong current, the arc
Since the metal core rod i s electri- can become unstable and may be EI,ECTHOl)F: A N G L E
cally insulated by the electrode impossible to operate. Increased The angle the electrode makes with
coating, you can drag many elec- spatter is a symptom of the wrong the puddle also effects metal trans-
trodes along the workpiece. The polarity. Other symptoms are fer, for the arc force is directed by
edge of the coating will hold the changes in the expected arc shape, the electrode angle. increasing the
metal core away from the work- poor penetration, too much puddle angle toward the vertical increases
piece, which will prevent you from turbulence, and a considerable penetration. (See Figure 1 F-3.)
short-circuiting the arc and putting it amount of spatter. You might even When the angle is decreased, the
out. find it impossible to strike an arc. penetration decreases. When the arc
Some electrodes work better if Always check your power supply is aimed toward the puddle, it can
you hold them away from the work- connections when you notice some- cause the weld bead to pile up and

194 . SECTION III SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
-
Travel -Travel
,/*
Q
/
Penetration
FIGURE 1F.3 Penetration changes with the electrode angle.
Leaning to left,
b-ead to right
of centerline
freeze in large ripples. When you end. (See Figure 1F-4.) The jet can
lean the electrode toward the left or blow the molten metal wherever
/'
right, called the work angle, the you aim the electrode. Once you Q
weld bead will move off center. YOU learn how to control the arc force FIIGUUREU F . The
~ weld bead will be
must treat your electrode as though (jet force), you will be able to place moved by arc forces when the work
it had an imaginary air jet on the molten metal wherever you want. angle of the electrode IS shifted.
LESSON 16
PROCESS CAPABI
OBJECTIVES
should be able to
&er nO , lead
Work lead
con?ection
can range from simple transformers
to generators driven by gasoline en-
gines. Most people have seen pick-
1. List the essential equipment need- up trucks with such power sources
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Electrode in a corner of the cargo bed. You
c
ed for SMAW systems.
2. Name six materials that can be see them in gas stations, on farms,
welded with SMAW. and even in your neighbor's garage.
3. Describe some of the process lim- For no more then the cost of a new
itations of SMAW. suit of clothes, you can buy a simple
4. Explain why it i s important to take SMAW power source. The power
great care in selecting an SMAW cables, electrode holder, helmet,
electrode. PHGUIE üG:g The typical SMAW setup. and gloves can be purchased for less
than the cost of a small television
SIMPLE AND INEXPENSIVE set. Despite its simplicity and low
The major factor that makes the cost, however, SMAW is a very use-
SMAW process so useful is its sim- POWEK SOUHCE COSI'S ful process.
plicity. And, because it is simple, it The power sources are readily avail-
is also inexpensive. Other process- able. They come in all sizes and WI-TEHE LISKI>
es, such as gas tungsten arc welding, shapes and are relatively low in The SMAW process, the most pop-
gas metal arc welding, and flux-core cost. The design requirements of ular and probably the most widely
arc welding, have not been able to SMAW power sources are well used of the arc welding processes,
drive SMAW from the marketplace. understood. For this reason they are i s both versatile and flexible. The
All a welder needs for SMAW is a easy to make, without a large in- welder can work at great distances
power supply, some cables, an elec- vestment in manufacturing equip- from the power source, and the
trode holder, and some electrodes. ment. Power sources are usually process does not require the use of
(See Figure 1G-I .) small and light and portable. They compressed gases for shielding.

CHAPTER 1 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS
The process is excellent for repe- automatic equipment. Basically it is welds, brittle welds, and other types
titive work, short runs, mainte- done manually. The electrodes of defects.
nance, repair, fabrication, and field come in relatively short length: 9 to New electrodes are constantly
construction. A great deal of routine 28 inches (230 to 700 mm). It takes being developed. Electrodes used
arc welding is done with the SMAW only a few minutes to completely during World War I were complete-
process. deposit one electrode. ly different from the electrodes we
Almost any metal thickness and Because of the short time it takes have available now. It i s the im-
joint configuration can be readily to consume an electrode, the welder proved composition of the elec-
welded with this process. Electrodes must stop to change electrodes trodes and their coatings that is re-
are available for use with carbon every few minutes and must clean sponsible for the quality weld
and low-alloy steels, stainless steel, the starting point before beginning deposits possible today.
high-al loy steels, corrosion-resistant the next electrode. Usually less than Some electrodes can be used suc-
steels, quenched or tempered steels, half of the time is actual arc time. cessfully with either alternating cur-
cast iron, and malleable iron. But even with this amount of down- rent or direct current. Some coatings
Though not used to a great extent, time, an accomplished welder can have been developed to increase the
electrodes are also available for be very productive. amount of filler metal that can be
welding copper and nickel and oth- deposited in a given time. Other
er alloys. Some welding of heavy E;LII:CTHOI>ES electrode coatings contain additives
aluminum is also done, but in very Electrodes should be selected with that increase strength and improve
small quantities. care. It is important that the com- weld performance.
Most small shops use the SMAW position of the electrode is suitable Although most coatings make
process. The technique requires for the composition of the metal to electrodes easy to use, some coat-
relatively low-cost equipment and is be welded. If the electrode and weld ings require greater skill. When you
versatile. The welder can easily metal are not suited to each other, can select and use any electrode
change from one type of weldment the weld will probably fail. Welds well, you can be called a welder.
to another. made with the wrong electrode can-
not be expected to withstand the
1,l M ITAT LONS load placed upon them. Use of the
The SMAW process does not lend wrong electrode can cause porosity,
itself to use with semiautomatic or poor corrosion resistance, weak
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CHAPTER 2
SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS
LESSON 2A
ELECTRODE HOLDERS,
CABLES,A N D CLAMPS
OBJECTIVES
should be able to
1. Identify four SMAW electrode
holder design features.
f
-Handle
- Metal jaws
High-temperature
insulation
2. Explain how to choose welding

cable.
3. Describe how to care for an Insulation
SMAW electrode holder.
Metal
4. Discuss the term ground clamp. jaws
5. Name two troubles that can be
Handle1
caused by poor workpiece clamp
contact.
HOLDERS AND CABLES

Twist to
lock electrode a /
Insulated
bndv
Electrode holders and cables seem

to be simple things. They look as Handle l.
though practically anyone could ‘Hole for electrode
make them, but nothing could be FIGURE 2A-I Typical electrode holder designs.
farther from the truth. Holders must
be rugged. They must be able to car-
ry current to the electrodes without do the job. Some holder clamps welds if your hand and arm become
getting dangerously hot at the same pinch the end of the electrode (see tired and cramped because you are
time. They must be easy to fix when Figure 2A-11, some wedge the elec- using the wrong holder. One source
something breaks down or wears trode in place, and some use a of trouble that may make a holder
out, and they must be economical chuck. Whatever holder design you feel unwieldy is the power cable.
to use. They must last a long time. pick, it must be rated to carry the Cables are available with all kinds
There are many things that they must current you intend to use. There are of insulation and diameters. Some
do we1I. small, low-current holders for small cable is very stiff, some very flexi-
The purpose of the holder is to electrodes and heavy-duty, high- ble. Some cable is light, some
clamp onto the electrode and deliv- current holders for large electrodes heavy. Be sure to pick cable that is
er electric current to the electrode. that run a long time at high current. rated for the current and duty cycle
The clamping action must be strong When you choose a holder, be you will use.
so that the electrode does not wob- sure to pick one that feels comfort- Cable insulation can break down
ble or fall out while you are weldable in your hand. The balance and from abuse. You cannot use any
ing. As with many pieces of equip- feel of a holder are very important. type of cable you want for welding
ment, there is more than one way to You will not be able to make good service. It must be rated for the
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CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS 197
welding duty cycle. The insulation

should be able to stand up to the arc
rays. Some cable insulation will fail
in a short time when exposed to ul-
traviolet rays from an arc. Welding
spatter can melt some insulation and
stick to the cable. Good welding ca-
ble i s a premium product. You get
what you pay for. Cheap cable will
usually break down in a hurry.
Manufacturers of holders match
the cable with the holder design.
They try to give the holder and cable
a good “feel.” Therefore, when you
buy a holder, make sure you get the
right one for you. It will make weld-
ing easier and improve the quality of
your welds. You will need more
than one holder as you become
skilled. Just as a good carpenter has
more than one hammer, a good Cables and holders must be in good repair.
welder has several holders. Each
holder is for certain types of weld-
ing, depending on the amount of
current, electrode length, welding
position and so on.
Take good care of your holders.
Do not use them as slag-chipping
hammers or to beat a piece of metal
into position. Never ever dip a hot
holder into water to force-cool it.
This can ruin the electric insulation,
and interfere with the electric con-
tact. If the holder overheats, set it Setscrew
for cable
aside and use another one. Keep -Threaded shaft
the contact gripping surface clean.
When the contact becomes dirty Ca
and covered with oxide, the holder

will run hot and may cause welding
conditions to become erratic. Most
electrode holders are made with
nonmagnetic material. Direct-cur-
rent welding could magnetize parts
made from magnetic material, and
this could cause arc blow.
Y S e t s c r e w for cable
WORI<i’I KC15 CIAMPS FHGURE 2A.2 Typical work clamps.
ANI) CAi3LitS
It is almost as important to have a
good workpiece clamp and cable as (See Figure 2A-2.) A good work- blow. (Arc blow is discussed in de-
it is to have a good electrode holder piece clamp is the key to solving tail in Section I, Chapter 7.) Good
and cable. The welding current from many welding problems. contact between the clamp and
the electrode must pass through the Depending on where you place workpiece is a must. Be sure to
arc and back to the power source. the clamp, you can help control arc brush the contact area before con-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

SECTION III SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
necting the clamp. Do not clamp that it does not act as an electric into place, and some can rotate with
over dirt, rust, paint, or slag chips, ground, in the sense of providing a fixture. All clamps and their elec-
any one of which can make for a electrical safety, but that, unfortu- tric contacts must be kept in good
poor electric connection. Some- nately, way back in the early days condition. An erratic contact can
times several clamps are used to re- of electric welding, someone called cause jumps in current, change the
turn current to the power source. if the clamp a “ground clamp”. The arc length, and contribute to all sorts
the clamps do not make good elec- term has stuck ever since. But, of weld defects.
tric connections, most of the current it is wrong. These clamps do not When you must electrically
will return through the best connec- “ground” anything. Work clamps ground the workpiece, use a sepa-
tion, and may overload the good connect the work lead to the power rate cable. The grounding cable
clamp and its cable. supply. They are used with DCEN or should be connected between the
One very important thing to re- DCEP or alternating current. It workpiece, or the metal frame it
member is to call the clamp by its doesn’t make any difference. rests on, and a separate electric
correct name. It is a work clamp or There are many versions of work- ground. The electric ground can be
workpiece clamp, not a ground piece clamps. Some are spring-load- as simple as a copper rod driven into
clamp, as manufacturers cometimes ed pinchers, some are held in place the earth, or a connection in a near-
advertise it. We indicated earlier by magnetism, some can be bolted by electrical junction box.
LESSON 2B
ES
OBtBJECTPVES The utility company power is sup- these limits. It is called the no-lead
Upon completion of this lesson you plied with a variety of voltages. it voltage as well as the open-circuit
should be able to ranges from ordinary house voltage voltage. -Because ordinary house-
1. Explain the function of a step- of 115 volts on through 230, 380, hold power i s supplied with 115
down transformer. 460, and even 575 volts alternating volts alternating current, welding
2. Define the meaning of “constant- current. Most shielded metal arc power is somewhat safer to handle.
current machine.’’ welders come with input taps so that However, you should consider all
3. Describe how arc heat i s con- they can be used with several differ- electric power as dangerous and
trolled. ent voltage inputs. able to kill you.
4. List three ways to vary a trans- Closed-circuit voltage, on the
former’s output. TI-IE srr li P-I)O\YIN other hand, is the voltage when
5. Explain “welding polarity” ter- ?’KA N S N )R M I.:Z
I welding is taking place. Closed-cir-
minology. An ac welder is basically a step- cuit voltage normally fluctuates be-
down transformer. A step-down tween 20 to 35 volts. The actual
1NPUT POWEIZ transformer lowers the input volts voltage depends on the arc length
An arc welder* that uses alternating and increases the amperes to make you use.
current from a power line must the power useful for welding The transformer welder and al-
transform it to a safe, usable welding purposes. most all welders used for shielded
current. The ac power from the util- For SMAW power to be consid- metal arc welding are called
ity company has very high voltage ered useful, the open-circuit voltage constant-current machines. Cal I ing
and low amperage. This type of must be between approximately 55 them CC machines can be confusing
power can be very dangerous to and 80 volts. Open-circuit voltage because most of them do not supply
handle and cannot be used for is the output voltage when the weld- perfect constant current. Over the
welding. er is turned on but no welding is range of actual welding, however,
being done. A voltage measurement the current doesn’t change too much
*Sometimes the term welder is used instead taken across the terminals of the and thus i s called constant current.
of power source. welder with no load will read within The most important characteristic of
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

%kf
CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS
this CC type of welder is that the

Steep slope
voltage changes with the length of
the arc.
By changing the arc length or arc >”
-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
gap, you can control the heat input

into the workpiece. This ability to
change heat input is what makes
welding work so well. In manual arc
-k+
Current
welding there are times when less
ü~üQiiiR~;25.11Effect of the IFHGUIE 2B.2 (Below) Movable-coil
heat i s required to melt the metal,
volt-ampere slope on the current swing ac power source with coils set for
especially in out-of-position weld- caused by a change in the arc length. minimum output. (From Welding
ing. At these times the welder, by Processes-Arc and Cas Welding and
skillful manipulation of the elec- Cutting, Brazing and Soldering, Vol. 2 ,
trode, can raise or lower the heat 7th ed., copyright 1978, by American
input. Changing the arc length while Iron core
Welding Society. Courtesy of American
welding is what gives you control Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
over the heat input. BC
When a short arc i s held, the volt-
age drops to about 20 volts. This
short arc and lower voltage produce V
Minimum
OUtPUt
a concentrated arc, which is a hotter
arc. When a long arc i s held, the
voltage rises to about 35 volts and (
50 1M) Is0 200 250
the arc spreads out. It is cooler and A
Bas
the welder can control the flow of
weld metal as well as the size of the
puddle. (See Figure 28-1 .)
Controlling the puddle through The welder usually adjusts the dis- and a magnetic field induces current
shortening and lengthening the arc tance mechanically with a knob or in the secondary circuit. This is
requires skill. Welding skill is re- crank. called transformer action and simply
sponsible for much of the success of means that the current in one
the shielded metal arc process. 1’12 I MA N Y ( : I li(:LI II‘ coil circuit induces current in the
The primary circuit, into which the other, without the coils touching
HOW ‘1’111< S ‘ ï E i W O W N input current is connected, consists one another.
‘rIZA N S IW IZ MI<; IZ 1W N( T
I ( INS of a laminated steel core with a wire The induced current leaves the
There are a number of ways that a coil wound around it. The coil must secondary circuit via wires attached
transformer can be designed to be insulated so that there is no pos- to the terminals of the welder. The
change line power into usable weld- sibility of bare wire contacting other amount of current is controlled by
ing power. One simple method uses metal parts in the welder. Should moving the coils either closer to-
a movable coil. this happen, anyone touching the gether or farther apart. ‘The farther
In the movable-coil transformer welder could be severely shocked apart the lower the current, and the
two coils are wrapped around a lam- and perhaps even killed. closer together the higher the cur-
inated iron core. The laminations rent. Usually the primary coil is
are sheets of steel with excellent SECON I M R Y CIHCU IT slightly smaller in diameter than the
magnetic properties. (See Figure 2B- The secondary circuit is about the secondary coil. When the primary
2.) The coils are called the primary same as the primary, except that the coil reaches a position where it is
and the secondary coils. The pri- secondary circuit uses larger-diam- nesting inside of the secondary coil,
mary coil receives the input current eter wire and has fewer turns than the maximum welding current is ob-
and the secondary coil delivers the primary circuit. The secondary tained. (See Figure 28-3.)
weld ing current. circuit is isolated from the primary There are other methods of con-
One of these coils stands still circuit. That is, it is not physically trolling the welding current, such as
while the other moves. The welding connected to the input line. When the movable shunt, movable core,
current is controlled by moving the the main switch is turned on, line tapped secondary coil, and satura-
coils closer together or farther apart. current enters the primary circuit, ble reactor. These methods of cur-

Iron con
Alternating current
Primary
coil
sine wave
(movibli)
FIIBiüJBBE% M E 4 Alternating-current
Secondary
coil sine wave.
(Rxd
position)
A
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FBGUWE 2B-3Movable-coil ac power source with coils set for maximum output.
(From Welding Processes-Arc and Cas Welding and Cutting, Brazing and Soldering,
Vol. 2 , 7th ed., copyright 1978, by American Welding Society. Courtesy of Aineri- Effects of current
can Welding Society, Miami, Florida.) on penetration
2öEm8Effects of current on
FBGUE~E
penetration.
rent control are built into the weld- rent, electrode positive. Although
ing machine. you cannot see it happen, the arc
goes out each time the current is re-
5 , Rated-Ioad amPeres.
T Y P E OF WEI,I)lNC, CUKRKN'I' versed. (See Figure 25-4.) This is the
main reason why only certain spe- 6. Duty cycle at rated load.
Alternating-current welding trans-
formers have high-voltage low-cur- cial electrodes may be used for ac 7. Maximum speed in revolutions
rent primary coils and low-voltage welding. These electrodes contain per minute (rpm) at no load (on
high-current secondary coils. This is in the electrode coating special ma- generator or alternator-not ap-
the most economical welder sold, terials that help the arc to restrike plicable to the ac transformer
but it has several limitations. Only after each current reversal. welder or rectifier).
special ac electrodes should be Each welding current polarity has 8. Frequency of power supply in-
used. On certain weldments and its own penetration characteristics. put voltage.
code work, dc electrodes may be Figure 2ß-5 shows the penetration 9. Number of phases of power sup-
specified. in these cases, ac power obtained with direct current, reverse ply input voltage.
is unsatisfactory. polarity (DCRP), alternating current 10. input voltage of power supply.
Alternating current changes direc- (AC), and direct current, straight po-
11. Amperes input at rated-load
tion each half cycle. It is produced larity (DCSP). Notice that DCRP has
output.
by a generator with an armature that deep penetration and DCSP has
rotates between magnetic poles. shallow penetration. Alternating cur- Most of the nameplate informa-
The electricity produced by the rent, which-is a combination of the tion is for the electrician who installs
utility companies is known as 60- two, has medium penetration. or maintains the equipment. How-
cycle current. An example is shown ever, the duty cycle, rated-load
in Figure 28-4. As you look at the NAMb~PIAï'I~ 1)A'I'A volts, and current rating should be
ac wave, notice the crossover points The following minimum information known and understood by the
1, 3, and 1. At these points the cur- will usually be found on the name- welder.
rent reverses itself. At the crossover plate of the power source.
point of the wave the current i s zero. I)1J'ïY C Y (1 I,E
1. Manufacturer's type designation
At points 2 and 4 the current flow i s You do not actually weld 100 per-
or identification number or cent of the time. You must stop to
at a maximum. In 60-cycle alternat-
both. change electrodes, to clean the slag
ing current the flow reverses itself
120 times a second. 2 NEMA (National Electrical Man- before welding the next pass, and
When ac current is used for weld- ufacturers Association) class for other reasons.
ing, one half cycle is called straight designation. Because you do not weld all the
polarity or direct current, electrode 3. Maximum open-circuit voltage time, machines are made with dif-
negative. The other half cycle is (OCV). ferent duty cycles, as we have indi-
called reverse polarity or direct cur- 4. Rated-load volts. cated. Production welding requires

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
machines with higher duty cycles use many of the ac electrodes that both. With the acldc welder you can
and heavier wiring. By weighing are available. obtain DCEN, DCEP, or ac welding
their needs, purchasers can select a A diode is an electric device that current.
machine with a duty cycle that will allows current to flow in only one
best fit their needs. Just remember direction. The diode does for elec- DC MOTOR-GENERATOKS
that machines with high duty cycles tricity what a check valve does for Motor-generator welders usually
cost more. The duty cycle rating i s liquid in a pipeline: it prevents rev- produce direct current for welding,
based on the number of minutes, in erse flow of current. When properly although there are some that pro-
a ten-minute period, a welder can connected into an electric circuit, duce alternating current. The gen-
be used at rated load without over- an arrangement of diodes is called a erator (dc) or alternator (ac) is turned
heating. Some units have overload rectifier. A rectifier can change al- by an electric motor. Many people
protection to prevent welding until ternating current into continuous prefer the welding characteristics
the welder has cooled sufficiently. pulses of direct current. Although of generators. They are not as sensi-
As an example, a 300-ampere rectified current flows in one direc- tive to line voltage fluctuations
welder with a rated duty cycle of 60 tion, it is not steady and is still quite as transformer-rectifier units, but
percent can be operated safely at ?wavy.? A filter can be used to they are noisier and require more
300 amperes for six minutes out of ?smooth out? the current. Usually maintenance.
every ten. an inductor or capacitor is used. An Generator-type power sources
A 60 percent duty cycle is rec- inductor stores energy in a magnetic have always had great welder ap-
ommended for heavy industrial field and can be used to smooth out peal. The welding current they sup-
manual welding machines. But just current flow. A capacitor is a device ply has less current ripple than rec-
because the welder is rated at 60 that has the ability to store energy tified current. The arc is smooth and
percent duty cycle does not mean it and release it as needed to smooth steady and does not tend to go out
can be used at rated load for a the flow of the current. as with the transformer welders.
steady 36 minutes out of one hour. There are two dc welding circuit
It means that the welder must be connections. When the electrode i s ENGINE-DRIVEN GENERATORS,
?rested? four minutes out of every connected to the negative terminal The generator-type welder can also
ten if it is used at its rated current. and the workpiece is connected to be powered by an internal combus-
On the other hand, if the welder the positive terminal, the connection engine, such as the gasoline or
is used below its rated output, it can tion i s called straight polarity diesel engine. Engine-driven power
be run for a longer period. (DCEN). When the electrode is posi- sources are used for fieldwork where
tive and the workpiece is negative, electric power is not readily
TRAN SFORME II- the connection is called reverse po- available.
RECTIF i l m larity (DCEP). Either connection This type of unit is often found
WEIJIERS may be used for welding. They are mounted on the back of a truck or a
The step-down transformer welder is called DCEP and DCEN by many portable skid. The engine may be
the basis for other types of welders. users. either water-cooled or air-cooled.
When other equipment is added, it Some electrodes operate better Some of these welders also have an
can be made to produce direct with one polarity than the other. As auxiliary 1 1 5-volt ac generator (al-
current. mentioned previously, the depth of ternator) to provide power for light-
Adding a rectifier to a transformer penetration can be regulated by the ing and electric hand tools.
makes it possible to ?straighten out? choice of polarity. The electrode
alternating current so that it flows in melt rate also varies with polarity.
one direction. Alternating current Reverse polarity produce welds of
can be converted to either straight deep penetration and straight polar-
or reverse-polarity current, depend- ity welds of shallow penetration.
ing on the type of electrodes Electrodes that can be used on either
available. polarity usually have a higher depo-
The ability to select the type of sition rate when used with straight
current and to control penetration polarity.
also extends your choice of elec- Some power sources provide
trodes. When using direct current, alternating current, others direct
the welder can choose from a wide current, but the ac/dc trans-
variety of electrodes and can also former-rectifier welder can provide

LESSON 2 C
TYPICAL SETUP AND
THE WELDING CIRCUIT
OBJECTIVES
should be able to
1. Describe the effects of a poor
electric connection.
2. Explain the voltage hazards that
can occur when two welders
work near each other.
3. Give reasons why the electrode
cable should be the best one in
the welding circuit.
4. Discuss why it is best to connect Undersized/
the workpiece clamp directly to cable splice
the work and not to the table. FIGURE 2C.1 Poor cable practice will harm an arc,
BE CAREFUL
A welding system must be set up
carefully. You cannot just throw the from a light bulb when it i s ener- on or off remotely, by means of the
pieces of equipment together and gized, or a toaster when you make switch on the welding gun. Unless
expect to get good results. You may toast for breakfast. Poor electric con- you have some special SMAW
be lucky most of the time, but soon- nections will get hot. Good connec- equipment, there is no on-off switch
er or later carelessness will catch up tions will remain relatively cool. on your electrode holder. There usu-
with you. Poorly assembled and Some connections can become so ally is some sort of master switch on
maintained equipment can lead to bad that the terminals will melt from the power source control panel. You
erratic arcs as well as breakdowns. the heat. Poor connections in hid- may even turn the power source on
The information you learn in this les- den places can even cause fires to when you energize the main ac line.
son i s some of the most important start. Always be sure all connections Therefore, if the welding circuit i s
you will ever encounter. you make are clean, dry, and tightly always energized, you must be care-
made. ful of electric shock and accidental
THE IMPORTANCE Do not use cables that are too arcs. For example, when you lay
OF GOOD CONNECTIONS small or that have a great many down your electrode holder, it
Arc welding depends more on elec- splices. (See Figure 2C-1.) All of this could short-circuit the welding pow-
tric power than on any other single causes resistance and heat buildup. er supply if the electrode holder
thing. The arc converts the electric Moreover, the heat that builds up jaws come in contact with the
power into heat. Heat is what you represents energy that is lost. It is en- workpiece.
control with the techniques you will ergy that could have been turned
learn about in other lessons. Make into useful arc heat.
sure you understand the operation of MULTIPLE WELDERS
the power source you use. If current THE ENERGIZED HOLDER Sometimes several welders can be
is adjusted by means of changing Many types of SMAW power working on the same structure or
taps, be sure all the connections are sources remain energized after they welding on the same workpiece.
clean and firm. Loose connections are turned on. They are not like gas Since SMAW electrodes are de-
and dirty connections can increase metal arc welding units, which usu- signed for a specific polarity, it is
circuit resistance. Current creates ally have some kind of on-off con- possible for two welders to be using
heat as it passes through resistance. trol switch on the welding gun. The different power. You could be using
This heat is just like the heat you feel operator can turn the power source direct current with the electrode
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

DCEP DCEP people work near each other. Pick

the electrode to do the job based on
the polarity needed for safety. Don’t
connect the system for the first elec- l Worktable top
trode polarity you choose, unless, of

course, you are working alone. Spatter Old
balls tack weld
Workpiece
When you weld with alternating
current, all arcs should be connect-
ed for the same instantaneous polar-
ity. Usually this means that you con- I Worktable top
I
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
DCEP DCEN nect the power source to the same FIGURE 2C.3 Keep the worktable
power line input leads. Any quali- clean for good electric contacts.
fied electrician can make sure you
have the correct polarity connec-
tion. Otherwise the same thing that
ble. Current flows through the arc,
happens with direct current happens
then the workpiece and into the ta-
with alternating current. You can get
FIGURE 2c.2 Opposite polarities can ble, then back to the power source
as much as double the voltage be-
be hazardous. by way of the work clamp and work
tween holders as you have across
lead.
the arc.
The electric contact between the
CARLE CONDITION workpiece and table depends on
negative (DCEN) and your partner Keep you welding cables in good re- many things. (See Figure 2C-3.)
could be using DCEP. Your partner pair. Use the best cables on the Even if you have hold-down clamps,
could even be using ac power. holder side of the circuit. It needs or a heavy weight on the workpiece,
When the two of you are using dif- the best insulation to protect you you can have a poor electric con-
ferent polarities, there is an added from accidental shocks and sparks. nection. Rust, dirt, old spatter, slag
hazard. The power supply voltages The work lead cable should also be chips, and so on can get between
add up so that the voltage between in good repair, but it need not be in the table and workpiece. Any one of
the two electrodes is the sum of the as good condition as the electrode these can give you a bad connec-
two arc voltages. (See Figure 2C-2.) cable. The work lead usually lies on tion. You may think there is a bad
When the arcs are connected for the the floor or is dropped over the power cable, a loose connection
same polarity welding, the voltage workpiece. It does not get as much somewhere, or a bad holder. But ac-
between holders is very low, usually movement as the electrode holder tually the connection between the
near zero. When the arcs are of dif- cable. table and workpiece is poor.
ferent polarities, the voltage is about Many shops use old holder cable Remember, an arc is an energy
twice that of either power supply. as the work lead cable. Just be sure conversion device. It can convert
The high voltage is a greater hazard. it is in good shape. Otherwise you only the electric, power it receives.
Therefore be extra careful when lay- might have a stray current flow Anything that changes the electric
ing down an energized holder. The when a bare piece of the work lead circuit changes the arc current and
other operator might contact it touches another part of the work- the arc power. Keep your equipment
accidentally. piece. Always try to connect the in good repair, the circuit connec-
work clamp directly to the piece you tions dry and clean, and you will
THE SAFE WAY are welding. Sometimes the work have a better arc.
It is always good practice to connect clamp is connected to a worktable,
arcs for the same polarity when two and the workpiece is set on the ta-

CHAPTER 3
SHIELDED METAL ARC
WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION
LESSON 3A
C STARTS ANlB STOPS
BBiBJECTIVES \Start it; helps the arc to start. During the first
establish the arc instant of the scratch, or tap, there
should be able to Hold a slightly i s no arc. The electrode in contact
long arc with the workpiece acts like a
1. Explain why it is necessary to use
a quick striking or tapping motion switch. It causes the circuit to be
when starting SMAW arcs? completed and the current to flow.
2. Describe how to “free up” an When you raise the electrode, or if
SMAW electrode that is struck to it bounces off the workpiece, the cir-
the workpiece. cuit begins to turn off. This is just
like turning off any switch. (See Fig-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3. Identify the two things that con-

trol the SMAW starting voltage ure 3A-3.) It i s at this moment that
pulse. the magnetic field in the power
4. Describe how to restart the weld source does its job. As the current
FPGURE 3m.n Scratch start method.
bead after the SMAW arc has begins to turn off, the magnetic field
been restruck. collapses. Voltage is produced any-
“striking a match.” The second time a conductor is placed in a mov-
USE THE CORRECT METHOD method uses a tapping motion, the ing magnetic field. The collapsing
Arc starting can be very easy or al- same motion you use when you tap field in the power source coils pro-
most impossible. It all depends on a pencil on a table. (See Figure duces a voltage spike that keeps the
you. The equipment manufacturers 3A-2.) Both of these methods cause arc alive. Otherwise it would go out.
have designed the power sources to a surge of current to flow through Two things are needed to give a
help give good starts. The electrode the electrode. good-size voltage pulse. The first is
manufacturers have designed the The amount of current is con- enough current. The second is a fast
electrode coatings to make starts trolled by the power source setting. striking or. tapping action. If the
easier. If you do not use the correct The current also creates a magnetic magnetic field is too small, or the
starting methods, however, you will field in the coils inside the power switching action too slow, the volt-
find it almost impossible to start an source. It i s this magnetic field that age spike will be too small to strike
arc.
STARTING
The power sources normally provide
a helpful voltage spike when you
use the correct methods. There are
?
Holder
two basic arc strike methods. -Electrode
The first one uses a swinging mo-
tion, almost the same motion used
in striking a match. (See Figure
3A-1.) The term “striking an arc” Down Hit Bounce
comes from the comparison with PPGUWE 3A.t Tap start method.

CHAPTER 3 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION 2@5 - __
No coil,
no magnetic field
Current- -1 Start of
crater edge
-I I
Spark’ Move toward
bead
Coil with magnetic field

Current-
I 1 Dwell momentarily
Arc’. Continue original FHQUHPE 3.4.4 Restrike

bead.
FEfGüJllE 3A.3 Opening a switch in a method.
circuit with a coil will create an arc in
the switch gap. welding circuit. Just unclamp the just whip the electrode away from
holder from the electrode. Do this the puddle. You should first length-
only if you must. When you un- en the arc slightly to reduce the arc
the arc. Some power sources are de- clamp the holder you will get a force on the puddle. Then let the
signed to give an extra surge of cur- sparking action in the holder jaws. puddle fill up a bit and flatten out.
rent during the start. The extra cur- It m.ay startle you. Leave the elec- At this point you can break the arc
rent helps create a larger voltage trode stuck in place and turn the by a rapid movement. You will learn
spike. But you are the only one who power off. Then, after the electrode to do this in other lessons. just re-
can control how fast the circuit is cools off, you can try to bend it free. member, as you increase the arc
broken. A good clean strike and fast If worse comes to worse and the length it has less push on the
circuit break will give a good-size electrode stays stuck, you can chisel puddle.
voltage spike and a good start. it free.
If you strike the arc properly, and RESTARTING
THE swr-wIS I, ~ m it begins to run, try to hold an arc Restarting an electrode can be a
[ii,ECTRODI1: length of about one-half to one core problem. You must be sure the flux
If you are slow and careless, if you wire diameter. The lessons in Chap- is removed from the arc end. The
hold the electrode on the workpiece ter 5 will give you practice in all of bare metal core must stick out slight-
too long, if you have a low current this. In this lesson you are learning ly. Sometimes you can remove ex-
setting, the electrode may stick to the reasons why you must use spe- cess flux by tapping the electrode on
the workpiece. It will actually spot- cific striking motions. the workpiece before you put it in
weld itself to the workpiece. Then, the holder. Whatever you do, the
when you go to raise the electrode, STOPPLNC, core metal must be clear of flux.
it will not move. The current will Stopping the arc is very easy. All you The weld crater must also be clear
continue to flow and the electrode have to do is pull the electrode away of slag and flux; otherwise you will
will heat up. If something isn’t done, from the weld puddle. Sooner or not be able to start in the same place
the current will heat the electrode later the arc will go out. The power you stopped. When you restrike the
until it becomes soft and even be- source will not have enough voltage arc, start at the cold end of the
gins to glow. Don’t worry. This will to keep the arc going. If you snatch crater. Then drag the arc across the
not happen to you if you do not pan- the electrode upward, the arc will crater toward the weld bead. (See
ic. If your electrode gets stuck, give go out in a hurry. If you lengthen the Figure 3A-4.) This movement re-
it a sharp twisting motion. This will arc slowly, the arc may wander and melts the crater and any remaining
usually break it free. metal may spatter all over. slag. Then you can start welding in
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
if the electrode stays stuck, you As you can see, it i s easy to stop the same direction as before.
must stop the current flow. First try the arc. However, it i s not that easy All this information on arc starts
to turn offthe power supply. If the to stop welding. You must stop and stops applies to both ac and dc
power source is too far away to get welding the right way or you can get arcs. The techniques are the same
to in a hurry, you can break the crater cracks. Normally, you do not for all SMAW systems.

286- SECTION III SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
BPBSECTUVES arc length you change arc power. A

you have the power source con-
Upon completion of this lesson you nected for the right polarity. steady hand is needed when you
should be able to Every electrode has a best current want steady power. Otherwise,
1. List the major factors that can range. When you use too much cur- power fluctuations will cause
cause SMAW problems. rent, or too little current, the metal changes in the weld puddle. The
2. Identify four materials factors that transfer will be erratic. Always dou- amount of heat input to the weld de-
affect SMAW welding perfor- ble-check the current setting on the pends on the travel speed, or weld-
mance. power source. Many welders keep a ing speed as it is also called. The
3. Name three electrical factors that notebook in which they write down more slowly you move the electrode
can affect welding power. welding data. The only way you can along the weld joint, the more heat
4. Define a critical variable. repeat a good welding condition is you deliver to the puddle. Fast travel
5. Describe two causes of erratic to be sure you use the same equip- does the opposite. It reduces the
welding current. ment settings. Many employers use heat input. Once again, a steady
a formal record-keeping procedure, hand is needed when steady power
DETAILS ARE IMPORTANT or provide a Welding Procedure and heat input is needed.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Shielded metal arc welding is easy Specification (WPS). Quite often

to do if you pay attention to the de- they issue welding schedules for
tails. It i s the simple things that will each job assignment. They may CRITICAL
cause you trouble. This lesson even issue you a data book for keep- VARIARLES
points out the factors that might ing written records. Things like polarity, current, arc
cause you some problems. These Arc power is very dependent on length, and travel speed are called
problems are called critical varia- arc length. Long arcs have high volt- critical variables, or essential varia-
bles. (They are also sometimes age, short arcs low. As you change bles. When they are not properly
called “essential” variables.)
MATERIALS
A good welding condition depends
on using the correct electrode to do
the job. Don’t be tempted to “make
do“ with a substitute electrode.
Electrodes are designed for use on
specific materials. The arc per-
formance can be poor because you
are using the wrong electrode.
Whenever you have a poor welding
condition, check your electrode.
Make sure it i s correct.
POLARITY AND POWER

Another potential problem area is
the arc polarity. Unstable arcs are a
symptom of.the wrong polarity. The
wrong polarity can make startingdif-
ficult, create spatter and puddle tur-
bulence, and affect penetration. Al-
ways double-check to see whether Electrode angle and travel speed are important.

CHAPTER 3 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION %@a .
TARBEE 3U80ii Critical'Variables That May Require Requalification sure to wipe the connection with a
~~ ~
clean, dry cloth. Always follow the

Var iabIes Comment maintenance procedures suggested
1 . Materials
by the electrode holder manufactur-
a. Base metal Change in type, composition, or condition. er. Some timely maintenance can
b. Surface preparation Use of paint, antispatter compounds, cleaning agents. extend the life of the holder and give
c. Electrode Change in size or classification. it good contact with the electrode.
d. Dimensions Change in joint design or material thickness. Holders can be overheated if you
e. Heat treatments Outside of preheat or postheat temperature range. use too much current or weld too
2. Welding condition long. Then the electrode stub will
a. Current Outside of range. become very short and cause the arc
b. Polarity Change in specified polarity. to heat the holder. Take good care
c. Voltage incorrect arc length. of your cables and holder and they
d. Technique Change in weld shape or size because of weave or
will last a long time.
travel.
Another item that can cause you
trouble is a poor workpiece connec-
tion. Chips of slag, grindingc, filings,
controlled, the quality of the weld ia)IJ ILPMESNT
and other dirt can become trapped
will suffer. Many welding specifi- Sometimes the welding condition
between the jaws of the workpiece
cations put limits on what changes can be erratic because of faulty ca-
clamp and the workpiece. The poor
are permitted in a critical variable. bles or a damaged electrode holder.
electric connection can damage the
For example, a welding procedure Welding current tends to heat all
workpiece as well as cause a poor
could specify the polarity, current, connections through which it
weld. The poor connection may
arc length, and welding speed. The passes. Corroded terminals and con-
cause some arcing and sparking be-
welding specification might say "a nections can cause intermittent
tween the clamp jaws and work-
change of plus or minus 10 percent changes in the current flow. Current
piece. The arcs and sparks can dam-
in current or travel speed requires a flowing through a poor connection
age the workpiece surface. Such
welder to requalify the procedure." can heat the connection. The heated
areas can act as sites of early cor-
Therefore a good welder follows a connection will expand and cause
rosion and may even be "crack
welding procedure as closely as pos- intermittent contact or changes in
starters. "
sible. This does not mean everything circuit resistance.
Be a neat worker, pay attention to
must be set exactly. It means that Some operators keep a piece of
the details, and most problems will
you must not let the essential weld- crocus cloth in their tool boxes and
never happen. When you do have
ing variables change too much. Ta- use its abrasive surface to clean the
trouble, check things carefully. You
ble 38-1 lists the typical critical var- connections. Sometimes the con-
will usually find that the problem
iables that appear in many codes nectors are cleaned with a wire
can be traced to something simple.
and specifications. brush. Whatever method is used, be
~n~~u~cruvixs check out, from the storeroom, 4. identify three causes of weld
Upon completion of this lesson you more SMAW electrodes than you cracks.
should be able to need. 5. Describe what you can do to re-
'1. Identify four things that can cause 3. Explain why electrical utility duce spatter when all the equip-
poor welding conditions. company brownouts can cause ment settings are correct and
2. Explain why you should not welding problems. spatter is still a problem.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

SECTION Ir1 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
IMPROPER CURRENT arc ignited. If the unit you are using power source will reduce the output
SETTINGS has a starting current adjustment, be at the arc. This condition i s espe-
One of the most frequent sources of sure to learn how to adjust it prop- cially difficult in regions of the coun-
difficulties in welding is the wrong erly. The control dial may not have try where “brownouts‘’ occur.
power source setting. if the electri- enough information nearby; then When the electrical utility company
cal characteristics of the arc system the only way to learn how to adjust lowers the system voltage to prevent
are not properly set up, the arc will the dial is to read the manufacturer‘s overloads, the reduction is called a
be unstable and may not start at all. instructions. If the operations man- brownout. it will become almost im-
The proper setting of the power ual is missing, you may be able to possible to weld when power has
source depends on your understand- obtain one by contracting the man- been ”browned out.”
ing of the manufacturer’s instruc- ufacturer, Many manufacturers will if you have not been having trou-
tions. Too often the technician or comply with a polite request for an ble with arc starting and ignition,
welding operator just guesses at the operations manual. You might even and all of a sudden they become a
settings. The guess is based on past speak to the salespersons who call problem, you should first check for
experience or on information picked on the company for which you are loose connections. Then check on
up in the workplace, but it i s still a working. the open-circuit voltage to see
guess. Don’t guess! Learn how the whether it comes up to the value on
equipment you are using can be set IMPROPER the nameplate. Low open-circuit
up and properly adjusted. Some ma- VOLTAGE SETTINGS voltage may be causing the
chines have several ranges of cur- Sometimes a power source can be problems.
rent from which to select. Be sure to connected for the wrong input sup-
read the manufacturer’s instructions ply voltage at the terminal board. THE WELDING CONDITION
before you start to turn knobs and Or, if there is more than one open- SEEMS DIFFERENT
make adjustments. circuit voltage range, your equip- Another major cause of welding dif-
When power adjustment ranges ment may be connected to a voltage ficulties is the condition of the elec-
overlap one another, many power that i s too low. Most manufacturers trode. Many welding ,operators are
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sources work better when they are have designed their equipment to careless in the care of their electrode
set at the top end of a range rather work on a great many different volt- stock. instead of checking out only
than at the bottom end of the next age inputs. For example, the unit enough stock for the job at hand,
higher range. The reason for this is you are using may be reconnectable some welders take more than they
simple. The current-adjusting con- for inputs of 480 volts alternating need. They save themselves a walk
trol on most power sources is used current, 240 volts alternating cur- back to the stockroom, the tool-
to reduce the output from the max- rent, or 208 volts alternating cur- room, or wherever they are sup-
imum current available in that rent. Incidentally, these voltages posed to get their electrodes. But
range. The circuit components that may also be labeled as 440, 220 and when electrodes are not kept dry
operate to reduce the current also 208 respectively. There really isn’t and clean, they will give poor weld-
change the output waveshape. As a any difference, except in the way ing results. Electrodes will pick up
consequence, ripple is introduced the designer labeled the terminals. moisture like a sponge. They may
onto the waveshape of the current. A power source intended to op- not seem wet to you and may even
Most of the time SMAW welding erate on 220 volts will not have as feel dry to the touch. The weld metal
will become worse as the ripple in- high an open-circuit voltage if it is knows the difference, however.
creases. You can keep the ripple to connected to a 208-volt input. Moisture will be absorbed slowly by
a minimum by keeping the amount When the open-circuit voltage is remost electrodes. It may take a week
of adjustment needed to get the cur- duced, the arc will not strike as to get to the point where welding is
rent you want at a minimum. if you readily and may not strike at all. impossible, or it may take a few
use less control, you usually get less Even when the unit is connected to hours. It all depends on the type of
ripple and better performance. the correct terminals, the voltage electrode and the relative humidity
Good arc starts depend on having can be low because of a reduction of the work location.
enough starting current as well as in the main supply voltage. Many if you suspect that moisture is a
the correct striking technique. If you factories and shops have overloaded problem, store the electrode in an
don’t have enough starting current, power distributions systems. When oven or a special holder that i s mois-
the arc will be cold, and striking will everyone i s using equipment at the tureproof. Some electrodes are not
be difficult. Some power units have same time, the line voltage is likely very sensitive to moisture pickup
a special arc-starting circuit. It pro- to be forced to a lower level. Any and can be left out in the open with-
vides a little extra current to get the reduction in the input voltage to a out too much reduction in per-

CHAPTER 3 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION
formance. It is always good prac- same equipment when you are away and poor techniques. Only you can
tice, however, to store all electrodes from the work area. A great deal of correct these types of errors.
in the manner that the manufacturer time can be wasted trying to make a An Undercut, a groove in the base
suggests, in the literature supplied weld, or trying to figure out why metal near the toes of the weld, can
with the product. If you look around things are not working correctly, be melted when the current is too
many shops, you will see electrodes when all the time the arc is con- high for the welding condition.
stashed all over the place. This is a nected to the wrong polarity. These grooves can also be cut if the
very poor practice, unless the elec- An easy way to check for the cor- electrode is too large, if the puddle
trodes are properly protected. rect polarity is to trace the welding is too large, or if you are using the
Even when moisture pickup is not leads back to the power source. if wrong technique. Practice the weld-
a problem, dust and dirt can be. All this is not possible, you will need to ing techniques you learn in the les-
the grinding dust and other dust can use an electrical test meter. sons of Chapters 5, 6, and 7. A good
settle on unprotected electrodes. technique is one of the surest ways
Then when you use the electrode for REVIEW OF SOME to avoid undercutting and subse-
welding, the dust and dirt wind up TYPICAL PROBLEMS quent cracking.
in the puddle. Such contamination Incorrect equipment settings, poor Too much spatter is usually
can ruin a weld. joint preparation, and so on may caused by too much current for the
cause all sorts of welding problems. electrode being used. The wrong
WHICH ELECTRODE Distortion of the weld is often type or size of electrode and the
ARE YOU USING? caused by improper heat input and wrong polarity can also cause spat-
ter. If you are using all the correct
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Some welding problems are caused inadequate joint restraint. When

by careless selection of electrodes. you are bothered by too much dis- settings and materials, there is not
It may be that you picked up the tortion, check to see whether the much you can do about spatter ex-
wrong one, or you may have been current i s too high for the joint being cept to try and hold a slightly shorter
given the wrong one. It doesn’t real- welded. Review the joint prepara- arc. The short length will help to
ly matter where the wrong one came tion. You may not have clamped the trap the molten metal in the puddle
from; when the wrong electrode is pieces tightly enough, and under the and not let it fly out of the arc zone
used, the weld can fail. Become fa- effects of the welding heat they may as spatter.
miliar with the color and the mark- be moving about. Check too on the Porosity usually comes from con-
ings of the electrode you are using. welding bead sequence. You may tamination of some sort, too much
It is good practice to verify the iden- have to skip around when placing current, or imperfections in the weld
tity of every electrode you use be- beads in order to balance out metal. Always check to see that you
fore you strike an arc. Many elec- the forces that are causing the are using the correct current setting
trodes have the same general distortion. and an electrode of the correct type
appearance. The only way to be Cracks can occur when there i s and diameter.
sure of the identity of an electrode moisture and when the wrong elec- Slag usually comes from the elec-
is to check the designation printed trode, the wrong amount of current, tride coating or from contamination
on it, or the color code of the man- and the wrong welding technique that has not been removed by the
ufacturer if that is the way the elec- are used. They can also occur if the welding action. It can become
trode has been identified. Never weld i s too small for the pieces of trapped in the weld metal or be-
guess about the identity of an metal being joined. As the weld tween the weld metal and base
electrode. cools and shrinks, small welds may metal as a slag inclusion. Be sure to
not have enough strength to over- clean the weld between passes. A
WHAT IS THE come the shrinkage forces. When good cleaning will prevent the
CORRECT POLARITY? the pieces being welded can move buildup of slag-causing materials.
When you use a power source that about freely, and are not too re- Also check the current level. When
can be adjusted to weld with differ- strained, the weld is unlikely to the current is too low, the puddle
ent polarities, you must be careful to crack. But if the weld is clamped will freeze more quickly and trap
check that it is set for the polarity of into position and restrained from slag before it has a chance to float
the electrode you intend to use. moving, the joint may crack. The to the top of the weld.
Electrodes intended to work on welding engineer should be able to Your powers of observation are
DCEP will not work well on DCEN correct cracking problems caused the best defense against trouble.
and vice versa. It is especially im- by design errors. An engineer can- Correct the little things that you no-
portant to verify a power source’s not overcome problems caused by tice, before they get out of hand.
polarity if other people can use the wrong settings, wrong electrodes,
CHAPTER 4
AIR CARBON ARC
CUTTING AND GOUGING
LESSON 4A
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
PROCESS BASICS
OBJECTIVES
should be able to
1. Give the American Welding So-
ciety’s designation for the AAC
process.
2. Explain how the AAC process
works.
3. Identify four types of AAC
electrodes.
4. List at least five hazards of the
AAC process.
THE CORRECT NAME
The air carbon arc cutting and goug-
ing process is abbreviated as AAC by
the American Welding Society.
Many people call this the “arc air
cutting” process. You may have no-
ticed that ”arc air cutting” has the
same first letters that the AWS uses
The air carbon arc process is often used to prepare joints for welding.
in its abbreviation. It is not the cor-
rect term. The correct term is “air
carbon arc cutting.”
Many companies sell equipment The process is widely used to re- metal away. The molten metal
for use with this process. One com- move metal and prepare plates for erupts from the puddle as though it
pany uses the trademark ARCAIR for welding. It i s particularly suitable for were from a miniature volcano.
its product line. The AAC process preparing grooved joints. The
was originated by Myron D.Stepath process, relatively simple, uses a THE CUTTING
during World War II when he was carbon electrode, a special torch OR GOUGING ARC
working for the U.S. Navy. He that directs an air jet along the elec- Any arc can cause a cutting action.
founded the Arcair company in trode, and standard power source in a sense the cut is a weld puddle
1949. Because of the company’s equipment. The metal to be cut i s with too much penetration. The arc
early entry into the AAC market, melted by the heat of a carbon arc melts a hole through to the plate bot-
many people refer to air carbon arc and then removed by a blast of air. tom, and the molten metal runs out
cutting as arc air cutting. You should It is the air jet that gives this process of the hole. One early cutting
try to use the proper terminology. Jt its spectacular appearance and process used a carbon rod to melt
is air carbon arc cutting or AAC for sound. As the arc tries to make a the metal. A brute force method, it
short. puddle, the air jet blows the molten was called ”carbon arc cutting.”

CHAPTER 4 AIR CARBON ARC CUTTING AND GOUGING
Then during World War II a new de-

velopment came along, the addition
of an air jet. The change was simple
source
but effective. Thus “air” carbon arc -
cutting was born. -- Current
-_
The AAC process was a natural Solid carbon electrode
outgrowth of the oxygen arc cutting
(AOC) process. At the time AAC was
-Direction of travel
first developed, the AOC process
was in use. It consisted of a hollow
electrode which passed a jet of com-
pressed oxygen. The AOC process
was the electrical equivalent of the
oxyacetylene cutting process. One
variation of the AOC process used PiIBiiïJRE418.1 The simple air carbon FHBBTBE 4 A 9 Cutaway view of a
compressed air. All the AAC process arc cutting and gouging process. gouge being made by the AAC process.
did was to use air and blow it down
alongside the electrode. This made
it possible to use solid carbon rods
and simple torch designs. (See Fig- gle lead running to the torch. When cutting and gouging is a very severe
ure 4A-1.) a single line is used, the power cable load for any power source. There-
The AAC arc i s nothing more than and the air hose are connected to a fore you should always check to see
a simple carbon arc. You start the junction block where the torch lead whether the power source manufac-
arc in the same way as you would originates. With this arrangement, turer has any restrictions. They may
any SMAW arc, by scratching or you are not inconvenienced by hav- not permit you to use their power
tapping the electrode on the working a hose and a power cable run- source for AAC operations.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
piece. Except for the fact that the arc ning separately to a torch. (See Fig- Air carbon arc processes can use
is on the end of the carbon rod, you ure 4A-1.1 both direct current and alternating
will not see it to be different in any When you open the control valve current. Standard rectifiers and gen-
way from an ordinary welding arc. on the torch, the air runs alongside erators can be used for direct current
Therefore it can be used for cutting the electrode to the puddle. The air and transformers for alternating cur-
or gouging. flow depends on the electrode being rent. It is possible to use constant-
in place. Air flow dynamics keeps potential (CP) rectifiers for low-volt-
THE AIR the jet running along the electrode age, high-current AAC arcs. How-
Compressed air from a standard to the tip. When the pressure is cor- ever, constant potential has limited
commercial source is fine for AAC. rectly set, the air jet blows the use and is not recommended for
You need pressure in the range of arc-melted metal away. (See Figure automatic systems with voltage con-
about 80 to 100 pounds per square 4A-2 .) trol for arc length.
inch. Lower pressures can work, but
the quality of the process drops off. THE POWER THE ELECTRODE
Higher pressures can be used, but One of the attractive features of the Electrodes come in four basic types.
they don’t help much at all and are AAC process i s that it can use a These are (a) plain uncoated carbon
not worth the extra cost for lines and standard constant-current power electrodes for direct current; (b)cop-
equipment. source. The typical AAC arc requires per-coated carbon electrodes for di-
The equipment manufacturers an open-circuit voltage of at least 60 rect current; (c) copper-coated car-
should give you the correct pressure volts, because the arc runs from bon electrodes with arc stabilizers
recommendationsfor use with a par- about 35 to 55 volts. The air jet for alternating current; and ( d )flux-
ticular torch. The electrode manu- tends to blow the arc out as the coated steel electrodes for cutting
facturers will also make suggestions. metal i s blown away. The power copper and cast iron.
Be sure to follow their recommen- supply keeps on reigniting the arc. The electrodes have various
dations. Don’t experiment. As a result the arc is very unstable. shapes and lengths. They can be
The compressed air line and the The power source is constantly round, square, semiround, and rec-
electric power cable can be separate being loaded and unloaded as the tangular. They have various thick-
lines, or they can be a part of a sin- arc goes on and off. Air carbon arc nesses of copper and may have spe-

cial chemicals added to the carbon cautions and Safe Practices,'' Chap- It is recommended that you clear
for improving the arc operation. ter 1, Section 1. the work area of all combustibles for
The AAC process is particularly at least 35 feet in all directions. You
SAFETY CONSIDERATIONS noisy because of the air jet and the must pay special attention to pre-
The AAC process has the same typ- arc instability. It is a severe fire haz- venting sparks from dropping into
ical hazards as any electric arc ard because it blows molten metal cracks and other openings and from
process. These hazards include but ail over the place and to great dis- dropping onto materials below. Al-
are not limited to electric shock, ra- tances. You must be extra careful to ways wear your personal protective
diation, fumes and gases, noise, fire, protect your hearing and especially equipment. Don't take shortcuts.
and burns. Before you use the careful in employing fire protection
process, you should review "Pre- techniques.
@BJKiCCTflVIES other uses by contacting one of the for either AAC use or SMAW use.
Upon completion of this lesson you many manufacturers of equipment (See Figure 48-1 .)
should be able to and electrodes. Because of the high-pressure air,
1. List eight uses for the AAC AAC torches are larger and heavier
process. TORCHES than SMAW holders. Most torches
2. Describe the jaws of an AAC Equipment i s made for both manual have an air valve, an easy means of
torch. AAC and automated mechanical switching the air system on and off.
3. Explain the reason for copper systems. This lesson is limited to These air valves are operated by
coatings on electrodes. manual torches. Manual AAC torch- push buttons, rotating dials, and
4. Discuss the air pressure and air es are similar to manual SMAW even torch handle rotation. It really
flow requirements for general use electrode holders. Both have jaws to is not important which one is used.
of the AAC process. grip and hold an electrode. In fact, Your comfort in holding the torch is
some torches have been designed what matters most. Manufacturers
THE VARIATIONS
The AAC process has been devel- Power
oped into many useful variations.
Today there is equipment available
to do special jobs such as removing
7
Air7
defects, pad washing, and general-
purpose cleaning in foundries; and
removing welds, preparing edges,
repairing defects, and back gouging
in fabrication shops. There is also
equipment for general maintenance Air valve control
and light-duty repair work. Divers
use the AAC process for underwater
cutting, gouging, and general metal
repair.
This lesson i s limited to the use of
AAC for the simple cutting and
gouging needed to prepare joints for
welding. You can find out about the
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CHAPTER 4 AIR CARBON ARC CUTTING AND GOUGING 213
have tried to keep the torch as light Plain carbon, round

rod
in weight as possible. For this reason
some torches have special air pres-
Copper-coated
sure, rather than spring pressure, de- carbon, round rod
vices for holding the electrodes.
The jaws that hold the electrodes Copper-coated carbon,
have special shapes for directing the flat shape
air jet to the proper place. Some
jaws have air holes in only one jaw;
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Copper-coated carbon,
others have them in both jaws. (See semiround rod
Figure 4B-1.) Some systems have
two holes, others four or more. It
doesn’t really matter to you where Copper-coated carbon,
square shape
the air holes are, or how many there
are. What matters is that you cor-
rectly place the electrode in the
torch you are using. FHGUIE QPP-2Basic elec-
Torches are made from rugged trode shapes. Not to scale.
materials. They use special copper
alloys that have good conductivity
and wear well. Most torches can be (rectangular), semiround (half a
repaired with simple replacement rod), and square. The special shapes
parts. You should take care of your are used to spread or concentrate
torches. Don’t use them as ham- the arc heat. (See Figure 48-2.) For
mers, or drop them on the floor example, flat electrodes are used for
when you are finished. A well-de- removing metal and scarfing, and
signed torch, handled carefully, will semiround electrodes are designed
last many years. for grooving.
Manual electrodes come in
ELECTRODE§ standard lengths of 6 and 12 inches.
ACC electrodes are made in a great Some mechanized electrodes can be
many shapes, sizes, and combina- used for manual work. Mechanized
tions of materials. The variety of electrodes come in lCinch, 17- PPGUIRE 4B-3Typical joint on AAC
electrodes is what gives AAC its inch, and slightly longer lengths. electrodes.
great utiI ity . The diameters of round electrodes
Copper coatings are used on some range from about to 1 inch. Most
electrodes to increase their current- electrodes you use will have diam-
carrying capacity and to protect the eters of between 5/32 and i/. inch. earth oxides. As with any AAC sys-
carbon from air. Very hot carbon Many electrodes, and especially tem, and especially ac systems,
can erode by reacting chemically mechanized electrodes, have tenon always use plenty of ventilation.
with the oxygen in air. The thickness and socket joints on their ends. (See Consider all fumes and gases as haz-
of the copper coating varies, de- Figure 4B-3.) One electrode i s ardous to your health.
pending on the specific electrode tapered to fit into a hole on the other Electrodes intended for underwa-
design. Copper coatings can also electrode end. Some joints have a ter use have a hollow core. Instead
help strengthen the electrodes so threaded portion as well. Jointed of compressed air, underwater AAC
that they don’t split, chip, or break electrodes are intended to be con- uses oxygen. Underwater electrodes
when dropped, or break from ther- nected together so that a mechanical are usually covered with a plastic
mal shock. arc operation doesn’t have to stop coating to keep them dry and insu-
The electrodes are shaped to con- when one electrode is consumed. lated from the water.
trol the arc action. The simple round Joints also eliminate stub waste.
rod is the standard all-purpose de- Electrodes intended for use with AIR SUPPLY
sign. These electrodes are used in alternating current have a core of The air supply is critical for the good
much the same way as any SMAW special arc-stabiIizing materials. operation of AAC torches. As dis-
electrode. Other electrodes are flat Usually the core is a mixture of rare cussed in Lesson 4A, you need pres-

2194 SECTION III SHIELDED METAL ARC WIELDING PROCESS
sure of about 80 to 100 pounds per for safety. Oxygen-enriched atmos- and gouging. There is very little
square inch. You should use a pheres will support a raging fire if water-cooled equipment on the
source of air that can supply up to ignition occurs. market.
about 30 to 35 cubic feet of air, per
minute. You use less air at low cur- WATER SUPPLY CABLES
rents and more air at higher cur- Some ACC torches use a water-cool- The power cables used for AAC are
rents, but 30 to 35 cfm is the top ing system to keep torch weight the same type as those used for any
flow rate expected. Usually the air down. Just as with water-cooled gas arc welding process. Always select
supply in most shops has enough metal arc torches and gas tungsten the proper-size cable for the current
flow and pressure. arc torches, water-cooled AAC rating of the largest electrode you in-
When there is a long hose run for torches can leak and need servicing. tend to use. Oversized cables may
the air, because the supply is locat- Whenever you use a water-cooled be heavy, but they will not overheat.
ed far away, use large-diameterhos- AAC torch, be sure the water supply Don’t cut with undersized cables.
es. You can sometimes use nitrogen is properly maintained. Water recir- The cables will get hot, and the in-
or another inert gas when air isn’t culators can become dirty, and sulation will be damaged. Take the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
available. However, don’t use oxy- water flow can become restricted. same care of AAC cables as you
gen in place of air. Oxygen requires However, most AAC equipment is would of any arc welding cable.
special equipment that is designed cooled by the air used for cutting
LESSON 4C
@B3ECTHVEB to 1O00 amperes. You can verify the HOLDING THE ELECTRODE
Upon completion of this lesson you correct shade number by referring to The general rule is to grip the elec-
should be able to the safety rules in ANSI/ASC 249.1, trode so that about 6 inches sticks
1. State the recommended filter Safety in Welding and Cutting, pub- out. You can use the electrode until
shade numbers for use with AAC. lished by the American Welding about 1% inches remain. Then, if
2. Specify the extension length to Society. the electrode is jointed, you can add
use when first gripping an AAC You should also wear under the a new one to the 11/2-inch stub. This
electrode. welding helmet safety glasses with will keep stub loss to a minimum.
3. Define the AAC term lag angle. number 2 lenses. As with other Remember, the stub is dangerously
4. Explain the causes of AAC elec- processes, you should wear work hot at the time you finish. Be careful
trode copper burnback. clothes that protect you from arc ra- as you join the electrodes together.
5. Describe the AAC push angle and diation and spatter. Leather aprons After you are satisfied the joint i s
travel speed required for cutting. and jackets and other leather protec- tight, you can reposition the jaws to
tion should be worn if you do heavy the 6-inch position. When you are
REMEMBER THE HAZARDS cutting or out-of-position cutting. working on aluminum and its alloys,
Before you begin using the AAC Good gloves are essential if you do use about a 4-inch extension.
process, be sure you are properly high-current AAC. The thermal ra-
equipped with personal protective diation from the cutting zone can be ELEC’I’RODE ANGLE
equipment. The helmet you use for felt through thin gloves. FOR GOUGING
other arc welding processes and Be sure to use plenty of ventila- For gouging work it is the angle and
SMAW is satisfactory for AAC. Just tion. The air jet dilutes the fumes travel speed that you have to con-
be sure that the helmet view port has and gases in the arc zone. But the trol. The angle between the elec-
the correct filter shade number. The general work area will become un- trode and a line drawn perpendicu-
recommended level is shade 12 for safe in a short time if the fumes and lar to the work is frequently called
500 amperes and shade 14 for 500 gases are not removed. the lag angle. (See Figure 4C-1.) This

CHAPTER 4 AIR CARBON ARC CUTTING AND GOUGIN6
OVERHEAD, VERTICAL,
AND OTHER POSITIONS
You can gouge or cut with AAC in
any position. The arc conditions are
the same for all practical purposes.
The big problem is how you should
hold the torch. If you don't watch
what you are doing, the molten
metal can drop on your gloves. You
should also watch out for molten
metal that bounces off nearby ob-
jects or the tabletop you may be
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
directions. working on. (See Figure 4C-2.)
FHGüJiiRiì3 4C.R The lag angle, also ~ i ï ~ ï ü4C-z
ü ~ i Vertical
~ gouging is best
called the push angle. when done downhill. TYPICAL CONDITIONS
AAC is a simple process and easy to
use. One very important point to re-
member is that the air must be on
angle is also called the push angle operators use them interchangeably. before you start. Check to see that it
by the American Welding Society in The terms mean the same thing. reaches to the end of the electrode.
Welding Terms and Definitions, The molten metal will not be If the jaws of the torch are not prop-
AWS A3.0. When the lag angle is thrown as far when you are using erly clamped, the air could blow off
small, with the electrode closer to small push angles as when you use to one side. Moreover, damaged air
the vertical, the arc digs deeper. large angles. You should watch out outlets can cause the jet to break
Slow travel with a small lag angle for back splash of molten metal if down before it gets to the end of the
will give you a narrow, deep you "lose" the cut. Thick pieces of electrode. A faulty air jet can blow
groove. When you have a large lag metal require a sawing motion by the molten metal and slag in the
angle, with the electrode closer to the arc. You move the electrode up wrong direction. The metal and slag
the work, the arc has less dig. Fast and down as though you were saw- could even be blown at you. Poor
travel and large lag angles give shal- ing your way through the metal. Al- air direction also messes up the
low grooves. ways make sure that the molten groove.
You can weave the arc, or move metal is blown to a safe area and not With copper-covered electrodes
it in a circle, when you want a wider all over the place. you can run into the problem called
groove. If you have a steady hand,
the groove will be relatively smooth.
A good work practice is to use a
"steady rest." A steady rest is an ex-
tra surface on which you can rest
your arm and slide it along as you Dc Electrodes, Ac Electrode, Ac Electrode,
make the gouge. dc Positive dc Negative ac
Connection, Connection, Connection,
Electrode Diameter amperes dc amperes dc amperes ac
ELECTI[ZODE ANGLE
FOR CUTTING inches mi I I imeters min. max. min. max. min. max.
The arc force on the puddle increas- 5/32 4.0 90 150 - - - -
es as the lag angle is decreased. Cut- 3/l6 4.8 150 200 150 180 150 200
ting is nothing more than a deep '/i 6.4 200 400 200 250 200 300
gouge. Use a lag angle of about 45 16
y 7.9 250 450 - - - -
degrees or less and slower travel Ya 9.5 350 600 300 400 300 500
speeds than for gouging. Plate is cut Y2 12.7 600 1000 400 500 400 600
with a push angle of about 1O to 15 Y
6 15.9 800 1200 - - - -
degrees. Note that the term "push Y
4 19.1 1200 1600 - - - -
angle" has just been used. You 1 25.4 1800 2200 - - - -
should become comfortable with
both terms, lag and push, because

2P6 SECTION 111 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
burnback. All copper coatings burn TABLE 4C-2 Simplified Troubleshooting

away in the arc while the electrode
Trouble Cause Solution
is consumed. It i s normal for burn-
back to be about an inch. The ex- Hard, irregular start Air not on before striking Be sure air is on before
posed carbon core oxidizes (erodes) arc striking arc.
and runs hotter than it would were Sputtering arc, with Low current increase current and
it still covered by copper. When electrode slow in check circuit for poor
burnback gets excessive, heat will heating or loose connections.
build up in the torch because the Sputtering arc, with Wrong polarity Change to correct
electrode heating polarity.
carbon core runs hotter than nor-
rapidly
mal. Burnback is caused by too Intermittentgouging Travel speed too slow Increase travel speed.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
much current, too little air, or too action
thin a copper coating. Suggested Carbon deposit Touching electrode to Hold and maintain short
current ranges for some of the com- work arc.
monly used electrodes are shown in irregular groove Unsteadiness of operator Relax, loosen grip on
Table 4C-1. torch. Use steady rest if
One of the unfortunateside effects possible.
of cutting with carbon electrodes is Slag adhering to edges Low air pressure increase air pressure,
the possible pickup of carbon in the check lines. If pressure
cut surfaces. A good clean cut in cannot be raised,
steel has a bright blue color. Dull reduce travel speed,
make lighter cuts.
gray surfaces are a sign of carbon
Groove gets deeper Electrode push angle too Increaseelectrode push
pickup. Copper pickup from cop- small, travel speed too angle. increase travel
per-coated electrodes does not ap- slow speed.
pear to be a problem. However, the Groove gets shallower Electrode push angle too Decrease electrode push
copper fumes are released into the large, travel speed too angle. Reduce travel
work area. Copper fumes are poten- fast speed.
tially dangerous if they are not prop-
erly ventilated.
A simplified troubleshooting chart
TABLE 4C.S Some Typical AAC Cutting Recommendations
is shown in Table 4C-2. Use it as a
guide to help you figure out what Electrode Electrode
you may be doing wrong. A good Material TYP Polarity Notes
reference for you to obtain is the
current edition of AWS C5.3,Rec- Aluminum alloys dc dc positive After cutting, clean surface
before welding; do not
ommended Practices for Air Carbon-
exceed 4411. extension.
Arc Gouging and Cutting. You can
Carbon, low-alloy, dc dc positive
find some typical AAC cutting rec- and stainless steels ac ac 50% as efficient as dc
ommendations in Table 4C-3. Cast iron ac dc negative Use middle of current range.
ac ac
dc dc positive Use at maximum current only.
Copper alloys:
less than 60% Cu dc dc positive Use at maximum current.
more than 60% Cu ac ac Use at maximum current.
Nickel alloys ac ac
ac dc negative
Magnesium alloys dC dc positive After cutting, clean surface
before welding.

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CHAPTER 5
(IDBeBECTIIVfS to left and from left to right. In addition, they should also
Upon comDletion of this chapter
~,
you should be able to learn to weld toward and away from themselves. The
1. Strike and maintain an arc and weld fillets and V- proficient welder can weld in any direction.
groove butt joints in the flat position, using stringer There i s something very important to remember before
and weave bead techniques. you start. Namely, yowr instrwctor is the expert. G o to
2. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints, with and without your instructor whenever you have a problem. Don’t
backing bars, in the horizontal position. move on to a new lesson before the instructor has lec-
3. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints, with and without tured and demonstrated the lesson-unless, of course,
backing bars, in the vertical up and vertical down po- you have permission to do so.
sitions using stringer and weave bead techniques. Throughout the lessons in this chapter you may use
4. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints, with and without either an ac or a dc welder, depending on availability.
backing bars, in the overhead position. When a dc welder is used, the polarity will be indicated
in the procedures list.
Before you start your “hands on” training in shielded PEllüS~DWAILIEQUJIIPMENT

metal arc welding, you should note that the lessons in For all the lessons in this chapter, personal equipment
this book have been written for the right-handed student, will consist of
but left-handed students should not have any trouble. 1. Welding shield.
They should start at the opposite end of a plate and rev- 2. Safety glasses.
erse the right-hand electrode drag and push angles. 3. Protective leathers and gloves.
Everyone should learn to weld both ways, from right 4. Chipping hammer and wire brush.
LESSON 5A
The most commonly used welding they have iron powder in their coat- Welders with only little training can
position is the flat position. This ings. The iron powder melts rapidly be hired to do downhand welding.
means that the metal to be welded and adds more filler metal to the The flat position i s the first one
will be placed in front of you just puddle than the out-of-position elec- you will be taught in welding class.
like a book on your desk or food on trodes. Electrodes in this category It is important that you learn your
the table. Employers like you to use are the E7024, E6027, and E7020. tasks well. Everythingyou learn will
this welding position as much as These electrodes are known as fast- be helpful in the other phases of
possible. It is very efficient because fill electrodes. your welder training. The good hab-
specially designed electrodes with Another reason for the popularity its you develop will stay with you,
high rates of deposition can be used. of the flat welding position is that it but so will the bad ones. Do the best
These special electrodes are able to is less tiring for the welder. A third you can from the beginning. Bad
deposit weld metal faster than elec- reason for using this position is that habits are very difficult to break.
trodes used in all positions because it requires the least welding skill. Welding in the flat position is fair-

ly simple. The molten metal depos- guide to obtain the approximate cur-
ited by the electrode transfers rent setting. The indicator can also
through the arc into the weld. Grav- be used as a reminder of where to
Direction of travei
ity does much of the work for you. 1 reset the control when starting out
In the flat position the electrode is on a similar weldment.
normally held perpendicular to the 3" Table SA-1 lists the ampere range
plate with a 10- to 15-degree tilt
away from the direction of travel.
r for carbon steel electrodes as rec-
ommended by the American Weld-
FHQUJRE 5A-P Electrode angle for flat ing Society. This chart can be used
This is shown in Figure 5A-1.
position. to determine the approximate am-
After learning the procedures in
this lesson, you will be able to de- perage setting for a particular size
posit smooth, even weld beads of and type of electrode, but you must
good quality in the flat position. make the final choice. The amper-
It is important for a welder to be age range for the electrodes used in
POWER SUPPLY ADJUSTMENTS able to set the arc current for weld- each lesson is indicated in the pro-
In Lessons 4A, 6, and C on the aii: rnents of different sizes, thicknesses, cedures list.
carbon arc process, you made some materials, and positions. All these
power supply adjustments to obtain factors are important to know when HELPFUL SAFETY REMINDERS
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a reasonable current with which to setting the current. Through practice Although welding in the downhand
work. In this, and in all future les- a welder can recognize the correct position is not particularly danger-
sons, and throughout your welding current by the sound of the arc and ous, it is important to follow safe
career, you will have to make many the way the molten pooi reacts. work practices. Always wear the
critical adjustments if you wish to Use the current adjustment indi- proper clothing and protective
produce quality welds. cator on the welding machine as a equipment. When welding in the
TABLE IA-E Typical Amperage Ranges

Source: AWS (From AS. 1-81, Specification for Covered Carbon Steel Arc Welding
Electrodes. Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
E7015, E7024-1,
Electrode E60 1O E6027 E7016, E7018 E7024,
diameter and and and and and
in. mm E6011 E6012 E6013 E6020 E6022 E7027 E7014 E7016-1 E7018-1 E7028 E7048
20 t o 20 to
1/16 1.6
(- 40 40
25 t o 25 to
5/64 2.0
[- 60 60
3/32a 2.4a (480to 35 to

85
45 to
90
80 to
125
65 to
110
70 to
1O0
100 to
145
118 3.2 ( 7:2~

80 to
140
80 to
130
100 to
150
110 to
160
125 to
185
110 to
160
100to
150
115 to
165
140 to
190
80 to
140
5/32 4.0 ( 110to

190
105 to
180
130 to
i 90
140to
190
160to
240
150 to
210
140 to
200
150 to
220
180 to
250
150 to
220
140 to 150 to 175 to 170to 210to 200 to 180 to 200 to 230 to 210 to
3/16 4.8 275 255 275 270
240 230 250 400 300 305
200 to 210 to 225 to 370to 250to 260 to 240 to 260 to 275 to

7/32 5.6 340 320 340 365
3 20 3O0 310 5 20 350
114 6.4 250 to

400
250 to
350
275 to
375
- 300 to
420
330 to
415
300to
390
315to
400
335 to
430
300 to 320 to 340 to 375 to 390 to 375 to 375 to 400 to

5/16a 8.0a L
475 470 525

500 430 450 475 500
a. These diameters are not manufactured in the E7028 classification.

CHAPTER 5 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF PLATE 219
flat position, it is not necessary to safe manner and remember to 2. Cool all metal after welding.
wear a full leather jacket. However, 3. Remove all welding electrode
some sort of protection should be 1. Pick up hot metal with tongs, stubs from the area.
used to protect your arms from pliers, or clamps. Never pick up 4. Leave the area clean for the next
sparks. hot metal with your gloves or student.
In addition to observing the help- bare hands. Gloves used to pick 5. Store the welding cables in their
ful safety practices given in the les- up hot metal will quickly become proper place at the end of the
sons, you should always work in a stiff, brittle, and unusable. lesson.
S T R I K I N G A N D MAINTAINING AN ARC l
l
Learning to strike and maintain the Axis of weld
arc is very important. Each time you \
weld with a new electrode, or a par-
tially used one, you must strike an
arc.
If you cannot master this task, you
will have difficulty learning to weld.
The instructor will waste time while
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
waiting for you to strike an arc suc-

cessfully. Productive welding time is IFHGURIE 5A.2 Flat plate position.
also lost as you attempt to start an
arc. Finally, misstarts leave scars on
the workpiece.
IFPGUIE 5A-4Scratch start method.
Starting and maintaining an arc is
not very difficult to learn if you fol-
low directions and practice correct- 90”
ly. Do not attempt to see how long PHGUJIE %A.% Position of the elec-
you can keep the arc going. That is trode in the holder. right using a swinging motion,
not the purpose of this procedure. like striking a match. See Figure
The purpose of this procedure is 5A-4.
to learn to strike an arc accurately 7. When the electrode contacts the
and consistently in the place where 3. Secure the workpiece clamp plate, it will strike an arc. When
you want to strike it. and adjust the welding current. this happens, raise the electrode
Only direct current can be used slightly to about 3/i6 in. See Fig-
with an E6070 electrode. Either ure 5A-4.
MATIEIWHAE A N D EQUIPMENPJ’II’ alternating or direct current can
8. Immediately lower the electrode
1. Personal welding equipment. be used with an E6011 elec-
to reduce the arc gap. The dis-
2. E6010 or E601 1 electrodes, %- trode. This statement holds true
tance between the tip of the
in. diameter. for all the lessons in this book.
electrode and the workpiece
3. One piece of scrap plate, approx- The amperage range is 75 to
should be approximately the
imately ‘LI to 3/a in. x 4 in. x 125.
thickness of the electrode core
8 in. long. 4. Place the electrode in the holder wire, which is %z in. See Figure
at a 90-degree angle. See Figure 5A-4.
5A-3. 9. Do not lift your shield, but break
PROCEDURE 5 . Hold the electrode at an angle the arc by snapping the elec-
1. Wire-brush the welding surface of approximately 30 degrees off trode up to the left. The power
of the plate. The axis of the weld the perpendicular, about 1 in. supply cannot provide the cor-
will be shown in Figure 5A-2. above the left-hand edge of the rect arc current to a long arc. As
2. Position the practice plate at the plate. you increase the arc length, the
right-hand corner of the work 6. Lower your shield, then bring current is decreased. At some
table. the electrode down and to the arc length the arc will suddenly

z%%D SECTION III SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
extinguish when the gap be- 10. The electrode melts with each 11. Don't strike the arc just any-
comes too large. When this hap- start. It gets shorter, and you where. Pick a point before you
pens, restart the arc exactly as must constantly feed the elec- start, and strike the arc as close
you did the first time. Continue trode toward the puddle. If you to this point as you can.
to strike and strike the arc until do not lower the electrode, the
the electrode burns down to ap- arc gap will increase and the arc
proximately 2 in. will go out.
WELDING STRINGER BEADS
Axis of weld
A good welder should be able to Do not start to weld until you
weld stringer beads correctly. Al- have heard your instructor's lecture,
though other methods are used, al- seen a demonstration, and received
most all types of joints can be weld- all the necessary information. Read
ed successfully with the stringer through all the instructions before
method. starting. If you have any questions,
A stringer bead is a single weld ask the instructor before you begin.
bead. It varies in width from two to 5A-G Plate position for weld-
IFHBBIU~~UE
two and a half times the diameter of ing stringer beads.
the metal electrode. For example, if MATEII~~~AJL ANID mqgunnDmEmTr
you use a %-in. electrode, the bead 1. Personal welding equipment.
should be between Vi and %6 in.
wide. (See Figure 5A-5.)
The metal electrodes have coat-
2. E6010or E6011 electrodes, %-in.
diameter.
3. One piece of carbon steel plate,
!.T JlIlh
90"
ings of varying thicknesses; there- approximately % in. x 4 in. x
fore it is important that you consider 8 in. long. FilGUJIIBIE 8A.7 Electrode angle in
only the diameter of the metal core holder.
wire when judging the width of the
bead. PROCEDURE
You should become proficient in 6. Make sure the workpiece cable
the use of the stringer bead. It will 1, Wire-brush the welding surface is securely attached.
make out-of-position welding (cov- of the plate. 7. Place the electrode in the holder
ered in the following chapters) eas- 2. The plate must be welded with at a 90-degree angle. See Figure
ier. In this procedure you will learn the axis as shown in Figure 5A-7.
to control the width, height, and 5A-6. 8. Assume a comfortable position,
shape of the bead by altering travel 3. Position the practice plate at the with your left elbow resting on
speed, electrode angle, welding cur- right-handcorner of the work ta- the table. Place your right hand,
rent, and arc length. ble, just as you did in the pre- the one with the electrode hold-
vious procedure. er, in the palm of your left hand.
4. Attach the workpiece clamp Do not grip the holder tightly.
and adjust the power supply as If you do, you will tire quickly
directed. Use alternating cur- and your hand will become
rent for E-601l electrodes, or unsteady.
direct current, electrode posi- 9. Strike the arc on the left side of
Arc length approx. f' tive (DCEP), in the range of 75 the plate. Tilt the electrode
Bead height to 125 amperes, for either holder slightly to the right. The
J.approx.; electrode. electrode should point at an an-
5 . Use a clamp, if provided, to gle of about 10 to 15 degrees
hold your workpiece in place. If from the vertical into the pud-
yto5--
4 16 Bead width you do not have a clamp, tack- dle. This is commonly called the
BBGüJFiiE %A& Width of stringer weld the plate to the table. Use lead or drag angle. See Figure
bead. a single tack weld. 5A-8.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

221
Run the stringer bead for about is completely covered, cool it

3 in. Examine the stringer for and present it to the instructor.
evenness of the ripples, width, 14. Weld the opposite side of the
and height. Chip the slag away plate as follows.
and wire-brush thoroughly be- 1st stringer: Correct arc length,
fore continuing. too short an arc, too long an arc.
Strike another arc about 314 in. to Note the results.
the right of the weld puddle cra- 2nd stringer: Correct travel
ter at the end of the stringer. speed, too slow a travel speed,
Then move the arc directly over too fast a travel speed.
the crater. It should be a slightly 3rd stringer: Correct current set-
1o. Maintain an arc length of about long arc. Hold it in position for ting, too low a setting, too high
in., and keep the width of the a moment. Then close the arc a setting.
puddle to two to two and a half gap to normal and proceed as
times the diameter of the core before.
wire and approximately 3/32 in. 13. Continue in the same manner,
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
in height to 5/i6 in. wide. See but start the next stringer Vi in.
Figure 5A-5. below the first. When the plate
T E E ESSENTIALS OF P R O P E R WELDING PROCEDURES
By now you have had some hands- time, as well as at lower cost. In ad- TRAVEL
on welding practice, and you have dition, larger electrodes use more SPEED
probably encountered some of the current than small ones. Therefore Travel speed must be matched with
most common welding problems. the arc has more energy and you can the amount of arc current. High cur-
This part of the lesson describes the weld faster. rents require a high travel speed. If
essential variables and how they af- the current is low, your rate of travel
fect the finished weld. There are five CUKRENT should be slow.
essential variables. If you vary or The correct polarity of current i s as
change them beyond permissible important as the amount of current.
limits, they will affect the appear- Some electrodes require alternating
ance and quality of the weld. To ob- current, whereas others require di- ELECTRODE
tain a proper weld, you must rect current. Some electrodes can ANGLE
consider: use either alternating or direct cur- The angle at which you hold the
rent. Always read the information on electrode is very important. The
1. Electrode size. the box of electrodes. It will suggest molten metal leaving the electrode
2. Current. the amount of current to be used and transfers quite forcefully, usually to
3. Arc length. its polarity. the point at which the electrode is
4. Travel speed. aimed. The transfer of metal can be
5. Electrode angle. ARC LENGTH compared to water pouring from the
The arc length you should use is ap- nozzle of a water hose. If you have
ELECTRODE SIZE proximately the same as the diame- ever pointed a water hose at the
When choosing an electrode, you ter of the electrode you use. Correct ground, you have seen the water
must consider the size, shape, and arc length is important; the wrong continue to flow in the direction of
position of the weld joint. Usually, arc length can cause poor welds. the hose nozzle and plow into the
you should choose the largest- Most of the time you will know the ground. (See Figure 5A-9.) The mol-
diameter electrode that can be used correct arc length by its sound. An ten metal transfers in the direction of
for the particular weldment and po- arc of the correct length sounds like the electrode. The force of the arc
sition. Large-diameter electrodes the crackling of bacon and eggs on the weld puddle can move it to
have a higher deposition rate than frying. An arc that i s too long has a one side or the other according to
,
small ones. With large electrodes loud humming sound, one that is the direction of the electrode angle.
the job will be finished in a shorter too short a sputtering sound. (See Figure 5A-1O.)

Effect of water
striking ground at an angle
FIGURE BA=b The effect of water

from a hose striking the ground at an
angle.
Effect of the electrodeaimed at

a low angle to the plate.
FIGURE 0A.iìBB The effect of the elec-
trode on the puddle when aimed at a The correct electrode angle is important.
low angle to the plate.
The following is a partial l i s t of b. High, uneven bead. 2. Adjust the welding current: ac or
conditions and their effects. c. Poor fusion. DCEP (+), ampere range 75 to
d. Slag holes, gas pockets, and 125.
1. Current too low. Low arc energy
porosity. 3. Start '/iin. from the top of the
and low arc force.
e. Possibility of the electrode plate. Listen to the sound of the
a. Poor penetration.
stubbing out. arc as you run a stringer from left
b. Small molten puddle, narrow
bead. 5. Travel speed too fast. Low heat to right. Keep the electrode per-
c. Excessive piling up of the weld input. pendicular to the plate, and use a
metal. a. Puddle cools too rapidly. 1O- to 15-degreedrag angle. (See
d. Slow progress. b. Impurities and gases are Figures SA-12 and SA-13.) Famil-
e. Electrode sticks to the base locked in. iarize yourself with the sound you
metal. c. Narrow, irregular bead. hear.
2. Current too high. High arc energy
d. Ripples in the shape of a half- 4. Hold a very close arc. Repeat the
moon. procedure of step 1 and weld an-
and high arc force.
a. Electrode melts too fast, too other stringer. Place it V 2 in. be-
much metal for travel speed. MATERHABE A N D E@WHPMEEw'F low the first. Familiarize yourself
b. Excessive spatter. with the new sound you hear.
1. Personal welding equipment.
c. Undercut along the edges. 2. E601O or E6011 electrodes, %-in.
d. irregular deposit. diameter.
3. Arc length too long. 3. One piece of carbon steel plate,
a. Irregular bead. approximately 3/8 in. x 4 in. x
b. Poor penetration. 8 in. long.
c. Wavering arc.
d. Poor fusion. PROCEDURE
4. Arc length too short. Low arc en- 1. The plate must be welded in the
ergy and high arc force. flat position. Position the plate so
a. Not enough heat to melt the that the narrow side is facing you. BHBi;UiIE SA.1 B Plate positioned with
base metal. See Figure 5A-11. narrow side facing welder.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 5 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDIN6 OF PLATE 223
Compare the two sounds in your trode perpendicular to the

mind. plate.
5. Hold a long arc and weld another b. The electrode angled away
Work angle 90" stringer. Use the same technique from you.
as in steps 1 and 2. Note the dif- c. The electrode angled toward
A
3"
ference in the sound. you.
Note the appearance of the
6. Inspect the appearance of the
three stringers and make note of welds. Cool and clean your
the differences. workpiece.
FPBiiWEWIE IPh-82 Bead placement. 7. Using the correct arc length, run
three stringers and vary the travel
Electrode
drag angle
10"-15" I/ Direction of travei
~
speed as indicated.
a. Correct travel speed.
b. Too slow a travel speed.
c. Too fast a travel speed.
Note the appearance of the weld.
8. Use the same welding conditions
as before. Run three stringers
using
$ce--1
FHGUIE OA.13 Electrode drag angle
a. The correct electrode angle
being sure to keep the elec-
RUNNING A FLAT PAD OF S T R I N G E R S
MATER.HAL ANEQEQWEPMEN7l' about 112 in. from the top edge.

1. Personal welding equipment. (See Figure 5A-15.) Use a drag
2. E6010 or E6011 electrodes, %-in. angle of about 1O to 15 degrees.
diameter. (See Figure 5A-16.)
3. One piece of carbon steel plate, 8. Strike and hold a slightly long
approximately YEin. x 4 in. x 11GUJlRE 5A.841 Plate position for arc until a puddle begins to
10 in. long. welding a fiat pad of stringers. form. Then shorten the arc
length and move steadily to the
PROCEDURE right. Use a "C" motion. (See
1, Wire-brush the welding surface
of the plate.
h 90" Work angle Figure 5A-17.) With a C motion
the bottom swing of the elec-
trode moves farther to the right
2. The plate must be welded with
than the top portion. Pause
the axis as shown in Figure
slightly at the top of the C. Then
5A-14.
move down, out, and back
3. Position the practice plate at the somewhat faster. Do not at-
right-hand corner of the tempt to use the C motion until
worktable. the instructor demonstrates it.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Secure the workpiece and the 9. Clean the stringer thoroughly

workpiece clamp.
Electrode drag
5. Adjust the welding current: ac
+
or DCEP ( ), ampere range 75 10-5'
to 125. Direction of travel
1
6. Make sure that the electrode is
3
held firmly in the electrode
holder, at a 90-degree angle. f'
7. Start at the left side of the plate, IFHOKW~E
tüA-163 Electrode drag angle. FIGURE 5A-PI "C" motion.

using the chipping hammer and tion of the electrode. The bead
the wire brush. should be no wider than two to
10. Begin the second bead by strik- two and a half times the diarn-
ing the arc at the left side of the eter of the core wire.
plate. Hold the electrode so that 13. The next bead should overlap
the edge of the coating farthest about one-third to one-half of
FBIGIIIBE 58-18 Electrode drag angle. the second bead, as shown in
from you ispointed at the near-
est edge of the first bead. (See Figure 5A-15.
Figure SA-18.) 14. Continue to weld stringer beads
11. In Figure 5A-18 notice the angle 12. Proceed along the closest edge in this manner, using a drag an-
of the electrode in relation to the of the first bead using the drag gle of 10 to 15 degrees. Cover
first bead and the surface of the angle shown in Figure 5A-16. the entire plate. Then cool the
plate. Make sure that you limit the mo- plate and examine it.
T J O I N T FILLET, I F POSITION, STRINGER BEADS
MATEBIAL AND E@üJIPME"F thoroughly. Cool the plate and

1. Personal welding equipment. then inspect it for undercut and
2. E601O or E6011 electrodes, %-in. unevenness of height or width.
diameter. Too long an arc, too high a cur-
3. One piece of carbon steel plate, rent, the wrong electrode angle
Vi in. x 4 in. x 12 in. long; two or manipulation, or too fast a
pieces of carbon steel plate, 3% in. rate of travel may cause
~ x 12 in. long.
x 1 3 in. undercut.
7. Overlap a second stringer bead
FiiGWRE sA.nB Practice assembly for
PROCEDURE a flat T-joint fillet. on the first one. Run half on the
first bead and half on the side of
1. Remove all slag, rust, or mill the workpiece farthest from you.
scale from the weld surface of Use a 10- to 15-degree angle
the plates. and a 15- to 20-degree work an-
2. Tack the three plates as shown gle. This angle will cause the
in Figure 5A-19. Be sure that molten metal to flow up or wash
there is little or no space be- the side of the workpiece that
tween surfaces and that the the electrode is pointed toward.
plates are perpendicular to each (See Figure 5A-22.) One-half of
other. the bead should be on the plate
3. Position the practice piece as and the other half covering
shown in Figure 5A-20. about one-half of the first bead.
4. Be sure that the workpiece and (See Figure 5A-22.)
the work lead are secure. Adjust PEGWERE 5A.20 Weid position, fiat. 8. Clean the weld thoroughly. Run
the welding current: ac or another stringer with the elec-
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125. trode pointed toward you, at an
5. With the electrode perpendicu- angle of about 15 to 20 degrees.
lar to the joint, run a stringer This bead should cover about
from left to right. Maintain an one-half of the last stringer and
electrode drag angle of 1O to 15 Whipping motion flow up the side of the plate.
degrees. Use either a whipping The complete weld should be
motion or the C motion as in flat or slightly convex and have
Figure SA-21. "C" motion legs of equal size.
6. Chip and wire-brush the bead IFHGURE SA-$1 Weave motions. 9. Repeat the task, this time work-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 5 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF PLATE
Hold a long arc

or DCEP with E7014 or DCEP Lower the
with E7024, Ampere range for electrode
~ Start by tapping
E7014, 110 to 160 for %-in. di- against the plate
ameter and i50 to 210 for %z-
in. diameter; E7024, 140 to 190
for %-in. diameter and 180 to
250 for %-in. diameter. Direction of travel
/
5. Weld the first joint with E7014
electrodes. Use a drag angle of l F l I ( h X . J ~SibZZ3
~ Tapping method of
an arc.
10 to 15 degrees, as you did
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with the E6010 and E601 1 elec-

trodes. But you do not need to
use the C motion; just move the
electrode along the joint, with- electrode touches the metal, at
ing on the joint adjacent to the
out any movement other than a 30-degree lead angle. (See
one you have just welded. Figure 5A-24.) Weld at a travel
the forward travel.
10. Complete two of the joints and speed that gives the proper bead
save two for the next exercise. 6. After each pass chip and wire-
brush thoroughly. Although slag width for the electrode diameter
In the second half of this assign- from the E7014 electrode comes used.
ment, you will be introduced to the off quite easily, it often sticks to 12. Be sure you maintain the correct
E7014 and E7024 iron powder tiny crevices, especially in the drag angle. If you reduce the
electrode. corners or toes of the weld. drag angle too much, the elec-
The coating of typical E7014 elec- 7. Pay close attention to the edges trode can stub out.
trodes contains approximately 30 or toes of the weld. Make sure 13. Continue, as with the E7014
percent iron powder, and the coat- you are not leaving any under- electrode, using the same side
ing of E7024 electrodes contains cut. If you are, slow down and angles.
about 50 percent iron powder. The use a lower rate of travel. Make 14. After you have welded the first
iron powder enables these elec- sure you are not holding too three stringers, cover over the
trodes to deposit 30 to 50 percent long an arc. weld with a weave bead. In-
more filler metal than the E6010 or crease the arc current setting,
8. Place the second joint in the
E6011 electrodes. and with the same electrode an-
same position as the first. Use
Because they deposit more metal, gles strike the arc on the left.
the E7024 electrodes.
these electrodes are extremely Then move to the right, weaving
popular. 9. Because the E7024 electrode is
a heavily coated iron powder the electrode from side to side.
electrode, it can be dragged (SeeFigure SA-21.) Pause slight-
/\\\\MIID i ~ a l > ~ U i l i l r J I ~ ~ I i r i s l ~ ~ f ~ along the joint with the coating
l~lAìïI'E~i~llAlL ly at the sides to minimize
touching the metal being weld- undercut.
2. E7014 electrodes, YS- or %-in. ed. This prevents it from stub- 15. Part of the next weave bead
diameter; E7024 electrodes, Ve- bing out. should cover slightly more than
or %-in. diameter. 10. Drag the first pass along the root half of the previous bead, while
3. Use the two joints that you left of the joint. Keep the electrode the rest of the bead washes up
unwelded from your last assign- perpendicular to the workpiece.
ment. Use a drag angle of approxi-
mately 30 degrees. Strike the arc
by tapping the tip of the elec-
PROCEDURE
trode in the groove of the work-
1. Wire-brush the surfaces to be
welded.
piece, thus breaking the coating
off the tip. (See Figure 5A-23.)
[ // Electrode
dragangle
2. Position the practice piece as 11. When the arc starts, hold a long
shown in Figure SA-19.
3. Make sure the workpiece clamp
arc for a moment. Then shorten
the arc length until the coating
I >
Direction of welding
and the workpiece are secure. on the right-hand side of the Pìí(EüJRiE&W&fì Drag technique.

the side of the joint. (See Figure the previous bead, while the rest
5A-25.) of the bead washes up the op-
16. Part of the next weave bead posite side of the joint. (See Fig-
should cover about one-third of Ure 5A-25.) Continue to run
beads in this manner. Make sure
they are laced together, as the
F'HBBTBE5A.25 Bead progression. earlier stringer beads were.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FILLING CRATERS AT T E E END OF WELDS
Every time you stop during welding,

come to the end of a weld joint, or
finish an electrode, you have to ex-
tinguish the arc. Each stop can cause Change electrode angle
and reverse direction
a potential weak spot in the weld, if c---
it is not performed correctly.

Whenever the arc heat i s removed
from the puddle, a weld crater will
Jd1,
+
J
+le,
I
+ - Directionof travel
I
form. The crater is a hollow spot in *
Directionof travel
the weld bead. If left unfilled, the FIGURE %A..%% Filling a crater at the
Crater can become a weak spot in FPGURE s ~ . 2 6Restarting the arc. end of the w e l d .
the weld. Unfilled craters can crack,
and the crater cracks can cause the
weld to fail. This procedure teaches ahead of the crater. Then move through the weld, or if the weld
you the methods used to eliminate the arc on top of the crater. (See metal spills over and runs off the
this problem. Figure 5A-26.) Whenever you end of the plate, you either
strike an arc, it leaves a hard spot moved too slowly or carried too
in the metal. When you begin long an arc. Practice this method
MATERIAL A N D EQUIPMENT ahead of the crater, the hard spot until you can do it well.
1. Personal welding equipment. is covered over by the bead and 9. Another method of filling a crater
2. E601O or E601 1 electrode, %-in. is eliminated. at the end of the plate is to break
diameter. 7. Hold a normal arc on the crater the arc about 2 in. from the end.
3. One piece of carbon steel plate, until it is filled to the same height Clean the bead. Then start at the
Y4 to Va in. x 4 in. x 12 in. long. as the bead. Then continue the right side of the plate and weld
stringer. Stop every few inches back toward the crater with the
and repeat the process on the electrode pointing into the pud-
PROCEDURE new crater. This will give you dle at a drag angle of about 15 to
1 . Wire-brush the surface of the practice with this method. Do not 30 degrees. (See Figure 5A-28.)
plate. go to the end of the plate until Weld over the crater of the bead,
you read step 8 . and break the arc slowly or with
2. Position the plate as shown in Fig-
8. When you reach the end of the a slight circular motion.
Ure 5A-14.
plate, reverse the direction of
3. Secure the plate and attach the
travel. Raise the electrode slowly
workpiece clamp.
to keep the same arc length as
4. Adjust the welding current: ac or you weld up and over the finished
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125. bead. Weld back over the bead
5 . Start at the left. Run a short string- for ' / 2 in. Hold a close arc, then
er, about 2 or 3 in. Stop. Then stop welding. Use a 10- to 15-
clean the weld. degree push angle. (See Figure iFPQiUIfaESA838 Alternate method of
6 . Strike another arc about 1 in. 5A-27.) If you burn a hole filling a crater at the end of a weld.

CHAI"I'ER 5 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF PLATE 227
SQUARE=GROOVE B U T T JOINT, 1 6 POSITION

WITH B A C K U P B A R , STRINGER B E A D S
MATEREAL ANID EQUJW5WENT the bead covers both legs of the

joint equally.
2. E7024 electrodes, Vbin. diam- 1o. Clean and run the second bead
eter. with the electrode held about 15
3. Two pieces of carbon steel, 3 / t in. degrees off the perpendicular,
x 3 in. x 8 in. long; one piece as in Figure SA-32.
of carbon steel, 3'/ in. x 2 in. x 11. Remove the slag from the weld
8 in. long. deposit. Run the third bead with
the same electrode angle used
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with the first bead. (See Figure

5A-32.) Pay close attention to
PROCEDURE FIIGUIIE 5AmZ%ù Tacking procedure the top, or leading edge, of the
1. Clean all slag, rust, mill scale, for a flat square-groove butt joint with upper plate. Watch the top edge
and other dirt from the parts to a backup bar. of the puddle. Make sure that
be welded. you do not cut down the top
L. Tack-weld the pieces as shown edge. The fillet is not complete
in Figure 5A-29. It is important if you do not cover the entire
that you have as good a fit as vertical leg.
possible. Be sure that there are 12. Weld the other fillet in the same
no spaces between the parts. manner.
3. Position the test piece as shown 13. Fill in the remainder of the joint
in Figure SA-30. with either the stringer bead or
4. Make sure that the work clamp FLlGKJUFìiE $A-30 Weldment position. the weave method, as in Figure
and the test piece are securely 5A-33.
fastened. Caution: Do not quick-quench
5. Adjust the welding current: ac the weldment, or cool the plates
or DCEP, ampere range 180 to rapidly.
250. They will be hardened to a
6 . Make sure your tack welds are certain extent; and will not bend as
at least 3/4 in. long and are
FIIGUJEE%>Eu3Electrode
ii angle in readily. Then it will be more difficult
holder. for you to pass the bend tests.
placed according to Figure 5A-
29. If the tacks are not strong 14. Use an oxyacetylene cutting
enough or not in the proper torch or any carbon arc cutting
places, the plates may distort .torch to remove as much of the
and make the test more difficult backing strip from the test piece
to pass.
1 . Place the electrode in the holder
- as possible. Grind or machine
the remainder of the backing
at a 45-degree angle. (See Fig- strip and the face of the weld,
ure 5A-31.) flush with the base metal.
8. Hold the electrode at approxi- 15. After the excess material has
- mately 30 to 45 degrees from IFUGUJIIME %&3% Progression of beads been removed, saw or flame-cut
the surface of the plate with a in fillet, electrode angles. two strips, as shown in Figure
drag angle of about 30 degrees. 5A-34. Each should be 11/2 in.
Drag the electrode along the wide and taken across the weld
bottom leg of the joint. The from the center section of the
electrode coating should touch test piece. Remove all slag and
both the backup bar and the ver- grind a %-in. radius on the four
tical leg. (See Figure SA-32.) ____ long edges of each strip or cou-
9. Move along steadily. Make sure 5,443 Bead sequence.
IFIIGUJ~~IE pon, as it is called.

13 H Test procedure 16. When the coupons are ready,

they should be placed in the
7 2
r
bending jig. Place the root of the
fillets so that they face the open-
ing or female member.
17. Bend the coupons as instructed.
Then present them to the in-
structor for examination.
Direction of rolling
bottom view
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
3 any position.
5 1
L 1
..-
IFIIGúJIE 5.4-34Test procedure.
k-2’
O U T S I D E 4 O R N E R JOINT, 16 POSITION, STRINGER A N D WEAVE B E A D S
IVEATEIIIAL A N D E@üJHPiwrEWP 4. Make sure the workpiece clamp

Weld axis
/ and workpiece are securely fas-
4
2. Two spacers (metal strip, 3/32 in. tened. Adjust the welding cur-
x Y4 in. x 5 in. long.) rent: ac or DCEP, ampere range
3. E601O or E6011 electrodes, %-in. 75 to 125.
diameter. 5. The tacks must be at least 1 in.
4. Two pieces of carbon steel, 3/í in. long or the root opening may
x 2 in. x 12 in. long. close up as you weld the first
/ pass.
PROCEDURE 6. Hold the electrode perpendicu-
1. Clean all the parts to be welded. IFIIBúJLT[RIïE5Am3%Flat outside-corner larly and use a drag angle of 10
2. Use the spacers to position the joint. to 15 degrees. Weld over the
pieces. Then tack-weld the two tack at the left side of the joint.
pieces together to form a 90- When you reach the end of the
degree angle as in figure 5A-35. 3. Remove the spacers and place tack, pause until a keyhole ap-
Be sure the space along the en- the weldment in position. (See pears. (See Figure SA-36.)
tire joint is even. Figure 5A-35.) 7. When the keyhole appears,

there until it fills the keyhole 10. The third pass is a weave bead.
and another keyhole opens. Pause slightly at the sides for
Continue whipping the arc proper fusion.
across the entire joint, adding a
dab of metal each time.
K
9. The second pass should be a
stringer bead. Make sure you
fuse both sides of the joint at the
PIGiLJiRE IA.36 Keyhole technique.

toes into the edges of the weld.
(See Figure 5A-38.)
ALz
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 5A.38 Bead sequence.

whip the electrode forward and
slightly up one side of the joint.
(See Figure 5A-37.) This motion 11. The final pass i s also a weave
of whipping out and away from bead. Use the motion shown in
the puddle, allows the molten Figure 5A-37.
metal to cool and freeze. Other- 12. Watch out for excessive over-
wise it would fall through the lap. Avoid extra weld metal
root and cause excessive melt hanging over the edge of the
through. joint.
8. As the filler metal solidifies, re- 13. The completed weld should
turn the electrode to the forward FIGURE SA-37 Whipping and weav- have a slightly convex (outward-
ing motions.
edge of the keyhole. Hold it ly curved) appearance.
LESSON 5B
@SITION
The horizontal welding of this lesson

will be your first attempt at out-of-
position welding. Horizontal weld-
ing requires more skill than down-
hand welding. However, it i s not
very difficult if you apply yourself to
the task.
Horizontal welding i s done on
vertical plates. The weld bead is FIGURE 5B-2Lap joint fillet, hori-
placed on the vertical surface, run- zontal position 2F.
ning either from left to right or from BEIGIUFWE SB-R T-joint fillet, horizontal
right to left. position 2F. amperage setting may make under-
Some fillet joints are horizontal cut appear.
welds. In these joints one leg of the You can keep the weld bead from
fillet joint is vertical and the other is the weld bead has a tendency to sag, sagging and prevent undercut by
on a flat plate. Two examples are and second, there is a tendency for paying close attention to details-by
shown in Figures 58-1 and 5B-2. undercut to appear at the top edge using the proper welding current,
You will notice two differences of the bead. Manipulating the elec- electrode angle, and travel speed,
between horizontal welding and flat trode incorrectly and having an im- and by manipulating the electrode
welding. First, in horizontal welding proper rate of travel or too high an correctly.

234) SECTION III SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
RUNNING A HORIZONTAL P A D OF S T R I N 6 E R S
MATEEUAIL AND EQUIPMENT n

Work angle
2. E601O or E6011 electrodes, l/a-in. 4
line -side view
n
diameter.
2
3/a in. x 6 in. x 6 in. long.
IFIGUJWE5B.3 Bead line. top view
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. One piece of soapstone. - 15"
5. One straight edge. IFiíGiUü&E5B-6Electrode drag angle.
PROCEDURE
1. Be sure that the edges of the plate
are clean, then wire-brush the
surface of'the plate. Whipping
2. Draw a line across the plate with Whipping motion.
the soapstone. Place the line '12
in. from the bottom edge of the FIGURE 5iB.4 Plate position for
plate, as shown in Figure 58-3. welding a horizontal pad of
3. Position the plate as in Figure 58- stringers.
4 with the line at the bottom.
4. Adjust the welding current: ac or
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125. C motion
5. Place the electrode in the holder, PBGUUWE 55-7 Weave motions.
P
and clamp it at a 45-degree an-
gle, as shown in Figure 5B-5.
6. Start at the left side of the plate.
Hold the electrode pointing up- sagging. When using the C mo-
ward at an angle of about 5 to 15 tion, do not forget to pause at the
degrees. Use a 10- to 15-degree 6FHGUBaE 5ü5-5 Electrode angle i n upper left part of the C.
holder.
drag angle, as shown in Figure 8. The second stringer, and all that
5B-6. follows, should cover the top
7.Move the electrode to the right third of the bead below it. This
with a slight whipping motion, as tions gives the molten puddle a keeps the weld surface even in
in Figure 56-7. You can also use chance to cool slightly, which height, without valleys or low
the C motion. Each of these mo- helps it solidify and keeps it from spots.
T = J O I N T FILLET, 2F POSITION, MULTIPASS STRINGERS
MATERIAIL A"P EQUJ'EIPMENT PROCEDURE metal or a clamp to position the

1. Personal welding equipment. 1. Remove all slag and other im- plates.
2. E601O or E6011 electrodes, %-in. purities from the plates. Clean 3. Position the weldment as in Fig-
diameter. the area to be welded. Ure 56-8.
3. One piece of carbon steel, '/4 to 2. Tack the plates to form a cross, 4. Adjust the welding current: ac
3/8 in. x 4 in. x 12 in. long. as shown in Figure 58-8. Do not or DCEP, ampere range 75 to
4. Two pieces of carbon steel, 1/4 to hold the metal in place with 125.
Ya in. X 1 % in. x 12 in. long. your gloves. Use some scrap 5. Place the electrode in the holder

SMAW L
U
Work angle
i < S M A W
FIIBiiUJHgE55-8 Horizontal T-joint assembly. FH4811E 5 1 - 9 Electrode work angles.
with the same 45-degree angle. 4. Pay very close attention to the
6. Hold the electrode at an angle electrode angles. Be sure that
of about 30 to 45 degrees off the you do not change angles dur-
bottom plate, as in Figure 5B-9. ing stopping and starting.
Use a 5- to 15-degree drag angle 5. Watch your travel speed. It must
for the first pass. Fill the crater be steady if the bead width is to
at the end of the bead. FBGUJB6E %ng.ií@ Bead sequence.
remain constant.
7. Hold the same electrode angles 6. Be sure the legs of the weld are
with the second bead. Point the of equal length.
tip of the electrode so that it is 7. Hold the same electrode angle
partially on the plate and par- with the second bead. Point the
tially on the first bead, as shown MATEIBAII, ARID EQUflPMEN'lI'
tip of the electrode so that it is
in Figure 5B-9. Slightly more 1. Personal welding equipment. partially on the plate and par-
than half of the filler metal 2. E7024 electrodes, %-in. diam- tially on the first bead as shown
should be on the stringer bead. eter. in Figure 56-9. Slightly more
8. For the third stringer lower the 3. Use the two unwelded joints from than half of the filler metal
electrode angle to between 10 the previous exercise. should be on the stringer bead.
and 20 degrees, as in Figure 5B- 4. Position the assembly in the po- 8. For the third stringer lower the
9. Use a whip or C motion. Un- sition shown in Figure 56-8. electrode angle to between 10
dercut can be reduced if you and 20 degrees, as in Figure
whip properly or pause at the PROCEDURE 5B-9.
upper left side of the puddle 9. Complete the joint using the
1. Place the E7024 electrode in the
when using the C motion. bead sequence shown in Figure
holder at a 45-degree angle.
9. Clean and inspect the last bead 5B-1 O.
for undercut. Weld three more 10. Complete the last unwelded
or DCEP, ampere range 140 to
stringers over the first three joint using the same six-bead
190.
passes to complete the joint. See technique.
the bead sequence in Figure 3. Run a stringer bead from left to
56-10. right. Use a drag technique.
Hold the electrode at about 30
10. Clean your weldment and in-
to 45 degrees to the bottom
spect it. Then weld one more
plate, (see Figure 5B-9), with a
joint.
drag angle of about 30 degrees.
in the second portion of this ex- Stop welding at the center of the
ercise, you will weld horizontal fil- joint. Clean the crater area.
lets using E7024 electrodes. Then complete the stringer.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

SINGLE=BEVEL BUTT JOINT,2 G POSITION WITH BACKUP B A R

2. E7018 electrodes, %-in. diam-
eter.
3. Two pieces of carbon steel plate,
3/8 in. x 3 in. x 8 in. long; one
piece of carbon steel plate, 3/8 in.
x 11h in. x 8 in. long.
4. Flame-cut and grind a 45-degree
bevel on the long edge of one
plate.
PROCEDURE
1. Remove all slag, mill scale, and
so on from the area to be weld-
ed on all three plates.
2. Fit and tack the plates as shown
in Figure 58-11. Tack at the
ends of the joint.
3. Position the test piece as in Fig- Welding a horizontal butt joint.
Ure 5B-12. The weldment may
not be moved until all welding
is completed.
4. Secure the weldment and work-
piece clamp.
MAW
or DCEP, ampere range 11 5 to
165.
6. For the first pass hold an elec-
trode work angle of about 45
degrees, as shown in Figure 56-
13. Use a drag angle of about IFBGKJIE%B-BZ Weld position hori-
20 to 30 degrees. Don’t let zontal 2C with backup bar.
the puddle cover more thm
one-half of the root spacing.
The electrode should penetrate
deeply into the bottom plate and
wash up on the backup bar, as
shown in Figure 5B-14.
7. Clean the first bead thoroughly. EFñGURE 5 m - 1 ~Horizontal single-
Then run the second bead over bevel butt joint with backup bar.
the remaining root area and the
beveled plate. Use an electrode
work angle of about 10 to 20
degrees upward into the root, as space, and the first bead, as
shown in Figure 56-13. For shown in Figure 56-14.
good fusion be sure to burn into 8. Clean the second bead thor- FBGUUBBE S;BOmBSElectrode work
the top plate, the remaining root oughly. Cover it with two string- angles.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

plate must be made with an 12. Remove the backup bar by

electrode angle of about 45 de- flame cutting or air carbon arc
grees if you are to get deep pe- cutting and grinding. Any re-
netration. Refer to Figures 58-13 maining piece of backup bar
and 58-14. should be ground off flush with
9. All other stringers, until the last the surface of the plate. The face
pass, should be at an upward of the weld should also be
angle of about 1O to 20 degrees. ground flush in the same
Follow the bead sequence manner.
FBGiüiiCiE 5lU~ii4Bead sequence. shown in Figure 5B-14. The ex- 13. Saw or flame-cut two coupons
ception to this is stringer 5, from the center section of the
which requires the same angle test piece. Each of them should
p
IFïïGiiJUGli< BiibIiS Test coupon
as stringers 1 and 3.
10. The beads in the next-to-last lay-
er, beads 5, 6, and 7 in Figure
58-14, should be about 'A6 in.
be 11h in. wide. (See Figure
58-1 1.)
14. Break all edges. "Breaking"
means to file or grind a slight
preparation. below the surface of the plate. radius on all four of the long
11. All the stringers in the finish sides as shown in Figure 58-15.
pass, beads 8 to 11 (see Figure 15. Use one coupon for a root bend
ers, or one wide stringer, de- 58-14), may be put in with an and one for a face bend. Present
pending on the width of the first electrode angle of about 10 to the bent specimens to your in-
bead. Stringers at the bottom 15 degrees upward. structor for evaluation.
OPEN=ROOTV=GROOVE,BUTT JOINT, 26 POSITION
IIAL m i i i ~nsab LUI

MN~TEIIR [ riwm wir
, & ' X ~ p a c e r s
1. Personal welding equipment. Tacks 1' long

2. Two spacers, 3h in. x 3/4 in. x
5 in. long.
3. E601O or E6011 electrodes, 'hin. I1'1TGUJJïEiE :5nE.IIQD Dimensions for a
diameter. horizontal open-root V-groove butt
joint.
4. Two pieces of carbon steel, 3'/ in.
X 4 in. X 8 in. long.
5. Use a hand cutting torch or me-
chanical flame cutter to bevel one mbn% Prepositioning the
r~n~ulnr;E FRGXJRE Sifb!~áTacking procedure.
plates.
of the long edges of each plate.
Cut the bevel at a 30-degree an-
r - -- - ------- 1 /------------
Pre position
1-
-,
gle. This makes a 60-degree in- -\. I-
cluded angle as in Figure 58-16.
PROCEDURE
1. Remove all slag, mill scale, and
foreign matter by grinding or in place, as in Figure 58-1 7 (top 6. Position the plate as in Figure
sanding. view). 5B-19; secure the plate and
2. Grind or file a Y32-in. root face 4. Tack the two plates as indicated workpiece clamp.
on each beveled edge, as shown in Figure 58-17. 7. Adjust the welding current: ac
in Figure 58-16. 5. Remove the spacers and prepo- or DCEP, ampere range 75 to
3. Lay the plates, facedown, on a sition the plates as in Figure 125.
flat surface with the two spacers 5B-18. 8. After setting your current on
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

b
the joint. If you move too fast,
you will not penetrate the joint
properly.
12. The second pass is a stringer
235 bead. Make it with the C mo-
tion. Take care to pause at the
5 -10" upper left-hand portion of the C.
13. Finish the remainder of the joint
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
with stringers, as shown in Fig-
FBIGURE Si130 Bead sequence. ure 5B-20. Don't forget to leave
FIGURE 55-19 Horizontal plate a space of about '/16 in. between
position. the faces of beads 3 and 4, the
next to last pass, and the surface
of the plate.
scrap metal, start the weld bead slight C motion and return to the 14. Saw or flame-cut two coupons
on the left. Use an electrode an- keyhole. The whipping allows from the center section of the
gle of about 5 to 10 degrees up- the puddle to cool and solidify, test piece. Make them each 1Y 2
ward into the root. (See Figure which keeps the keyhole small in. wide. (See Figure 5B-11.)
56-20.) Use a 10- to 15-degree and stops the puddle from spill- 15. Round the edges as in the pre-
drag angle. ing out the back of the joint. vious procedure.
9. Pause at the end of the tack until 11. With a little practice you will 4 6 . Use one coupon for a face bend
a keyhole appears. master this technique. if you and one for a root bend. Present
10. When the keyhole appears, pause too long and keep the the bent pieces to your instruc-
whip the electrode forward and electrode in the puddle, you tor for evaluation.
down onto the wall of the lower will "blow through'' or spill the
bevel. Without stopping make a molten metal out of the rear of
LESSON 5C
Welding plate in the vertical posi- You will be taught to weld the var- be used, it is a fast, economical
tion is another test of a welder's abil- ious vertical joints in both the uphill method.
ity. The molten puddle is fluid and and downhill modes. When welding Practice will increase your ability
wants to run downhill. The puddle uphill, you start at the bottom of the to weld all thicknesses of metal in
is difficult to control at first, but after joint and weld toward the top. In the vertical position. It will also
some practice you will be able to downhill welding you start at the top make it possible for you to pass
control it. and weld downward toward the welding tests. Vertical welding of
When you heat the base metal, it bottom. Do not confuse downhill plate is also excellent training for
changes to liquid at the melting with downhand, which is the flat pipe welding, which is discussed in
point. As you know, liquids tend to pos¡tion. Chapter 7.
flow downhill in response to the pull The downhill method is used ex- At one time the E6010 electrode
of gravity, but surface tension tends tensively by pipeline welders and is was considered the best general-
to keep the weld puddle in place. applied mainly to thin wall pipe in purpose electrode. Many people still
To be a successful welder, you must which a small included angle keeps feel this to be true. Electrodes such
set the welding current properly and the size of the weld bead to a mini- as the E7018 have gained in popu-
use the correct electrode angles and mum. Downhill welding is not suit- larity because they can join the
the correct electrode movements. able for every job; when it can steels that are difficult to weld, or

are not readily weldable, with electrode is still preferred for root es the puddle fast, which makes it
E601O electrodes. passes on open-root butt joints, in- good for welding in the vertical po-
The E6010 electrodes are still in cluding pipe. sition, both uphill and downhill.
widespread use and will remain so Welding with the E601O electrode
for quite some time. The E6010 requires a great deal of skill. It freez-
TdOINT FILLET, 3F POSITION, WEAVE BEADS, U P H I L L
WA%EIIIAH, ANHB, EQKJHPMENI-

2. E6010 or E6011 electrodes, %-in.
diameter.
3. Two pieces of carbon steel plate,
Ya in. x 4 in. x 8 in. long.
10-15”
~FHQPIUIIRE
~C-B Electrode work angle
PROCEDURE for a vertical T-joint fillet.
1. Prepare, clean, and tack the 8C.4 Electrode push angle.

R%@~JRE
plates to form a T joint, as in
previous lessons. Refer to Figure
5C-1.
2. Place the electrode in the holder
at a 45-degree angle, as shown
in Figure 5C-2. Use this elec-
trode position for all vertical
welds.
3. Set your welding current on a
piece of scrap metal in the ver-
tical position. PHGUJBE 8C.2 Electrode angle in
holder.
4. Position the joint so that the
weld axis is vertical, as shown
in Figure 5C-3.
5. Adjust the welding current:
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125.
6. Position yourself so that the I FHGUHBE 56-5 Whip motion.
electrode is centered between
the two plates, as in Figure
5C-1. Point the electrode slight- 8. As the electrode drops back into
ly upward, at a 1O- to 15-degree the puddle, hold a normal
angle, as in Figure 5C-4. length arc. Pause slightly and
7. For the first pass strike the arc at whip the electrode out of the
the bottom of the joint where puddle again.
the two plates meet. Hold the 9. For the second pass start at the
arc until the puddle is approxi- left side of the weld groove at
mately Y4 to in. wide where point 1. (See Figure 5C-6.)
it joins the two plates. Whip the Pause slightly to allow the metal
electrode up and to the right, as to form a puddle. When the
in Figure 5C-5. Hold a long arc puddle forms, move the elec-
as you move the electrode out IFHGUBE
%tC3Weld position vertical trode slowly to point 2 on the
3F. right side. Pause again to allow
of the puddle and as you drop it
back into the puddle. any undercut to fill in. Then
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

manner; repeat the sequences

for the third pass. The finish of
the third pass should not exceed
five electrode diameters in
width.
15. Inspect for unevenness, under-
cut, holes, and bead contour.
FEOFURE 8C.6 Triangle weave. The This second portion of the lesson
solid lines depict slow movements, the will help you develop the ability to %<c-T Push angle for a low-
~F~IQRTIX~RS
dashed lines whipping movements. produce fillet welds with the E7018 hydrogen electrode.
electrode.
The low-hydrogen electrode pro-
whip the electrode to point 3
duces a more fluid puddle than the
slightly above the center of the
E6010 electrode and also a heavier
puddle. As the weld puddle
changes color, return the elec- slag. The iron powder in the elec-
trode coating increases the deposi-
trode to point 4. Pause again
tion rate. With a little practice you
while the undercut fills in, then
should be able to produce accepta- nTBGuUeE5C-8 First-pass weave.
slowly move the electrode
across to point 5. Repeat the
ble welds. The welding experience
you gain with low-hydrogen elec-
motions on the left as shown by
trodes will help a great deal when tom of the joint. Start the arc
points 6, 7, and 8. As you con-
tinue the sequence, remember you use other electrodes. with a tapping motion, which
that the electrode is always re- will break the coating covering
turned to the side where it left MATIEIHAL AND ~ ~ n r n m m r n 7 r the end of the electrode.
the puddle. Always hold a long 1. Personal welding equipment. 7. Weave the electrode from side
arc on both the upstroke and the 2. E7018 electrodes, %-in. diam- to side, advancing it upward
downstroke so you do not de- eter. slightly to keep the bead pro-
posit any metal during the elec- 3. Two pieces of hot-rolled steel, Ya gressing. (Refer to Figure 5C-8.)
trode motion. in. x 3 in. x 12 in. long. The bead should be only about
1o. If the center of the weld is too % 6 in. wide.
high or if it sags, you are moving 8. Pause at each side and watch for
the electrode too slowly across PROCEDURE the weld puddle to sag in the
the face of the weld. Move 1. Prepare, clean, and tack plates center. If it does sag,
faster. to form a T joint, as shown in a. Reduce the amperes.
11. If the center of the weld is too Figure 5C-1. b. Increase the travel speed.
low or has holes, you are mov- 2. Place the electrode in the holder c. Hold a closer arc.
ing the electrode too quickly at a 45degree angle, as shown 9. For the second pass clean the
across the face. Move more in Figure 5C-2. first pass; then strike the arc on
SI ow I y. 3. Position the joint so that the the bottom center of the groove.
12. Move the electrode with a weld axis is vertical, as in Figure Move the electrode quickly to
rhythm. Count to yourself, and 5c-3. the lower left edge of the first
the weld will be more uniform. 4. Adjust the welding current: pass.
Always pause at the sides of the DCEP, ampere range 1 15 to 165 10. Pause until the puddle forms.
groove. (slightly lower than for horizon- Then move the electrode stead-
13. As you move the electrode from tal we Iding). ily to the right, drawing the pud-
side to side, make sure you stop 5. Hold the electrode midway be- dle along.
with the electrode coating at the tween the two plates, as in Fig- 11. Pause on the right when the
edge of the previous pass. The ure 5C-1. Point the electrode edge of the electrode reaches
puddle will flow out past the slightly upward, at an angle of the edge of the weld. The pud-
edge and provide the correct about O to 5 degrees, as in Fig- dle will flow out another 3/'2 to
pass width. ure 5C-7. 1/~ in.
14. Finish the second pass in this 6. For the first pass start at the bot- 12. Use either the basic weave or
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

the alternate weave shown in left side. Cover the second pass
Figure 5C-9. and overlap about Y4 in. of the
13. For the third pass weave another third pass. Be careful of under-
bead over the second pass. Cov- cut, both on the left side and
er slightly more than one-half of where this bead joins the other
the right side of the weld. Watch bead. Do not weave wider
for undercut on the right side of than three times the electrode
the weld. diameter.
WlIGüJiEE SC-9 Alternate weave.
14. Weave the fourth bead on the
TOJOINTFILLET, 3F POSITION, STRINGER BEADS, DOWNHILL
This lesson is designed to develop

your ability to weld with the down-
hill method. It will also help you de-
velop the ability to drag the first pass
just as a pipeline welder does.
Dragging requires practice, but
after mastering the method you will FBGUU1E 5C.BB Bead sequence.
be able to make out-of-position
open-root butt welds much more
easily and faster.
FBGUJUIE .ac:.nm>
Electrode work angle.
TVfiATIEIIiIAL ANID IEQUJHPIVZIEWT electrode angle remains the
same.
2. E6010 or E6011 electrodes, %-in. i. if the slag begins to run ahead of
diameter. the puddle, you must either in-
3. Two pieces of carbon steel plate, the joint. Use an upward angle of crease your electrode angle and
3/a in. x 4 in. x 8 in. long.
about I 5 to 30 degrees, as shown use the force of the arc to hold
in Figure 5C-10. back the slag or increase your
4. Strike the arc and weave downhill travel speed.
PROCEDURE until you pass over the tack and 8. Run additional stringer beads, u5-
1. Prepare, clean, and tack the until the end of the tack i s ing the bead sequence shown in
plates to form a T joint as in Fig- reached. Hold a fairly long arc. Figure 5C-11. Clean thoroughly
ure 5C-1. Position the weldment 5. When you pass the tack, gently between passes.
as shown in Figure 5C-3. push the electrode into the root. 9. Complete the joint and clean and
2. Adjust the welding current: The electrode should touch the examine it. Then weld the second
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125. workpiece. side using the same technique
3. For the first pass point the elec- 6. Slowly drag the electrode down and bead sequence you used on
trode directly into the center of the joint, making sure that the the first side.
V=GROOVEB U T T JOINT, 36 POSITION WITH B A C K U P B A R , UPHILL
ANIIDuc~u~nDmwm
IV~IATIERBHAI PROCEDURE
in. x 3 in. x 12 in. long; one
1/z
1. Personal welding equipment. piece of carbon steel plate, Y4 in. 1. Tack the assembly as shown in
2. E7018 electrodes, %a- and 5/32-in. x 1 in. x 12 in. long. Figure 5C-12.
diameter. 4. Put a 30-degree bevel on one 2. Position the joint as shown in Fig-
3. Two pieces of carbon steel plate, 12-in. side of each plate. Ure 5C-13.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

PHGWUWE SGB4 Bead sequence.
does not undercut the sides of the

groove.
6. Using the bead sequence shown
in Figure 5C-14,put the first two
layers in with Vii-in. electrodes,
and put the third layer in with 5/32-
EFHGBLTRE 56-12 Tacking sequence for in. electrodes. This should bring
a vertical V-groove butt joint with the weld just below, flush with
backup bar. the surface of the plate. Complete
IFPGUIPsc43 Weld position vertical
the reinforcement with the %-in.
3G with backup bar.
electrode, being especially care-
ful to hesitate long enough on the
3. Adjust the welding current: sides to fill the joint and eliminate
DCEP, ampere range 90 to 150 establish a shelf on which to be- undercut.
for %-in. diameter and 11O to 230 gin the vertical up bead. 7. Cool and clean the plate. Exam-
for Y32-in. diameter. 5. Begin the root bead using a slight ine it for uniform width, even rip-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
4. Using Va in. for the root pass, be- weave. Hesitate on the sides of ples, and absence of undercut
gin at the bottom of the joint and the groove to make sure the weld along the sides of the weld.
OPEN-ROOT V-GROOVE BUTT JOINT,

36 POSITION, S T R I N G E R AND WEAVE B E A D S
MATEH%I$AE A N D EQUJEPMENY r----

-----
2. E601 O or E601 1 electrodes, '18- or
5/k-in. diameter.
-+ --e--
\+dia +dia rod

sc.m Prepositioning the
FHGBTIRIE
7f
3. Two pieces of carbon steel plate, plates.
3/8 in. x 5 in. x 12 in. long. Two
spacers, 3/32 in. thick.
4. Bevel the long side of the plates
with a 30-degree angle, which FHGWIE SC-ïi5 Tacking procedures
will provide a final included an- for a vertical open-root V-groove butt Weld
gle of 60 degrees. joint.
PROCEDURE in Figure 5C-16 so that you can

1. Remove the scale on the intend- fit a %-in. electrode beneath the
ed weld areas by grinding or joint.
sanding. 5. Position the joint at a comfort-
2. File a 3/32-in. root face on each able height, in the position
beveled edge. shown in Figure 5C-17.
3. Fit up with a 3h2-in. root gap 6. Adjust the welding current:
and tack at each end, as shown DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125 FIIGUQBE5G87 Weld position vertical
in Figure 5C-15. for %in. diameter, 110 to 170 3G, open root.
4. Preposition the plates slightly as for 5h-in. diameter.

11. If the keyhole is too large, you

a. Are moving upward too
slowly.
b. Have the current set too high.
c. Are holding too long an arc.
12. Clean and run the second pass.
Start at the bottom of the joint.
Hold a normal arc and weld
8. Start the arc on the bottom tack. uphill, using either the weave
I----
d Hold the arc at the beginning of shown in Figure 5C-20 or the tri-
.ac.nSb Whipping motion.
PHIOURIE the root opening until a keyhole angle motion shown in Figure
appears. Use an electrode angle 5C-6. Pause at the sides to
of 10 to 15 degrees, as shown eliminate undercut.
in Figure 5C-19. 13. For the third pass and out,
9. Move the electrode upward in a switch to %-in. -diameter elec-
slight whipping motion, then re- trodes and continue to weld the
angle
turn to the keyhole. Pause there same way. The next-to-last pass
until the keyhole fills and anoth- should be '/32 to 'A6 in. below
er opens above it. Continue to the plate surface. This gives you
!- whip uphill. a guide for the last pass.
1o. If the keyhole does not appear, 14. The final pass must be about 'A6
BHGBJHRE %C.BID Electrode push angle. YOU in. above the surface of the
a. Are moving upward too plate. Excess reinforcement can
rapidly. create a stress riser or notch,
i . Check your welding condition b. Do not have sufficient arc which can lead to weld failure
on scrap so that you can easily current to penetrate. through the heat-affected zone
whip the electrode uphill, as in c. Do not have the proper root at the toe of the weld.
Figure 5C-18. opening.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
As we have indicated, many people might seem, for it takes less than two the underside, as shown in Figure
feel that the overhead position is the minutes to burn an electrode. 5 D-2.
most difficult of all welding posi- Welding procedures for the over- As in other welding positions,
tions to master. This is not necessar- head position are similar to those electrode angles, arc length, current
ily true, but overhead welding does used for the horizontal position. For settings, and travel speed are ex-
take a great deal of practice and is welding fillet test plates in the over- tremely important. Arc length is
physically tiring. head position, the fillet weld is de- especiaI I y important in overhead
The most difficult part of learning posited on the underside of the hor- welding. An arc that is too long will
overhead welding is that the posi- izontal surface and against the cause the molten pool to become
tion is very tiring to your arms. It vertical surface, as shown in Figure too large and fluid, and it will be-
takes time to develop the strength to 5D-1. come difficult to control the puddle.
hold the electrode steady in the For the overhead position, The puddle will sag badly or even
overhead position for the length of groove-welded plates should be fall away. Maintain a close arc at all
time required to run a pass. But run- approximately horizontal and the times when welding overhead.
ning a pass is not as difficult as it weld metal should be deposited on Proper protective clothing and

SMAW
V
FIGURE 5D.1 T-joint fillet weld, overhead position 4F. FIGURE 5D.2 Groove weld, overhead position 4G.
equipment are required when weld- you weld in the overhead position.
ing in any position. They are abso- Always wear all the required protec-
lutely essential for your safety when tive equipment and clothes.
T=JOINT FILLET, 4F POSITION, STRINGER BEADS

2. E6010 or E601 1 electrodes, %-in.
diameter.
3/8 in. x 4 in. x 12 in. long; two
U
pieces of carbon steel plate, 3 í í in. FIGURE 5Q.3 Assembly for an over-
x 13/4 in. X 12 in. long. head T-joint fillet.
-10"
PROCEDURE PPGUWE 5m.6 Bead sequence and
I . Wire-brush the intended weld electrode work angles.
area of the plate.
2. Tack the plates together as
shown in Figure 5D-3. Then complete the stringer pass
3. Position the practice piece in using the C motion. Pause at the
the fixture as in Figure 5D-4. Be upper left of the C to fill in the
sure the workpiece and work- FIGURE 5D-4Weld position over- undercut. Direct the arc at the
piece clamp are secure. head 4F. overhead plate as shown in Fig-
4. Adjust the welding current: ure 5D-6.
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125. i. Clean the first pass thoroughly.
5. Place the electrode in the holder Now use a 5- to 1 O-degree work
b
as shown in Figure 50-5. Use a angle, as in Figure 5D-6, and
30-degree work angle off the run the second stringer so that it
vertical plate, as shown in covers about in. of the verti-
Figure 5D-6. Work with a cal plate and about two-thirds of
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
drag angle of approximately 10 the first stringer.

degrees. 8. After cleaning, run the third
6. Strike the arc and hold a fairly
long arc. Begin a stringer and
weld over the tack using the C
U
FIGURE 5D.5 Electrode angle in
stringer. Use a 5- to 10-degree
work angle, as shown in Figure
5D-6, favoring the top plate.
motion. When the end of the holder. About one-half to two-thirds of
tack is reached, shorten the arc. bead 2 should be seen. The legs

CHAPTER 5 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF PLATE 24lB
of the weld should be equal, 3. Use the T assembly from the first "Play" the arc on the overhead
with the face of the weld at a part of this assignment. plate by pausing slightly at the
45-degree angle to the plate top left of the C motion.
surface. 6, Clean thoroughly. Use the slag
PROCEDURE
9. Cool and clean the joint. If it is hammer to remove the slag,
satisfactory, weld a third layer. 1. Clamp the practice plates in po- then brush the joint thoroughly.
The third layer should have sition as shown in Figure 5D-4. After brushing, inspect carefully
three beads, as shown in Figure Be sure the workpiece and for any slag you might have
5D-6. Clean thoroughly after workpiece clamp are secure. missed. The slag left by low-hy-
each bead. 2. Adjust the welding current: ac drogen electrodes is sometimes
10. Weld one more joint for or DCEP, ampere range 115 to difficult to remove, especially if
practice. 165. there is an undercut area where
3. Place the electrode in the holder it can adhere.
Welding overhead T-joint fillets as shown in Figure 5D-5. Strike 7. Run the second stringer, using
with low-hydrogen electrodes is an arc using the tapping meth- the same electrode angles as
similar to welding them with E601O
od. Start the first bead at the left with the first pass. Cover about
electrodes. When using low-hydro- side of the joint with the elec- two-thirds of the first pass and
gen electrodes, however, you must trode at a 30-degree work angle about Vá in. of the vertical plate,
never use a whipping motion. The off the vertical plate, as in Figure as shown in Figure 5D-6.
electrode should never move out- 50-6. Use a drag angle of ap-
side the edge of the puddle. 8. Clean thoroughly and run the
proximately 1O degrees. third stringer. Use a work angle
In the more critical applications
4. Hold a slightly long arc and of 5 to 1O degrees off the vertical
the weld bead width should be less
weld over the tack using the C plate, asShown in Figure 5D-6.
than three times the diameter of the
motion. Make sure that you do About one-half to two-thirds of
core wire. Some applications allow
a width of up to five core wire di- not oscillate the electrode ex- the second stringer should be
ameters. But electrode oscillation cessively or allow it to leave the covered. The weld legs should
should be minimized and bead puddle. be equal. The face of the weld
width kept narrow if quality welds 5. When the end of the tack is should make a 45-degree angle
are expected. reached, hold as short an arc as with the plate surfaces.
possible, without stubbing out, 9. Run a third layer, consisting of
and complete the stringer. Move three stringers as shown in Fig-
10fJA"\] %I;TtlIA1I d A\M 1II) 1EQU11ll"IWl~GF~1~ the electrode along, steadily ure 5D-6.
1. Personal welding equipment. pulling and using the C motion. 10. Complete the T-joint assembly
2. E7018 low-hydrogen electrodes, But never allow the tip of the for more practice.
%-in. diameter. electrode to leave the puddle.
V=GROOVEBUTT JOINT, 4 6 POSITION WITH BACKUP BAR
l ~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ ~A\ND
~ l ~ i ~~ ~U l~ ~i ~/ i\ ~\ l l ~l ~~l ~ ~ l & I ~ V 1 ~ Position them as shown in Figure
1. Personal welding equipment. 5D-8.
2. E6010 or E6011 electrodes, %-in. 2. Adjust the welding current:
diameter. DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125.
3. Two pieces of carbon steel plate, 3. Place the electrode in the holder
1/2 in: x 3 in. x 12 in. loni; one as in the previous lesson, and
in. x 12 in. long.

i x 1
piece of carbon steel, '/in.
I start at the left side of the joint.
Hold the electrode perpendicular
I I ! I I to the plate. Use a drag angle of
PROCEDURE
1. Put a 30-degree bevel on one IF'iIBüJiRIE ID-7 Tacking procedure for
12-in. side, and tack the plates to- an overhead V-groove butt joint with
gether as shown in Figure 50-7. backup bar.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

242 SECTION 111 SHIELDED METAL A R C WELDING PROCESS
PROCEDURE
1. Put a 30-degree bevel on one
side, and tack the plates together
as shown in Figure 5D-7. Position
them as shown in Figure 5D-8.
f 3. Place the electrode in the holder
I-<- 1' sMAW as shown in Figure 5D-5, and
4 start at the left side of the joint.
60" Hold the electrode perpendicular
FIGURE 5ñì-8 Weld position overhead 4G with backup bar. to the plate using a drag angle
of 20 to 35 degrees. (See Figure
5D-9.)
4. Advance the electrode along the
-~ joint in a straight line at an even
travel speed, using a slight weave
FUGUHPE SD.BO Bead sequence. to ensure that both sides of the
joint are properly fused. Do not
use a whipping motion when
FIGURE 5D.9 Electrode drag angle. welding with low-hydrogen elec-
into the other beads and base trodes, Doing so will cause
metal. Make sure the final layer porosity.
finishes up with a maximum re- 5. Clean each bead thoroughly,
approximately 20 to 35 degrees, inforcement of 3/3z in. being careful that the toe of the
as shown in Figure 5D-9. weld i s thoroughly free of slag.
In the second portion of this as-
4. Advance the electrode along the Any slag remaining there will be-
signment, you will weld another sin-
joint in a straight line using a come trapped in subsequent
gle V-groove joint with a backup
slight weave to ensure that both beads. Notice that the surface of
bar, this time using low-hydrogen
sides of the joint are welded. the beads formed by the low-hy-
E7018 electrodes.
Keep the arc short and the travel drogen electrode appears consid-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
speed even. erably smoother and more even

5. Clean the bead thoroughly. Pay than the surface of beads formed
attention to the toe of the weld. IBBATERPAL A N D EQUBPMENT by E601O or E6011 electrodes.
All slag must be removed from 1. Personal welding equipment. 6. Complete the joint using stringer
this area. 2. E7018 electrodes, %-in. diam- beads in the sequence shown in
6. Complete the remainder of the eter. - Figure 5D-10. Keep the second-
joint with stringer beads, using 3. Two pieces of carbon steel plate, to-last layer (beads 4, 5, and 6)
the bead sequence shown in Fig- I'/ in. x -3 in. x 12 in. long; one slightly below flush so that the re-
ure 50-10. Pay particular atten- piece of carbon steel, 114 in. x 1 inforcement will not exceed Y32
tion that the toe of the weld fuses in. x 12 in. long. in. when finished.
OPEN-ROOT VmGROOVE BUTT JOINT,4 6 POSITION
In the previous procedures you have tant to obtain complete penetration 3. Two pieces of carbon steel plate,
developed your overhead welding for the entire joint length. I/' in. x 5 in. x 10 in. long.
skills. Overhead welding is not real-
ly difficult. The joint in this assign- ~ A ' F E ~ ~ A EqarnpmEnT
~ PROCEDURE
ment is probably-the most challeng- i.Personal welding equipment. 1. Be sure that the bevel angle and
ing of all. You will use the whipping 2. E6010 and E7018 electrodes, root face are prepared according
motion for the first pass. it is impor- % in. diameter. to Figure 5D-11. Clean all intend-

Penetrationor length of the joint to insure

melt through
penetration.
I I
4. Hold a very close arc. Push the
electrode slightly through the
keyhole. This will force the mol-
ten metal to pile up on the top
side of the joint (approximately
‘A6 to 3/~2 in. in height).
1st
FHCIiiUIIBE 5D.8 II Configuration for an and 2nd 5. Clean the first pass thoroughly.
overhead open-root V-groove butt passes Run a stringer by drawing the
joint. B P P . ~Electrode
PIB~~~JHBE ~ work electrode along the joint for the
angles. second pass. Use E7018 elec-
trodes for this and the rest of the
passes. Make sure that the arc i s
running fairly “hot.” The “heat”
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is needed to “burn out” any wa-
gon tracks or deep grooves at the
weld toes. Keep the electrode in
the puddle.
6. The third layer will be made with
CMAW)*
two stringers. Remember to favor
i“ the toe area of the weld. Point the
-=$
I -
8 max.
75” electrode slightly in the direction
PPGURIEBBb.ri2 Weld position over- 1iii~4.84Bead sequence and
IFHQBTBBE that you want the metal to flow.
head 4G, open root. reinforcements. (See Figure 5D-13.)
7. Complete the remainder of the
joint using the stringer method.
ed weld areas and tack the plates 125 for E6010, 115 to 165 for
Be carefulmot to cause undercut
as shown in Figure 5D-11. E7018.
or leave in excessive reinforce-
2. Position the test piece as shown 3. Use the E6010 electrode and a ment on the finish pass. See
in Figure 5D-12. Be sure the test drag angle of approximately 10 Figure 5D-14 for the bead se-
piece and workpiece clamp are degrees to whip in the first pass. quences and amount of weld
secure. Adjust the welding cur- Make sure that you open a key- reinforcement.
rent: DCEP, ampere range 75 to hole, and keep it open the entire

CHAPTER 6
SHIELDED ME
WELDING OF $H
QBJEC'BTIVEB thinnest that can be welded successfully without too
Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to much distortion or burn-through.
I . Weld outside-corner joints in the flat position. Joint preparation and fit-up are of great importance in
2. Weld fillets and lap joints in the horizontal position. sheet metal welding. Slight openings in fillet joints or butt
3. Weld outside-corner and lap joints in the vertical joint faces will cause the arc to burn away the sheet metal
position. edges during the welding operation.
4. Weld outside-corner and lap joints in the overhead For good joint preparation before fit-up, it is important
position. to shear or saw all metal to be joined. Flame cutting i s a
5. Weld a six-sided box in the horizontal vertical and poor choice. Even if the welder is skillful enough to elimi-
overhead positions. nate the slag from the cutting operation, the metal will
warp from the heat. A good fit-up i s difficult, if not im-
possible, to obtain with warped sheet metal.
A good fit also depends on the tacking procedure.
Welding sheet metal, especially that below 16 gauge, is Tacks on sheet metal should be close together. Depend-
extremely difficult with the shielded metal arc welding ing on the gauge of the metal and the type of joint, they
process. Thin sheet metal is better suited for welding by should be placed no more than 1 to 11/2 in. apart. Tacks
the gas metal arc, the gas tungsten arc, and the Oxy- that are farther apart will allow the joint to open from the
acetylene processes. Gas metal arc welding is a fast and heat, making it difficult to weld the joint. Even if you are
economical process. Gas tungsten arc welding, although able to weld the joint, the weld will have to be exces-
slower, has the ability to produce exceptionally sound sively wide wherever there is an open space between the
welds in the "hard to weld" metals such as stainless steel, two sheets of the joint.
aluminum, magnesium, titanium, copper, and so on. You can increase your chances of making acceptable
The oxyacetylene process is an old standby, but it lacks sheet metal welds by knowing your electrodes. You
the speed needed for most types of production welding. should be able to choose the correct electrode for the
The oxyacetylene method also increases the heat input job.
and causes the metal to warp. The lessons in this chapter will give you practice with
A skilled shielded metal arc welder can successfully some medium- to shallow-penetration electrodes espe-
weld some sheet metal gauges. However, 16 gauge is the cially suited for welding sheet metal.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
LESSON 6A
WELD a
IN TM a
The E6013 electrode is probably the or any dc polarity. It is an all-pos¡- dragged, with its coating touching
best all-around choice for use on tion electrode. Its slag i s easily re- the surface of the joint, or used with
light-gauge metal. It has shallow moved; in fact, the slag sometimes a normal arc length.
penetration, which helps to mini- peels off in large sections as the The E6013 electrode performs
mize the chance of burn through. It weld metal cools. well with any type of welding cur-
can be used on alternating current The E6013 electrode can be rent. However, for the best results

CHAPTER 6 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF SHEET METAL 245
on light-gauge metal, DCEN is the

best choice. Penetration is the least
and deposition rate is the highest
with DCEN.
o'--
angle
MATERIAL A N D E@UW'MEFW
2. Pliers.
HFPGBTIE $A-B Tacking procedure for
a flat outside-corner joint in sheet
A
PPGBTRE 6A-3 Electrode work angle.
3. E6013 electrodes, 3/32-in. diam- metal.

eter.
4. Two pièces of 16-gauge sheet
metal, 2 in. x 10 in. long.
PROCEDURE
1. On 16-gauge scrap sheet adjust
the welding current to DCEN,
ampere range 45 to 90.
FIGURE 6A.4 Electrode drag angle.
2. Tack the two pieces of sheet FIGURE BA-2 Weld position.
metal to form the outside-corner
joint shown in Figure 6A-1. Tacks
on sheet metal differ from those
used on plate. Sheet metal tacks 6A-4. The electrode can also be
should be small, no larger than dragged along in contact with the FPGURE 6A-5 Bead contour.
arc strikes. Apply them by striking metal, but its drag angle must
and maintaining an arc for two or then be increased to approxi-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
three counts and then breaking mately 25 to 30 degrees.
the arc.
7. Stop midway along the joint. Re- is flat or concave, there is too lit-
3. After tacking, secure the weld- move the slag and inspect the tle metal. This happens when
ment as shown in Figure 6A-2. bead. It should be slightly con- your rate of travel is too fast or
4. Remove all slag from the tacks vex, with no overlap at the toes your amperage i s too high. If the
and wire-brush the intended weld of the weld, and it should be free bead is high, just setting on top
areas. of surface holes and slag. Figure of the joint, your amperage is too
5. Place the electrode in the holder 6A-5 shows the desired bead low. Change your welding con-
at a 90-degree angle. profile. ditions accordingly.
6. Starting at the highest point of the 8. if the face of the bead is overly 9. After you make the necessary ad-
joint, strike the arc and hold a convex and there i s overlap, there justments, pick up the weld at the
normal arc gap. Move steadily is too much filler metal. The face crater. Hold a long arc to start,
along the joint with a perpendic- will be too convex when your then complete the joint. Inspect
ular work angle, as shown in Fig- rate of travel is too slow, your as before and continue to weld
ure 6A-3. Use a 5- to 10-degree heat i s set too high, or you have practice pieces until you can pro-
drag angle, as shown in Figure too large a drag angle. If the bead duce acceptable welds.

249 --`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
T = J O I N T FILLET, 2 F POSITION
The E6012 electrode, because of its

moderate arc, produces less pene-
tration than the E6010 or E6011. It
also produces a much quieter and
softer arc, with less spatter, and a \
bead with a smoother surface than E Fit-up of a horizontal
~ B G ~ I6gg.n FIIGUIIE B B E O S Weld position 2F.
the bead made with the E6010 or T-joint fillet in sheet metal.
E601 1. The deposition rate is slight-
ly higher owing in part to the use of
0
DCEN. Compared with DCEP,
DCEN puts more heat into the elec-
Bubble tacks
trode, causing it to melt rapidly.
The E6012 electrode, because of
its moderate penetration and ability
to weld poorly fit-up joints, i s a good
choice for use on sheet metal
appl¡cations. IFIGEJIIE GB42 Tacking procedure.
, IF;.
FBGUIIE GBB.4 Electrode work angle.
MA'BTIEBpiElALANJHb EQUJIiPiaaiENT
tacks are sometimes referred to
2. Pliers.
as bubble tacks. They should be
3. E6012 electrodes, %-in. diam- round and slightly larger in di- Convex
reinforcement
eter.
ameter than the electrode.
4. Two pieces of 10- or 12-gauge
hot-rolled sheet metal, 2 in. x 10 6. Secure the tacked pieces in po-
Equal legs
in. long. sition as shown in Figure 6B-3.
Tilt the T-joint assembly up to
15 degrees in the direction of
PROCEDURE
travel. This will let you weld
1. Adjust the welding current: ac faster and reduce the chance of
or DCEN, ampere range 80 to undercut.
140. (maximum 3 ~ in.), by holding
7. Clean the slag left by the tacking 6
2. Adjust the current on 1O- or 12- procedure and start at the left . a close arc with the electrode
gauge sheet metal. side. Place the electrode in the pointed into the heel of the
3. Clean the intended weld areas. holder at a 45-degree angle, as joint. Favor the bottom piece
4. Fit up the two pieces to form a you did when welding horizon- slightly.
T joint, as in Figure 6B-1. Make tal fillets on plate. The electrode 9. You can either hold a close arc
sure the verticai piece is work angle should be between or drag the electrode. If you
perpendicular. 30 and 45 degrees, as shown in drag the electrode, touch the
5. Place one tack at each end, as . Figure 68-4. Use a 10- to 15- leading edge of the coating to
in Figure 68-2. Place smaller degree lead or drag angle. the surface of the joint. Watch
tacks between the end tacks, 8. Maintain a puddle slightly larger the upper trailing edge of the
at about 1-in. intervals. These than the electrode diameter puddle, If it does not fill in com-

CHAPTER 6 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF SHEET METAL
pletely, you should move the bead to be sure you are fusing 11. Restart the arc using the same
electrode more slowly. Other- both pieces. The weld face electrode, and complete the
wise, the vertical leg will be should be at a 45-degree angle. weld.
undercut. The legs should be equal and 12. When you have completed the
10. When you reach the halfway the surface flat or slightly con- weld, cool and clean it thor-
point, stop. Clean the weld and vex, as illustrated in Figure oughly. Then weld the other
remove the slag. Examine the 68-5. side.
LAP JOINT FILLET, 2F POSITION
AWIDmqurnuvmmr
MA'II'EIIBQAL
2. Pliers.
3. E6013 electrodes, 732-in. diam-
eter.
16 ga. 4
~~flGum113 GIME Fii-up of a horizontal FiïGüJkRiE doHB
8. Electrode work angle.
4* pieces of ''-gauge hot- lap joint fiilet in siieet metai.
rolled sheet metal, 2 in. x 10 in.
long.
PROCEDURE
T%!13?
DCEN, ampere range 45 to 90.
2. Clean all intended weld areas.
Then tack the two pieces on the
ends, as shown in Figure 6B-6. IPiiGIUNRIE 6Bm9Desired weld profile.
3. Make sure that there are no open-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ings along the joint, and place

bubble tacks as in Figure 68-7.
The closely spaced tacks will
keep the joint from opening up as 6. Start at the left side of the joint. keep the weld small enough for
the weld progresses. The electrode work angle should metal of this thickness. if you
4. Secure the tacked pieces in posi- be approximately 45 degrees, as have too much trouble, try using
tion as in Figure 68-7. You may shown in Figure 66-8. Use a lead '/iein. diameter electrodes.
tilt the pieces slightly (a maxi- or drag angle of about 10 to 15 8. Check the completed weld for
mum of 15 degrees) toward the degrees. Maintain the puddle surface holes, inclusion of slag,
direction of travel. if you do, slightly larger than the legs of the and other discontinuities, includ-
welding will proceed at a slightly joint. Take care not to burn away ing spaces left unwelded. The
faster pace, and you will mini- an excessive amount of the toe at weid should be completed in a
mize the chance of undercut. the top of the vertical leg. single pass. It should have equal
5. Remove the slag left by the tack- 7. Pull the puddle, with a uniform legs and a fiat or slightly convex
ing procedure, and place the width, along the entire length of face, as shown in Figure 68-9.
electrode in the holder at a 45- the joint. With a n
?
b.!i diameter 9. Cool and clean the sample. Then
degree angle. electrode it is very difficult to weld the opposite side.

LESSON 6C
WELDING IN THE VERTICAL
POSITION, DOWNHPLL
OUTSIDE=CORNERJOINT, 36 POSITION
10-12"ga.
Vertical downhill welding of sheet I, enough, the weaving is not
metal is no more difficult than weld- necessary.
ing plate downhill. You must pay at- 8. Hold a fairly long arc. Do not
tention, however, or you might burn be concerned by any flux that
through the metal. You should not moves ahead of the puddle.
even consider welding sheet metal Whatever flux is present will be
in the uphill mode. All vertical sheet PPGURE BG-i F it-up of a vertical out- light, and it will have no effect
side-corner joint in sheet metal.
metal welding works better with the on the advancing weld.
downhill technique. 9. Concentrate on completing the
weld without stopping. If a
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT pause i s necessary, be sure to
clean the crater area thoroughly
before continuing.
2. Pliers.
3. E6013 electrodes, %-in. diarn- 10. The contour of the weld can
eter. range from a flat face to a slight-
4. Two pieces of 10- or 12-gauge ly convex face.
hot-rolled sheet metal, 2 in. x 10 FHGUWE 6G.1 Tacking procedure. 11. You can continue to practice
in. long. this joint by adding pieces to the
weldment. Be sure to clean all
sheet edges and intended weld
areas before you begin. Refer to
PROCEDURE Figure 6C-1.
I . Adjust the welding current: Welding an outside-corner joint,
DCEN, ampere range 40 to 80. in the 3G vertical position, with
2. Fit up the outside-cornerjoint as E6013 electrodes is similar to doing
in Figures 6C-1, and tack-weld it with E601 1 electrodes.
it as in Figure 6C-2, placing the The principal difference i s that
tacks 1 to 1i/z in. apart. Be sure with E6013 electrodes you must
there are enough tacks; other- PHOURE 6C.3 Electrode drag angle. concentrate on not allowing the slag
wise the joint will open during to get ahead of the puddle. The slag
welding. from the E6013 electrode is much
an arc and move the electrode
3. Secure the piece in the vertical heavier than that from the E6011
steadily toward the bottom us-
position as in Figure 6C-2. and will cause voids in the weld.
ing a drag angle of about 10 to
4. Remove all slag from the tacking You can reduce the chances of voids
20 degrees, as shown in Figure
procedure, and clean the in- occurring by keeping your arc
6C-3. Point the electrode
tended weid area. The welding length and rate of travel constant.
straight into the joint.
will be from the top of the joint 7. As you follow the groove, it may
toward the bottom. be necessary to weave the elec- MATERIAL A N D EQUIPMENT
5. Place the electrode in the holder trode slightly from side to side. 1. Personal welding equipment.
at a 45-degree angle. This will fuse the toes of the 2. E6013 electrodes, %-in. diam-
6. Start at the top of the joint. Strike weld. If the puddle i s wide eter.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 6 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF SHEET METAL
3. Two pieces of 10- or 12-gauge tion, as shown in Figure 6C-2. 9. If the slag runs ahead of the mol-
hot-rolled sheet metal, 2 in. x 10 5. Place the electrode in the holder ten puddle, you should stop.
in. long. at a 45-degree angle. Chip the weld at the crater,
6. Start to weld from the top. Aim clean, and start over. Remem-
the electrode straight into the ber to hold a long arc when re-
PROCEDURE
joint. The drag angle should be starting. Completely fill in the
1. Adjust the welding current: crater before continuing the
DCEN, ampere range 80 to 130. between 10 and 20 degrees, as
shown in Figure 6C-3. bead.
2. Clean all intended weld areas. 10. Experiment a little with the
7. Using the downhill technique,
3. Fit up and tack two pieces to length of the arc. Try a short arc
drag the electrode downward
form an outside-corner joint as and a medium arc. Note the dif-
with a slight weaving motion if
in Figures 6C-1 and 6C-2. Make ference, and then use the arc
necessary. Spread the weld pool
sure the pieces are at a right an- length you feel is the best for
to cover the entire joint.
gle, as indicated. Place a tack at you. This holds true for elec-
each end and enough tacks in 8. Do not oscillate the electrode
trode angles. Some angles im-
between to keep the joint from excessively. Excessive osc iIla-
prove the appearance of the
opening up during the welding tion will cause the weld to be
weld and the ease with which it
procedure. Clean the slag left by too wide. The weld width
is welded.
the tacking procedure. should be slightly more than the
joint width.
4. Secure the weldment in posi-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
LAP JOINT FPEEET, 8F PQPSPTPQPN
Sixteen-gauge sheet metal, because 6C-4, and tack it on the ends.

it i s fairly thin, is slightly more dif- Place enough tacks between so
ficult to weld. The downhill tech- that the joint will not open from
nique keeps the heat input to a mini- FIGURE úìC.4 Fit-up of a vertical lap the heat of the welding.
joint fillet in sheet metal.
mum. Using a smaller-diameter 3. Remove all slag from the tacking
electrode, such as the Y~-in.-diam- procedure, and clean all intended
eter electrode, also reduces the heat weld areas.
input. 4. Secure the weldment as shown in
The shape of the lap joint requires Figure 6C-5. The direction of
a different work angle from those welding will be downward, from
used with the previous joints. You the top of the joint.
must pay closer attention to the top
5. Place the electrode in the holder
edge of the overlapping sheet; other-
at a 45-degree angle. Start at the
wise it will melt away.
top of the joint using a drag angle
of 10 to 20 degrees and a work
MATERIAL A N D EtQURPMENT angle of 20 to 25 degrees off the
1. Personal welding equipment. J. vertical edge of the overlapping
2. E6013 electrodes, 3/32-in. diam- FQQUJüRE6C-5 Weld position 3F. sheet, as shown in Figure 6C-6.
eter. 6. Use the drag technique. Hold a
3. Two pieces of 16-gauge hot- fairly short arc. The puddle
rolled sheet metal, 2 in. x 10 in. should be just large enough in di-
long. ameter to fuse the entire joint.
I No. 2 I 7. Favor the surface of sheet 2 in Fig-
ure 6C-6. Watch the left side of
PROCEDURE the puddle closely, and make
1. Adjust the welding current: ac or sure it fuses the leading edge of
DCEN, ampere range 45 to 90. FHGWJIIE B e - 6 Top view of electrode sheet 1. If you move the electrode
2. Fit up the lap joint as in Figure work angle. too slowly or weave excessively,

you will burn away the leading 3/dn.-diarneter electrode. A bet- 9. Usually the leg of the fillet on
edge of sheet 1. This is not ter electrode choice would be sheet 2 is slightly longer. This is
acceptable. one with a 1/16-in. diameter. if acceptable as long as the other
8. It is very difficult to obtain a fin- 1/16-in.-diameter electrodes are leg i s fused properly.
ished weld with equal legs on available, use them to practice
thin sheet metal while using a this joint.
LESSON 6D
WELDING IN THE OVERHEAD POSITION
You may be called upon to weld should learn to weld sheet metal in ing requires a more forceful arc
light-gauge sheet metal in the over- the overhead position and be pre- stream to obtain good fusion. More-
head position. However, welding pared to fulfiil your obligations over, you will have to pay close at-
sheet metal in this position i s im- when these exceptions arise. tention to the electrode work angles
practical and should be avoided if at The arc current should be in- because they control the shape of
all possible. Because there are al- creased slightly when welding in the the bead.
ways exceptions to any rule, you overhead position. Overhead weld-
L A P J O I N T FILLET, 4F POSITION

2. E6013 electrodes, 3/32-in. diam-
eter.
3. Four pieces of 16-gauge hot- Vertical surface
rolled sheet metal, 2 in. x 10 in. FIGURE 6D-1Fit-up of an overhead

long. lap joint in sheet metal.
4. Fixture for positioning the speci-
men in the overhead position.
FIGURE BD.3 Electrode angle in
holder.
PROCEDURE
DCEN, ampere range 45 to 90.
2. Tack the pieces of the weldment
in the position shown in Figure
6D-1. Clean the tacks and all in-
tended weld areas.
FIGURE 6ID.2 W e l d position 4F. Leadingedge
3. Secure the pieces in the 4F over-
-IL
head position as shown in Figure
6D-2. 5 . Start at the left side of the joint 10-20"
4. Place the electrode in the holder with the electrode held at a 10- Work angle
as shown in Figure 6D-3. to 20-degree work angle off the FIGURE 6D.4 Electrode work angle.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

vertical face of the joint, as puddle. Do not overweld by mak- as indicated by the symbol in Fig-
shown in Figure 6D-4. ing too wide a bead. Do not pile Ure 6D-2. "Typ" means all joints
6. Favor the horizontal surface, excess weld metal on the surface. of the type indicated should be
making sure the leading edge and Guard against burn-through in welded the same. Weld two using
the vertical leg are fused. Do not the last few inches. DCEN and two using alternating
burn the leading edge of the bot- 8. Clean, cool, and examine the current.
tom sheet back more than ap- joint for appearance and sound-
proximately 'A6 in. ness. The weld contour should be
7. Use a slight C motion, or the flat or slightly convex.
whipping method, to control the 9. Weld the remaining three fillets
OUTSIDE=CORNER JOINT, 4 6 POSITION
The E6012 electrode is a moderate- ,---

10 gauge or 12 gauge
penetration electrode. When used
with DCEN, it has a fairly high depo-
sition rate. The E6012 electrode has
been chosen for this lesson to pro-
vide variety. It is important for you
to be able to handle the electrodes
that are popular and currently in
use. FHGUUBEGD-5 Fit-up of an overhead
You must be careful to set the arc outside-corner joint in sheet metal.
FIGURE 6D.7 Electrode drag angle,
current properly. Always guard push angle.
against flux from the puddle coming
into contact with the end of the elec-
trode. Such contact causes the pud-
dle to become agitated and cloudy.
When this happens, the arc should
be broken and the crater chipped
clean. Make sure that there i s com-
plete fusion and no slag. /\
FIGURE 6 D B Weld position 4G.
MATERIAL A N D EQUJEPMENT
2. E6012 electrodes, %-in. diam- 3. Secure the weldment in the 4G
eter.
position, as shown in Figure
3. Two pieces of 10- or 12-gauge FIGURE 6D-8Electrode work angle
60-6.
hot-rolled sheet metal, 3 in. x 10 and bead contour.
in. long. 4. Place the electrode in the holder
as in the previous procedure.
5. Start welding at the left side of
PROCEDURE the joint. Use a drag angle of 5 melt and become part of the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1. Adjust the welding current: ac, to 15 degrees, as shown in Fig- joint.

DCEN, or DCEP, but DCEN pre- ure 6D-7. Use a work angle per- 7. Use the drag technique or a
ferred, ampere range 80 to 140. pendicular to the joint, as slight whipping motion to weld
2. Tack the weldment in the posi- shown in Figure 6D-8. the joint. Make sure you obtain
tion shown in Figure 6D-5. 6. Make sure the puddle covers the complete fusion. The weld
Clean away the slag and all in- entire joint, overlapping the toes metal should not penetrate
tended weld areas. slightly. The metal edges will through to the opposite side of

the joint. Hold a medium arc push angle of 5 to 10 degrees, through.

length. as illustrated in Figure 6D-7. 9. Clean, cool, and examine the
8. Maintain the electrode drag an- Switching will be necessary weld for defects.
gle to about the last 1% in.; then only if the joint is overheating 10, Check for proper bead contour.
you may have to switch to a and there is a possibility of melt- (See Figure 6D-8).
LESSON 6E
WELDING A SHXdSIDEED BOX,
IN THE 2G,3G9ANHb 4G POS"EI%@NS
This lesson tests your ability to fit PROCEDURE A

and tack as well as your welding 1. Adjust the welding current, ac
skill. Some of the welding problems or DCEN, as follows:
are new.
Ampere
In welding a box you must weld
Electrode Diameter Range
around corners and join welds that
FIGURE OE.1 First tacking procedure
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
meet each other. The tacking pro- E6011 y32 in. 40 to 80 for a six-sided box.
cedure, welding sequence, and cor- E6011 % in. 75 to 125
ner joints must all be handled skill- E6013 y32 in. 45 to 90
fully or the box will not turn out E6013 '/á in. 80 to 1 3 0
we1I.
You should remember never to
stop welding directly on a corner or
at a junction of two joints. Problems
Be sure that all sheets are joined
at a right angle. Use a try square
to aid in positioning them.
/7/7
I I
h 1 0 4
are greater when welding sheet Clean all joints as in previous
metal than when welding plate be- lessons. Maintain a close fit
cause the joints are usually made in throughout.
one pass. Many joints must be air- 2. Use a%z-in.-diameter electrode
tight or watertight. Poor welds are for the tacking procedure. Use
unacceptable. the ballpeen hammer to close k-lo'---al -
the joint openings.
FIGURE ;E-2 Tacking procedure.
MATERPAL AND EQUIPMENT 3. Tack end pieces 1 and 2 to bot-
tom piece 3, as in Figure 6E-1.
2. Ballpeen hammer, 12 oz. 4. Tack side pieces 5 and 6 to form
3. E601 1 and E6013 electrodes, %z- a hollow box, as in Figure 6E-2.
and %-in. diameter. 5. Tack top piece 4 to complete
4. Two pieces of 10-gauge hot- the box, as in Figure 6E-2.
rolled sheet metal, 6 in. x 8 in. Check to be sure all the joints
long. are fit properly. There should be
5 . Two pieces of 10-gauge hot- no openings. Use the smaller-
rolled sheet metal, 6 in. x 10 in. diameter electrode to tack-weld
long. all corners for approximately
6. Two pieces of 10-gauge hot- 3/4 in. on each side of the vertical
rolled sheet metal, 8 in. x 10 in. joint. This tacking is shown in
long. Figure 6E-3. FIIGUBE 6E.3 Typical corner tack.

6. Clean all the tacks and the in-

tended weld areas. Place the
weldment in position as in Fig-
ure 6E-4. It must remain fixed in
this position until all welding is
completed.
7. Weld the four vertical joints. axis
Use '/e-in.-diameter E6011 elec- PHGEJKE G E 4 Welding position. BFHGiUtRE 6E.6 Weid profile.
trodes on DCEN and the down-
hill technique. Start on the tack
at the top, slightly to one side of
the joint, as in Figure 6E-5. Fin-
ish the same way at the bottom
of the joint. This will allow you
to overlap the connection with
the remaining welds. It will also
help eliminate poor connections
at the junction of the welds. The
contour for all welds is shown FBGUIWE Q E d Vertical downhill FHGUWE GE-7 Electrode work
in Figure 6E-6. procedure. angles.
8. After welding all four vertical
joints using this procedure,
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
clean and weld the bottom 9. Complete the box by welding 10. Clean all- welds and allow the
joint. Use the {/e-in.-diameter the top joint with the %-in.- box to cool. Examine for any
E6013 electrode on DCEN. The diameter E601 1 electrode on defects.
work angle of the electrode DCEN. The work angle should
should be approximately 30 to be approximately 45 degrees off
45 degrees off the vertical leg as the horizontal leg of the joint.
in Figure 6E-7. (See Figure 6E-7.)

CHAPTER 7
C'DIlBJEGTIVIESS
1. Weld open-root pipe in the horizontally rolled 1G
posit ion.
2. Weld open-root pipe in the vertically fixed 2G
position.
3. Weld open-root pipe in the horizontally fixed 5G po- FHGURBE%'-ü Misaligned pipe joint.
sition using vertical up and vertical down techniques.
act before starting to weld. They know that once the pipe
has been tacked together, they are responsible for the
There are three important factors in the joining of pipe by welding soundness of the completed joint. Proper prep-
welding. First, you must have an understanding of the aration reduces the possibility of failing a test or having
welder qualification test procedures and of the procedure a weld rejected.
qualification test. Second, you must know the correct Pipe welders have an old saying, that "A joint well
ways to prepare the pipe prior to welding it for testing. prepared is a joint 90 percent completed." Certainly your
Third, you must know the proper alignment, fit-up, and welding skill i s important, but a properly prepared joint
tacking procedures to be discussed in this chapter. is easier to weld because most of the variables are under
Pipe welders, as a group, insist that every detail of control. Even if you are successful in making an X-ray
preparation-alignment, fit, tacking, and other condi- quality weld in a misaligned joint, such as shown in Fig-
tions affecting the quality of the finished product-be ex- ure 7-1, it can fail inspection because of misalignment.
BEVELING P I P E TO P R E P A R E IT FOR TESTS
IWATEIIIAL AND E$üJ~PME"Jï 10. Wire brush. 2. Wire-brush all loose residue and
1. Welding goggles, number 5 or 6 11. One piece of 4- or 6-in.-diam- scale from the surfaces of the
lens. eter schedule 40 pipe. pipe.
2. Safety glasses. 12. Oxyfuel flame cutting equip- 3. Set up the oxyfuel flame cutting
3. Grinding goggles. ment. unit that you will use to prepare
4. Soapstone. the pipe.
5. Wraparound. PROCEDURE 4. Using the wraparound, draw a
6. Hand grinder or sander. 1. Hammer the surface of the pipe line with the soapstone, about
7. Chipping hammer. slightly. Make sure you remove ,Y4in. from the end of the pipe.
8. Ballpeen hammer. heavy rust deposits on the inside (Make sure you use a well-
9. Half-round bastard file, 10 in. and outside surfaces. sharpened soapstone.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 7 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF P I P E
5. Place another line about 4 in. it also eliminates gouging the

from the first. bevel when you start the next
6. If the pipe is long enough, and cut.
a pipe beveler is available, 11. Rotate the pipe counterclock-
make cuts on both lines. if a wise and make the second cut.
pipe beveler is not available, Continue to rotate the pipe after
use a hand torch. each cut until the full bevel is
7. If a hand torch is used, hold the completed.
torch at a 30-degree angle, with 12. Tap the feather edge of the bevel
the torch tip within 9' in. or less lightly with the ballpeen ham-
from the surface of the pipe (see tFii(IEUifUE 3A.n Torch angle for cutting mer. Try to remove as much of
Figure 7A-1). pipe. the slag as possible. If the slag
8. Right-handed students should cannot be removed, you were
start cutting at approximately moving the torch too slowly or
the 10 o'clock position. Then your flame was set too high. Use
a chipping hammer to remove
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cut clockwise, stopping a little
after 12 o'clock as shown in Fig- the remainder of the slag.
ure 7A-2. Do not attempt to 13. Place the beveled pipe section
make cuts longer than from 10 in the vise. Then sand or file the
o'clock to 12:30. remaining slag and scale from
9. Start the cut Y4 in. from the line, the beveled surface.
between the line and the scrap 14. Use the sander or a file to re-
end of the pipe. After piercing move the feather edge and form
the metal, make a cut to the line a root face.
and begin to move the torch FUGiliïRE %A-L Direction of cut. 15. Use the file to finish the root
along it slowly. Make sure you face. Do not forget to file all
hold the torch tip at 30 degrees. scale from the outside of the
The torch tip must always point pipe next to the beveled edge.
at the center of the pipe. Then use the rounded side of the
10. When you reach the limit of ing a small hole before you re- file to clean inside the pipe.
travel (12 or 12:30), move the lease the cutting oxygen lever. 16. After you have completed the
torch tip away from the line to- This will give you a new starting bevel, cut off the pipe along the
ward the end of the pipe, open- point when you resume the cut. second line.
ALIGNMENT, F I T = U P , A N D TACKING PROCEDURE
In the first part of this lesson you angles, rate of travel, and electrode 3. Two spacers, 3/32 in. x 5 h in. X
learned the correct way to prepare manipulation. With tight control 6 in. long.
pipe for tests. If the pipe is prepared over alignment, fit-up, and tacking, 4. E601O or E6011 electrodes, %-in.
properly and you apply the funda- the need to change the other vari- diameter.
mentals-in correct alignment, fit- ables is eliminated. Your job will be 5. Safety glasses.
up, and tacking-you will be able to much easier, the results more con- 6. Welding shield.
produce welded joints of acceptable sistent and satisfying and the joint 7. Proper clothing.
quality. will be easier to weld. 8. Protective leathers and gloves.
The most important factor is to set 9. Wedges.
up each joint in the same manner.
Consistent setups will consistently MA'U'IEIBAL AND IEQBIEP~JIIIEWTT
produce satisfactory welds. Small 1. Two pieces of approximately PROCEDURE
differences in the root face, bevel 4-in. long pipe, prepared as in the 1. Check to make sure that the out-
angle, root opening, or fit-up may preceding procedure. side surfaces of the pipes do not
require you to change arc current, 2. One piece of 3- or 4-in. channel have any heavy coating or slag
recommended amperage, electrode iron, about a foot long. on them.

FIGURE 7A.4 Alignment of pieces of IFIQIUIE TA-8 Placement of wedges.

pipe in the channel iron.
5' Pipe horizontal and rotated.

FIGURE 7A.3 The channel iron is Weld flat ( 215"). Deposit
150 filler metal at or near the top.
welded or clamped to the tabletop.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
(A) Test position 1G
Pipe or tube vertical and

not rotated during welding.
3rd ) Weld horizontal (I 157.
tack
15" 15"
FIGURE 719.8 Placement of (6) Test position 2G
spacers.
2. Tack or clamp the channel iron

to a worktable, as shown in Fig-
ure 7A-3.
Pipe or tube horizontal fixed ( 2 15") and not rotated during welding. Weld flat, vertical,
DCEP, amperes 75 to 125. Set overhead.
the amperage so that you can
drag the electrode without stub- (Cl Test position 5G
bing out. Use scrap metal.
4. Set the two pieces of pipe on the
toes of the channel iron with the
root faces almost touching, as
shown in Figure 7A-4.
5. Place the two spacers between
the root faces. Place them ver-
tically, to run between 10 and
11 o'clock and 8 and 7 o'clock, 'ipe inclined fixed (45" 2 5') and not rotated during
and between 2 and 1 o'clock (DI Test position 6G
and 4 and 5 o'clock, as shown (E) Test Dosition 6GR íT. K, or Y connections)
in Figure 7A-5. FIGURE 7A.ä Positions of test pipe or tubing for groove welds. (From AWS D1 .l-
6. The pipes must be pressed firm- 86 Structural Welding Code-Steel. Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami,
ly together so that the spacers Florida.)

CHAPTER 7 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF PIPE 257
cannot move. This will keep the equal. If not, use the feather a test piece may be tilted. In all but
root gap the same throughout wedge just below 3 or 9 o’clock two instances, the maximum is 15
the joint. to even the spacing. Then place degrees in either direction. These
7. Place the first tack at 12 o’clock, a tack just above the wedge. Re- exceptions are the 6G and 6GR
as shown in Figure 7A-6. All move the wedge. Then place it pos¡t ions.
tacks should be approximately in the joint, on the opposite Jointsin the 6G and 6GR positions
3/4 in. long. side, and tack-weld just above are at 45 degrees off the vertical. As
8. Remove the spacers and place the wedge. shown in Figure 7A-7, the position
them or wedges at 4 and 8 11. Examine the joint. If the gap is of the 6G and 6GR joints must be
o’clock, as shown in Figure 7A- not evenly spaced all around held to within plus or minus 5
6. If you place them too deep the pipe, or if the pipe is mis- degrees.
into the root gap, it will be dif- aligned, cut the tacks out with a As in the welding of test plates, do
ficult to remove them. Rotate hacksaw and start again from not move the pipe once you have
the pipe so you can tack the the beginning. started. The one exception to this
joint at 6 o’clock. stipulation is the 1G position. Pipe
Just as with plate, you must learn in this position is rotated. All weld-
9. Place the second tack at 6 to weld pipe in many positions. Fig- ing should be done at the top, near
o’clock, as shown in Figure 7A- ure 7A-7 shows many of the welding 12 o’clock, as when using a
5; then remove the spacers. positions for pipe and tubing. Each positioner.
1o. Check to determine whether the drawing shows the number of de-
spacings at 3 and 9 o’clock are grees off the centerline, or joint axis,
LESSON 7B
Pipe welding i s different, not diffi- acceptable welds almost auto-

cult. Welding pipe is nothing more
than welding a plate that has been
matically. /a’
, 60”
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
rolled into a cylinder. The only real
difference stems from the changing MATEHgHA& A N D EQUHPMENT
contour of the surface. You must 1. Personal welding and cutting
constantly change the lead angle equipment, as in Lesson 7A. BEQBTRE 7 I . I Weld position 1 G .
(drag angle) or push angle of your 2. E6010 or E6011 electrodes, %-in.
electrode. The angle should con- diameter.
form to the surface of the pipe. 3. Two pieces of schedule 40 pipe,
in the horizontal position, as
In Lesson 7A you learned that fac- 4 in. in diameter or a similar size
shown in Figure 7B-1.
tors such as root face, root gap; if 4-in. diameter is not available.
bevel angle, alignment, and fit-up Pipe nipples or pieces must be of 3. Adjust the welding current:
are extremely important if you are to sufficient length to enable the stu- DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125.
produce an acceptable pipe joint. dent to obtain a proper fit. 4. Place the electrode in the hold-
This lesson and the remaining les- er, as in Figure 7B-2. Use a 90-
sons on pipe welding are concerned degree angle or a 45-degree an-
PROCEDURE gle away from the end of the
with producing quality pipe welds.
Applying the knowledge and skills 1. Prepare, fit, and tack the pipe as holder.
learned in the previous lesson will in Lesson 7A. 5. Position yourself so that you are
ease your tasks and help you make 2. Secure the pipe with its axis at a 90-degree angle to the pipe.

Be sure you are comfortable.

6. Strike the arc, on the bevel, at
i
approximately 3 o’clock. Carry
it down to 4 o’clock. Pause long
Rotate
enough for the root faces to melt clockwice
away and for a keyhole to form.
Then reverse your electrode
direction.
7. To run the first pass uphill, uti- FIGURE 7B.2 Electrode angles in
holder.
lize the whipping method, as in
welding plate in the vertical po-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
sition. Use an electrode at a
push angle of 5 to 15 degrees
upward, as in Figure 7B-3.
Whip upward, taking care not to
scar the surface of the pipe on
either side of the V groove. Stop rj$ max.
reinforcement
when you reach 1 o’clock, as
shown in Figure 7B-4. Clean
thoroughly.
8. Turn the pipe toward you one-
quarter of a turn. Then proceed L+jmax. penetration
in the same manner until the FIGURE 18.3 Electrode push FHGUWE 7B1-B Bead sequence, pene-
first pass is completed. Be sure angle. tration, and reinforcement.
to start the next electrode slight-
ly below the crater.
9. The second pass (hot pass) and
third pass (cover pass) can be trapped slag and fill in any un- 11. When you make the connection
welded with either the triangle desirable undercut. on completing the pass, be sure
motion or the alternate weave, 10. The sequence of beads is de- to overlap slightly. Break the arc
as in vertical plate welding. picted in Figure 7B-5. Adhere to by slowly drawing it away from
Take care to pause at the sides the maximum root and face re- the puddle.
of the joint. Burn out any en- inforcement shown.
LESSON 7C
WELDING PIPE IN THE 243 POSPTION, WET
ITS AXIS IN THE VERTICAL PQSITION
In the 2G test position the axis of the or dragged. Use approximately the of stringers. Stringer beads are in
pipe i s in the vertical position. same electrode angles as used in turn more easily handled by the
Welding takes place on the horizon- plate welding. It is recommended welder.
tal plane. This means that you must that all other passes be of the stringer Many of the pipe joints you will
weld from right to left or from left to bead variety. Even though it i s pos- encounter will be in this position.
right, as with plate welded in the sible to use the weave method in the Therefore it is important to develop
horizontal position. 2G position, sag and undercut are skill in welding pipe in the 2G posi-
First passes can be either whipped more readily controlled by the use tion.

CHAPTER 7 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF P I P E 259
enough to fill the keyhole and
@-
IA'H'EHBIAL A N D EQUJHPMENT
1. Personal welding and cutting reopen it again.
equipment, as in Lesson 7A. 10. Make sure that you hold a long
2. E601O or E6011 electrodes, %-in. arc when starting a new elec-
diameter. 60" trode. This heats the metal
3. Two pieces of schedule 40 pipe, where you left off welding so
4 in. in diameter or a similar size that you get the desired penetra-
if 4-in. diameter is not available. tion when you enter the key-
Pipe nipples or pieces must be of hole. You must obtain 100 per-
sufficient length to enable the stu- FHGURE TC-1 Weld position 2G. cent penetration at these
dent to obtain a proper fit. connections. Otherwise you
4. Two spacers, y32 in. x 5í8 in. X will leave voids or unwelded
6 in. long. spaces, which will cause a weld
to fail in service or during the
testing procedure.
11. Clean the root pass thoroughly.
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare, fit, and tack the pipe as .
+a 5-10"
Then run a stringer wide enough
to cover the root pass. Make
in Lesson 7A.
2. Secure the pipe so that its axis -7- sure the weld toes are fused
properly to exclude slag and
is vertical, as in Figure 7C-1.
prevent undercut.
FIGURE ;IC-% Electrode work angle. 12. The next pass consists of string-
ers 3 and 4, as shown in Figure
4. Once the test has started, the 7C-5. These two stringers w i l l
pipe may not be moved for any
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
be similar to those used in weld-
reason until the welding is coming plate in the horizontal posi-
pleted. This is standard proce- tion. Weld the lower stringer
dure when taking tests of this first. Remember, only two-thirds
type. of the lower stringer should be
5. Place the electrode in the hold- visible when the pass is
er, at a 90-degree angle or at a completed.
45-degree angle, as in Lesson 13. The last pass consists of stringers
70. 5, 6 and 7, as shown in Figure
Start
6. The work angle of the electrode 7C-5. if you have made heavy
should be about 5 to 1O degrees beads on the previous passes,
below the center of the joint, as this pass may not be necessary.
in Figure 7C-2. F'1SGURE 7C.3 Electrode drag angle. 14. Apply the three stringers as in
7. Use a slight drag angle of 5 to horizontal plate welding. Be
10 degrees from the axis of the careful to avoid undercut on the
pipe, as shown in Figure 7C-3.
8. Strike an arc and get a keyhole
started. if the upper root face
burns away excessively, de-
crease the electrode work angle.
You can do this by raising your
hand and reducing the angle.
9. Use the whipping motion
shown in Figure 7C-4 to carry
the arc onto the lower beveled
surface. When you return to the
keyhole, wash the metal into the
root, then pause just long PñGURE 7C.4 Whipping motion. FIGURE 7C.5 Bead sequence.

260 SECTION III SRIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
top edge. You can use a slight 30-degree drag angle, as shown
push angle on the last stringer, in Figures 7C-6 and 7C-7.
if undercut is a problem. 7. Obtain penetration and com-
In the second. part of this assign- plete the root pass. Hold a
ment, you will weld the first pass long arc on restarts. Be sure to
with E601O or E6011 electrodes and "burn in" when making the
the second pass and out with E7018 connection.
electrodes 8. Clean the weld area thoroughly.
Change over to the E7018 elec-
FIGURE 7C.B Electrode work angle. trode. increase the amperage
slightly as recommended, and
1. Personal welding equipment. try the arc on scrap metal.
2. E6010 or E6011 electrodes and
9. Strike an arc. Change to a drag
E7018 electrodes, %-in. diam-
angle of 5 to 15 degrees, but use
eter.
the same work angle as in Figure
3. Two pieces of schedule 40 pipe,
7C-6. Hold a short arc and do
4 in. in diameter or a similar size
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
not whip out of the puddle. Just

if 4-in. diameter i s not available.
move the electrode along at a
Pipe nipples or pieces must be of
steady rate and pull the puddle
sufficient length to enable the stu-
with it.
dent to obtain a proper fit.
4. Two spacers, 'A6 in. x 5/8 in. X 10. The electrode may be oscillated
6 in. long. or moved slightly within the
confines of the puddle. Keep the
FIGURE 76.7 Electrode drag angle, oscillations to a minimum,
PROCEDURE however.
root pass.
1. Prepare, fit, and tack the pipe as 11. The second pass is a stringer
in Lesson 7A. bead. Pay close attention; keep
2. Adjust the welding current: the crater deep enough and hot
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125 enough to fuse the sides of the
forE6010orE6011, 115to165 joint and the root pass thorough-
for E7018. Set the amperage so ly. Welders sometimes call this
that you can drag the E6010 or & ,Wagon
L
slag
tracks (voidsor
not removed by
the "hot pass")
"burning out the wagon tracks"
E6011 electrode along, in con- with the "hot pass." This is il-
tact with the joint, while hold- lustrated in Figure 7C-8.
ing a drag angle of 20 to 30 12. Clean the weld thoroughly. Pay
degrees. close attention to removing any
3. Secure the weldment in the 2G slag that may remain at the toes
I
position, as shown in Figure Wagon tracks burned of the weld. Cover this pass with
7C-1.
' / out by properly applied
at least two more stringers, as in
-hot pass
4. Place the E6010 or E6011 elec- FIGURE 7C.8 Bead placement. Figure 7C-9.
trode in the electrode holder at 13. Clean each pass carefully. Be
a 45-degree angle. sure to hold normal arc lengths
5. Assume a comfortable position. on restarts. The arc should be
Lean against the pipe or balance struck l/z in. ahead of the cra-
yourself. Remember to lean ter and slowly moved back to
slightly to the left at the start. the crater. This will reweld the
6. Strike an arc on the beveled sur- 1 arc strike area as the weld
face and move the electrode progresses.
quickly down into the root gap. 14. The last stringer is critical.
Hold the electrode with a O- to Watch the upper left-hand edge
1O-degree work angle, upward of the puddle to be sure that you
into the root, and with a 20- to FIGURE TC-9 Bead sequence. are filling in all undercut. .

LESSON '7D
The 5G position is widely used for Pipe joints in the 5G position are using the stringer bead and weave
testing a welder's ability. Joints in welded by both the uphill and the methods.
this position can be completed by downhill methods, depending on
either the stringer or the weave the pipe code and design service.
method. Quite often a combination This lesson provides you with prac-
of the two is used. tice welding uphill and downhill,
U P H I L L PASSES ( E 6 0 1 0 OR E 6 0 1 1 ELECTRODES)
.
ure 7D-1. Choose a height that Welding large-diameter pipe.

will allow you a comfortable
reach to the top and bottom of
the joint.
3. Adjust the welding current: shoulder or upper arm against
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125. the pipe.
The amperage i s the same as for 6. Strike an arc on the bottom be-
the first pass in the 2C position. veled surface at about the 6:30
4. Place the electrode in the holder position. Weld counterclock-
at a 90- or 45-degree angle, wise through the 6 o'clock po-
whichever is more comfortable sition, up side l of the pipe, as
for you. shown in Figure 7D-2.
5. Get into as comfortable a po- 60" 7. Use an electrode work angle of
sition as possible. Lean your FHGKJRE 7m.n Weld position 5G. 90 degrees and a drag angle of
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

26% SECTION III SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
about 5 to 15 degrees, as shown weave method. You can start by

in Figure 7D-3. moving the electrode from side
8. Maintain a constant drag angle. to side; then continue unless the
Hold a close arc, similar to that puddle becomes too fluid. If it
in the drag technique, but with- does, switch to the triangle mo-
out the electrode touching the tion. The triangle motion may
pipe. Keep the arc visible while become necessary in the area of
you whip the bead uphill to- FHGUJUIWE 7iìB-2 Weld progression. 8 to 10 o'clock. Maintain the
ward 5 o'clock. Keep the key- electrode drag and push angles
hole open. as shown in Figure 7D-3. Clean
9. At slightly past 5 o'clock switch and inspect the bead.
from a drag angle to a 5- to 13. Move to side 1. Start the fourth
15-degree push angle. Continue bead and complete the second
to weld upward as shown in Fig- pass. Hold a long arc on the
ure 7D-3. starts and stops. Clean and in-
10. Use the same whipping tech- spect the completed pass. See
nique as in vertical welding of Side 2 the bead sequence in Figure
the grooves in plate. Remember 7D-4.
to maintain the slight push angle 14. Start the final (cap) pass on side
until you reach between the 2 2. Begin at approximately 6
and 1 o'clock positions. At this angle
o'clock and weld uphill to 12
5-
point switch to a 5- to 15-degree o'clock using the weave tech-
drag angle nique. Keep the weld width
drag angle; continue welding
until 12:30 as in Figure 7D-3. FñBiiüJIE 711B-3Electrode drag and complete and the reinforcement
push angles. to a minimum. (Refer to Figure
11. Clean and inspect the weld.
Move to side 2 of the pipe. (See 7D-4.).
the weld progression in Figure 15. Weld side 1 of the cap pass. Be
7D-2.) Now make the second sure to overlap at 6 o'clock and
3" root opening- + ,-$'reinforcernent
bead. Remember to hold a long 12 o'clock.
arc when overlapping starts and 16. Clean and examine your weld
stops on the first bead. Clean for undercut, gas pockets, slag
and inspect the second bead. holes on the surface, penetra-
12. On side 2 start the second pass k$'
reinforcement tion, width, and reinforcement.
(third bead) by welding uphill as FPGURE 7D.4 Weld progression,
shown in Figure 7D-2. Use the penetration, and reinforcement.
F I R S T P A S S DOWNHILL (E6010 OR E 6 0 1 1 ELECTRODES),

SECOND AND OUT U P H I L L ( E 7 0 1 8 ELECTRODES)
MA"ERIAE A N D EQUUHPMEFY'B' PROCEDURE 165 for €7018. Set the amper-

1. Personal welding equipment. 1. Prepare and fit the pipe as in age as you would for dragging
2. E601O or E6011 and E7018 elec- previous procedures. the root pass on a pipe in the
trodes, %-in. diameter. 2G position.
2. Secure the pipe in the 5G posi-
tion (horizontal fixed), as in Fig- 4. Place the electrode in the holder
4-in. in diameter or a similar size
Ure 7D-1, at a height comforta- at a 90- or 45-degree angle,
if 4-in. diameter is not available.
ble for reaching the top and whichever is more comfortable
Pipe nipple or pieces must be of
sufficient length to enable the stu- bottom of the joint. for you. .
dent to obtain a proper fit. 3. Adjust the welding current: 5. Get into as comfortable position
4. Two spacers, 'A6 in. x y 8 in. x DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125 as possible, just as in the last
6 in. long. for E6010.and E6011, 115 to procedure. Strike an arc on the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 7 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING OF P I P E
beveled surface. Begin at about gradually change to a drag angle

11:30, as shown in Figure 7D-5. of O to 5 degrees. Continue until
Weld clockwise and downhill, 10 o'clock is reached. Then
as shown in Figure 7D-6. switch to a drag angle of 10 to
6. Keep the electrode work angle 15 degrees. Stop at about 12
Side 1 at 90 degrees to the surface of o'clock.
the pipe. The drag angle should 10. Clean, and move to side 1.
be from 10 to 25 degrees (see Weld the fourth bead uphill.
Figure 7D-51, depending on the Hold a long arc on the starts and
amount of penetration you ob- stops to make good tie-in
tain. If the drag angle is too connections.
BIIQüJBIlrl Z i ü . ~Electrode drag angles. large, stop and increase your 11. After cleaning use uphill beads
amperage. This will give you to weld the finish pass. Start on
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
more penetration and reduce side 1. Do not weave the pass
the required electrode drag any wider than 3/32 in. past the
angle. edge of the bevels. As shown in
i. Stop just past 6 o'clock, as Figure 7D-7, keep the reinforce-
shown in Figure 7D-5. Clean ment to approximately 3/32 in.
the bead and move to side 2. Beads made with low-hydrogen
Complete the second downhill electrodes should be no wider
root pass. Be sure to overlap the than three electrode diameters.'
first bead properly. If the groove is wider than this,
8. For the second pass and out use it would be better to finish the
E7018 low-hydrogen elec- joint with stringers.
trodes. Begin with a drag angle 12. Cool and clean the completed
of 10 to 15 degrees. Start the weld. Examine for undercut,
third bead somewhere between surface defects, bead shape,
5 and 7 o'clock, taking care to width, and the appearance of
$ root o p e n i n g 1 t- the weld and reinforcement.
a I overlap and tie in the connec-

tion between the two root Present the weld to your
beads. Weld upward on side 2, instructor.
using a slight weave. Take care
typ. reinforcement-] not to let the electrode leave the
IFIIGEBTHEiiC 7IID.7 Bead sequence, pene- puddle or oscillate excessively.
tration, and reinforcemeiit. 9. As the weld passes 7 o'clock,
DOWNHILL P A S S E S (E6010 OR E601 1 ELECTRODES)
Downhill welding is ideally suited break the arc. Then clean the bead Pipe nipple or pieces must be of
for pipe joints with small root open- before beginning to weld again. If sufficient length to enable the stu-
ings and small bevel angles, espe- you fail to stop and clean, slag will dent to obtain a proper fit.
cially on light wall pipe. be retained and there will be inclu- 4. Two spacers, %6 in. x 5/8 in. x
The technique requires fairly high sions and surface holes. 6 in. long.
amperages and fast travel. All passes
are welded from the top of the pipe
to the bottom. MA1TIEm)EAIL ANITD EBQWEPiWENTi'
PROCEDURE
You must take care to maintain 1. Personal welding equipment.
correct electrode angles and move 2. E6010 or E6011 electrodes, '/a- 1. Prepare and fit the pipe as in
the electrode rapidly at a constant and Yu-in. diameter. previous procedures.
rate of travel; otherwise the molten 3. Two pieces of schedule 40 pipe, 2. Secure the pipe in the 5G (hor-
pool and slag will sag and may fall. 4 in. in diameter or a similar size izontal fixed) position, as shown
If the slag runs ahead of the puddle, if 4-in. diameter is not available. in Figure 7D-1. Use a height

264 --`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SECTION III SUIELDED METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
10-25” drag angle
Side 1
8 root opening+il+ I
Direction
5 typ. reinforcementf
FIGURE 78P-PO Bead sequence,
FIGURE ;ID-8 Weld progression. FIGURE 7D.9 Electrode drag angles. penetration, and reinforcement.
of side 2. The electrode angles

remain the same as on the root
pass, except that the drag angle
can be reduced to zero between
7 o’clock and the bottom on
side 2 , and 5 o’clock and the
bottom on side 1.
8. Clean weld bead 3 and com-
plete the second pass by weld-
ing bead 4 on side 1 as in Figure
7D-8.. Be sure to overlap at the
start and stop.
9. Clean the second pass thor-
oughly, and then examine it for
evenness of deposit. You should
have deposited the same
amount of weld metal through-
out the entire joint. Then finish
off with a cap pass using the
E601O or E6011 %~in.-diame-
Sometimes it is necessary to weld with a mirror. ter electrode. (See Figure
7D-1O.)
10. Many times the weld is shallow
comfortable for reaching both position. Drag the first pass between 2 to 4 o’clock and 8 to
top and bottom of the joint. downhill, on side 1. Weld from 10 o’clock. Then you must run
3. Adjust the welding current: 1 1 :30 to approximately 6 short beads between these
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125 o’clock, as shown in Figures points. These extra beads are
for %-in. -diameter electrodes, 7D-8 and 7D-9. Maintain a 90- shown as 3% and 4% in Figure
1 10 to 170 for %-in.-diameter degree work angle and a 10- to 7D-8. They will allow you to
electrodes. Set the amperage as 25-degree drag angle. weld a uniform finish pass
you would for dragging the root around the entire joint.
pass in previous procedures. 6. Clean the bead and weld side 2
4. Place the electrode in the holder of the root pass as shown in Fig-
at a 90- or 45-degree angle, ure 7D-8. Be sure you are ob-
whichever is more comfortable taining the correct melt through
for you. or penetration.
5. Assume a comfortable welding 7. Start the second pass at the top

LESSON 7E
WELDING PIPE IN THE 6 6 POSITION,
WITH ITS; AXIS AT A 45=DEGREEANGLE
DOWNHILL P A S S E S ( E 6 0 1 0 OR E 6 0 1 1 ELECTRODES)
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MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT 3. The angle you use will be de-
1. Personal welding and cutting termined by the way the root
equipment. faces melt. Both root faces may
2. E6010 or E601 1 electrodes, %-in. melt evenly, or one may tend to
diameter. melt faster and burn away. If
3. Two pieces of schedule 40 pipe, one face melts faster, angle the
4 in. in diameter or a similar size electrode toward it. This forces
if 4-in. diameter is not available. weld metal into the area so that
(Nipples or pieces must be of suf- 60"
the joint may fuse uniformly.
ficient length to enable the stu- FIGURE 7E-P Weld position 6 G . 8. As you weld keep a constant
dent to obtain a proper fit.) pressure on the electrode. Keep
4. Two spacers, 3/2 in. x in. x lowering your hand and the
6 in. long. electrode holder. This maintains
5. One large hacksaw blade (one the proper drag angle as you
end taped for use as a handle). move the electrode along the
changing. contour of the pipe
and it burns away. Do not burn
PROCEDURE the electrode any shorter than
Side 2 I Side I 2% to 3 in. A very short elec-
1. Prepare and fit the pipe as in
previous procedures. trode may overheat and stick to
the joint.
2. Secure the pipe in the 6G posi-
tion as shown in Figure 7E-1. 9. Before starting a second elec-
Use a height that is comfortable trode, thoroughly clean the
for you to reach. FIGURE 7E.2 Electrode drag completed portion of the weld.
angles. One electrode should be
DCEP, ampere range 75 to 125. enough for you to complete the
Set the amperage as you nor- first pass, from 11 :30 to 6:30.
mally would for dragging root 10. Start the second half of the root
passes in either plate or pipe. pass on the opposite side of the
4. Place the electrode in the holder pipe, side 2. Overlap the first
at a 90-degree angle. bead by approximately 3/4 in.
5 . Position yourself comfortably, Hold a long arc until the root
as in previous procedures. opening is reached. Then force
the electrode gently into the
6. Strike the arc o n the beveled
joint until the arc almost disap-
surface of the joint, between
FIGURE 7E.3 Electrode work angle. pears. When the electrode is in-
11:30 and 12 o'clock. Use a
side the joint, a harsh sound is
drag angle of 20 to 30 degrees
heard. This sound is the best in-
to the surface of the pipe, as
dication that you are obtaining
shown in Figure 7E-2. Maintain 7. Maintain a work angle between
penetration.
this angle for the entire first 5 to 10 degrees off the perpen-
pass. dicular, as shown in Figure 7E- 11. When you reach the end of the

15. The electrode should not pause

as long at the joint sides as in
uphill welding. Pausing will
cause the center of the weld to
sag; however, the electrode
should pause long enough to
fuse the toes of the joint
properly.
16. Repeat this hot pass on side 2.
Remember to overlap at least
3/4 in. at the start and end of the
preceding pass.
Reinforcement 17. The next pass will consist of two
FIGURE 7E.5 Bead sequence, pene- stringer beads, as shown in Fig-
FIGURE 7E-4 Downhill weave. tration, and reinforcement. ure 7E-5. Run the first one on
the lower part of the joint. Use
the same electrode manipula-
tion as you used for the hot pass.
root opening at the bottom of point slightiy off the center of
18. Do not start both stringers at the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the pipe, pull out to a normal the pipe, as in Figure 7E-2. This
amount of electrode angle tends same point. Stringers must start
arc length. Continue to weld un-
to push the molten pool in the and stop on a staggered basis.
til you overlap the first bead by
direction you wish. It also gives Watch out for undercut on the
at least 3/4 in.
you better control of the weld upper stringer.
12. Clean the first pass thoroughly
deposit. 19. Clean the pass completely. Fin-
before you start the second, or
ish the joint with a three-stringer
”hot pass.” Use your chipping 14. The hot pass not only deposits
cap pass as shown in 7E-5.
hammer, the saw blade, and filler metal but “burns out” any
your wire brush. Begin on side trapped slag in the toes of the The number of passes required to
1. Start welding somewhere be- root pass. Make sure you set the complete the pipe joint depends on
tween 12 and l o’clock. Be sure current high enough that the arc the wall thickness and the size of the
to stagger the starts and stops. melts the crown of the root pass. stringers. Sometimes you can com-
13. For the hot pass, and all other When the puddle is concave plete the joint by depositing a root
passes, the electrode drag angle and fluid, you are probably ob- pass, a hot pass, and a cap pass of
should be between 10 to 20 de- taining a good bead. Use a two stringers.
grees. Moreover, you should al- slight weaving motion as shown
ways aim the electrode at a in Figure 7E-4.
F I R S T PASS DOWNHILL ( E 6 0 1 0 A N D E6011 ELECTRODES),

SECOND AND OUT U P H I L L (E7018 ELECTRODES)
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT 4. Two spacers, l/16 in. x %a in. x DCEP, ampere range: 75 to 125
6 in. long. forE6010orE6011, 115to165
1. Personal welding and cutting
5. One large hacksaw blade (one for E7018. Set the amperage
equipment.
end taped for use as a handle). as for dragging root passes in
2. E601O or E6011 electrodes, %in.
plate or pipe as in previous
diameter, and E7018 electrodes,
%-in. diameter. procedures.
PROCEDURE 4. Drag the first pass with E601O or
4 in. in diameter or a similar size 1. Prepare and fit the pipe as in E6011 electrodes. Be sure to use
if 4-in. diameter is not available. previous procedures. the electrode angles indicated in
Nipples or pieces must be of suf- 2. Secure the pipe in position as Figures 7E-6 and 7E-7.
ficient length to enable the stu- shown in Figure 7E-1. 5. Clean the first pass thorough-
dent to obtain a proper fit. 3. Adjust the welding current: ly, then switch to E7018 elec-

trodes. Adjust your amperage

on scrap plate.
6. The iron powder in the coating
of the E701 8 low-hydrogen elec- .
trode puts more filler metal in
the deposit than E6010 or E601 1
electrodes. This means that it
will take fewer passes to fill the
joint.
7. Start the second pass near the
bottom of the pipe, between 5
and 6 o’clock. Run a stringer
bead toward the top of side 2.
Use a slight weaving motion as
shown in Figure 7E-8. Do not FIGURE 7E.6 Electrode drag angles. FIGURE 7E.8 Downhill weave.
oscillate the electrode exces-
sively. Do not whip or remove
n
the electrode from the puddle at
any time. Use an electrode drag
angle of O to 5 degrees.
8. Clean the bead thoroughly, us-
ing the slag hammer and wire
brush. Remember that the slag
formed by low-hydrogen elec-
trodes i s difficult to remove. It is FIGUHE 7E-8 Bead sequence, pene-
FIGURE 7E.7 Electrode work angle. tration, and reinforcement.
almost impossible to burn out
with the next pass.
9. Weld the other side of the pipe.
Be watchful that there i s an IO. The finish pass is run with the trode angles and electrode mo-
overlap at both the start and third and fourth stringer beads. tion as before. Be sure to stagger
stop. Follow the bead sequence The lower stringer should be the starts and stops.
shown in Figure 7E-9. welded first. Use the same elec-
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1. What i s the first aid for “arc eye”? (1A) 26. What is the essential equipment needed for setting
2. Why shouldn’t a ventilation fan blow at your face, up an SMAW system? (1G)
or at the back of your head, while you are welding? 27. Identify six metals which can be welded with
(1A) SMAW. (1G)
3. What are three hazards associated with stub dispos- 28. What are some of the SMAW process limitations?
al? (1A) (1 GI
4. Why are sweaty clothes and wet gloves dangerous? 29. Why should you take great care in selecting an
(1A) SMAW electrode? (1G)
5. How i s a Material Safety Data Sheet used? (1B) 30. identify four SMAW electrode holder design features.
6. Why are damp SMAW electrodes dangerous?(16) (214)
7. What is the meaning of the term “ground clamp”? 31. How should welding cable be selected?(2A)
(16) 32. How should you take care of an SMAW electrode
8. Give two reasons why too much current can cause holder? (2A)
problems with SMAW electrodes. (16) 33. What is the proper term for ground clamp? (2A)
9. Name six functions of SMAW electrode coatings. 34. Name two troubles that can be caused by poor work-
(1C) piece clamp contact. (2A)
1o. What are four types of SMAW electrode coating ma- 35. What is the function of a step-down transformer?(26)
terials? (1C) 36. What is the meaning of the term “constant-current
11. What are two ways to coat an SMAW electrode?(1C) machine”? (26)
12. Why are SMAW electrode ovens needed?(1C) 37. How is arc heat controlled? (26)
13. What are the dimensions of a typical SMAW elec- 38. What are three ways to vary a transformer’s output?
trode? (1D) (26)
14. What are the various American Welding Society 39. What are the different welding polarities? (28)
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specifications for SMAW electrodes?(1 D) 40. What are the effects of a poor electric connection?
15. How are a SMAW electrode’s characteristics deter- (2C)
mined from its designation number, for example, an 41. What voltage hazards can occur when two welders
E7014 electrode? (1D) work near each other? (2C)
16. Describe the meaning of the letters in a stainless steel 42. Why should the electrode cable have the best-quality
SMAW electrode identification number. (1û) insulation in the welding circuit?(2C)
17. What are four factors to be considered in selecting 43. Why is it best to connect the workpiece cable.di-
the correct electrode groups?(1E) rectly to the work and not to the table? (2C)
18. What are the characteristics of each of the SMAW 44. Why is it necessary to use a quick striking motion
electrode groups?(1E) when starting SMAW arcs? (3A)
19. What are the AWS specifications governing carbon 45. How do you free up an SMAW electrode that i s stuck
steel and low-alloy steel SMAW electrodes?(1 E) to the work? (3A)
20. Why does a “cup” form on the end of an SMAW 46. What two things control the SMAW starting voltage
electrode? (1E) pulse? (3A)
21. Describe the easy way to select the correct SMAW 47. How do you restart the weld bead after an SMAW
electrode for the job. (1E) arc has been restruck?(3A)
22. What i s the cause of, and the effect of, the cavity on 48. What are the major factors that can cause SMAW
the end of an SMAW electrode?(1F) problems? (36)
23, What is the SMAW “drag“ technique? (1F) 49. Identify four material factors that affect SMAW weld-
24. How does travel speed effect the shape of the SMAW ing performance. (38)
weld? (1F) 50. What are three electrical factors that can affect weld-
25. How do changes in the electrode angle as work is ing power? (36)
done affect the weld bead?(1 F)

51. What is a "critical variable"? (38) 61. Identify at least five hazards of the AAC process. (4A)
52. What are two causes of erratic welding current?(38) 62. What are eight uses of the AAC process?(45)
53. What four things can cause poor welding conditions? 63. Describe the jaws of an AAC torch. (4B)
(3C) 64. Why are some AAC electrodes cooper-coated?(48)
54. Why should you check out, from the storeroom, only 65. What are the air pressure and air flow requirements
the number of SMAW electrodes you need?(3C) for general AAC use? (46)
55. Why do brownouts cause welding problems?(3C) 66. What are the recommended filter shade numbers for
56. What are three causes of weld cracks?(3C) use with AAC? (4C)
57. What can you do to reduce spatter when all the 67. What extension length should you use when first
equipment settings are correct and spatter is still a gripping an AAC electrode?(4C)
problem: (3C) 68. What is meant by the term "lag angle"? (4C)
58. What is the American Welding Society's designation 69. What is the cause of AAC electrode copper burn-
for the AAC process? (4A) back? (4C)
59. How does the AAC process work? (4A) 70. What are the push angle and travel speed needed for
60. Describe four types of AAC electrodes. (4A) AAC? (4C)
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--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

--
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC

WELDING PROCESS
During the 1930s and early 1940s aircraft manufacturers began to use more
aluminum and magnesium in their designs. These lightweight metals were
ideal, except that they were difficult to weld. At the same time that this new
application of lightweight metals was being considered, atomic hydrogen
welding was commercialized. Atomic hydrogen welding used an arc between
two tungsten electrodes and hydrogen as a shielding gas. It was hotter than
oxyacetylene welding, but it never gained great popularity.
Russell Meredith was a young engineer working at the Northrup Aircraft
Corporation in California. Company designers were trying to use magnesium
in their aircraft, but the metal was difficult, if not impossible, to weld with
existing processes. Meredith knew of the earlier work that others had done to
provide protection for the arc zone by supplying inert gases. Argon and helium
had been used to shield various types of arcs, the electrodes, and the weld
puddle from contamination by the oxygen in air. With the rare insight of a
born inventor, Meredith took a single tungsten electrode and mounted it in a
holder. The holder was similar to those used in atomic hydrogen welding,
except that only one electrode was needed. To shield the arc zone, Meredith
supplied the torch with helium instead of hydrogen. Using the standard weld-
ing power of the day, he was able to weld magnesium successfully. An article
describing his success appeared in the Welding journal, late in 1941.
The name “Heliarc” was given to this new helium-shielded arc process and
rights to the Meredith patent were obtained by the Linde Air Products Com-
pany. Then argon replaced helium, because helium was expensive and diffi-
cult to obtain. The argon-shieldedwelding arc turned out to be easier to use.
Linde Air Products Company rapidly developed the process, using argon for
the inert gas, but the name Heliarc was retained and used for many years. It
still appears in the want ads and trade journals. However, the American Weld-
ing Society calls it the gas tungsten arc welding process, or the GTAW process.
It i s also called the tungsten inert gas process, or TIC process. Whatever its
name-Heliarc, GTAW, TIC-the process had its beginningswith Russell Mer-
edith. In essence, it coalesces metals by heating them with an arc between a
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nonconsumable tungsten electrode and the workpiece, and it protects the arc
zone with a shielding gas. Filler metal may or may not be added.
The GTAW process is versatile and easy to use. Equipment is reliable and
readily available. Power sources have been developed to allow precise control
of the arc energy. Although used in mechanized systems without any problem,
the GTAW process is usually considered a manual one. It is noted for its ability
to weld almost any metal, for its reliability, for its consistency, and for the
high quality of its welds. It is often used for critical work in the nuclear and
aircraft industries, but is also used in garages and on farms. You will enjoy
learning to weld with this process.
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CHAPTER 1
LESSON IA
@BfEBEEG'ITlf'BrES
should be able to
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1. Explain why the radiation is more

intense with GTAW than with
SMAW.
2. List three sources of ozone.
3. Describe what happens to a tung-
sten electrode when there is too
much oxygen in the arc-shielding
gas.
4. Name the two types of GTAW
torches.
5. Identify the hazards of argon as a
shielding gas.
BASEC BBlûQBEEM8
Gas tungsten arc welding i s consid-
ered to be a relatively clean process.
The inert shielding gas that protects
the weld pool keeps visible fumes
from forming. But the lack of visible
fumes causes other problems. The The GTAW process can weld a wide variety of metals.
arc is much brighter-looking be-
cause, unlike SMAW, there are no
fumes to filter the glare. Radiation
from this arc is more intense be- (See Figure 1A-1.) Even when you Washington D.C., through Philadel-
cause there are no fumes to block cannot see the fumes, ozone will be phia, to New York, and up to Boston
the rays. there. It has a distinctive "electrical" has a high ozone level. On occasion
The ultraviolet rays are measura- odor. It is the odor you smell after a the level is above the exposure lev-
bly stronger because of the missing thunder and lightning storm, or els recommended by the American
visible fumes. Not only can these ul- around the arcing brushes of an Conference of Governmental Indus-
traviolet rays give eye and skin electric motor. Don't become overly trial Hygienists (ACGIH). Some peo-
burns, but they also cause ozone to alarmed if you smell ozone, but you ple are more sensitive than others.
form. Ozone is a form of oxygen that should take steps to minimize your For example, some welders can get
is harmful to breathe for an extended exposure. Most large cities have a nosebleeds from ozone. This will
period. Therefore you must provide great deal of ozone in the air. The not happen to you if you use plenty
good ventilation in the work area. metropolitan corridor running from of ventilation.

* 274 SECTION IV GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS
when you change electrodes. Power

sources for GTAW usually have a
manually operated switch for turn-
ing off the power. Sometimes the
power is turned off by a time delay
circuit. When you break the arc by
suddenly pulling the electrode away
from the work, the time delay circuit
turns off the power. At other times
the delay circuit keeps the arc ener-
gized while the current is tapered
down. Then the power is turned off.
Each system variation can add its
own electrical risk factor. Therefore
Local exhaust you should always be sure the pow-
hoods er is off before changing electrodes
or doing any system maintenance.
The torches for GTAW are cooled
either by air or by water. Water
cooling is used to keep the torch
weight down. Moisture can con-
dense on the cooled metal surfaces,
tl Local exhaust however, and make them wet. As
ducts you know, moisture can carry elec-
tricity. Therefore be sure the torch is
dry before turning on the power. An-
other possible source of water is
FIGURE 1 - A l Typical ventilation systems. leaks. (See Figure 1A-2.) Hoses can
be damaged by hot metal, and O
rings in the torch can leak. What-
Once in a while you may forget as does the arc in SMAW. Sorne- ever the source of moisture or water,
to turn on the inert shielding gas be- times, when you have a good power be sure all problems are fixed before
fore you strike the arc. When you do source and very little other noise in you turn on the power.
forget, the tungsten electrode gives the area, you cannot hear the arc as Be sure to turn off the shielding
off a cloud of thick yellow smoke. it operates. The only time noise may gas when you are done welding,
The smoke is tungsten oxide, which become a problem is when you are and be sure to fix all leaks immedi-
forms when hot tungsten comes in using pulse power and high current. ately. Argon is heavier than air. If
contact with the oxygen in air. Nor- Each power pulse causes the arc to you leave it on for a long time, it
mally, the tungsten stays bright and send out a sound wave. When high- can collect in low places. (See Fig-
clean in argon and other inert current pulses are used, the noise
shielding gases. You can tell when can be very loud. In these special
the inert shielding gas system has a conditions you should wear hearing
leak or is defective by the appear-
ance of the tip of the electrode.
protection. /?
Whenever oxygen shows up in the
shielding gas, the hot electrode tip OTHER PROBLEMS
Power and water in
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begins to oxidize. Small amounts of Gas tungsten arc welding can be Water out
oxygen cause the tip to be covered
with a dark-colored layer of oxide.
done with alternating current or di-
rect current. Typical power sources
b
.
Heavy oxygen contamination have open-circuit voltages as high as
causes yellow oxide to form and be 75 to 85 volts. This voltage, either
thrown off as fumes. alternating or direct current, is FIGURE lA.2 Don’t use equipment
The gas tungsten arc is a quiet arc. enough to give you a lethal shock. with water leaks. Water can conduct
It does not “snap., crackle, and pop” Always be sure the power is off electricity.

air. If you used this kind of filter in
a confined space, it would not help
protect you from suffocation.
Always be careful whenever inert
gas shielding is used in a welding
process. At various times it has been
suggested that an odorizer be put in
the inert gases used for welding, to
help the welder detect leaks. But
don't forget that as you weld you are
lP11U;UiiiiiIE II&:E The slow leak oí argon in a pi( cati displace air or m i x with air and
dumping into the room the inert gas
reduce b rcatha b le o x ygeti. that is used to shield the arc. Any
odorizer would be in this gas and
would quickly spread through the
work area. You would 'not be able
Ure 1A-3.) Argon is an asphyxiant be sure you have plenty of fresh air to detect a leak of the shielding gas.
and can cause suffocation. The dan- circulating around you. Fume filters Your own careful work habits are
ger i s especially great when you are remove only the visible fumes and your best protection from the hazard
welding in confined spaces. Always return the gases back into the room of suffocation.
(IDLtG~N~C1TILWI~CU arc to become unstable. There is a

should be able to
I . Describe the hazards associated
r"l, Gas cup
more serious problem, however. Re-
member, the tungsten electrode is at
arc voltage level. It can even be at
with cold-wire addition. open-circuit level with the full po-
2. Give two ways in which high-fre- tential of the power source. The fill-
quency electric power i s used. er rod is a good conductor of elec-
tricity. When you accidentally touch
3. Explain why high-frequencypow-
er is safer than alternating current the filler rod to the electrode, the rod
i!i%.ii Ga5 tungsten arc weld-
1~11úiiu11iiE
with a frequency of 60 cyles per i s also at arc potential. Therefore it
in[; with the addition of cold wire.
second.
is very important for you to wear dry
4. Explain why there are FCC welding gloves. The gloves protect
regulations .for high-frequency weld with a torch in one hand and you from electric shock. The shock
installations. the filler rod in the other. You pe- could run through your bare hand
5. List the benefits of thoria to the riodically stick the filler rod tip into and the filler rod if you did not wear
tungsten welding electrodes. the arc zone where it melts off. (See gloves. Notice the previous sen-
Figure 1B-1 .) This practice is widely tence said "could," not "would."
H I L ~ ~ C Tc !im ë m known as cold-wire addition. You For you to feel a shock the circuit
Gas tungsten arc welding frequently must be very careful when you use must be completed.
requires that you put filler metal into cold-wire addition. It is very easy to Should you be sitting on a metal
the puddle. The filler metal comes touch the tungsten electrode tip ac- beam or chair, the circuit might be
in the form of wire rods and thin cidentally with the filler wire tip. completed through the seat of your
bars, or it can be a piece of welding The filler wire metal will contami- pants. If the metal seat is connected
wire cut from a spool. Normally you nate the tungsten tip and cause the to or in contact with the workpiece,
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

27Q SECTION IV GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS
High-frequency unit
Air core transformer
- tl, -10
Start Time
power
source
- Workpiece
I L r n
intensity
l
Phase Shift
START gContinuous
FIGURE nB.2 An air core transformer is usually used to inject hf power into the HF
arc circuit. 2 P A b 4Automatic
I H.F. Mode Selector 1

FiiGüJiRu flilE.% Typical adjustinents or
some hí control panels.
and if you are warm and sweaty,

you can become part of an electric
circuit. You could also complete the
circuit through your bare forearm as
it rests on the welding table. Always
treat your bare skin or damp clothes
as possible sources of contact with
\
a circuit. You can protect yourself
by wearing dry gloves and keeping
I
yourself dry.
FflBiüJBE nrn-41 High frequency arc stabilizers can cairse radio, television, and radar
interference.
HIGH-FREQUENCY SYSTEM§
Many GTAW systems use a high-
voltage, high-frequency pulse to
start an arc. (See Figure 16-2.) Other hf system. Many units have adjust- installed, and maintained hf units
systems use the high-frequency (hf) ments that you can make, once you can interfere even with the radio re-
voltage to stabilize the ac arc. The become skilled and understand the ception of passing aircraft. (See Fig-
hf voltage can be hundreds and even equipment. (See Figure 16-3.) But ure 16-4.) This is one of the reasons
thousands of volts. It can easily give you should never adjust hf units out- why hf systems are subject to regu-
you a shock. However, the hf volt- side the ranges recommended by the lation by the Federal Communica-
age alternates at hundreds of thou- manufacturer, or you will increase tions Commission (FCC). All hf sys-
sands of cycles per second, up to your chances of getting a hf shock. tems must be installed according to
millions of cycles per second. Or- High-frequency power radiates, FCC guidelines.
dinary electricity in your home al- much as the power from a radio
ternates at sixty times a second. broadcast antenna does. The high RADZOACTIVG TUNGSTEN
The hf voltage has a very interest- frequency can be felt in objects not Some tungsten electrodes contain
ing characteristic. It flows along the even connected to the welding sys- thoria to make arc startingeasier and
surface of conductors instead of tem. It is therefore very important to increase arc stability. Free-exist-
through their centers. The high fre- that you follow the correct grounding thoria, a powdery white oxide of
quency keeps the electric energy ing procedures when you install a hf the element thorium, is considered
from penetrating into the conductor. unit. There are special instruments a radioactive material. Every once in
This surface conduction feature is that measure the strength of the hf a while a "scare story" is told about
why high frequency was chosen for radiation. You can easily estimate radioactive tungsten electrodes
arc starting and stabilization. Al- whether a system i s working prop- being bad for your health. Many
though it can give you a shock, and erly by how far away high frequency tests have been run over the last thir-
scare you, it cannot penetrate deep can mess up the reception of a port- ty or forty years to show that this is
into your body and electrocute you. able radio. Properly installed hf not true. Yes, the material is radio-
Welding power sources are carefully units will not interfere with the radio active. No, it cannot hurt you when
designed to limit the energy in the reception of your neighbors. Poorly it is used properly.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 1 6 A S TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS 277
SHAPING TiP.§ chemical paste for sharpening blunt rations. Anything that can dissolve
The tips of tungsten electrodes are electrodes. tungsten can be hazardous to you.
given special pointed shapes to ac- When a chemical paste is used, Always read and understand the la-
complish particular variations in the the electrode is heated and dipped bel on the chemical container be-
process. Many shops have special into the paste; the electrode tip i s fore you use such material.
grinding wheels for pointing elec- dissolved by the chemicals. Be care-
trode tips. A few companies offer a ful in using these chemical prepa-
@kWECTIIVIJ3S they become liquid. When they are

Upon completion of this lesson you hot they become a gas, and when
should be able to they are very, very hot they become
1. identify the main parts of an arc. a plasma. The increase in tempera-
2. Explain how electrons control the ture forces the atoms or molecules
temperature at the tip of the of the substance apart. The distance
GTAW electrode. apart determines whether they make
3. Explain why thoria and zirconia up a solid, liquid, or gas. At very
are added to tungsten electrodes. high temperatures the constituent
4. Select which GTAW electrode parts of atoms or molecules them-
can form a molten ball on its tip. selves begin to separate. The heat
Is it made of pure tungsten, tho- causes collisions that dislodge elec- PHGUIE RC-Il The electric arch (or
riated tungsten, or zirconiated trons. A good example of this is arc) between two horizontal electrodes.
tungsten? water. Cold water is a solid, ice; Electrons (e) leave the cathode and
5. Cive the reasons for using a warm water i s the familiar liquid; keep it cooler, then collide on the
pointed tungsten electrode. hot water is a gas, steam; and very anode and heat it.
6. Name the GTAW electrode po- hot water can become a plasma,
larity with the greatest current made up of the positive ions, which
rating. have lost electrons, and the negative
electrons. 1C-1.) Electrons leave the tungsten
ARC POLARITY Depending on how you connect tip and flow through the arc toward
Electric arcs are hot enough to melt the power to the arc, the tungsten the workpiece. The electrons carry
any metal, including tungsten. How electrode can be positive or nega- away energy from the electrode,
then can tungsten be used as a weld- tive. When the electrode is positive, which has the effect of keeping the
ing electrode?The secret is based on the electrons, which carry the cur- electrode tip cooler. It takes more
how an arc carries current. Welding rent in the system, bombard the heat to melt the tungsten when it i s
arcs, like all arcs, have an anode, a electrode. As the electrons enter the connected for straight polarity (elec-
cathode, and plasma. The anode is surface of the tungsten electrode, trode negative). The difference in
the positive end, the cathode is the and slow down, they give up the the current-carryingcapacitiesof the
negative end, and the plasma is heat energy that they have absorbed two polarities is very great. The
what you see as an electrical flame. by colliding with the atoms there. cooling effect of electrons can be
Plasma is considered the fourth The heat will rapidly build up and improved by making more of them
state of matter, the other three being melt the tungsten. available. The more easily electrons
solid, liquid, and gas. Relatively When the tungsten electrode i s leave the tungsten tip, the cooler it
speaking, when substances are cold connected to the negative terminal, will operate, and the higher the cur-
they are solid. When they are warm the reverse happens. (See Figure rent it can carry before it melts.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

SECTION IV GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS
EMISSIVE MATERIALS
Earlier on many types of coatings
were tried on tungsten electrodes to zirconiated
increase their electron emission tungsten
properties. It was found that adding
a few percent of thoria or zirconia
to the electrodes would do the job.
Thorium and zirconium are good
electron emitters. It does not take
much voltage to pull electrons from iFiiGn]ti&ìEiic-2 ¡'Lire tcingsien will melt
their surfaces. When a little thoria or and form a ball at the current at which
zirconia i s added to tungsten elec- a thoriated tungsten electrode will re-
trodes, they become very good inain pointed.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
emitters of electrons, and therefore
run much cooler. This in turn in-
creases their current-carryingcapac-
their electrode is better than the oth- a blunt tip. (See Figure 1C-3.) More-
ity. Adding the thoria and zirconia
er. However, both types of elec- over, the arc is more directional and
also helps to stabilize the arc and
trodes work according to the same is slightly stiffer when it comes off
make it easier to ignite.
basic principles. Quite often price is the end of a pointed electrode.
Electrodes of pure tungsten melt at
the only factor considered. The Many welding procedures call for a
less current than thoriated or zircon-
AWS designates these electrodes as specific tip shape. If you have to
iated electrodes. (See Figure 1C-2.)
EWTh-i, EWTh-2, and EWZr. The point your own electrodes, be care-
As the pure tungsten melts, it forms
Th-1 and Th-2 mean 1 and 2 percent ful. Tungsten electrodes are very
a molten metal ball on the electrode
thoria, and Zr means zirconia. sensitive to contamination. Never
tip. When the electrode is clean and
A third type of tungsten electrode use a general-purpose grinding
the shielding gas i s pure, the ball
has found some use. This one, the wheel to shape a tungsten tip, for the
will be smooth and round. This is
striped tungsten electrode, com- wheel will leave specks of other
the best shape for getting good arc
bines the preferred balling of pure metals on the electrode. Tungsten
stability and doing good welding. If
tungsten and the higher current-car- electrodes should be prepared on a
the electrode becomes contaminat-
rying capacity of thoriated elec- grinding wheel used exclusively for
ed by spatter from the puddle, by
trodes. A wedge or stripe of thoria is them. Always grind the tip in a
contact with the added cold wire, or
fabricated along the electrode lengthwise direction. Do not hold
because gas shielding is poor, the
length. The high concentration of the electrode at a right angle to the
arc becomes unstable. The molten
thoria in the stripe makes it a very grinding wheel. The direction of the
tungsten ball is no longer smooth
good electron emitter. Arcs are eas- grinding marks helps to keep con-
and round, and the arc will wander.
ier to start and run. The amount of taminating materials from sticking to
The American Welding Society des-
thoria in the stripe is such that when the electrode. Tungsten electrodes
ignates this electrode as EWP. The E
the electrode tip melts and the pure are so sensitive to contamination
means electrode, the W means tung-
tungsten combines with the thoria, that sometimes the oil and sweat
sten (wolfram in German), and the P
the resulting mixture is less than that from your fingers will change the
means pure.
of a thoriated electrode. Therefore arc. The characteristics of typical
The thoriated or zirconiated tung-
the striped electrode combines the tungsten electrodes are shown in Ta-
sten electrodes melt at higher cur-
balling characteristic of pure tung- ble lc-l.
rents. They do not form the nice,
sten with the higher current capa-
smooth ball at the electrode tip that
city of thoriated electrodes. The 1CLECTNO113 E POl,AP%û'JI'Y
pure tungsten does. These elec-
AWS designates this electrode as
trodes resist the bad effects of con- As was discussed previously, and
EWTh-3,
tamination because they do not melt shown in Table 1C-1 , the current-
as easily. They too can become con- carrying capacity of tungsten elec-
taminated, however. This is why TIP SHAPES trodes varies with the polarity. Al-
you should be careful and not dip The arc performance depends, to a ternating-current welding combines
the electrode tip into the puddle. great extent, on the shape of the the effects of both polarities. The
The manufacturers of thoriated and electrode tip. Electrons jump more current-carrying capacity will be
of zirconiated electrodes each claim easily from a pointed tip than from somewhere between that of pure

CHAPTER 1 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS 279
TARELE nc.8 Typical Tungsten Electrode Characteristics
Approximate Current Ranges for Tungsten and Thoriated Tungsten Electrodes"

Electrode Electrode
Negative, Positive, Unbalanced-Wave Balanced-Wave
Direct Current Direct Current Alternating Current Alternating Current
EWP, EWP,
Electrode EWTh-1, EWTh-1,
Diameter, EWTh-2, EWTh-2, EWTh-1, EWTh-1,
inches EWTh-3 EWTh-3 EWP EWTh-3 EWTh-2 EWP EWTh-3 EWTh-2
0.01 o - - - - - - - -
0.020 5-20 - 5-1 5 - 5-20 10-20 10-20 5-20
0.040 15-80 - 10-60 10-80 15-80 20-30 20-60 20-60
y
16 70-1 50 10-20 50-100 50-150 70-150 30-80 30-1 20 60-1 20
y3 2 150-250 15-30 100-1 60 100-235 140-235 60-1 30 60-1 80 100-1 80
vá 250-400 25-40 150-21 O 150-325 225-325 100-1 80 100-250 160-250
y3 2 400-500 40-55 200-275 200-400 300-400 160-240 160-320 200-320
y
16 500-750 55-80 250-350 250-500 400-500 190-300 190-390 290-390
Y
4 750-1 O00 80-1 25 325-450 325-630 500-630 250-400 250-525 340-525
~ ~~ ~
"Using argon as the shielding gas.
straight polarity (electrode negative)

and that of reverse polarity (elec-
trode positive). The actual current-
carrying capacity depends on the ra-
tio of DCRP and DCSP (DCEP and
DCEN). When balanced-wave alter-
nating current is used, that is, when
Unbalanced sine wave Balanced sine wave both polarities have the same aver-
age current, the capacity is less than
that of conventional alternating cur-
rent. (See Figure l C-4.) Convention-
al ac power sources have no means
of adjusting the current ratios. The
natural tendency of electrons to
keep the electrode cool also causes
the arc to run longer in the DCSP
Unbalanced square wave Balanced square wave (electrode negative) mode. The al-
H"IQüiREBG-4Typical ac waveforms, which can change the current rating of a ternating current becomes unbal-
tungsten electrode. anced in the direction of more
straight polarity (electrode negative)
than reverse polarity. Welding pow-
er sources have to be designed to
accommodate this natural unbal-
ance in current. Remember, al-
though tungsten electrodes are sim-
ple things, they have a dramatic
influence on arc performance. Treat
tungsten electrodes with care and
precision and they will give you
good arc performance.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

288 SECTION IV GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS
LESSON ID
@BR€JEc%TI1WES and it has a symmetrical, bell-

Upon completion of this lesson you shaped plasma. The heat of the arc
should be able to causes the tip of the tungsten elec-
1. Identify the bright spot on the tip trode to glow white hot. If you are
of a straight-polarity GTAW arc. using straight polarity, you can see
2. Name the most likely causes of a very bright spot on the tungsten
tungsten transfer to the workpiece tip. The bright spot is called the
during GTAW. cathode spot. This is where elec-
3. Identify the bright spots that trons are being boiled off the elec-
dance around the edge of an alu- trode. The electrons carry the arc
minum puddle melted by GTAW. current and help cool the tungsten
tip. (See Figure 10-1.) You can see PEiQBTIE BíiD-a! Straight-polarity, elec-
4. Give the two theories explaining
something similar on the workpiece. trode-positive, arcs need larger-diame-
why GTAW arc cleans away the
It is called the anode spot, or spots. ter electrodes to operate at the same
oxide on aluminum. current level as a reverse-polarity gas
5. Explain why cleanliness is very There the arc current enters the
iungsten arc.
important in GTAW. workpiece.
IT IS SIMPLE POLARITY piece. (See Figure 1D-3.) These are

The gas tungsten arc is beautiful in When you change over to reverse the cathode spots. The arc current is
its simplicity. With enough gas polarity (electrode positive), you conducted through these spots, and
shielding to protect it from the at- must reduce the arc current a great each spot becomes very hot. One
mosphere, with a good source to deal. With reverse polarity the elec- theory of cleaning action says that
provide steady power, with a clean trons no longer act to keep the tung- the heat causes a tiny bit of alumi-
workpiece on which the arc can op- sten cool and instead carry more num to vaporize beneath the oxide
erate, the GTAW arc is at its best. heat into the tip. Unless the current layer. The vapor expands and
When all these conditions prevail, is very low, the tip will overheat, “pops” the oxide layer off. High-
the arc is stable. It is almost silent. melt, and fall off. You can always speed motion pictures show that this
It has no visible smoke or fumes, locate bits of tungsten in X-rays of vaporizing takes place at each cath-
poor welds. They show up as bright ode spot, all of which happens too
white spots. These white spots can fast for your eyes to see. After the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Tungsten also show up when you use scratch oxide layer is cleaned away at one
electrode starts. (See Section 4, Chapter 3.) spot, the arc moves to another place
Sometimes, except for the differ- where there is more oxide; you see
ence in current, it is difficult to tell the dancing spots as the arc moves
DCSP from DCRP arcs. (See Figure over the surface of the aluminum.
1D-2.) When you are welding alu- The arc always looks for more oxide
minum, however, it is very easy to and will reach out to find it if there
tell the polarities apart. Aluminum is none around.
always has an oxide layer on its sur- Another theory attributes the ac-
face; even freshly cleaned plate will tion of the arc more simply to the
have a thin oxide layer. When you bombardment of the workpiece by
use DCRP the arc begins to clean electric charge carriers in the plasma
Anodé spots away the oxide, and you can see this of the arc. Whatever the theory, the
PHGBTIE BI1D.B The typical bell- cleaning action happening. There actual arc action cleans away the
shaped, dc electrode-negative, gas will be many bright dancing spots, oxide layer.
tungsten ‘arc. Note the anode and cath- jumping and sputtering all around There is a problem with all this
ode spots. the edge of the arc on the work- cleaning action. It only happens

CHAPTER 1 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS
Q
(ciean? zone , to DCRP. (See Figure 1D-4.) Each
time this happens the arc sends out
a pressure pulse because it pushes
the shielding gas sideways. You hear
this as a humming sound which is
quiet with low current and loud with
high current, for high-current arcs
are bigger and push more gas aside.
When you weld with alternating
current, you will learn to recognize
the sound of a good ac arc. Things
that disturb the arc and mess up the
cleaning action also affect the arc
sound. You may not be aware of the
'Aluminum
/ I plate exact cause, but your ears will hear
the change. In fact, it is possible for
good welders to hear changes in the
arc before they see the changes in
the weld puddle.
FH ' JJB860 ñIiD-3 Aluminum oxide i s cleaned by cathode sputtering. The width of the
' (gBd EFFECTS OF MATERIAL
zone is determined by how far the arc can reach out with its cathode spots. ON THE ARC
The GTAW system is very sensitive
to changes in material. The action
that takes place at the anode and
cathode depends on how easy or
with DCRP, which has a very low ARC NOISE difficult it is for electrons to enter
current capability on tungsten. Because the ac arc expands and and leave a material. Every material
Therefore it i s best to weld alumi- contracts as it changes polarity, it has its own special characteristics. If
num with alternating current. The produces a hum. In order for the you want a stable arc, you must
alternating current uses half of its DCRP half to change over to the therefore have uniformity of materi-
polarity to clean away oxides and DCSP half, the arc goes out. If you al. Even the oil from your fingers,
the other half to melt the puddle. look at a current versus time record when you switch electrodes, can
Since the DCRP part of the cycle is of arc current, you see the current change the arc action. Slight impur-
not on all the time, you can use pass through zero. This means that ities in the shielding gas and mois-
more current. The current rating of an ac arc goes off and on twice in ture on the workpiece can also alter
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
tungsten electrodes on alternating one cycle-once when it goes out the arc. As stated before, "Cleanli-
current falls between the DCRP and as it changes from DCRP to DCSP ness i s next to godliness," i s certain-
DCSP ratings. and again when it goes from DCSP ly to be applied with GTAW. Never
skip any of the steps in cleaning ma-
terial before you begin to weld.
Always keep your torch and elec-
trodes clean. Do not be careless.
Most GTAW difficulties can be
traced back to careless handling of
material. Because of its special char-
acteristics, the GTAW process is
used where high-quality welding is
needed. Its sensitivity to changes in
material will let you know when
something is wrong. You will learn
PEQtik!6E 88B-4 The a c arc goes off and on as the current reverses through zero. The to look for these signs and take cor-
expanding and contracting arc produces sound pressure waves. rective steps before damage is done.

@RBJEtCTIV'IES Screw cap for holding

tungsten electrodes
should be able to
1. Tell why argon was chosen as the o handle
shielding gas for most GTAW. Insulated turnbuckle
2. Describe how you can detect that sed to change electrode
position
a hose is leaking.
3. Explain why special hoses must
be used for shielding gases.
4. Explain why gas hoses should be
purged before welding.
'W The atomic hydrogen arc
iFHG[UWIE n!&n The atomic hyclrogeii torch held two tungsten electrodes with an arc
5. Describe the use of GTAW trail- between them. Hydrogen protected the electrodes from air and became energized by
ing shields. the arc action.
PKQTECTTREARC
As was pointed out in the last lesson,
the arc in GTAW is very sensitive to used for atomic hydrogen welding, proves. it is good practice, however,
changes in material, and therefore has some basic problems. (See Fig- to use one regulator for one type of
cleanliness is essential to making a ure 1E-1.) Hydrogen is flammable gas as a way of reducingthe chances
good weld. These same facts will and lighter than air. Quite a bit of of causing contamination, Always
help you to understand the impor- hydrogen is needed to give the arc keep your regulators clean and in
tant role played by the shielding gas. protection, and it burns with an in- good repair. Regulators are preci-
The shielding gas protects the elec- visible flame. Helium makes a very sion instruments and deserve good
trode, arc, and weld puddle from hot arc, which is more difficut to use care.
the air. The oxygen in air will com- than an argon arc. Helium is also Hoses between the regulator and
bine with the hot metal and form ox- more expensive. Each of the other welding torch are the source of most
ides. These oxides show up as dirt gases was found to be impractical problems. Small holes can develop
and slag in the weld puddle. Oxy- for similar reasons. You will find that from contact with hot spatter or
gen also changes the operation of most GTAW is done with argon. metal. Pulling and stretching abuse
the arc. Hot tungsten will combine The argon must be very pure for the hose and can cause cracks. (See
with oxygen from the air and make it to do its job. Suppliers of welding Figure 1E-2.) Most hoses are
tungsten oxide, which is given off as gases are very careful to maintain dragged over and around things in
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
a yellow smoke by the electrode. it the purity of their argon. Contami- the work area. They are stepped on
will also show up as a coating on nants are measured in parts per mil- and driven over by trucks and fork-
the electrode. Don't breathe the lion. You must take the same type of lifts. Give a bubble test to any hose
fumes. Tungsten oxide can be harm- care and keep the gas pure. you suspect of leaking, just as you
ful to you, as well as to the weld. would to find a leak in your auto-
THE GA§ SYSTEM mobile tires. If you find a leak, cut
TYPES OF GAS Gas is supplied in high-pressure cyl- away the bad hose portion and
Early experimenters used several inders or from a central manifold. splice the hose with a proper con-
kinds of shielding gases-hydrogen, All connections must be kept clean nection. Do not use tape over the
helium, argon, krypton, neon, and and leak-free. it is best that you use hole. it will not work.
a few others. It turned out that argon the same regulators all the time. Do You cannot choose any piece of
was the best one to use. Argon gives not switch regulators from one type hose you feel like using. Hoses used
a good, stable arc, i s readily avail- of gas to another, although there is for inert gas must be inert them-
able, and is not as expensive as most nothing wrong with switching them selves. Manufacturers of welding
of the others. Hydrogen, which was if the regulator manufacturer ap- equipment sell special hoses for

CHAPTER 1 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS
shielding gas. They are airtight and hose is in storage, temperature TABLE 1E.B Advantages of
do not breathe-they do not let air changes can cause the air inside to Argon Shielding
through their walls. They are mois- expand and contract. The expansion
1. Low cost.
tureproof-they do not pick up and contraction pull air in and out 2. Widely available.
moisture as a sponge does. They are of the hose, as well as small 3. Heavier than air and draft-resistant.
flexible over a wide temperature amounts of moisture and dust. (See 4. Less gas flow needed for good
range-they do not become brittle Figure 1E-3.) This is why you must shielding.
or stiff when cold. You can be sure purge the system by letting clean 5. Good arc length at needed arc
you will have shielding problems if shielding gas flow through the hose. voltage.
you cheat by using substitute hose It is always good to have a gas 6 . Good cleaning action on aluminum
materials. The end connections on preflow period. Moisture can creep and alloys.
the hoses are another possible into a well-maintained system 7. Reliable arc starting.
source of problems. The connec- through the torch tip, especially 8. Smooth, stable arc.
tions can take quite a bit of abuse. when the system is shut down over-
But constant pulling and tugging as night. During the night, or at other
you drag hoses over the workpiece times when the temperature may OTHER FACTORS
can cause leaks. If you are going to lower, the cold metal of the torch Mixtures of gases are used in GTAW
move your hoses, grab the hose in can act to condense moisture up in- to change the arc heat. The addition
your hand and move it. Do not pull side the torch body. You may find it of helium causes the arc to be hot-
the hoses by moving the torch to necessary to let gas preflow for sev- ter. Sometimes a little bit of hydro-
which they are attached. eral minutes to wash out the mois-
ture. On occasion, purging preflows
KEEPING THE SYSTEM CLEAN for half an hour or more have been
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Whenever you make the connec- needed for critical work.
tions for a new setup, there is a
chance of contamination. While a
Burned hose
iFiiGUiIE ni%% Moisture and dust can collect inside unpro-

tected hose. Purge all hoses before using them.
L--/--
v
Crack from stretching From From
regulator regulator
A B
/ \
Gas A Ratio control

I device
Random mixture of
gases A and ß J
Y
Controlled mixture of
gases A and ß
ÆyIQii&TIiE iilX-2 Typical gas hose problems, which can cause Il”fl<G;üJIIGIEBE4 Special control devices are needed for quality
leaks. mixing of gases.

gen or nitrogen is added for certain - Direction of travel

alloys. Argon is usually the base of
all gas mixtures because it has the
characteristics given in Table 1E-1 .
As a good rule of thumb, you
- Trailing shield
mechanism
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
should try pure argon before you try gas

mixtures. Use a mixture only when d
it is needed for the specific weld.
Don’t try to make up your own mix-
tures. The arc performance can alter Wor kpiece i
drastically with only a small change I Weld I Solidification I Cooling ISafe temperature
puddle zone zone zone
in gas percentages. Special regula- zone
tion equipment is needed to control FHaiUWE BE-5 Trailing shields can protect hot weld metal
the gas mixture percentages. (See from the atmosphere.
Figure 1E-4.) You cannot just con-
nect two gases to a Y connection
and adjust the flow rates. The gases ment a little bit to find the right com- shield flow rates. Just remember,
will not mix evenly, and the per- bination of backup and trailing they work.
centages will vary with time. Qual-
ity welding needs quality materials,
especially when it comes to shield- TABBEE BE.2 Typical Shielding Gas Recommendations
ing gases for GTAW. Refer to Table Metal Gas Current
1E-2 for some typical GTAW shield-
ing gas recommendations. Manual GTAW
Aluminum Argon ac with hf

GA§ BACKUP Copper, thin Argon 25%-helium 75% DCSP (DCEN)
Sometimes the arc heat causes the Copper, thick Helium DCSP (DCEN)
bottom side of a weld to oxidize in Magnesium Argon ac with hf
air. Moreover, air can oxidize a hot Nickel, thin Argon DCSP (DCEN)
weld bead after the arc passes. Inert Nickel, thick Argon 25%-helium 75% DCSP (DCEN)
gases, the same ones as used for Stainless steel, thin Argon DCSP (DCEN)
Stainless steel, thick Argon 25%-helium 75% DCSP (DCEN)
welding, can blanket the hot metal
Steels Argon DCSP (DCEN)
and keep air away. This use of
Mechanized GTAW
shielding gas is known as purging.
Purging covers all ways of using Aluminum thin Argon ac with hf
shielding gas to keep the unwanted Helium DCSP (DCEN)
air away. Aluminum Argon 25%-helium 75% ac with hf
Special fixtures are used to pro- Helium DCSP (DCEN)
vide a gas backup to prevent air Copper, thin Argon 25%-helium 75% DCSP (DCEN)
from oxidizing a hot weld bead. You Copper, thick Argon 10%-helium 90% DCSP (DCEN)
Helium DCSP (DCEN)
can also provide a separate stream
Magnesium Argon ac with hf
of shielding gas to the rear of the
Helium DCSP (DCEN)
welding arc. The trailing shield, as N ickel, th in Argon 25%-helium 75% DCSP (DCEN)
it is called, will keep air away from Helium DCSP (DCEN)
the weld bead while it cools. A wide Nickel, thick Helium DCSP (DCEN)
variety of trailing shields are avail- Steels, thin Argon DCSP (DCEN)
able. They are all designed to flood Steels, thick Argon 25%-helium 75% DCSP (DCEN)
the weld bead with inert gas. (See Helium DCSP (DCEN)
Figure 1E-5.) Gas backups and trail- Stainless steel Argon 25%-helium 75% DCSP (DCEN)
ing shields are normally needed for Argon 99%-hydrogen 1% DCSP (DCEN)
welding reactive metals. Titanium is Argon 85%-hydrogen 15% DCSP (DCEN)
a good example of such a metal. Argon 85%-hydrogen 15% DCSP (DCEN)
Helium 95%-hydrogen 5% DCSP (DCEN)
You will generally have to experi-

@BJECTHVES electrode. All torches use some type the collet fingers holds the elec-
Upon completion of this lesson you of gripping or clamping device to trode. GTAW torches are designed
should be able to hold the electrode. Most designs use with a collet nut to squeeze the col-
1. Name the principal function of a a device called a collet. A collet is let fingers even tighter, however.
GTAW torch. nothing more than a special copper The wedge and pressure action of a
2. Describe how a collet is used. tube with slits. The slits form fingers collet nut forces the collet fingers
3. Explain why it is important that on the tube end; these fingers spread against the electrode to make sure
the gas flow inside a GTAW torch apart when an electrode is forced that it will not slip. (See Figure
be balanced. through the center hole. (See Figure 2A-2.) The current transfers to the
4. Tell how a GTAW torch gas lens 2A-1.) electrode through the collet fingers.
works. The gripping action of the collet Good electric contact depends on
5. Explain why too much gas flow is the same that is used in many me- clean metal surfaces, which is one
can be poor for shielding the chanical pencils. If you look closely reason all electrodes should be
GTAW arc. at the tip of some mechanical pen- clean. Do not use damaged or over-
cils, you can see small slits in the heated collets. The contact will be
WHICH ONE? end. These slits allow the metal tip poor and cause more heating, which
There are a large number of GTAW to expand when pencil lead is will damage the collet even more.
torch manufacturers. Each one forced out of the pencil. The spring Many collets look light and delicate.
seems to say its torches are the best. action of the pencil tip holds the They are designed this way to keep
In this lesson we will discuss the pencil lead, and the spring action of down the torch weight and size. The
general principles of torch design.
This information should make it pos-
sible for you to decide which torch
is best for you.
For example, if you only expect to Tungsten
electrode
weld once in a while, you don’t
want to pay extra for a torch de-
signed for extra-rugged duty. If you
are going to do critical work for
which repair costs would be high,
you don’t want to buy a torch with
marginal shielding action.
IPOLDBIVe THE ELECTRODE
U
Outside view Cutaway view
The principal function of a GTAW
torch is to get the welding current
into the electrode. It must do this ef- G ~ E A collet is a split copper tube designed hold onto what i s placed
~ ~ ~ G u J I I2A.n
ficiently, without overheating the between its fingers, here a tungsten electrode.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

rest of the torch is designed around

the collet. Current is brought to the
collet through the collet nut and a
cable attached to the torch body.
The collet i s usually forced against
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the inside of the collet nut by rota-

tion of a knob on the torch end or
of the collet nut itself. Some of the
cutaway view inside the collet
knobs are stubby. Some are long nut.
and hollow. The hollow space al- The electrode
fits inside the
lows you to use a longer tungsten collet.
electrode, which will not need to be PPGUIE 2A.2 Downward pressure on the collet causes the collet nut to wedge the
thrown away when it becomes con- collet fingers onto the electrode.
taminated. You need only resharpen
or repoint the electrode tip. The ex-
tra electrode length in the knob
(handle) (see Figure 2A-3) may give
you as many as a dozen sharpen-
ings. Some small torches for use in
tight places do not have any room
for extra electrode length, and the
electrode cannot be repointed.
SHIELDING GAS
Shielding gas is brought into the
torch by hoses attached to the torch
body. Drilled passages or tubes car-
ry the gas to the arc end of the torch
body. Here good design plays a very
important part. The gas cannot be
allowed just to squirt out of a hole
inside the torch. The gas outlet ports
must be carefully designed to pro-
vide shielding around the electrode.
The gas flow must not be unbal-
anced, with more gas flowing out of
some holes than others, as gas does Tightening the collet nut holds the tungsten in the torch.
from a dirty burner on a kitchen gas
stove. Unbalanced gas flow will
give unbalanced shielding and dirty
welds. troúe extension i s another term for Long
Cas cups made of ceramic, metal, electrode stickout.
and high-temperature glasses are Cups come in many diameters.
placed on the torch ends to help Large cups give a wide shielding
guide the shielding gas around the pattern. They also require the use of
arc. They are also used to help ad- more shielding gas. Cas cups can be
just the amount of electrode stick- given special shapes and tapers, de-
out. (See Figure 2A-4.) Stickout is signed to improve the flow of shield-
the piece of electrode extending past ing gas. Torches with good shielding
the collet end. It controls the are very desirable because with
amount of I2R (joule) heating of the them short cups, rather than long
electrode. Long gas cups are used CUPS, can be used with long FIGURE 2A.s CTAW torches can be
for increasing the /*R stickout and stickout. adapted for short or long electrodes by
short cups for decreasing it. Elec- Short cups and long stickout give changing the threaded end cap.

CHAPTER 2 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS
you better visibility of the arc and

puddle. One special design has a
system called the gas lens. The gas
lens uses a series of screens and baf-
fles in the torch body to balance the Both torches have the same gas flow.
gas flow. This system can improve
the gas flow so much that you don't
have to use a gas cup at all. If the
gas lens is used with a gas cup, the
shielding is even better. Torches
with good shielding designs allow
you to use less gas to get the same
effect as that of a torch with poor
design. Using less gas i s obviously
cheaper in the long run.
Good shielding improves weld 1 Pi IGIU til: 1 %b4 O if fer ent electrode ex- FlIGUWIE EA-5 High gas flow rates
tc-iisionr; rcquire gas CLIPS OC different can cause turbulence and poor shield-
quality by preventing wind gusts
lengths. Dilfereiit electrode diameters ing. Cups that are too small will in-
from contaminating your weld. But
and ciirrcnt leve!s require gas cup of crease the gas velocity and cause
sooner or later you will encounter different diameters to provide proper jettiiig.
condition in which there is too gas (low.
much wind for any torch. You get
the best shielding when you use the
gas flows recommended by the
torch manufacturer. (See Figure TOIi1Q:h SIRAPES torches can leak if not maintained
2A-5.) For example, just because 1O Torches come in all sizes and properly. Be sure you treat your
cubic feet an hour is good does not shapes. Large torches are heavy and GTAW torch with care. It is a pre-
mean 20 cfh is better. The 20-cfh usually meant for mechanizedwork. cision tool. As with many tools, it
flow will cause turbulence and jet- Torches can be made smaller and will give you good service if cared
ting, which destroy the shielding lighter by using water in addition to for properly. If you don't pay atten-
pattern. Nor should you try to air for cooling. Careful design of tion to the details, you can be sure
economize by reducing the flow be- water passages throughout the torch that weld quality will suffer.
low the recommended limits. Too body, and especially through the
little gas will give you poor collet tip area, can reduce weight
shielding. and size significantly. Water-cooled
LESSON 2B
(RNUUll U ' m[\YIEL; power sources are not normally of these-polarity, current, and volt-
Upon completion of this lesson you used for GTAW. age-is controlled by the behavior
should be able to 4. Explain why constant current or of the power source. Energy is also
1. Identify the three factors that are conventional power sources are controlled by your welding tech-
controlled by the power source in preferred for GTAW. nique. Regulating the behavior of
order to control in turn the GTAW the power source and mastering
arc energy. your technique will give you control
KIU FCIIEQ',Y COlalP'b~OB, of the energy input. Once you un-
2. Name the direction of natural The energy put into the derstand the relation between power
current unbalance in ac arcs. depends on arc polarity, the amount and technique, you will know how
3. Explain why constant-potential of current, and the arc voltage. Each to control the weld puddle.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

2%8 SECTION IV GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS
POLARITY
Most GTAW power sources are built
without a polarity changeover
switch. You normally select the po-
larity by the way you connect up the
welding cables. When you want to
change polarity, you must reverse
the cable connection. On occasion
you will find a power source with a FPGUBE 25.1 Polarity controls heat input to the puddle. Direct current, electrode
polarity reversal switch. Most of the positive puts most of the heat into the torch. Direct current electrode negative, puts
switches will be marked "Do not most of the heat into the puddle.
switch under load." This means that
you should not operate the switch
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
while current is flowing. The switch
contacts are in the arc circuit. If you
operate the switch under load, the Time
welding current will jump across the
switch contacts and start another
"welding" arc in the switch. The arc
energy will destroy the switch in no
time at all.
Some specially designed solid
state power sources have electronic
means for changing polarity. In fact,
they can even be programmed to
change polarity while you are weld-
ing. The ability to change polarity
can be used to control cleaning ac- FE[GILTBE 25.2 Alternating current supplied by a common welding transformer gives
tion and puddle heat. (See Figure more straight polarity than reverse polarity.
26-1 .)
Some variable-polarity units that
are available can also control the
current of each polarity, individ- weld at a higher current than you nent" in the welding current. For ex-
ually. These units are used to simu- could do with a balanced current. ample, the current might be said to
late ac welding, except that in them Remember, the reverse-polaritycur- have a "50-ampere DCSP (DCEN)
the alternating current is not a 60- rent is what heats up the electrode, component. " The direct current
hertz sine wave. But most GTAW and, as we indicated earlier, the flowing in an alternating current
power sources are simple units with natural tendency of the arc is to un- welding circuit can actually be
one polarity and one current balance in the direction of more measured. This measurement means
control. straight polarity. For this reason the that the zero point on a balanced
When you use an ac power current ratings of tungsten elec- alternating current wave is shifted by
source, the polarity changes with trodes are higher without balanced 50 amperes in the straight-polarity
each half cycle. The polarity rever- current. direction. Normal transformer-type
sal causes a problem. It normally if you have a variable-balance power sources always unbalance in
takes more voltage to cause current power source, you must be careful the DCSP (electrode negative) direc-
to flow in a reverse-polarity (elec- to use the correct electrode size. tion. Some solid state variable-po-
trode positive) arc. The unbalanced Otherwise, when you change the larity units can shift the unbalance
arc voltage leads to an unbalanced balance, by adding more reverse po- from straight to reverse polarity. This
arc current. Unless something is larity, you will cause the end of the is done when a considerable
done to change the imbalance, the electrode to overheat and transfer amount of cleaning action is need-
straight-polarity half cycle will have molten tungsten into the weld pud- ed, but the shift reduces the current
more current than the reverse-polar- dle. (See Figure 2B-3.) rating of the electrode at the same
ity half cycle. (See Figure 26-2.) The Current unbalance is measured in time. So be careful if you have one
unbalanced current allows you to terms of a "direct-current compo- of these variable-polarity units.

CHAPTER 2 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS
CURRENT meters while you are manually ever, a CP supply will not react the
All GTAW power sources come with welding. However, you can note same way. Let us assume that the CP
a current adjustment control, but dial settings or control positions in supply has a slope of 2 volts per 100
they do not ail come with meters. If your records. Of course, if you are amperes. This means that if the volt-
yours does not have meters, you operating automatic welding equip- age goes down by 2 volts, the cur-
must be careful to avoid using too ment, you can see the meters and rent rises by 100 amperes, and vice
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
much current. The calibration num- record the current as well as control versa. in our example the 15-volt,
bers painted on the control panel are settings. GTAW is normally prac- 100-ampere arc will change to a
not always accurate. Sometimes it is ticed with constant-current or con- 13-volt, 200-ampere arc. This gives
helpful to note the point at which a ventional-current power sources. you 2600 watts (1 3 volts x 200 am-
certain-size tungsten electrode be- These types of power sources hold peres), which is twice the electric
gins to overheat and transfer into the the GTAW current relatively steady energy supplied by the CC unit. The
weld pool. The overheating point is while you are changing the length of change from a 100-ampere arc to
usually very repeatable and is a the arc. Constant-potential power one of 200 amperes would probably
good indicator of current. Keep a re- sources are not normally used for cause the end of the electrode in our
cord of such data points. In this way GTAW. (See Figure 28-4.) Changes example to fall off. Such an even-
you can avoid unexpected transfer in arc length cause large changes in tuality illustrates why it is very im-
of tungsten. You can do the same arc current with CP units. The wide portant for you to use only power
thing with power sources that have swing in current makes it almost im- sources designed for GTAW when
meters. You don’t normally see the possible to use CP power for manual you are welding with GTAW.
welding. A sudden decrease in arc GTAW power sources come in all
length causes a sharp rise in current, sizes and shapes. They are built with
which can overload the tungsten all kinds of convenience features,
electrode. such as gas flow controls and elec-
Unbalanced The overloading of a tungsten trically operated water valves. They
O alternating electrode can be illustrated by a sim- are available with remote controls
current
ple example. Let us assume that we and with current versus time pro-
have a 15-VOlt GTAW arc operating gramming. Don’t let the complicat-
at 1O0 amperes. This gives you 1500 ed appearance of some power
watts (15 volts x 100 amperes) of sources overwhelm you. Just re-
electric energy. If you decrease your member that their purpose is to sup-
Balanced-wave
alternating arc length to 13 volts, with a CC ply volts and amperes to the arc. The
current power supply, you get 1300 watts rest of the features are added for
(13 volts x 100 amperes). How- convenience in setting up a system.
more SP than RP
I\ Conventional-current supply
Arc operating points

determined by arc length (voltage)-
Unbalanced square note small current change.
wave with
more RP than SP I I
Current
Constant-potential supply
o
M
-2
P
Arc operating points determined
by arc length-note large
Balanced square current change.
wave power
-.-” .I---
Current
%E%-:$ Typical ac waveforms
Ll~~GKIiiUE n”HaÏÏüJükI%2:B-d Current swings are much wider with constant-potential sources than
used with GTAW. with constani-current sources.

2B@ SECTION IV GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS
@,ISECTIIVES
should be able to
1. Describe the basic ways to start a n
+g
ni has
millions
hundreds
of volts.
of
GTAW arc.
2. Name three things that lower
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the GTAW arc gap breakdown
vo I tage.
m
3. Explain why high frequency cur-
rent is safer than low frequency
current.
4. Identify the current and voltage
characteristics of hf power.
5 . Explain the benefit of phase shift
control in hf system.
GTAW needs
TWO WAYS TO START thousands of
volts.
There are two basic ways to start a
GTAW arc. One way requires you ---
to touch the electrode momentarily
to the workpiece. Current begins to
flow through the circuit as soon as ~Y~GKJ~PLIE2c.n The breakdown voltage clepencls on tlic shape oí ihe electrocle, the
the electrode touches the work- material it i s made of, ancl the distance ii is from the work piecc.
piece. The arc starts when you lift
the electrode off it. This is the way
you start a typical SMAW arc. With
GTAW the touch start method has THE ARC GAP
one big problem. Each time you You can always cause a spark to The shape of the electrode also
touch the tungsten to the workpiece, jump across any gap if the voltage is plays an important part. It is much
a small piece of tungsten may stick high enough. Lightning jumps the easier for an arc to start from a point-
to the workpiece. This is not good gap between the clouds and the ed electrode than a blunt electrode,
for the weld and is usually consid- ground. Sparks jump the gap in an for electrons jump more easily from
ered a sign of poor technique. The automobile spark plug. (See Figure a point than a blunt surface. This is
other way to start an arc is by caus- 2C-1.)But the larger the gap, the a good reason for using pointed
ing a spark to jump across the gap higher the voltage needed. For this tungsten electrodes.
between the electrode tip and the reason you should try to start all The material of the electrodes also
workpiece. The spark is followed up GTAW arcs with a very small arc plays an important part. Some ma-
by an arc. With this method you gap. The smaller the gap, the lower terials release electrons more easily
avoid contact between the tungsten the voltage needed. than others, which is why it is easier
and the workpiece. The trick to this The gas in the gap also plays an to start an arc on some metals. As
method is to break down the arc gap important part. Some gases break we have indicated, materials such
safely. You do not want to use volt- down at lower voltages than others. as thoria and zirconia, when added
ages and currents that could harm Fortunately, the breakdown voltage to tungsten, reduce the starting
you. In this lesson we will discuss for argon is lower than that for plain voltage.
several methods of starting the arc air. The designer i s able to use a All these factors add up to make
without touching the electrode to lower voltage than would be needed it easier to start a GTAW arc, but
the workpiece. in an open arc. you still need enough voltage to

CHAPTER 2 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS 291
jump the gap. One way to get over the conductor instead of milliamperes. Therefore, if you use
enough voltage is to use a power through it. (See Figure 2C-2.)Elec- only hf power, you cannot make a
source with very high open-circuit tricity that flows over your skin can weld.
voltage. Such power will work, but shock you, but it cannot kill you. The hf power system is designed
it is not safe for manual welding. Current must pass through your to help the welding power supply
Most GTAW is practiced with fewer body to kill you. This is why all arc- break down the arc gap. Once the
than 80 volts, open circuit, for rea- starting systems should use hf cur- gap is broken down, the hf (see Fig-
sons of operator safety. rent. The hf current can flow to the ure 2C-3) electric charges in the gap
arc gap and jump across it if there is make it easy for welding current to
SAFE mar VOI,TAC;IS enough voltage. High-frequency arc follow. However, sometimes you
Alternating current with a high fre- starters are designed to produce fre- can see the hf sparks jump the gap,
quency and direct current with a quencies of hundreds of thousands but welding current still does not fol-
high pulse rate do not flow through of cycles per second (kilohertz) to low. There must be enough electric
the center of a wire. The high fre- millions of cycles per second (mega- charges in the gap to carry the
quency, or high pulse rate, causes hertz). The higher the frequency, the arc-starting current, but sometimes
the current to flow along the surface safer the system. As an added safety the hf power is weak and does not
of the conductor. If the frequency i s measure, the current i s kept low, produce enough. At other times the
high enough, the current will flow usually so low that it is measured in main power source cannot supply
-
The typical volt-ampere curve
voltage breaks down the gap.
-m
4-
O 1 2 3 4 5 milliamperes
The typical volt-ampere curve
50 100 150amperes
Gap breakdown
I I/ An arc will start --`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the gap, and weld
Arc ignition
Current
urrents flow near FIGURE ZC-3 Welding arcs need gap
or on the conductor breakdown followed by welding
current.
center of the wire is
not needed; the wire
can be hollow.
IFïíGiiJIlriiE zCr% 1 h ccirreiit
~ path in a Conductor depends on
the frccliiency of the current.

circuit by changing the cable length

and other factors, you change the
High-frequency frequency.
Time voltage pulses
come in clusters The phase shift adjustment is
helpful when you are welding with
ac power. (See Figure 2C-4.) It is
best to have the hf pulses at their
strongest as the alternating current
Ignition help goes through zero, since at this point
needed
the welding arc always goes out.
Sometimes you can improve arc ig-
Arc current needs help
for ignition. nition and stability by a phase shift
adjustment that times the hf pulses
to be strongest when welding cur-
rent is zero. This shift lets you adjust
for maximum benefit and can make
the difference between a good ac
weld and a poor one. Some mate-
rials are more difficult to weld than
others, and you need all the hf help
A phase shift is used
v w w to move hf pulse clusters you can get.
so that they give the most
help for ignition.
THINGS TO WATCH FOR
High frequency can shock you, but
it won’t kill you. Be careful not to
drop the GTAW torch in a reflex ac-
FIGURE 26.4 A high-frequency phase shift helps ignite the arc. tion or jump around. You will never
get used to hf shocks, but don’t let
them make you do something else
that will hurt you. High frequency
enough current, fast enough, to start amount of hf current, or voltage, will travel over moist surfaces; al-
an arc. When everything is right, over a small range. The frequency ways keep your equipment and
when you have clean materials, a adjustment will let you shift the fre- clothing dry. High frequency can
short gap, pointed electrodes, prop- quency output of the high frequency cause radio interference, for hf pow-
er gas shielding, and good power, slightly. Sometimes a small shift in er acts as a radio station and broad-
the arc will start almost as soon as frequency makes the system work casts radio frequency energy by us-
you turn the power on. better. In a sense, the frequency ad- ing the arc cables and torch as an
Some hf units are built into the justment lets you tune the system, antenna. Install HF units with care,
welding power supply; others are just as you tune in a radio station. and always follow the manufactur-
separate units that you add to an ex- Every circuit has a best frequency for er’s recommendationsfor grounding
isting supply. Most hf systems are delivering the most power. Since the and circuit connections. A properly
designed with controls for adjusting torch and cables are not always the installed hf system is safe to use,
the intensity and the frequency, and best shape or length, the best fre- does not cause objectionable radio
even the phase shift. The intensity quency for delivering hf power will interference, and does a good job in
adjustment will let you change the vary slightly. Instead of tuning the starting and stabilizing arcs.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 2 6AS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS 29.3
LESSON 2D
aDmJIEcTlIWMs
should be able to
1. Name at least three functions of of groups of very thin strands
the GTAW torch. of wire. The insulation is thick
and flexible.
2. Explain why GTAW power cables
should be as short as practical.
3. Describe three things that can
can have
prevent GTAW cable over- cracks,
heating.
4. Explain why you should not use
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
undersized water cooling units
for GTAW torches.
torn insulation, or
5 . Give two reasons for using the
correct GTAW gas flow.
6. Tell why GTAW shielding gas is
hazardous as an asphyxiant.
Y;QUIPIML1;NT REQUIIIEMENTS
GTAW is very similar to SMAW.
ti~í%íiJ~U Z p , í b i i Welding cable should IFHIIEUJ%EZD.% High-frequency volt-
Both need a source of power, con- be kept in good repair to prevent loss ages can cause shocks that may startle
necting cables, and a welding torch. of high frequency as well as accidental you.
However, GTAW requires addition- arcs and sparks.
al equipment when you expect to do
quality welding. The welding torch
is probably the most important of all
the pieces of equipment. It holds the 2D-1.) Instead, the high frequency can pass from a cable to your body
tungsten electrode, supplies the will jump through the weakened in- and over your skin to another con-
shielding gas flow, and provides a sulation to the nearest metal, some- ductor. As we described earlier, the
path for the high frequency to start times to metal that is not grounded other conductor can be the stool you
the arc. This lesson will review the or directly connected to anything. are sitting on, (see Figure 2D-21, the
functions of the equipment you will The hf circuit will be completed table on which your arm i s resting,
find in most GTAW systems. through the capacitance that is al- or any other piece of metal you are
ways present when two conductors touching. Sometimes you can feel a
THE CABLES are separated by a dielectric. In tingle from high frequency, even
The power cables used for GTAW GTAW one plate of the capacitor when everything is in good shape.
should be in good shape. Cable that can be the table and the other plate Cable placement also plays an im-
is suitable for routine SMAW may can be any other piece of metal. Air portant part in hf arc starting. The
not be good enough for GTAW. The serves as the dielectric. A dielectric cable acts as an antenna. If you run
insulation on GTAW cables must be is a material that has good insulation the cable all over, near pipes and
able to withstand the stresses of high properties. It will not break down other grounded conductors, the high
frequency. The voltage of the hf when it is placed under the stress of frequency will weaken. (See Figure
units can be several thousand volts. high voltage. 2D-3.) Therefore, to prevent energy
If the insulation is poor, if the cable Good cable will help you protect loss, keep cables as short as practi-
is damaged, if there are cracks and yourself from hf shocks. You can be- cal between the hf unit and the
crevices, the high frequency will not come part of a circuit through your torch.
get through to the torch. (See Figure body capacitance. The hf energy The power cable can be cooled

c 294 SECTION IV GAS TUNGSTEN A R C WELDING PROCESS
-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Typical water-cooled power cable
Damaged cable can spring a leak.
Hot water can weaken the plastic hose,

then cause it to balloon and burst.
FIGURE 2D.3 High-frequency energy can be lost in long cables or blocked by U~UGüJU~lEWilD.4 Water-cooled power
coiled cables. Keep cables short and straight to get strong high frequency at the arc. cable can be hazardous if it is not
cared {or properly.
by water to keep the weight of the torches. The water flow in a torch rise. A rise in the temperature of the
system down. A small-diameter flex- depends on the water pressure avail- water has to be bad for water-cooled
ible cable is placed inside a hose able. In many areas water pressure power cables. Most cables use plas-
carrying water. If you forget to turn is insufficient. Moreover, when you tic hose for the water; it becomes
on the water, if the water pressure is are working in cold climates, the weaker as the water temperature ris-
low, if the cable is clogged with dirt, water can freeze inside the hoses, es. (See Figure 2D-4.) High-temper-
the cable will overheat. The hot ca- power cable, and torch. A water ature, high-pressure water will
ble will melt the water hose and cooling unit has its own pump, res- cause the hose to rupture, and spray
could even burn completely through ervoir, and Fadiator. it is very similar all over. It may even injure you or
it. Such an eventuality can be pre- to the cooling system of an auto- damage sensitive electric equip-
vented by using a water-cooled fuse mobile. The pressure is regulated to ment. Always maintain and use the
link in the circuit. As long as water give a good steady flow. You can water cooling units according to the
flows, the fuse will not blow. When even use special antifreeze in the manufacturer’s instructions.
the water fails, the fuse can heat up system to prevent system freeze-up.
and blow before damage is done to Just as with other GTAW equip-
the cable. The fuse links are replacement, you must be certain that the SHIELDING GAS KLSGULATION
able. Just be sure you use the correct cooling unit is well maintained. The purity of the inert shielding gas
size. The fuse rating is different for Dirty water, use of the wrong anti- is very important in GTAW. Be sure
different cable diameters. freeze, and poor maintenance can that all the hoses are in good con-
cause the flow rate to fall off. More- dition and leak-free, and be sure that
WATER COOLING over, there can be corrosion inside you use the correct gas flow. Most
UNITS FOR TORCHES the torch. Don’t use an undersized torches have a preferred gas flow
Sometimes it is necessary to use spe- cooling unit for heavy duty, for the range in which gas shielding will be
cial water cooling units for GTAW water temperature will gradually good. I f you use too much gas flow,

CHAPTER 2 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS 295
the shielding will become turbulent inside the torch. Remember to turn you become a statistic. Some sys-
and air will contaminate the weld. If off the shielding gas when you are tems have gas shutoff valves in the
you use too little flow, the shielding finished. Shielding gas is inert and is power source. They even have
will break down with a light breeze. usually argon, which is heavier than water valves for controlling the
Always use the recommended gas air. Helium is lighter than air but is water flow. But even with these
flow. not often used. If you leave gas flow- units it is best to turn off the gas and
Sometimes you may have to ex- ing accidentally, it can displace the water at the end of the day. Don’t
periment a little to improve the breathing air in a room or confined depend on them to provide the extra
shielding. Make your changes in space. Every once in a while you measure of safety. You must provide
flow small ones. If the shielding read about a welder who was as- that yourself.
does not improve, look for trouble phyxiated by a shielding gas. Don’t
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CHAPTER 3
GAS TUNGSTE
SYSTEM OPE
LESSON 3A
,
ARC STARTS,
AIBJUSTMENT
0BJEC’IFIIVES be using. Do not pick a larger di- Time-
Upon completion of this lesson you ameter than necessary, for large
should be able to electrodes run too cool. You need a
1. Explain why you should not use reasonably hot electrode for good
oversized GTAW electrodes. electron emission. When the elec-
2. Explain why you should not use trode is oversized, the starting cur-
GTAW electrodes that are too rent inrush may not be able to heat
smal I. up the cold electrode tip enough.
3. Give a reason for gas purging a Surplus electrons must be given off
GTAW torch. by the.electrode tip in order to get a
4. Tell why a gasoline hose should good start. Without the extra elec- - -
be grounded. trons, the arc will only sputter and :f&1 Too much current can
5. Explain why ultraviolet rays help try to start. cause sina11 pieces of tungsten to trans-
When the electrode diameter is fer to the puddle.
an arc to start.
6. Describe what i s meant by a “hot too small, there i s a possibility of
start.” ”spitting” tungsten. Some power
sources give a current overshoot at water leaks if you are using water-
IT WON’T START the beginning, before settling down cooled equipment. Make sure that
Sometimes the most difficult part of to the welding value. The current the torch is dry by allowing the
GTAW is starting the arc. Everything overshoot can cause some tungsten shielding gas to purge out any mois-
seems to turn against you. The high to transfer to the puddle. (See Figure ture. The high frequency will be
frequency is weak, there is a strong 3A-1.) more intense if your torch is in good
breeze, the power supply isn’t quite Again, always choose an elec- shape. Even the best torch may have
right, and the oxide on the weld trode diameter that is matched to the trouble starting some arcs.
metal seems too heavy for the arc to current you expect to use. And be Here are a few remedies you
penetrate. You can help yourself by sure that you point the tip as rec- might try to help the arc start. First,
making sure the equipment is in ommended for the weld you are turn off the power and quickly, and
good condition. You might set up planning to make. lightly, touch the gas cup with your
some screens to block out cross fingers. (See Figure 3A-2.) Don’t do
drafts, and you can make sure the THE TORCH this if the cup is hot. You can burn
weld zone i s clean. This lesson will Some welding torches seem to start your fingers on a hot gas cup.
teach you additional steps that you better than others. Everyone has a Touching the cup seems to remove
can take to improve arc starts and to favorite torch to use for hard-to-start some sort of electric charge from the
improve overall operations. arcs. You can improve the starting cup. The charge is caused by the gas
capability of any torch by good rubbing against the gas cup and is
THE ELECTRODE maintenance. Be sure that the torch similar to the static charge that can
Always select the electrode diameter is clean and that the gas passages are build up on a gasoline hose when
that is best for the current you will not blocked. There should be no an airplane or an automobile is re-
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CHAPTER 3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION 297
Some weld joints can be designed

with a starting tab built in. You be-
gin the arc on the tab and cut the
tab away when you are finished.
The tab acts as a removable starting
block.
EQUIPMENT
I ~ ~ G U R8A.2
E Some torches with ceramic cups are difficult to start. (a) The charge CTAW power supplies and controls
buildup on a gas cup can inhibit starts. (b) With power off, tap the cup and remove are designed to make starting easier.
the charge. (c) Restore power and the arc starts. One good feature is a foot control
for turning on the power source and
adjusting the current. The foot con-
Resistor to trol lets you get your body and torch
in a comfortable position before
turning on the power. In this way
you have very precise control of the
arc length and the starting position.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
The foot control also gives you a free

hand for adding filler metal. If you
don‘t have a foot control, it may be
on gas cup necessary to use your free hand to
FïíGUBE SA-3 Grounding metal- ii.’MXJt!W :tf%4A starting block may adjust the power source setting. This
jacketed gas cups can improve Iif starts be needed to scratch-start an arc when can become a bit awkward at times.
on some torches. high frequency has difficulty. Some torches have a control on the
handle for adjusting current while
welding, just as you do with a foot
.-
fueled. For this reason, a grounding start. Some welders have even used control.
strap is connected between the hose an ultraviolet lamp to do the same
nozzle and the frame of the vehicle. thing. The light from the ultraviolet THE PUDDLE
Otherwise the static charge would lamp ionizes the air in the same way You must have a good puddle before
cause a spark and an explosive ig- that an arc does. starting the weld bead. The puddle
nition of the fuel. forms slowly if the current is low.
The charge buildup on a CTAW STARTING BLOCKS increasing the current speeds up the
torch seems to prevent good elec- There are times when you may have starting time. When you want a fast
tron emission from the tip. The arc to start an arc without the help of a start, extra current is needed. The
will start after the gas cup is touched hf unit. This means that you must hot-start current can be determined
to remove the charge. Sometimes a scratch-start it. Whenever you by how you operate a foot control.
metal-jacketed ceramic gas cup can scratch-start a GTAW arc, a little bit Some equipment is designed with a
be used. The metal jacket can be of tungsten sticks to the workpiece. separate hot-start circuit. The spe-
connected to a grounding circuit A starting block will minimize tung- cial circuit provides extra current,
through a high resistance. (See Fig- sten in the weld. Starting blocks can and you can set the hot-start time.
ure 3A-3.) Never ground the metal be made of extra weld metal, a Once the puddle is formed, you are
jacket directly to earth. The high fre- piece of carbon, or even a copper ready to weld.
quency will jump to the cup instead disk. (See Figure 3A-4.) The starting
of to the workpiece. block i s placed near the place you
Another helpful step i s to use an expect to weld. You scratch-start the
additional arc alongside the arc that GTAW arc on the block, then move
is difficult to start. The ultraviolet off the block and onto the work-
rays from the first arc ionize the air piece. Just remember, the arc will
near the second torch. The charges leave a trail wherever it touches the
in the air around the second torch workpiece. Therefore you should be
will bleed away the charges on its careful to place the starting block
gas cup, and the second arc will where it will do the most good.

29% SECTION IV GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS
LESSON 3B
ammcmvms
should be able to
1. Describe two ways to prevent
GTAW crater cracks.
2. Name two types of GTAW cur-
rent control that can determine
the heat put into the puddle.
3. Explain why you must be careful
not to whip a GTAW torch, as FEGUI63 51.11 One way to prevent LFHQUiiRE 383.2 Top view of weld cra-
you can an SMAW electrode, crater cracks i s to add some filler ters. (a) Uniform grain growth as the
when stopping a weld. metal. puddle freezes can concentrate stresses
4. Describe why postflow gas and cause cracks. (6) Arc manipulation
shielding is needed. or current pulsation can disrupt the
5. Explain the use of a runoff tab. pattern of the grain growth and prevent
cracks.
DON’T JUST STOP CURRENT CONTROL to break up the stress pattern in the
When it comes time to finish making One way to decrease the arc heat is puddle. (See Figure 36-2.) When the
a weld bead, why don‘t you just stop to reduce the current. Gradually pattern is interrupted, the shrinkage
welding? Why not just turn off the lowering the arc current will reduce stress cannot concentrate fully, and
power? Or why not whip the torch the heat gradually. To lower the arc cracks are prevented from forming.
away from the workpiece? Or why current, you will find it advanta-
not go fast and reduce the heat in- geous to use a foot control with the nmc 11 M TIO ON
put? Just as in many things you do, power source. The foot control is Moving the torch faster along the di-
you don’t just stop. You don’t slam designed to let you adjust the output rection of travel puts less heat into
on the brakes when you park your current and can be a big help both each inch of weld. When there is
car. You don’t hit a nail with a ham- while you are welding and during a plenty of room left, you can speed
mer as hard as you can when the weld stop. With the foot control you up the travel as the current is inter-
nail is almost flush. In this lesson we have complete control over the arc rupted. However, stopping this way
will discuss the best ways to stop current and heat. If you hold the creates a potential problem. The
welding with GTAW. torch steady in one place, the Pud- shielding gas can be disturbed if you
dle will shrink or expand as you ad- move too fast. (See Figure 3B-3.)
THE Pumrx just the foot control. Each change in The weld bead will lose the protec-
Every weld puddle shrinks when the current will show up as a ripple in tion of the inert gas shield. Therefore
arc heat i s removed. As the metal the puddle’s freezing pattern. you cannot whip the torch around
cools and contracts, stresses build Some operators try to taper the as you can whip an SMAW elec-
up in the crater. These stresses can current gradually until the arc goes trode. The same is true for increas-
cause shrinkage cracks in the crater. out. Other operators like to decrease ing the arc length. Every torch
Sometimes it is possible to prevent the current in little steps. Each of motion must be a careful one; other-
the cracks by slowing down the these techniques for diminishing the wise the shielding gas will be dis-
cooling rate. Or you can add metal current, tapering and in steps, can turbed. Sometimes a small circular
to the crater to fill in the space left be used to reduce crater cracks. motion while the current is decaying
by shrinkage. (See Figure 3B-1.) You When one method doesn’t work, will prevent crater cracks.
can even try to reduce the crater you can try the other. In fact, some
size. All techniques to control the operators cut the current off and on SIíiICLI)IN(; (;AS
crater depend on the arc or the torch and make an intermittent stop. One common fault of many welders
motion, or on both. These current control methods tend is turning off the shielding gas before
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CHAPTER 3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION 29%
-
Starting
Tack welds
Torch- Motion Faster
body motion
loss of
,shielding
Starting tab
FE6iiURB.: 3 ü b % Shielding gas streams are deflected when torches are moved. Do not
move GTAW torches too rapidly.
the puddle has completely solidi- the puddle. It will cause the puddle in tab
fied. A short cooling period is help- to freeze faster than normal. If this FHGuWE 3B.4 Crater ciacl<s can be
ful. Hot metal can react with gases happens to you, give the current foot prevented by using start and stop tabs.
in the air. The oxides and other control a little pulse to burn off the
compounds can contaminate the rod. Don’t try to yank the rod from
crater weld metal. Be sure the the wddle. It will drag some metal
shielding gas is allowed to flow long with it and probably ruin the crater.
up the sidewall of the weld joint.
enough. How long is “long This puts the stopping crater on the
enough”? The answer is until the HUNOFF TARS
wall and not on the bead you are
weld metal does not discolor. The Another way to finish a weld with-
overlapping. It prekents stress from
time will vary with the type of metal, out a crater, and without crater
accumulating in the weld bead it-
its thickness, and the amount of arc cracks, is to put the crater on anoth-
self. If the stop i s made on top of
heat put into the weld. The postflow er piece of metal. You can tack-weld
another bead, you can try to make
gas shielding period is very impor- a runoff tab to the piece you are
a smooth transition. One way to do
tant. Don’t cut corners to save gas. welding. Just as you can begin a
this is to reverse travel direction and
It could lead to a crater crack, which weld on a starting tab, you can finish
remelt part of the bead just made.
will need repair. on a runoff tab. (See Figure 3B-4.)
Put the crater on the new bead, not
The tabs are removed by mechani-
the old bead. You can manipulate
F I I ~ L K IMM’AI,
~ cal means such as sawing and bend-
the torch in a small circular motion
When you are using GTAW with filling. It all depends on how securely
as the current i s tapered. This will
er metal, putting in a small dab at the tabs are attached.
give a smoother appearance to the
the end can prevent a crater crack. weld and prevent stress from con-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Try to time the addition of the last Pl PE W Is LT)I NC,

centrating in particular sites. Stop-
bit of metal for just before you begin When you stop welding in a pre-
ping a weld is like stopping your car.
to taper the current. If you try to add pared pipe joint, extra care is nec-
A smooth, controlled stop is much
the filler during the taper period, essary, Sooner or later the end of a
easier on you and the car, and it is
you might wind up with the filler rod bead runs into the beginning of the
easier on you and the weld bead.
stuck in the crater. The filler rod acts weld. If the joint is not complete,
as a heat sink and removes heat from you can taper the current as you run

aBB3ECTI3VES
Upon completion of this lesson you Falling
-molten aluminum
should be able to drops
1. Define the term refractory oxide.
2. Describe what happens when
molten aluminum is dropped into
water.
3. Explain why it is best to weld alu-
bubbles
minum when it has just been
cleaned.
4. Explain why alternating current is Water
' molecules
preferred for aluminum welding.
5 . Describe how DCEN can be used
for aluminum welding.
,Tank of
BARRIER LAYERS water
The cleaning action of the arc during
GTAW was discussed briefly in Les-
son 1D. This cleaning action con-
sists of removing surface oxide from
A, H,
~
i l dl Ai Ai
the metal being welded. Cleaning
plays a very important part in alu- FüGä..Ji#tEtC.8 Molten aluminurn dropped into water releases hydrogen as each
minum welding, for aluminum is drop becomes covered with an aluminum oxide layer. Sometimes tiny hydrogen
normally covered by a thin layer of bubbles stick to the aluminum drops as they fali to the bottom of the tank. Hydrogen
aluminum oxide. The oxide forms is released when the drops are disturbed.
almost immediately on a freshly
cleaned aluminum surface. The alu-
minum metal reacts with the oxygen in ceramics and furnace bricks. made of hydrogen and oxygen
in air and creates aluminum oxide Magnesium also forms a similar ox- (H,O), the hydrogen is released as
like a protective wrapper. ide layer, which too is a refractory bubbles of gas. in fact, when alu-
The oxide acts as a barrier layer oxide. - minum is cut over water by an arc
and keeps air away from the rest of it is almost impossible for alumi- process, the molten metal causes a
the aluminum. This layer of aluminum and magnesium to exist with- great deal of hydrogen to be re-
num oxide is what gives aluminum out the oxide layer. Even if you leased. The aluminum chips and
its ability to stand up to all kinds of scrape the oxide layer away and ex- spatter from the cut absorb a consid-
weather. But it is also what makes pose clean aluminum, a layer of ox- erable amount of oxygen and re-
welding aluminum difficult. ide forms immediately. The only lease a considerable amount of hy-
way to prevent the oxide layer from drogen. The hydrogen, which is
REFRACTORY OXIDE forming is to keep air (oxygen) flammable, can explode if ignited.
The layer of oxide that forms on alu- away. Aluminum, especially hot Even aluminum dust from machin-
minum is called a refractory oxide, aluminum, wants to combine with ing operations and saw cuts does the
which means that it does not melt or oxygen. This characteristic of alu- same thing. For this reason you
vaporize at high temperatures. it i s minum is so strong that molten alu- should be careful and never allow
chemically similar to alumina, an minum dropped into water will take aluminum dust to become wet. it
aluminum oxide which is used in the oxygen from the water, stripping will release hydrogen which can ex-
making the cups for guiding GTAW it away from the water molecules. plode if ignited. The same type of
shielding gas. Alumina is also used (See Figure 3C-1.)Since water is thing happens with magnesium and
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

some other metals that form refrac- Tungsten electrode

tory oxides.
CLEANING ALUMINUM
AND MAQ)PiE§IUM
Aluminum, magnesium, and their
alloys cannot be successfully weld-
ed unless their oxide layer is re-
moved. The oxide layer becomes
thicker as time passes. However, it
finally stops getting thicker when the
oxide keeps air from reaching
through to the aluminum under-
neath. The longer you wait to weld
aluminum, the more difficult it be-
comes to weld. You must try to weld
wiiGii.JRE 3C-2 The reverse-polarity (direct current, electrode positive) arc cleans
aluminum as soon as you can after
away the oxide layer on aluminum.
it has been cleaned. Don't clean it
the night before and expect to weld
it in the morning. It is best to clean
aluminum just before you intend to
weld it. Don't wait more than a few
for providing arc ignition help, but cleaning action, some other things
hours. The longer you wait, the
they are not the only way. Various must be done. First, be sure the
thicker the oxide layer becomes,
devices have been developed to metal is recently cleaned. This will
and the harder it becomes to weld.
provide a voltage spike at the right keep the oxide layer from being very
As was discussed in Lesson 1D, the
moment. The voltage spike works thick. Second, keep a very short arc
arc cleans away the oxide layer
like a short burst of high frequency. length. This will concentrate the arc
when reverse polarity (electrode
The voltage spike units are called by heat and the arc force and help
positive) is used. (See Figure 3C-2.)
various names such as surge injec- thrust the arc through the oxide lay-
But because tungsten electrodes
tors, impulse generators, and arc er. Third, you could use helium as
have a low current rating with DCEP
stabilizer circuits. Sometimes a the shielding gas. The helium will
polarity, most aluminum and mag-
low-current DCEP arc is passed over make the arc even hotter. Helium-
nesium alloys are welded with alter-
the weld zone before the weld is shielded arcs use more voltage than
nating current. As we indicated ear-
made. The low current will not melt argon-shielded arcs of the same
lier, the electrode-positive cycle of
the tungsten electrode, but it will do length. (See Figure 3C-3.) Therefore
alternating current is used to clean
reasonably well at cleaning away the helium-shielded arcs are hotter
away the oxide layer, the elec-
the oxide. Then, when the main at the same current. But you must be
trode-negative polarity to make the
welding arc is used it doesn't have a very skilled welder to take this
weld.
as much oxide to clean away. In step, for it is very difficult to weld
MICH-FHEQUENCY some circumstances you might want
When alternating current is used be- to use a separate GTAW torch in
cause of its ability to clean away the front of the main welding torch. The Same arc length,
oxide, another problem i s created. extra torch will clean a path on the approximately
The oxide layer acts as an electric surface being welded by the other
i in.
I
25-
insulator and makes reignition of ac one.
1 i
arc particularly difficult when it goes
off as the current passes through hL'I'E~RNAïIVE§ +d
o 10-
20-
i 15-
Helium/
Argon/
3'
zero. The problem is solved in two What do you do when all you have >
5- GTAW, aluminum
ways. One way is to use a power is a dc power supply?The DCEP will
source with a very high open-circuit
voltage, usually over 150 volts. The
other way is to give the power sup-
not let you weld at high enough cur- -
rent, for the tungsten will not toler-
ate the current needed for welding.
0
O 50 100
Current
150
FHGUHBE 3C.3 Helium-shielded arcs

- 200
ply a little help. The hf units we have You can use DCEN polarity. How- require more arc voltage than the same
described are very popular devices ever, since DCEN does not give any length of arc shielded with argon.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

aluminum manually with helium as can also be used to make the arc and magnesium alloy welding is
the shielding gas. hotter. 'There are mixtures of hydro- cleanliness. Keep the surface clean
This DCEN-helium shielding gen and helium and even triple mix- and weld while it is clean.
method is best used with mecha- es of hydrogen, helium, and argon.
nized setups. Other gas mixtures The secret to successful aluminum
LESSON 3D
IMPORTANT VARIABLES
OBJECTIVES Dust from the air

should be able to
1. List at least five important varia-
bles that control the quality of the
weld and the power of the arc.
2. Name three things that will hap-
pen if you use the wrong GTAW
polarity. FIGURE 3Ip-P Typical sources of weld metal contamination.
3. Explain how manipulation of arc
length controls GTAW arc power.
4. Describe the importance of the
power source's volt-ampere grease, moisture, oxide coatings, plate until it is welded, can make a
curve. and other contaminants will make bit improvement in quality. Cover-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
5. Describe the effects of GTAW he- welds porous. The heat of the arc ing the plate is especially helpful for
lium shielding. will cause trapped gases to expand, joints with complicated preparations
as well as help chemical reactions and for exotic metals like titanium.
CONTROL IS IMPORTANT to take place. When you want to
Gas tungsten arc welding is no dif- make the same weld, day after day, POLARITY AND POWER
ferent from the other arc welding the material must be clean. Do not Most materials have a preferred po-
processes. There are certain process expect batch cleaning to solve your larity with which they should be
characteristics that must be con- problem. Critical welds need clean- welded. Otherwise all welding
trolled correctly if you want good ing and preparation just before could be done with only one polar-
welds. This lesson discusses the ma- welding is begun. Cleaned plate be- ity. Always make sure you are con-
jor variables that affect the arc per- gins to become dirty immediately. nected for the polarity specified by
formance. These variables are the (See Figure 30-1 .) Dust from air, va- the engineer. The wrong polarity
ones that determine the quality of pors, smoke, moisture, fingerprints, will not clean and penetrate and can
the weld and the power of the arc. and oxidation all contribute their cause excessive consumption of
When you have control over these share of dirt. tungsten. Always double-check your
important variables, you can always When the weld quality is not crit- polarity when you set up the system.
repeat the weld and obtain the same ical, you can slack off a bit. Instead Current and voltage determine the
result. If you do not have good con- of cleaning the metal just before arc power. The power source setting
trol of these variables, weld quality welding, you can clean it several controls the current; you control the
will suffer. hours in advance, and in some cir- arc voltage. Try to use the recom-
cumstances even days in advance. mended current level. Become fa-
MATERIALS Only actual welding experience will miliar with the power source settings
All metals must be clean before they tell you how far in advance. A little and the sensitivity of the power
can be welded properly. Oils, care, such as covering the cleaned source to them. Some units are very

,I
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Constant-current
Arc lengths power supply
80
2 20
10 with different
in. lengths
Current- O 100 amoere
Current -c
Conventional-current
%-in. arc l - i n . arc a I power supply
JlT!GlU1IEII< :finn.z The arc length changes

LA Long arcs
spread
the heat.
Length,
inches
Voltage,
volts
Current,
amperes
p 10
c
Power,
watts
I I I
90 100 110ampere
Current-
Typical arc
lengths
Power Supply Type

the arc voltage and the powei
distribution.
’/a 10 1O0 Constant current
y
16 15 1O0
sensitive. A slight change in setting

can give a large shift in current. If
you do not become familiar with
your power source settings, you may -
lose tungsten, overheat the weld VI 6 15 100 gLi500 Conventional current
metal, and accidently burn through ’/4 20 90 z 1800 Conventional current
the joint.
wiiciÏi;iaT~m3m-3The arc power response to a change in length depends on the
The one variable you have good
volt-ampere curve of the power source.
control of is the arc voltage. Arc
length controls the arc voltage. You
control the arc length. A steady
hand means steady length and volt- Depending on the shape of the crease productivity by upping the
age. A short arc means low voltage volt-ampere curve, the power can current and making the torch travel
and vice versa. (See Figure 3D-2.) increase, stay the same, or even de- faster. Usually there i s a preferred
By the length of the arc, you control crease as the arc becomes longer. It travel speed for a specific joint de-
the power distribution as well as the is important therefore to become fa- sign. It all depends on how fast the
voltage. Short arcs concentrate the miliar with the power source that arc heat is conducted away from the
heat, long arcs spread it out. Manip- will be used to make the weld. Once puddle, and how much heat you are
ulating the arc length is your means you become aware of these differ- using. if you are butt-welding heavy
of controlling arc heat. Each typ,e of ences, you can make adjustments in aluminum plate, small changes in
power source has its own power re- your technique. Most welders have heat will not be important. If you are
sponse. The same arc length manip- a favorite unit. it is the one with a edge-welding thin sheet, small
ulation can give two different heat power response that feels comforta- changes can be critical. Then you
responses, depending on the power ble to them. In fact, some find it very must have stable current, control the
source. The most important variable difficult to change machines when arc length well, and maintain a
here is the shape of the power they have been using one for a long steady travel speed. Changes in any
source’s volt-ampere curve. Power time. factor could cause the puddle to
sources with true constant current overheat. You will learn to judge
change voltage only as the arc TRAVEL SPEED these factors for yourself. it is im-
length alters. (See Figure 3D-3.) All Gas tungsten arc welding can be portant that you follow the welding
other power sources change current very sensitive to changes in welding procedure developed by the weld-
and voltage at the same time. speed. You may be tempted to in- ing engineer. Control of heat input

384 SECTION IV 6AS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING PROCESS
is one of the most important factors mixture, you may have to make the
in welding metallurgy. The heat torch travel faster to prevent over-
added must be closely controlled to heating the puddle. The problem
get good metal properties and the here is that helium is lighter than air.
designed weld strength. Don't make Therefore it is more difficult to get
changes in a procedure by yourself. good puddle protection. On occa-
Always follow the procedure given sion you may find it helpful to use
you. Otherwise you could cause a helium for overhead welding. (See
weld to fail through delayed crack- Figure 3D-4.) Since it i s lighter than
ing or too little strength. air, some people feel it gives better
protection to overhead puddles than
SHIELDING CAS argon shielding. The important thing
As was discussed in Lesson lE, the to remember is that the type of
arc performance is very dependent shielding gas and the flow rate is
on the shielding gas. Shielding gas very important to the quality of the
not only protects the metal from weld. Use flow meters to set the gas
contamination but also affects arc
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
flow; don't just turn it up and weld.
heat. Helium increases the arc volt- BHGUi#iE 311D041Sometimes helium In this case, it isn't true that "If a
age, compared to argon. The in- shielding is used for overhead welding. little bit is good, more is better." AI-
crease in voltage, at the same arc Helium is lighter than air and rises, as ways use the recommended gas flow
length, also increases the delivered well as giving hotter arcs. rate.
arc power. If you are using a helium
BPBSECTHVES the arc and its sound will give you is a slight breeze. (See Figure 3E-1.)
Upon completion of this lesson you a good warning that something is Usually the best way to deal with
should be able to wrong. You should try to look for drafts is to use screens or welding
1. Describe how you can tell when little changes before they become curtains. If you are welding outdoors
shielding is about to go bad. much of a problem. For example, you may have to build a temporary
2. Explain why GTAW filler rod when you are welding aluminum, a welding shelter.
should be kept boxed. change in the sound of the arc can Sometimes GTAW is practiced in-
3. Explain why you should never indicate that it is no longer cleaning side a specially built box. You are
add GTAW filler wire with your away the oxide. on the outside and operate the torch
bare hand. with rubber gloves through the sides
4. Describe what is meant by GAS SHIELDLNG of the box. The box is completely
hot-wire addition. Good gas shielding is essential to filled with shielding gas. A slight
5. Describe what is meant by "pilot good GTAW. It does not take much flow of purging gas keeps air from
arc" starting. of a draft to disturb the gas flow. getting inside the box.
For example, a one-mile-per-hour You may occasionally notice a
LITTLE CHANGES breeze can begin to ruin the gas small amount of black, or white,
Most problems you run into will im- flow. The stiffness of the gas shield- soot at the edge of a weld. This is a
mediately show up in the weld Pud- ing column can be increased by in- sign that shielding is beginning to
dle. Since CTAW is a very stable, creasing the gas flow. If 8 to 10 cu- break down at the weld edge. You
clean process, minor changes will bit feet per hour of argon is good may not be able to correct this by
affect the puddle. The arc is also when there are no breezes, you may changes in the flow of the welding
sensitive to changes. The shape of have to use 20 to 30 cfh where there torch shielding gas. You may have

CHAPTER 3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION 3Q5
to use a trailing gas shield. This

shield is helpful when you are using
special mechanical equipment to
hold the weld materials in place, or
H No breeze-the arc
and cleaning zone
are uniform.
when you are doing automatic

welding. The purpose of the trailing
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
gas shield is to flood the weld zone

with inert gas (see Figure 3E-2) while
‘Weld puddle
the puddle is freezing. Otherwise
the puddle can pick up all kinds of Slight breeze-the
contamination from the room air. cleaning zone
171LLK R IM ETA1
Gas tungsten arc welding is a great
process for joining two pieces by
m is unbalanced.
m
melting them together, but much of
the time you need to add filler metal Trailing shield
to the puddle. The filler metal can Strong breeze-
cleaning is lost.
be a source of contamination. Be
sure to take care of open packages
of filler rod. Don’t let unused filler
rods lie around to collect dust and Moiten Very Hot Warm
metal hot metal metal
dirt. Adding filler metal with one metal
hand while welding with the other FHGWRiE t E - B The appearance of the PPúÙUïRE 3E-2A trailing shield i s used
is a skill you will learn. (See Figure cleaning zone is a good indicator of to protect the puddle and hot metal
3E-3.) The trick is to keep the filler strong breezes. Use screens and cur- from oxidation by air. It is used for
rod from touching the tungsten elec- tains when necessary. high travel speeds and with reactive
trode and contaminating it. What metals.
you try to do is place the tip of the
rod where the extra metal is needed.
Then bring the arc to the tip of the
filler rod and melt it off. Then with-
draw the filler while the added metal
is wet into the puddle. Don’t be
afraid to bend the filler rod into a
convenient shape to hold. Some-
times a little bend in the right place
r4
can make all the difference in put-
ting metal where you want it.
Try to keep the filler rod at a low to add filler wire.
angle and close to the plate. When
the filler metal angle is increased,
and moved toward the vertical, the
shielding gas will become contami-
nated. When the angle is low, and
the rod is near the plate, the shield-
ing gas will flow outward along the
rod. When the angle is steep, and
the rod is away from the plate, air
can be dragged into the arc. (See
Figure 3E-4.) The shielding gas flows
along the rod toward the arc instead IFEQUBiE lEmlAlways wear gloves when adding filler wire. The contact of filler
of away from the arc. This sets up a wire with the electrode or arc can complete a circuit through your body.

isolated from the main torch body,

allows a separate power source to
be connected between the gas cup
and the tungsten electrode. Then
Normal when gas shielding is turned on, a
GTAW
arc system separate arc can be started between
the tungsten electrode and the inside
of the gas cup.
Sometimes a special pilot arc
electrode is added to the torch. The
pilot arc of this electrode is com-
pletely separate from the main arc.
The pilot arc heats up the tungsten
wire and makes it easy for the main arc
power to start. It also makes a path of hot
source
ionized gas which the main arc can
FIGURE 3E.4 Add filler wire at srnail FIGURE BE-5 Hot wire is added by follow when it starts. With a pilot
angles. Steep angles can cause air to using a separate wire-feeding system
arc torch the operator keeps the
be dragged into the arc and to contam- and a special low-voltage power
main power turned off until the last
inate the puddle. source.
second. Then when the pilot arc
gases are touching the workpiece,
and the torch is in position, the op-
low pressure along the rod and caus- the filler wire into the puddle. (See erator can turn on the main power.
es air to be dragged into the arc. Figure 3E-5.) The net effect is to in- This is usually done with a foot con-
Special torches have mechanical crease the deposition rate and to add trol. As soon as the switch is closed,
provisions to overcome this effect extra heat to the puddle. Sometimes the main arc power jumps between
when adding filler wire. Almost all this is referred to as hot-wire weld- the electrode and workpiece. The
mechanical devices add filler wire at ing, even though the hot wire can- pilot light of a gas stove ignites a
shallow angles. This way of adding not make a weld by itself. An arc is burner in a similar way.
filler wire is the cold-wire addition needed in adding both cold wire There are a great many variations
mentioned earlier. The term cold and hot wire in order to make a of GTAW. It is impossible to cover
wire means that there is no electric weld. them here. Just remember, every
power on the wire as it is added. problem you come across has prob-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
You must remember that the filler PILOT ARCS ably happened to someone else. The
wire is in contact with the arc and Because the cleanliness of the tung- solutions they found to their prob-
can be the source of an electric sten is very important in GTAW, you lems may be the answers you need
shock. Never add filler wire by hold- must be very careful not to get too for yours. The best thing for you to
ing it in your bare hand. Always close to the-workpiece with hf start- do is ask questions and try to find
wear gloves. ing. Another technique is used to out how other people solved their
Another way to add filler wire me- start GTAW arcs, a method called problems. You might even come up
chanically in GTAW is called hot- "pilot arc" starting. It is named after with your own solution and discover
wire addition. The term hot wire the pilot light in a gas stove. A spe- a new way to do something. That i s
means that the wire has electric cial pilot arc torch with an extra exactly what the inventors of
power on it as it i s added. A separate electric circuit is needed. The spe- hot-wire welding and pilot arc start-
power source is connected between cial torch has a metal gas cup, or a ing did.
the filler wire guide and the weld ceramic cup with a metal insert. The
puddle. Extra current flows through gas cup, designed to be electrically

cmmcmwim freehand. You should look for some way to support the
Upon completion of this chapter you should be able to hand you use to hold the torch while welding. Hold the
1. Weld corner joints, fillets, and V-groove butt joints in torch in a way that is most comfortable to you. Some
the flat position. hold the torch as you would a pencil, others as you would
2. Weld corner joints, fillets, and V-groove butt joints in an electrode holder. Hold the filler wire between your
the horizontal position. thumb and forefinger with 10 to 12 in. sticking out.
3. Weld corner joints, fillets, and V-groove butt joints in Remember, it's difficult to produce sound welds if you
the vertical position. are in a awkward or uncomfortable position.
4. Weld corner joints, fillets, and V-groove butt joints in
the overhead position. PEIBrdBNAEL EQU'BPIENa'
For the purposes of this chapter, your personal equipment
should consist of
1. Welding shield with appropriate filter lens.
In the previous chapters you have learned about the the- 2. Safety glasses.
ory of operation of gas tunsten arc welding; now you will 3. Short-cuff leather gloves.
begin to put the theory into practice. The welding pro- 4. Appropriate welding clothing.
cedures will specify amperage ranges. If your equipment 5. Wire brush.
has an amperage remote-control foot pedal, you may 6 . Pliers.
wish to use it, although it is not required. In industry you
will find many situations in which foot pedals cannot be
used because of the position or size of the weldment. It
would be good to practice welding without remote cur-
rent control so that you will be better prepared. High
frequency will be specified for ease in starting the arc.
The arc can be initiated by a touch start technique, but
this is not a preferred method since it often causes a small
portion of the end of the tungsten to break off and remain
in the weld. The type of torch you use will depend
on the equipment available in your shop. Air-cooled
torches are limited in capacity. Water-cooled torches are
preferred.
You will learn the fundamental techniques by welding
on carbon steel. Carbon steel is readily available and is
considerably less expensive than stainless steel or alu-
minum. In the next chapter you will weld aluminum,
using much of what you learned on carbon steel. If you
master GTAW of carbon steel and aluminum, you will be
able to weld other materials with just a little additional
instruction and practice.
Gas tungsten arc welding requires you to use both
hands when welding and adding filler wire and one foot
when using remote amperage control pedals. As with any
welding process, a key to accomplishing quality welding
is to get comfortable. It is important in GTAW to hold a
short and steady arc, which means holding the torch as
steady as possible. Few of us are steady enough to do this
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

RUNNING A FLAT PAD OF STRINGERS
MATEBEAL A N D EEQWHPIENT
2. One piece of carbon steel Y4 in.
X 3 in. x 6 in. long.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, %-in.
diameter.
4. 2% thoriated tungsten electrode,
or Yx-in. diameter, pointed.
'/I€.-
5 . Gas cup, lh-in. diameter.
PROCEDURE
IFííGiIJUWJE 4A-li Torch angle for running a flat pad of stringers.
DCEN, 90 to 150 amperes.
High-frequency start 10 to 15
cfh argon. between the tungsten electrode n
P
2. Grind or sand the surface to be and the workpiece. This will al-
welded to remove any mill scale low the current to begin to flow.
or rust. When the arc is established, the
3. Position the plate flat. Hold the high frequency will stop. If you
GTAW torch in your right hand, do not have high frequency, you
and position the torch just will have to touch the tungsten
above the plate on the to the work lightly, then lift the
right-hand side of the plate. tungsten off to establish an arc.
With your left hand grasp the This is best accomplished by Il~iiGUJiiRB?,4 A 3 Filler wire addition.
filler metal between your thumb holding the torch in such a man-
and forefinger, allowing approx- ner that you can roll the torch
imately 10 to 12 in. to protrude in your hand to contact the
through your fingers. Reverse workpiece and establish an arc.
this procedure if you are 6. Establish a weld puddle, hold- 8. Add the filler metal a dab at a
left-handed. ing the torch perpendicular to time to the leading edge of the
4. Energize the torch. This can be the plate and pointing toward puddle. Move the wire back and
done by turning on the power the direction of travel. (See Fig- move the torch forward to ad-
source, turning on a torch ure 4A-1.) vance the puddle. Continue this
switch, or depressing a remote- 7. Bring the filler metal close to the technique to weld a straight
control foot switch. If the equip- puddle and add the wire to its bead. (See Figure 4A-3.) Keep
ment is available, use all three frontedge. (See Figure 4A-2.) Be the end of the filler metal within
techniques to practice starting careful not to touch the filler the protective gas shield. If you
the arc. In future procedures we wire to the tungsten, which will withdraw the filler wire from the
will just say strike the arc. cause the wire to melt onto the gas shield, the hot end will ox-
5 . Slowly lower the torch and es- tungsten and contaminate it. If idize in the air and cause con-
tablish an arc. If you have high this happens you will have to taminants to enter the weld
frequency, it will cross the gap stop and regrind your tungsten. puddle.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 4 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING OF CARBON STEEL 309
9. Continue progressing at an even

travel speed, adding filler wire
regularly to produce a straight -l
bead with even width and
height. Use a slight circular mo-
Too fast, too cold, or both\
tion to spread the puddle and
assure that the sides of the pud-
dle fuse into the base metal.
(See Figure 4A-4.)
FIGURE 4A-4Circular motion to
10. When you break the arc either spread the puddle and bead contours.
to reposition yourself or because
you have finished the bead, be
sure to keep the torch over the
puddle for a period of time to
allow the postflow gas purge to
protect the weld while it is still
hot. The shielding gas will keep
the air away from the hot weld
bead.
11. Continue to weld stringer beads,
overlapping the beads so that
(cl the one you are welding covers
half of the previous bead. (See
FIIGUIRE 4A.3 Movement of the wire
and torch in adding filler metal. Figure 4A-5.) Cool your plate in
(a) Add filler metal. (b)Remove the a quench tank regularly so that
wire. (c) Move the torch toward the it does not overheat. Be careful
leading edge of the puddle. to avoid steam burns. FIGURE 4A.5 Bead sequence.
OUTSIDE=CORNERJOINT 16 POSITION
MATEWIAE AND EQWHPMENT filler wire to the leading edge of

1. Personal welding equipment. the puddle. Since the GTAW arc
2. Two pieces of carbon steel, '/a in. does not transfer metal, it is not
x 1V" in. x 6 in. long. too difficult to form the keyhole.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, 'A6 or %z-in. If you use the correct amperage
diameter. and add the filler metal properly,
4. 2% thoriated tungsten electrode, you will find that you have a good
%-in. diameter, pointed. deal of control over the weld
5. Gas cup, %-in. diameter. puddle.
4. As you add the filler metal, the
wire will begin to shorten and
PROCEDURE your fingers holding it will begin
1. Adjust the welding current: FIGURE 4A.6 Tacking procedure and to get close to the arc. When it
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
DCEN, 50 to 100 amperes. High- weld position for a flat outside-corner becomes necessary to shift to an-
frequency start, 10 to 15 cfh joint. other hold on your filler wire,
argon. break the arc, and keep the torch
2. Grind or sand the surfaces to be with its postflow gas purge over
welded. Tack the pieces together joint, use the torch angles shown the cooling weld puddle. The end
and position them as shown in in Figure 4A-7 and strike an arc. of the wire should also be in the
Figure 4A-6. Establish a keyhole for complete gas purge to protect it from
3. Beginning at the right side of the penetration, and begin adding oxidation.

5. Extend the wire again 10 to 12

in., strike an arc, establish a pud-
dle, and begin adding the wire to
the lead edge of the puddle.
6. Remember to dab the wire into
the puddle. Do not continuously
feed it. Doing so can lead to po-
rosity, lack of fusion, and slag
entrapment.
T-JOINT FILLET, IF POSITION

2. One piece of carbon steel, 1'12 in.
x '/6 in. x 8 in. long; one piece
of carbon steel, 3 in. X y8 h. X
8 in. long.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, '/16- or %-in.
diameter.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FIGURE 4A.8 Tacking procedure and

4. 2% thoriated tungsten electrode, weld position for a flat T-joint fillet.
%>-in. diameter, pointed.
5. Gas cup, %-in. diameter.
PROCEDURE
High-frequency start, 1O to 15 cfh
argon.
2. Grind or sand the pieces to be Filler
welded. Tack them together and wire
position them as shown in Figure
4A-8. Position the T base at a
45-degree angle so that the weld
will be applied flat.
3. Hold the torch perpendicular to
the joint and pointing at an angle
FIGURE 4A-9 Torch angles.
of about 30 degrees toward the
direction of travel. (See Figure
4A-9.) walls and cause them to melt be- 5. Add the filler wire in a dabbing
4. Strike an arc and establish a pud- fore the root of the joint does. If motion, advancing the torch
dle. Make sure the sidewalls melt you begin to add filler metal be- when you withdraw the filler
down to the root of the T joint. fore the root of the joint is molten, metal. When you do this you ad-
Because the sidewalls are nearer the weld will bridge the joint and vance the puddle and prepare it
to the electrode than the root of not penetrate to the root. (See Fig- for the addition of more filler
joint, the arc will go to the side- Ure 4A-10.) metal. Remember, when with-

CHAPTER 4 6 A S TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING OF CARBON STEEL 311
FNGUJHBIE 4AaPB (AT RIGHT) Bead

sequence.
drawing the wire, to keep the end

in the protective gas shield.
6. Complete the bead, cool the as-
sembly, and add two more
FñGURíE 4A-iiQ Lack of root passes, as shown in Figure 4A-11.
penetration. 7. Reposition the T base and weld
the other side as you did the first,
using three beads.
V-GROOVE BUTT JOINT, 16 POSITION
MA'U'EIHAL A N D EQUBPMENT
2. Two pieces of carbon steel, 1/4 in.
X 3 in. x 6 in. long.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, 'h6- or 3/3z-in.
diameter.
4. 2% thoriated tungsten electrode, 1 5 O
Y32-in. diameter, pointed.

5. Gas cup, W n . diameter. FHBiiüJRE QA.I%Prebowed pieces
of plate.
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare the %in.-thick steel Amax.
16
I
plates by burning, machining, or
grinding a 30-degree bevel on
one 6-in. side of each plate. 32 -1
16
Grind a lh-in. root face on each PBGüJWE 4A-312Beveling and tacking ' FñGBTRE 48-14 Bead sequence and
beveled edge. procedure for a flat V-groove butt joint. reinforcement.
High-frequencystart, 15 to 20 cfh
argon.
3. Tack the pieces together as the puddle and working the pud- bead sequence shown in Figure
shown in Figure 4A-12 and posi- dle forward with the arc. Hold the 4A-14. Remember, the bead se-
tion the plate so that it is flat. After torch perpendicular to the joint quence shown is typical. De-
tacking, prebow the plates as and pointing at an angle of ap- pending on the actual root spac-
shown in Figure 4A-i 3 so that the proximately 20 degrees toward ing, the groove angle, and the
plate will be flat after welding. the direction of travel. Remem- rate of adding filler wire, the
4. Strike an arc and concentrate it ber, every time you break the arc, number of passes may vary from
on the root of the joint. Form a hold the torch over the weld to those specified.
keyhole to ensure penetration, provide shielding while the bead
and begin adding filler metal by is cooling down.
dabbing.it to the leading age of 5. Thoroughly clean the weld after
the puddle. Alternate the motion each bead by wire brushing. Con-
of adding the wire to the edge of tinue to weld the joint using the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

LESSON 4B
WELDING IN THE HORIZONTAL P@SITP
OUTSIDE-CORNER JOINT 26 POSITION

2. Two pieces of carbon steel, 1 '/z
in. x '/a in. x 6 in. long.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, '/16- or %z-in.
diameter.
Uz-in. diameter, pointed.
5. Gas cup, %-in. diameter.
PROCEDURE
DCEN, 50 to 100 amperes. High-
frequency start, 10 to 15 cfh
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
argon.
2. Grind or sand the pieces to be
welded. Tack them together and
position them as shown in Figure The GTAW process IS capable of high-quality welds.
4B-1.
3. Begin at the right side of the joint
and strike an arc. When an arc is
established, form a keyhole in the
root of the joint. When the key-
hole forms, begin adding filler
metal to the leading edge of the
puddle.
4. Keep the torch perpendicular and
pointing at approximately 20 de-
grees toward the direction of trav-
el. (See Figure 4B-2.)
5. Complete the joint in one pass,
the height of the bead FIGURE 45.1 Tacking procedure and
by the rate at which YOU add the weld position for a horizontal outside-
filler wire, and controlling the pe- corner joint.
netration by the force of the arc.
Notice that the arc has some force
and can be used to manipulate
the weld puddle. Increasing the
arc length will soften the arc and
reduce its effect on the puddle.
6. Clean the joint thoroughly, and FIIGUIPE 45.2 (RIGHT) Torch angles.

CHAPTER 4 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING OF CARBON STEEL
inspect the bead for smoothness root for penetration. If properly weld through along its entire
and evenness of width. Check the done, the root will show some length.
T=JOINTFILLET, 2F POSITION
MIATIEIIBIJA~~,
ANID iizu~urrrrrDm[mm
2. One piece of carbon steel, 11/2 in.
x '/8 in. x 6 in. long; one piece /'
of carbon steel, 3 in. x 7h in. x

6 in. long.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, 'h6-or 3/32-in.
diameter.
4. 2% thiorated tungsten electrode,
3/32-in. diameter, pointed.
5. Gas cup, Yi-in. diameter. E~flGiïiïiiíE4B-3Tacking procedure and IFiiQBIIWE 4B.4 Torch angle.
weld position for a horizontal T-joint
fillei.
PROCEDURE
Argon.
position as shown in Figure 4B-3.
3. Hold the torch as shown in Figure FFP(Ii;BTIE4k19-6Bead sequence.
48-4. Notice that the angle is
changed to favor the vertical plate
more than the flat plate. This will
help to keep the vertical leg the 4B-5Filler wire addition
FnGïü~~gfE
same size as the flat leg, for the angle.
force of the arc will hold the
metal up. Point the torch at ap-
proximately 20 degrees toward
the direction of welding.
4. Add the filler metal from the left plate. Bead 3 will require you to
side of the puddle at approxi- adjust the torch angle to favor the
mately an angle of 20 degrees vertical leg of the fillet. (See Fig-
from the flat. (See Figure 48-5.) ure 48-7.) Half of bead 2 should
Be careful as in the flat position, cover half of the first bead, with
to make the root molten before the balance being deposited on
you add filler metal. If you do the flat portion of the T joint. Half
not, the metal will not penetrate of the third bead should cover the
to the root. (See Figure 4A-10.) rest of the first bead, with the oth-
5. When the first bead i s completed, er half being deposited on the
thoroughly clean it and deposit vertical leg of the T joint.
two more beads, as shown in Fig- 6. When the first side is completed,
ure 4B-6. When welding bead 2, cool the T joint and weld the sec- FIGURE QI-7Torch angles for
you will have to favor the bottom ond side. second and third bead.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

V=GROOVEBUT" JOINT, 2 6 POSITION

. .
1. Personal weldinn eaubment. -
x 3 in. x 6 in. long.
3. E70S-3 filler metal. '716- or ~3z-in. 32 -
diameter.
4. 2% thoriated tungsten electrode, 10-1
Sz-in. diameter, pointed. -ri
5. Gas cup, lh-in. diameter.
FIGURE 4 8 - 8 Beveling and tacking
procedure and prebowing position for
PROCEDURE a horizontal V-groove butt joint.
1. Prepare one 6-in. side of each

plate with a 30-degree bevel by FIGURE 4B.B Weld position 2G.
burning, grinding, or machining.
Grind a M6-in. root face on each
beveled edge.
argon.
3. Fit and tack the pieces, and pre-
bow them for weld shrinkage as
shown in Figure 48-8. Position
the plate as shown in Figure 48-9.
4. Hold the torch so that it points
toward the upper plate at about a
20-degree angle. Point the torch
toward the direction of welding.
(See Figure 48-10.) Strike an arc
and establish a weld puddle.
Watch the puddle until the root
becomes molten. When this hap-
pens, begin adding the filler wire
to the leading edge of the puddle, Direction of travel
as shown in Figure 4B-10. Use b
the torch angle and force of the FIGURE 4B-18Torch angles and fill- FIGURE41B.11 Bead placement and
arc to keep the puddle favoring er wire addition angles. reinforcement.
the upper plate. Gravity will
cause the puddle to flow to the
lower plate.
5. Continue to weld the plate, using observe on occasion a smooth 6. Complete the joint, thoroughly
the bead sequence shown in Fig- glasslike deposit on the bead. clean it, cool it, and carefully ex-
ure 4B-11. Notice that in the hor- This is silicon and should be re- amine it for complete and even
izontal position the weld beads moved before depositing another root penetration. Check the face
begin on the bottom plate and bead. If you do not remove the for smooth contour and the cor-
serve as a shelf for succeeding silicon, you can trap it in the rect amount of reinforcement, the
beads. Pay particular attention to weld. If that occurs, you will beads for evenness.
cleaning between your deposits have a discontinuity called slag
of the individual beads. You will entrapment.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

LESSON 4C
WELDING XN THE
OUT$IDE=CORNER JOINT, 36 POSITION
MATERHAIL AND EQUIPBRfIENT

2. Two pieces of carbon steel, Vá in.
x ll/z in. x 6 in. long.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, %6- or Uz-in. Top view
diameter.
V32-i n. diameter, pointed.
5. Cas cup, 3/6-in diameter.
PROCEDURE
DCEN, 50 to 1O0 amperes. High-
frequency start, 10 to 15 cfh P ~ B U R E46.1 Tacking procedure and
argon. weld position for a vertical outside-
corner joint.
4C-1. sure you penetrate into the root
3. Begin at the bottom of the joint of the joint. Build a shelf of weld
and strike an arc. Hold the torch at the bottom and use it to build
as shown in Figure 4C-2, straight upon. Dab the filler wire into the
into the joint and pointing slightly leading edge of the puddle. FHGURE 4C-4 Torch angles and filler
upward in the direction of travel. wire addition from the top.
5. Complete the weld, cool it, clean
Feed the wire from above into the it, and examine it for even root
leading edge of the puddle. (See penetration and for evenness and
Figure 4C-2.) smoothness of the face contour.
4. Use a slight side-to-side weave The contour should be slightly
and progress vertically up. Make convex. --`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
T-JOINT FILLET, 3 F POSITION
MATERPAL AND EQKJIPMENT 4. 2% thoriated tungsten electrode, High-frequency start, 1O to 15 cfh

3/3~-in.diameter, pointed. argon.
1, Personal welding equipment.
2. One piece of carbon steel, 1 h in.
5. Gas 3/64n. 2. Grind or sand the pieces to be
x 1% in. x 6 in. long; one piece welded. Tack them together and
of carbon steel, '/6 in. x 3 in. x position them as shown in Figure
6 in. long. PROCEDURE 4c-3.
3. E70S-3 -filler metal, Y32-in. 1. Adjust the welding current: 3. Using the torch angles shown in
diameter. DCEN, 50 to 100 amperes. Figure 4C-4, strike an arc at the

TOP i e w
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
l o p view
FIIGU~WE4C-S Bead sequence for the
first side.
PHGu!&!E 4C-8Tacking procedure and

weld position for a vertical T-joint
fillet.
bottom of the joint. Make sure the

puddle extends into the root of
the joint before you add filler
wire. If it does not, the weld will
bridge the joint and not penetrate
to the root, as we saw in previous
procedures.
M
BìlGBTHBIE 4C.4 Torch angles and filler FHGILIRRIK 4C-G Uead ,sequence for the
4. Establish a shelf to build your wire addition from the top. second side.
weld on. Use a slight side-to-side
weave, and add the filler wire
from the top. (See Figure 4C-4.)
5. After the first pass clean it thor- technique.,Weld the first pass as weaving a bead, do not allow the
oughly and apply a second layer a normal stringer bead.' Put the width of the weave to exceed the
consisting of two beads, as shown second layer in, using a weave diameter of the gas cup, in this
in Figure 4C-5. bead and pausing at the sides to case 3/8 in. The weld when fin-
6. After you have finished the first ensure that the sidewalls are ished should be slightly convex,
side with three stringer beads, properly fused. Use the weave and the face should merge
cool the T joint and weld the sec- technique and bead sequence smoothly with the base metal at
ond side using the weave bead shown in Figure 4C-6. When the toe of the weld.
V=GROOVEBUTT JOINT, 36 POSITION
MATERHAB A N D EQUIPMENT PROCEDURE 3. Fit and tack the pieces and pre-
1. Personal welding equipment. 1. Prepare one 6-in. side of each bow them for weld shrinkage, as
2. Two pieces of carbon steel, j/4 in. plate with a 30-degree bevel by shown in Figure 4B-8. Put a 'h-in.
x 3 in. x 6 in. long. burning, grinding, or machining. tack at each end. Position the
3. E70S-3 filler metal, 1h6- or 3/32-in. Grind a %6-in. root face on each plate as shown in Figure 4C-7.
diameter. beveled edge. 4. Strike an arc at the bottom of the
4. 2% thoriated tungsten electrode, 2. Adjust the welding current: joint. Melt the tack, and make
3/32-in. diarneter, pointed. DCEN, 90 to 150 amperes. High- sure your puddle melts through
5. Gas cup, %-in. diameter. frequency start, 10 to 15 cfh the plate so that a small keyhole
argon. appears. Use a slight side-to-side

weave on the root to ensure root

penetration and blending of the
toe of the weld into the sidewalls
of the groove. Use the torch an-
gles shown in Figure 4C-8.
5. Use a stringer bead technique,
adding the filler metal as shown
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Top view
in Figure 4C-8. Make sure you fill
the crater completely at the top of
the joint. Thoroughly clean the
joint between beads, being care-
ful to remove any silicon depos-
its. Complete the joint using the
stringer bead sequence shown in
Figure 4C-9.
vertical V-groove butt joint.
l'ma%
16
FHGURE 4C-8 (RIGHT) Torch angles FEGUBE 4c-9 (RIGHT) Bead

and filler wire addition from the top. sequence and reinforcement.
The importance of getting yourself in It becomes very important then to is that resting the cup on the plate
a comfortable position was dis- look for ways in which you can sup- makes it more difficult to see the
cussed earlier. This is particularly port and steady the hand that holds weld puddle.
important when welding in the over- the torch, along with the one that Make sure that your welding
head position. To weld in the over- feeds the filler wire. The means can shield is on properly, and that you
head position, you must keep your consist of nothing more than extend- can clearly see the area to be
hands and arms above your head to ing a few fingers on the torch- welded.
hold the torch and feed the filler holding hand and having them rest
metal. You also have to tilt your on the plate you are about to weld
head back so that you can see the on. Another method of providing
weld puddle and the surrounding support for the torch is to adjust the
area. Welding in the overhead po- tungsten stickout, so that you can
sition requires physical condition- rest the cup on the plate. This will
ing. At first it will be uncomfortable, work when the torch i s down in a
but after practice you will become groove but not when you are rein-
accustomed to the position. forcing the joint. Another drawback

OUTSIDE=CORNERJOINT, 4 6 POSITION
MATERPAL AND EQUIPMENT

2. Two pieces of carbon steel, 9's in.
x 1% in. x 6 in. long.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, l h - or V3z-in.
diameter.
% A n . diameter, pointed.
5. Gas cup, 3/s-in. diameter.
FP(GWit&E4m.1 Tacking procedure and
weld psoition for an overhead outside-
corner joint.
PROCEDURE
DCEN, 50 to 100 amperes. High- dle, making sure the puddie
frequency start, 10 to 15 cfh penetrates to the root of the joint.
argon. Begin adding filler metal to the
2. Grind or sand the pieces to be leading edge of the puddle, as
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
welded. Tack them together and shown in Figure 40-2. Keep the
FllCUiiR%QüD-2 Torch angles and filler
position them as shown in Figure travel speed and filler wire addi-
wire addition angle.
40-1. tion even to produce a bead with
3. Hold the torch in the center of the even width and buildup.
joint pointing about 20 degrees 5. Continue to the end of the joint.
toward the direction of travel. Cool the joint, clean it, and ex-
(See Figure 4D-2.) Some support amine it for evenness of the
should be provided for your width. Examine the face for
hands. smoothness and contour. The sur-
4. Strike an arc and establish a pud- face should be slightly convex.
T JOINT FILLET,4F POSITION
MATERIAL A N D EQUIPMENT 3. Find a comfortable position, one

+<GTAW that helps your hand support the
torch, and point the torch into the
2. One piece of carbon steel, l/s in.
joint in a direction favoring the
x 1l/2 in. x 6 in. long; one piece
upper plate. Hold the torch at
carbon steel, i/' in. x 3 in. x 6
about 60 degrees from the plate,
in. long.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, or 3/3z-in. and point it approximately 20 de-
grees toward the direction of trav-
diameter.
el. (See Figure 4D-4.)
3/32-in. diameter, pointed. 4. Strike an arc and establish a pud-
F%GUWE4D.3 Tacking procedure and
5. Gas cup, 3/s-in. diameter. weld position for an overhead T-joint dle. Make sure the puddle reach-
fillet. es into the root of the joint. When
you begin to add filler metal as
PROCEDURE shown in Figure 4D-4, use the
1. Adjust the welding current: 2. Grind or sand the pieces to be force of the arc to keep the metal
DCEN, 50 to 100 amperes. welded. Tack them together and on the overhead plate. Gravity
High-frequency start, 1O to 15 cfh position them as shown in Figure will cause some metal to flow
argon. 4D-3. down on the vertical part of the T

CHAPTER 4 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING OF CARBON STEEL
IT6J'
7\
joint. By varying the angle of the
torch, you can control the leg
length of the fillet.
5. Complete the first pass, cool the
T-joint assembly, and thoroughly
clean it. Add another layer con-
10-15' sisting of two beads. You will
I have to change the torch angle for
each bead. For bead 2 the torch
d will be concentrated on the over-
head plate. For bead 3 the torch
must be concentrated on the ver-
tical plate. (See Figure 4D-5.)
6. When you have completed the
three beads, cool the T-joint as-
sembly, clean it, and weld the
other side with a three-bead fillet.
FIGURE 4D.4 Torch angles and filler
wire addition angle for first bead.
FHGURE 4D-5Torch angles for
second and third beads.
V-GROOVE B U T T JOINT, 4 6 POSITION

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
MATERIAL AND EQUJHPMENT

2. Two pieces of carbon steel, V4 in.
3. E70S-3 filler metal, 'h6- or 3/32-in.
diameter.
3/32-in. diameter, pointed. FIGURE 4D-6 Weld position for an
5. Gas cup, 7h-in. diameter. overhead V-groove butt joint.
PROCEDURE
1. Prepare one 6-in. side of each 4. For the root pass, position the
plate with a 30-degree bevel by torch perpendicular to the joint
burning, grinding, or machining. and pointing toward the direction
Grind a l h 6 - h . root face on each of travel. (See Figure 4D-7.) As in
beveled edge. the previous procedures, some
2. Adjust the welding current: support should be provided for
K E N , 90 to 150 amperes. your torch-holding hand. FIGURE 4D.7 Torch angles for the
High-frequency start, 15 to 20 cfh 5. Strike an arc and establish a key- root pass and filler metal addition.
argon. hole. Add filler metal as shown in
3. Fit and tack the pieces and pre- Figure 4D-7. It may be necessary
bow them for weld shrinkage, as to weave the torch slightly to en-
shown in Figure 48-8. Put a V'2-in. sure good fusion between the toe 6. Add a second and third layer con-
tack and each end. Position the of the weld and the sidewall of sisting of stringer beads, as shown
plate as shown in Figure 40-6. the groove. in Figure 4D-8. Note that the

torch angle changes with each

bead.
i. Cool and examine the plate.
Check the root for complete pene-
tration and root reinforcement. If
the root surface is sunken or con-
cave, you may have tried to carry
too large a puddle. Too large a
pj
puddle will cause the weld to sag.
Examine the weld face for even-
ness and good fusion at the toe of
the weld. The face reinforcement
should not exceed in. There
d! !I
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
should be no undercut along the / L a
toe. Adding too little filler wire or

forgetting to hesitate on the sides FIGURE4D.8 Torch angles and sequence for successive stringer beads plus
of the head will cause undercut. reinforcement.

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CHAPTER 5
@IBJJIEC:?rflVlS
1. Weld fillets and square-groove butt joints in the flat
position.
2. Weld fillets and square-groove butt joints in the hori-
zontal position.
3. Weld fillets and square-groove butt joints in the ver-
tical position.
4. Weld fillets and square-groove butt joints in the over-
head position.
be cleaned chemically, or mechanically by sanding,
grinding, or wire brushing. if wire brushes are used, they
should be made of stainless steel to prevent iron
contamination.
You have practiced the basic techniques of gas tungsten
arc welding using carbon steel. You have welded corner
joints, fillets, and V-groove butt joints. By now you are
familiar with torch angles, positions, how to hold and
PLEIIBSQDWALEQUJHIIDIEENT
add filler wire, and how to apply multiple-pass welds in
all positions. In this chapter you will apply what you have When personal equipment i s called for in this chapter, it
learned about the process to the GTAW of aluminum. should consist of
We will use the movements and motions we have learned 1. Welding shield with apppropriate filter lens.
and add some new skills to weld aluminum. 2. Safety glasses.
One of the major differences will be the type of current 3. Short-cuff leather gloves.
we use. in Chapter 4 direct current, electrode negative, 4. Appropriate welding clothing.
with a HF start was used to weld carbon steel. Aluminum 5. Stainless steel wire brush.
is welded using alternating current with continuous high 6. Pliers.
frequency. The continuous high frequency serves to
create a more stable arc as the current flow reverses
direction.
This chapter wilí specify argon as the shielding gas. To foJJow the lessons in this chapter, you will need an
Helium may be used, but higher gas flows are required, ac power source equipped with continuous high frequen-
and the arc is not as stable as when using argon. cy and a water-cooled torch. A remote-control foot ped-
When welding aluminum with the GTAW process, a dle is optional.
pure-tungsten electrode with a balled end is used. The
end can be balled by inserting into the GTAW torch a
blunt tungsten electrode. With the power source set on
direct current, electrode positive, turn on the current and
gradually increase the amperage. As you do a ball will
begin to form on the end of the electrode. When the ball
i s correctly formed (see Figure 5-11, turn off the current
and change the power source over to alternating current.
Aluminum, to be properly welded, must be cleaned
immediately prior to welding. As you know, the oxide
formed on the surface of aluminum makes it extremely
difficult to achieve a satisfactory weld. The surface can

MATERIAL AND E@KJXPME”H’ You must be careful not to hold

1. Personal welding equipment. the filler metal wire too close to
2. One piece of aluminum, ‘/4 in. x FfWJJRi8 %&ìì Bead sequence of a the arc. Because of the low melt-
6 in. x 6 in. long. flat pad of stringers on aluminum. ing point of aluminum, a large
3. ER4043 filler metal, ‘h6- or globule will form very quickly on
3/32-in. diameter. the end of the wire when it is al-
4. Pure-tungsten electrode, %-in. lowed to remain near the arc.
diameter. Regardless of how well you have 5 . Run stringer beads the length of
5 . Gas cup, %-in. diameter. cleaned the metal, the arc will the plate, overlapping them so
further clean the surface. that each bead covers one-half of
3. Because of its low melting point, the preceding bead. (See Figure
PROCEDURE aluminum will not show much CA-1 .)
1. Adjust the welding current: ac, color as it melts. When a puddle 6. Be sure to fill the crater every time
175 to 21O amperes. Continuous is developed, it will appear very you break an arc. Hold the torch
high frequency 20 to 25 cfh shiny. over the weld end for 15 to 20
argon. 4. When you have established the seconds after you extinguish the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
2. Begin at the right side of the plate puddle, begin adding the filler arc to protect the hot weld from
and strike an arc. The arc will metal to the leading edge of the being exposed to the atmosphere.
have a buzzing sound, unlike the puddle. After you have added fill- 1 . Cool the plate frequently during
9
silence of a dc arc. Observe that er metal, withdraw the wire from welding to retain more control
the aluminum in the area where the arc but keep it within the pro- over the puddle. Examine every
the arc contacts the plate changes tective gas envelope. The hot fill- bead for even width, contour,
in appearance. This change is a er wire will oxidize very rapidly and smooth surface.
result of the arc cleaning action. if exposed to the atmosphere.
T=JOINT, IF POSITION
MATERIAL A N D EQUHPMENT high frequency, 20 to 25 cfh

1. Personal welding equipment. argon.
2. One piece of aluminum ‘/s in. x 2. Clean the pieces, tack them to-
1% in. x 6 in. long. One piece gether, and position them as
of aluminum, ’/i in. x 3 in. x 6 shown in Figure 5A-2. It may be
in. long. necessary to add filler metal to
3. ER4043 filler metal, ’h6- or make the tacks.
3/32-in. diameter. 3. Strike an arc on the right side of
4. Pure-tungsten electrode, %-in. the T-joint assembly and establish a
diameter. a puddle. Make sure the joint be-
5 . Gas cup, %-in. diameter. comes molten to its root. This is
not as easy as it was when using
PROCEDURE direct current. The concentrated
1 . Adjust the welding current: ac, arc of direct current allows you to FïíQtiNRE BA-2 Weld position for a flat
125 to 160 amperes. Continuous direct the heat of the arc exactly T-joint fillet in aluminum.

CHAPTER 5 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING OF ALUMINUM 323
where you want it. Alternating melt on to and contaminate the

current will radiate from the sur- tungsten. A contaminated elec-
face of the ball on the end of the trode will require dressing before
tungsten and will arc to the clos- further use.
est surface. (See Figure 5A-3.) 5. Continue to the end of the joint,
Notice that the distance from applying a single-pass fillet. Cool
point A to the electrode is less the plate and put a single-pass fil-
than that from point 6 ; therefore let weld on the other side.
the arc will be drawn across the 6 . Cool the plate and examine the
shortest distance and will estab- 8A4% Alternating-current arc.
~~IIGWLTIE
beads for good contour and a
lish a puddle on the sidewall at smooth surface, the legs of the
point A before the root (point 6 ) weld for equal length. There
melts. should be no undercut at the toe
4. Begin adding the filler wire to the careful not to get the wire too of the weld.
leading edge of the puddle. Be close to the electrode or it will
SQUARE=GROOVE B U T T JOINT, 16 POSITION
MATERHAIL ANIID EQüJiílPMENT

2. Two pieces of aluminum, in.
3. ER4043 filler metal, %6- or
3h-in. diameter.
4. Pure-tungsten electrode, %-in.
diameter.
5. Gas cup, %-in. diameter. WM2iJüRE B A 4 Weld position for a fiat
square-groove butt joint.
PROCEDURE
1. Adjust the welding current: ac, 4. Progress from the right to the left.
175 to 210 amperes. Continuous As you progress, the plate will
high frequency, 20 to 25 cfh heat up, causing the puddle to
argon. become larger. You can control
2. Clean the pieces, tack them to- the puddle size by either decreas- * Direction of travel
gether, and position them as ing the amperage or increasing
shown in Figure 5A-4. the travel speed of the torch. FHOURE spa-5 Filler wire addition
angle and torch angle.
3. Strike an arc and establish a key- 5. Complete the joint, cool it, and
hole. When the keyhole is examine the face for smoothness
formed, begin adding filler wire of contour. There should be no
to the leading edge of the puddle. undercuts in the toe, and the pe-
(See Figure 5A-5.) Pay attention netration through the joint should
to the penetration and bead be complete, with even width
width. and root reinforcement.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

LESSON 5B
TH@N
TOJOINTFILLET, 2F POSITION
MATEHBIAE A N D EQUBPMENT
2. One piece of aluminum, '/E in. x
1% in. x 6 in. long; one piece of
aluminum, '/8 in. x 3 in. x 6 in.
long.
3. ER4043 filler metal, or
?&-in. diameter.
4. Pure-tungsten electrode, 3/32-in. FIGURE 5B-8Weid position for a
diameter. horizontal T-joint fillet in aluminum.
5. Gas cup, 3/s-in. diameter.
PROCEDURE torch pointing approximately 20

1. Adjust the welding current: ac, degrees toward the direction of
125 to 160 amperes. Continuous travel. (See Figure 5B-2.)
high frequency, 20 to 25 cfh 4. Concentrate the arc evenly on
argon. both the vertical and horizontal
4
2. Clean the pieces, tack them to- legs so that you apply an Direction of travel
gether, and position them as equal-legged fillet weld.
I F ~ U I R ESUB4 Torch angles and filler
shown in Figure 58-1. Remem- 5. Complete the weld, cool the wire
ber, it may be necessary to use joint, and weld the other side.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
filler wire to make the tacks. Then cool the assembly and ex-
3. Strike an arc on the right side of amine the welds for even face
the T-joint assembly and establish contour and legs of equal length.
a puddle. Use a torch angle of 45 There should be no undercut at
degrees to the joint, with the the toe of the welds.
-
SQUAREGROOVE BUTT JOINT, 26 POSITION
MA'ñ'EWBIAE A N D EQUJiáPMENT PROCEDURE dle. Use the torch angle shown in

1. Personal welding equipment. 1. Adjust the welding current: ac, Figure 56-4, positioning the torch
2. Two pieces of aluminum, '/8 in. 175 to 210 amperes. Continuous so that you favor the upper plate.
x 3 in. x 6 in. long. high frequency, 20 to 25 cfh Point it approximately 20 degrees
3. ER4043 filler metal, '/16- or argon. toward the direction of travel.
%-in. diameter. 2. Clean the pieces, tack them to- 4. Establish a keyhole and add filler
4. Pure-tungsten electrode, %-in. gether, and position them as metal to the leading edge of the
diameter. shown in Figure 58-3. puddle at an angle of 15 to 20
5. Gas cup, %-in. diameter. 3. Strike an arc and establish a pud- degrees. (See Figure 5B-4.) Re-

CHAPTER 5 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING OF ALUMINUM 325
m
IFPQUBE 5 ~ Torch
d motion.
TAW
member to keep the end of the

wire within the protective gas
envelope. Pay attention to the
Direction of travel
keyhole and watch for even root
penetration. You may find it nec-
!iWùUIE aí%-3Weld position for a essary to use a slight back-and-
horizontal square-groove butt joint. forth motion of the torch to keep
root penetration consistent. (See
Figure SB-5.)
5. Cool the plate, clean it, and ex-
amine it for even root penetra-
FfïGtüERE SB.4 Torch angles and filler tion, bead width, and face
wire addition angle. reinforcement.
LESSON 5C
9 KJ
T-JOINT F I L L E T 3F POSITION
MATERHAB, AlplEl EQURPWENT GTA

2. Clean the pieces, tack them to-
1. Personal welding equipment. gether and position them as
2. One piece of aluminum, Via in. x shown in Figure 5C-1. Remem-
11h in. x 6 in. long; one piece of ber, it may be necessary to use
aluminum, /'a in. x 3 in. x 6 in. filler wire to make the tack.
long. 3. Strike an arc and establish a pud-
3. ER4043 filler metal, 'h6- or dle. The sides will melt before the
%-in. diameter. root. Make sure the sidewalls are
4. Pure-tungsten electrode, 3h-in. melted to the root before you add
diameter. filler metal, or the weld will
5. Gas cup, %-in. diameter. bridge the joint and not penetrate
to the root. Use a torch angle of
45 degrees to the joint, with the
PROCEDURE F E G U R ~oc-n Weld position for a torch pointing upward approxi-
vertical T-joint fillet in aluminum. mately 20 degrees. (See Figure
1. Adjust the welding current: ac,
125 to 160 amperes. Continuous 5c-2. )
high frequency, 20 to 25 cfh 4. Add the filler wire from above at
argon. an angle of 15 to 20 degrees from
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

the vertical, (See Figure 5C-2.)

Keep the torch steady without a
weave and progress evenly and
vertically up. Dab the filler metal
\. into the leading edge of the pud-
15-20" dle. By dabbingthe wire regularly
and keeping your travel speed
even, you will produce beads
with consistent size and good
contour.
5. When you have finished the first
side, cool the T assembly, clean
it, and examine the weld. Then
weld the second side.
FIGURE 5C.2 Torch angles and filler

wire addition angle. (LEFT)
SQUARE=GROOVE BUTT JOINT, 36 POSITION

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

2. Two pieces of aluminum, Us in.
x 3 in. X 6 in. long.
3. ER4043 filler metal, '/16- or
Uz-in. diameter.
4. Pure-tungsten electrode, %-in.
diameter.
5. Gas cup, 4-in. diameter.
PROCEDURE
FIGURE 5C.3 Weld position for a
1. Adjust the welding current: ac, vertical square-groove butt joint.
175 to 21O amperes. Continuous
high frequency, 20 to 25 cfh
argon.
2. Clean the pieces, tack them to- edge of the puddle evenly. This .'
gether, and position them as dabbing along with an even travel FIGURE 5c.4 Torch angles and filler
shown in Figure 5C-3. speed will produce an even bead metal addition angle.
3. Strike an arc and establish a pud- with good penetration.
dle. Use the torch angle as shown 5. Add enough filler wire to rein-
in Figure 5C-4. Point the torch force the face of the weld to a
approximately 20 degrees toward maximum of l/16 in. The root re-
the direction of travel. inforcement too should not ex-
4. Look for the keyhole before add- ceed in.
ing wire. When the keyhole 6. Complete the joint, cool it, clean
forms, add the filler wire from the it, and examine the face and root
top at an angle of 10 to 15 de- surfaces for smoothness and the
grees. Dab it into the leading reinforcementsfor proper height.

CHAPTER 5 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING OF ALUMINUM
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
32%
T-JOINT FILLET, 4F POSITION
MATERHAEL AWIB 03ûfjKJtiPMEENTï

2. One piece of aluminum, '/a in. X
1Y 2 in. x 6 in. long; one piece of
aluminum, '/E in. x 3 in. x 6 in.
long.
3. ER4043 filler metal, %6- or
%-in. diameter.
4. Pure-tungsten electrode, Y32-in.
diameter.
5. Gas cup, Ye-in. diameter.
PROCEDURE
125 to 160 amperes. Continuous
high frequency, 1O to25 cfh argon.
2. Clean the pieces, tack them to-
gether and position them as
shown in Figure 5D-1.
3. Strike an arc on the right side of Many positions are encountered during welding.
the joint. Establish a puddle,
making sure the joint is molten to
the root before adding filler
metal. Position the torch to favor
the top place. (See Figure 5D-2.)
Gravity will help the puddle to
flow down on the vertical plate to
form an equal-legged fillet.
4. Add filler metal to the front edge
of the puddle as shown in Figure FiiGURE BiiD-Il Weld position for an
5D-2. Remember to dab the overhead T-joint fillet in aluininum.
metal into the puddle. Continu-
ous addition of the filler metal
could keep the root of the joint \
from fusing (see Figure 5D-31, for
<
the filler metal might bridge the Direction of travel
joint and prevent the arc from
penetrating to the root.
5. Continue to the end of the joint,
applying a single-pass fillet. Cool
the plate and put a single-pass fil- PIIBiüJJIE88B-2 Torch angles
- and filler
let weld on the other side. iF!iGEIuWE 6B.8 Lack of root fusion. metal addition angle.

SQUARE=ROOTBUTT JOINT, 4 6 POSITION
MATEltaHAL AND EQUIPMENT

2. Two pieces of aluminum, Ys in.
3. ER4043 fil.ler metal, 'h6- or
%z-in. diameter.
4. Pure-tungsten electrode, %-in. i
diameter.
5. Gas cup, '/?-in. diameter.
FIGURE 5D.4 Weld position for an
PROCEDURE overhead square-groove butt joint.

175 to 210 amperes. Continuous
high frequency, 20 to 25 cfh
4, I"
10-15
argon. 4. When the keyhole is established FtIGUJlIaE 5D-5Torch angles and filler
2. Clean the pieces, tack them to- and you have penetrationthrough metal addition angle.
gether, and position them as the root of the joint begin adding
shown in Figure 5D-4. filler wire by regularly dabbing it
3. Strike an arc and establish a key- into the leading edge of the pud-
hole. Hold the torch perpendic- die. (See Figure 50-5.) This dab examine it for consistent bead
ular to the joint and pointing 10 method will produce a bead of width and height of reinforce-
to 15 degrees toward the direc- even width and reinforcement. ment, Reinforcement should not
tion of travel. (See Figure SD-5.) 5. Complete the joint, cool it, and exceed 'A6 in.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

HEW EXERCISES
1. Why is radiation more intense with GTAW than with 2 7. What is the principal function of a CTAW torch?(2A)
SMAW?(1A) 28. What is the function of a collet? (2A)
2. Name three sources of ozone. UA) 29. Why is a balanced gas flow so important in a GTAW
3. What happens to the tungsten electrode when there torch? (2A)
is too much oxygen in the GTAW shielding gas?UA) 30. How does a GTAW gas lens work? (2A)
4. Name two types of GTAW torches. (1A) 31. Why is too much gas flow bad for GTAW shielding?
5. What are the hazards of argon as a shielding gas? (2A)
(1A) 32. What three factors controlled by the power source
6. What are the electrical hazards associated with cold are used to control GTAW arc energy? (28)
wire addition? (1B) 33. What is the direction of the natural current unbal-
7. What are two uses of hf electric power? (1 BI ance in ac arcs? (28)
8. Why is hf power safer than alternating current with 34. Why can’t constant-potential power normally be
a frequency of 60 cycles per second?(1 B) used for GTAW?(28)
9. Why are hf installations subject to FCC regulations? 35. Why is constant current preferred for GTAW?(28)
(1B) 36. What are the basic ways to start GTAW arcs?(2C)
1 o. What are the benefits of thoria when it is used in 37. What three things will lower the GTAW arc gap
tungsten welding electrodes?(1B) breakdown voltage? (2C)
1 1 . What are the main parts of an arc? (1C) 38. Why is hf current safer than If current? (2C)
12. How do electrons control the temperature of the 39. What is meant by high frequency?(2C)
tungsten electrode tip? (1C) 40. What is the benefit of phase shift control in hf sys-
13. Why are zirconia and thoria added to tungsten elec- tems?(2C)
trodes?(1C) 41. Name three functions of the GTAW torch. ( 2 0
14. Which tungsten electrode-pure or alloyed tung- 42. Why should GTAW power cables be as short as pos-
sten-is noted for its ability to form a molten ball on sible? (2D)
its tip? (1C) 43. What three things will prevent overheatingof GTAW
15. Why do tungsten electrodes have pointed tips? (1C) cables?(2D)
16. Which GTAW electrode polarity has the greatest cur- 44. What will happen if you use undersized water cool-
rent rating? (1 C) ing units on GTAW torches?(2D)
17. What i s the bright spot on the tip of a straight-polarity 45. What are two reasons for using the correct GTAW
GTAW arc? (1D) gas flow? (2D)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
18. What are the most likely causes of tungsten transfer 46. Why is GTAW shielding gas an asphyxiant hazard?
to the workpiece? (1 D) (2Dl
19. What are the bright spots that dance around the edge 47. What will happen if you use oversized tungsten elec-
of an aluminum puddle melted by GTAW? (1D) trodes? (3A)
20. Give the two theories explaining why a GTAW arc 48. What will happen if you use tungsten electrodes that
cleans away the oxide on aluminum. (1D) are too small? (3A)
21. Why is cleanliness so important to GTAW? (1 D) 49. Why should you use gas purging in GTAW torches?
22. Why i s argon the most-used shielding gas in GTAW? (3A)
(1E) 50. Why i s it necessary to ground a gasoline hose? (3A)
23. How can you detect a leak in a GTAW shielding gas 51. Why does the presence of ultraviolet rays help to start
hose? (1 E) a GTAW arc? (3A)
24. Why must special hoses be used for GTAW shielding 52. What is a GTAW “hot start”? (3A)
gases? (1E) 53. What two things can you do to prevent crater cracks?
25. Why should you purge GTAW hoses before you use (38)
them for welding duty? (1E) 54. What are two types of current control that you can
26. What is the use of GTAW trailing shields? (1E) use to adjust puddle heat?(3B)

330 SECTION IV REVIEW EXERCISES
55. Why must you be careful not to whip a GTAW torch, 64. Name three things that will happen if you use the
as you can an SMAW electrode, when stopping a wrong polarity in GTAW? (3D)
weld? (3B) 65. How does manipulation of the arc length control
56. Why is postflow gas shielding needed in GTAW?(3B) GTAW arc power? (3D)
57. What i s the function of a runoff tab? (38) 66. What is the effect of a power source's volt-ampere
58. What is a refractory oxide? (3C) curve on GTAW arc power?(3D)
59. What happens when molten aluminum i s dropped 67. What is the effect of helium shielding when it is used
into water? (3C) for CTAW? (3D)
60. Why is it best to weld aluminum when it has just 68. What are the signs that GTAW shielding is about to
been cleaned? (3C) go bad?(3E)
61. Why is alternating current preferred for GTAW of 69. Why should GTAW filler rods be kept boxed? (3E)
aluminum? (3C) 70. What could happen if you added CTAW filler rod
62. How can DCEN be used to weld aluminum?(3C) with your bare hand? (3E)
63. List five important variables that control GTAW weld 71. What is meant by hot-wire addition?(3E)
quality and arc power? (3D) 72. What is "pilot arc" starting?(3E)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

GAS METAL ARC
WELDING PROCESS
Gas metal arc welding has a slight identity problem. At various times it has
been called by different names. The proper name recommended by the Amer-
ican Welding Society is gas metal arc welding, or GMAW. This welding
process i s also known as the MIG process; MIG is the.abbreviation for metal
inert gas. When GMAW was first introduced, it used inert gas to shield the
arc. The gas was usually argon or argon with a small amount of oxygen added.
One company called the process the shielded inert gas metal arc or SIGMA
welding process. As the GMAW process was developed, other gases came
into use, some of them not inert but chemically active. In Europe the process
using the active gases came to be known as the metal active gas or MAG
process. One version of the MAG process uses carbon dioxide as the shielding
gas. Carbon dioxide is an active gas, but this process variation became known
as the CO, welding process. Other versions of the GMAW process are de-
scribed in the literature on welding. All the process variations use a consum-
able wire electrode, which is fed through a welding gun. Most of the processes
use an externally applied shielding gas of some type or mixture to protect the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
weld zone.
EARLY PHWOCES$EB
The roots of gas metal arc welding can be traced back to the early part of this
century, but the process took its present form in the late 1940s. From the very
beginning of shielded metal arc welding with covered electrodes, inventors
tried to develop continuous welding processes. The patents from about 1915
through 1930 are full of inventions for continuous welding. One version used
a hopper full of covered electrodes. When one electrode was used up, another
one was fed into the back end of an electrically energized tube. There it was
gripped by jaws that fed it into the arc, one electrode after another. Most of
these inventions had a useful but short life.

$@ME HNVEIPI'B'@RB
One inventor worth knowing about is Harry D. Morton. During the period
from around 1915 to 1920, he worked with wire fed from a spool, just as we
IFHBEQIWIE v-P H. D.' Morton's "arc welding mechanism in which a metallic elec-
trode in the form of a strip or wire of welding material is fed to the arc and to the
work." C, generator; C, coil; S, wire or strip; 16 and 17, feed rolls; A. arc.
do today. He also used wire feed motors that regulated the feed rate by using
signals from the arc voltage. (See Figure V-1.) (U.S. patent 1,278,982, Sep-
tember 17, 1918.) His systems had all the features needed to practice GMAW
as we know it, except for one thing. H e did not have the knowledge that at
certain current levels and with certain wire diameters there is what we now
call spray transfer or spray arc. Spray transfer will be discussed in detail in
Lesson 1D of this section.
Most of the continuous wire welding done in the early years was without
gas shielding. Bare wires were used. The arcs had to be kept short to keep out
room air and were unstable. There was considerable spatter. Great effort went
into trying to improve the metal transfer. Coatings and liquids were applied
to the bare wire while it was being fed. (U.S.patent 1,728,863, C. L. Ipsen,
September 17, 1929.) Coatings were also placed on the wire ahead of time.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
In another invention a groove was milled into the flux that coated the wire,
allowing electric contact to be made with an energized roller. Otherwise the
coating acted as an electric insulator. One invention, still in use today in
Europe, wraps a network of fine wires around a core wire. The spaces in the
network are filled with a flux. Current i s transferred to the core wire through
the bare surfaces of the fine wires.
TINE MUBUDEIN ERA

It really is not possible to say that one person invented GMAW. The process
grew out of the contributions of many people. But it is possible to identify the
beginning of modern GMAW. It began with the realization that polarity, feed
rate, and current density were the critical factors.

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-
c
i
IL
INVENTORS
ln ALBERT MULLER
GLENN J. GIBSON
NELSON E.ANDERSON
BY
ATTORNEYS
FIGURE V.2 The “apparatus for gas shielded metal arc welding-wherein a bare
filler wire . . . is fed automatically to a hand gun held by the operator,” invented by
Albert Muller and his colleagues. Wire electrode, 5 ; feed rolls, 6; gas supply, 14,
15, 16, and 13; source of welding current, 19; workpiece, 18.
Credit for the first complete description of what we now call spray arc
GMAW is given to Albert Muller, Glenn J. Gibson, and Nelson E. Anderson.
The Muller, Gibson, Anderson US. patent 2,504,868, April 18, 1950, is
considered the basic spray transfer GMAW patent by most experts. (See Figure
V-2.) Spray transfer gas metal arc welding as it is now practiced follows for
the most part the principles of the Muller patent.

LESSON IA
@F
volts. This doesn’t mean that you
úùBJECTIVE8
should be able to
cannot have higher or lower volt-
ages; it only means that most arcs of
tI /
1. Identify the major hazards of GMAW, GTAW, and SMAW have

GMAW. similar voltages.
2. List the types of current used for There i s one difference between
GMAW, GTAW, and SMAW.
3. Explain why with an active
shielding gas GMAW radiation
levels are lower.
CMAW and the other arc welding
processes. Although GTAW and
SMAW can use both ac and dc pow-
er, GMAW is practiced only with dc
Increasingcurrent
PIIüÏXi~IERA-8 The quantity of emitted
-
power. We do not mean to imply fumes and gases i s proportional to arc
4. Describe the hazards of the fumes
that it is impossible to use alternat- current.
and gases produced by GMAW.
ing current with GMAW. It is
extremely difficult to do, however,
THE COMMON HAZARD§ and equipment i s not commercially tures. Generally speaking, the
The gas metal arc welding processes available. CMAW has been done in amount of fumes is proportional to
all share some common features. No the laboratory with alternating cur- the welding current. The higher the
matter what the current levels are, rent, and several patents have been current, the more the fumes. (See
no matter what shielding gases are issued for the procedure. Figure 1A-1.) The amount of fumes
used, no matter what materials are You can protect yourself and oth- is also affected by the shielding gas-
welded, ail the process variations ers by using good judgment when es used. A highly active gas such as
have similar hazards. working with the electric equipment carbon dioxide produces more
As with all arc welding processes, for GMAW. Keep all cables in good fumes than gases with high percent-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
there are the hazards of electric repair. Don’t touch live electrical ages of argon.
shock, fumes and gases, arc radia- parts. Turn off the power when you Argon, an inert gas, does not react
tion, and sometimes noise. are finished welding. Be sure you with hot weld metal. Welding is not
understand how the electric equip- done with pure argon, however, be-
THE ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ment works before you begin cause it doesn’t produce an arc that
The electrical hazards of GMAW are welding. is hot enough for most metals. Re-
not as severe as those of SMAW and active gases such as oxygen and car-
GTAW, processes which use power FUMES AND GASES bon dioxide are therefore mixed
sources with higher voltages. Most GMAW is not as clean as GTAW. with argon. Compared to GTAW,
of the time the open-circuit voltages More fumes and gases are created the GMAW processes use higher gas
used for GMAW are approximately because of the consumable elec- flow rates. Typically, the flow rate
half of those used for SMAW and trode. In addition to the workpiece, of a GMAW shielding gas is two or
GTAW. However, the voltages of the welding wire also produces three times that of a GTAW shield-
the arcs themselves are about the fumes. Each process variation has its ing gas. You should never forget that
same order of magnitude. They all own characteristic fumes and gases, all shielding gases are asphyxiants
operate between about 15 and 30 but there are some common fea- and can cause death by suffocation.

CHAPTER 1 GAS METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS 837
Always be sure you have enough usually less with short-circuit metal
ventilation and fresh air. The fumes transfer.
and gases can also be harmful to
your general health. There is no NOISE
practical way to know in advance Most GMAW is relatively quiet.
what fumes and gases will be pro- Whatever noise you hear i s normally
duced by GMAW, because many
different steels can be welded with
one type of wire, and many different
wires can be used to weld one type
~~ ~~
Increasing current
Uq?GWRrE üAm2Radiation is propor-

- caused by short-circuit metal trans-
fer. This means that noise and spat-
ter usually go together. There is an-
other source of noise you should
of steel. It all depends on the weld tional to arc current. consider. Special power sources for
properties desired by the engineer. controlling metal transfer are avail-
The only safe thing for you is to able. These power sources produce
consider all fumes and gases as haz- high pulses of current at high fre-
ardous to your health and lungs, and creases with current and arc length. quency. Whenever a pulse of cur-
to use plenty of ventilation always. Some gases increase radiation. It rent surges through an arc, the arc
If you ever develop strange symp- might seem strange at first, but the gives off a sound wave. The stronger
toms when welding, you should more active the shielding gas, the the pulse of current, the louder the
stop and check on the ventilation. less the radiation hazard. The haz- sound becomes. The faster the repe-
You shouldn't weld if it makes you ard is less because the smokelike tition rate of the pulses, the higher
sick. Your upset condition could be fumes and gases prevent the radia- the frequency of the sound. It may
due to ozone from the arc, or it tion from leaving the weld zone. be necessary for you to wear ear
could be metal fume fever. Metal (See Figure 1 A-2.) The metal transfer protection with these systems. A
fume fever makes you feel as though with active gases is not as smooth good rule of thumb is that whenever
you have the flu. Providingplenty of and spatter-free as with gases using you have to raise your voice to be
ventilation is a good practice for any a great amount of argon. The erratic heard over the shop noise, you
welder. transfer keeps the arc short and even should wear hearing protection.
causes it to go out.
ARC RADiAT149N Metal transfer will be described in
Just as with other welding arcs, the Lesson 1D. However, it is worth
radiation emitted during GMAW in- mentioning here that radiation is
OBJJHCTRVES THREE HEAT SOURCES arcs can run at higher power levels
Upon completion of this lesson you In addition to the expected hazards than you use with GTAW and even
should be able to of electric shock, fumes and gases, SMAW. Because of this, the weldinn
1. Identify three things that cause and radiation, gas metal arc welding guns for GMAW, or welding torches
GMAW guns to get hot. has several others. as they are sometimes called, can
2. Explain why aluminum GMAW Normally, GMAW is thought of as get very hot. The heat comes from
seems hotter than steel GMAW. a "hot" process when compared to three sources.
3. Describe a GMAW burnback. GTAW and shielded SMAW. Ucu- The first source i s / * R heating. Al-
4. Explain why a GMAW wire wrap- ally, arcs are longer and the currents though it does contribute to the heat
around is hazardous. are higher. Consequently, GMAW of the welding gun, it is not the ma-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

338 SECTION V GAS METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
jor heat source. Arc radiation and inum

welding spatter are the two other
-
u)
sources of heat. Some GMAW .-5

4-
.- res-steel
L
processes generate a great amount 9
u)
of spatter, others very little. When
there is considerable spatter, it can
add quite a bit of heat to the welding
gun. However, it too is not the ma-
jor source of heat. Since 12R and
I
Radiation intensity
FIGURE n5.n The relative radiation
-
spatter are not the major heat
of some GMAW variations at the same
sources, that leaves radiation.
current level.
GMAW radiation is very intense. As
we have indicated before, the inten-
sity of radiation i s maximum when
spatter, fumes, and gases are at a
minimum.
RADIATION
in addition to a lesser amount of
spatter and fumes, radiation de-
pends on the shielding gas you are
using. Arcs shielded by argon and
argon-based mixtures seem hotter Normal arc Burnback
than those using carbon dioxide. FH68TmE n1.2 The appearance of a burnback the instant it occurs.
Some metals too seem to produce
hotter arcs than others. For example,
aluminum GMAW seems hotter
than steel GMAW. (See Figure the copper tip jams the wire-feeding nest of wire piles up at the drive
1B-1,) There are several reasons for system by melting the copper tip and rolls, however, the shock hazard is
this apparent heat. Aluminum is a stopping the wire feeding. When increased. The wire in the bird’s nest
good reflector of ultraviolet radia- this happens you should stop weld- is electrically “hot” as long as you
tion. Moreover, aluminum is welding as fast as you can. Stopping energize the circuit by -holding the
ed with argon-based shielding gas- quickly will prevent several feet of gun switch. If the wire continues to
es, and there isn’t very much spatter. wire from piling up at the wire drive feed and pile up into a ball of spa-
Therefore the radiation hazard to rolls. This is called a “bird’s nest” ghetti, it can reach out and touch
you and your equipment is in- or a “ball of spaghetti.” Whatever it other objects. For example, the elec-
creased. Do not use your welding is called, it can be dangerous. trode could touch the frame of the
gun above its ratings. if you do not Sometimes the wire electrode will wire feeder control. This could lead
know its current ratings, for the gas wrap around the drive rolls and is to the following scenario.
used, find them out. Welding.guns referred to as just that, a wrap-
can get too hot to handle when they around. (See Figure 18-3.) 1. The wire touches the wire feeder
are used beyond their ratings. For As long as the system i s electri- cabinet.
example, a gun rated at 300 am- cally energized, the entire wire is at 2. Current flows from the gun, back
peres, 60 percent duty with carbon arc potential. The electrode inside through the conduit to the drive
dioxide, might be capable of only the gun is a good conductor of elec- rolls.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
200-ampere operation with argon tricity. it can carry current from the 3. Current flows into the cabinet and
mixtures. gun backward to the drive rolls. For into the control system’s ground
this reason rolls are electrically in- circuit connection.
BURNBACKS sulated from the drive motor. As
4. Current passes through the
One of the most common GMAW long as the electrode is feeding nor-
ground circuit to the system
problems is called a burnback. The mally, there is no problem. The wire
ground and back to the work-
arc jumps from the GMAW wire to reel is insulated, the drive rolls are
piece or main power source.
the copper contact tip in the gun. insulated, and the conduit leading to
.(See Figure 1B-2.) This burnback to the gun is insulated. When a bird‘s As a result of all this, the 12R heat-

ers before the wire electrode gets

Pressure rol1 completely jammed. Do not clean
Screw
these conduits and liners unless the
c- - Wire fromI reel
Moving manufacturer says it is all right to do
wire so.
Driven roil
Whenever you use a solvent, be
u sure to follow all the safety precau-
Direction of
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
rotation tions for its use. if you use com-
pressed air to blow out the conduit,
be very careful. The dirt and metal
chips could get in your eyes. Do not
use any cleaning agent unless you
are completely familiar with the
Wire
ways to handle it safely.
-#
from reei
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
Some operators feel that they know
enough about motors and such to be
able to troubleshoot a GMAW sys-
Wraparound tem. Just because you are good at
fixing things around the home and
on your car does not mean that you
J qualify for working on a GMAW sys-
tem. The welding power source is
energized by voltage levels that can
kill you. Leave them alone. Only
qualified technicians should work
FPGURE il693 The typical feeding problems that are caused by a jammed conduit on them. Control systems also have
or burnback: (a) normal feeding conditions, (b) bird’s nest, (c) wraparound and bird’s electric shock hazards. Stay out of
nest. their insides.
Not only can you endanger your-
ing is excessive and the current can control systems and still have nor- self by messing with the insides, but
cause severe damage to the wire mal wire feeding. For this reason it you can damage sensitive micro-
feeder control and the ground cir- is very important that you stop weld- circuits just by touching them with
cuit. The current can even burn out ing as fast as you can when you get your fingers. You can have a small
the control system’s ground circuit. a burnback. It protects the equip- static charge on your body, one so
You should always suspect damage ment from damage and you from small you are not even aware of
to the control system’s ground cir- electric shock. its presence. However, it is large
cuit whenever you smell burned enough to damage sensitive logic
insulation after a bird’s nest or CLEANING AGENTS circuits and components. Unless
wraparound. if the control system’s Sometimes the conduit between the you are qualified and have special
ground i s destroyed, your risk of drive rolls and gun becomes clogged training, stay out of the equipment.
electric shock is raised. It is possible with dirt and metal fibers. Many op- Repairs are costly and you might get
to burn out a ground circuit in many erators clean these conduits and lin- shocked.

340 SECTION V 6 A S METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
LESSON IC
ELECTRODE MELT
OBJECTIVES
tl
should be able to
1. Explain what happens when the
CMAW melt rate and feed rate
are not equal.
2. Name three things that cause the * 0 '
. Workpiece
arc portion of the GMAW melt
rate to change.
FñGURE P ( E 3 The arc portion of the
3. Identify three things that cause
total melt rate is proportional to the arc
the / 2 R portion of the GMAW current.
melt rate to change.
4. Describe what is meant by
hot-wire deposition.
MAINTAINING ARC LENGTH

Gas metal arc welding is one of the
tI Long extension
many welding processes that use Normalextension
consumable electrodes. All the Short extension
processes use arc energy to melt an
electrode as it i s fed into the arc.
In SMAW it is up to you to keep
the correct arc length. You do this
by feeding the electrode into the arc
Current
FHGUJHBE IC43 The P R portion of the
-
total melt rate increases with the
as you move the electrode holder. square of the current.
The GMAW system does this for
you. All you have to do is hold the
FIGURE 1C.P The effect of melt rate
gun at the correct distance and ma-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
and feed rate balance on arc length:

nipulate it. The electrode is fed into Arc Portion of Melt Rate
(a) stable arc length, F equal to M.
the arc by the wire-feeding system. (b) increased arc length, F less than M. Arcs are very sensitive to changes in
Stable GMAW depends on balanc- (c) decreased arc length, F greater material. For example, a change in
ing the electrode melt rate and feed than M. the shielding gas, all other things re-
rate. When they are equal to each maining the same, will change the
other, the arc length i s stable. When melt rate. This is one reason for hav-
the feed rate is greater, the arc being so many gases and their mix-
comes shorter and will eventually having two parts. A portion of the tures. The gases not only control the
stub out. When the melt rate is electrode's melting is due to arc en- heat of the puddle but also have an
greater, the arc becomes longer and ergy and the rest to resistance heat- effect on melt rate.
will eventually burn back. This les- ing 0 2 R heating). Anything that can A change in electrode composi-
son discusses the factors that affect change the arc and its operation will tion will also change the melt rate.
melt rates and how the GMAW sys- alter the arc portion of the melt rate. Sometimes it is possible for an ex-
tem maintains the correct arc length. (See Figure 1C-2.) The same goes for perienced operator to tell the differ-
(See Figure 1C-1.) the /*R heating portion. (See Figure ence between two "heats" of the
1C-3.) Anything that changes the same type of wire. A slight alloy
MELT RATE FACTORS current ( I ) or the electrode resistance change can vary the arc portion of
For all practical purposes the elec- (R) will alter that portion of the elec- the melt rate, enough to be seen by
trode melt rate can be thought of as trode melt rate. a skilled welder. Because coatings,

CHAPTER 1 GAS METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS
lubricants, stains, and dirt on a wire ance by using smaller-diameter

can also change the arc and the melt wire. (See Figure 1C-5.) A wire with
rate, it is important to keep wire a small cross section has more re-
clean and stored properly. Wire sistance than a wire with a large
with intermittent surface contami- cross section.
nation can cause an arc length to All of this is expressed by the fol-
vary, even though the feed rate sys-
tem is perfect. Each dirty area on the
wire causes a change in the arc por- ~ The effect of material
I F E G U J ~RC-4
Current - lowing equation,
Resistivity x length
Resistance =
tion of the melt rate. on melt raie. Cross-section area
Whenever stability of the arc is
critical, a stable melt rate must be
maintained. This means that you
must have a good shielding gas sys- where p = resistivity,
tem, with a good-quality shielding
gas, and with no leaks. If you are
making your own gas mixture by
II I = conductor length,
A = conductor cross
section.
blending and mixing, be sure it is
done right. Every slight variation in If you calculate resistance this
the gases, owing to faulty mixing or
fluctuation in gas flows, will cause
the arc melt rate to vary. Unless you
know what you are doing, it is best
Current
I F U G U E ~n u x The effect of a change
- way, be sure you use the correct
units of measure. An example indi-
cates the importance of this equa-
tion. When you weld with low-alloy
to purchase your gases already in diameter on electrode melt rate.
aluminum wire, ’A6 inch in diameter
mixed. Be sure to store your wire in or thicker, and keep the electrode
a clean, dry area. Keep it from be- extension short, the electrode melt
coming contaminated. lt is good Feed rate rate is due mostly to the arc. When
practice to cover the wire reel on the you weld with high-alloy steel
wire feeder when it is not in use. Or wires, 3/64 inch in diameter or finer,
you can remove the reel and store it and keep a long extension, the melt
temporarily until you need it again. rate is due mostly to resistance
Always keep your wire clean and heating.
free from shop dust and dirt.
temperature
-Gun direction
HOT-WIRE DEPOSITION
Resistance Heating It is possible to melt a consumable
Portion of Melt Rate electrode completely without any
Most of the time current is deter- arc at all. With the correct current,
mined by the needs of the welding wire diameter, and electrode exten-
situation. This means that only re- Work piece sion, no arc is necessary to melt the
sistance can be used to vary the 12R üWGiiiKm n u x Hot-wire bead deposit- wire as fast as you feed it. Wire melt-
heating portion of the melt rate. Just ed by P R heating only. The I’R melt ed this way is called Hot-wire depo-
rate equals the electrode feed rate.
as with any electric conductor, the sition or arcless metal deposition.
resistance depends on the material. (See Figure 1C-6.) Hot-wire deposi-
Steel has more resistance than alu- wire is determined by the welding tion can be combined with the heat
minum. Therefore a piece of steel situation. What you do have control of CTAW, plasma welding, or sub-
has more resistance than a piece of over is the length and the fineness of merged arc welding to make “hot
aluminum of the same size. Resistiv- the wire. Longer wire has more re- wire” welds.
ity is the measure of this property. sistance than shorter wires. When The trouble with hot-wire depo-
For welding wire, the higher the re- you weld with more electrode stick- sition i s that you cannot weld with
sistivity of its substance, the greater out, or electrode extension as it is it by itself. Hot-wire deposition
the resistance heating portion of the also called, the resistance is greater. doesn’t have enough energy in it to
melt rate. (See Figure 1C-4.) But Consequently, the resistance heat- melt the base plate. The heat melts
there isn’t much you can do about ing portion of the melt rate increas- only the wire. You must have anoth-
all this because the substance of the es. You can also increase the resist- er heat source to melt the base plate.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

LESSON ID
OBJECTIVES
should be able to
1. Name the two principal ways in
n -Solid electrode -Electrode
Liquid neck
which metal can transfer across
the GMAW arc gap.
2. Describe globular transfer.
3. Define transition current. nmn A pendant drop held
FIIG~LTIIBIE
4. List three things that determine by surface tension.
when GMAW spray transfer
occurs.
5. Name three commercial varia-
tions of GMAW-S.
n-
- Solid electrode
TWO TRANSFER MODES

All the gas metal arc welding
processes can be grouped according ' - o
Liquid-solid boundary
Molten metal
fl
-Liquid left behind
to the ways in which they transfer
metal. Basically, there are only two
ways in which metal can transfer
from the end of the electrode. One
way is through short-circuit contacts
between the electrode and weld nb.2 A pendant drop de-
~FIIQIIBT~WFE (b)
puddle; the other way happens taching itself because it became too IFEGUEEE QIb3(a) A short-circuit
without short circuits. Each of these heavy. The gap i s large, and there i s transfer of a large pendant drop. The
two ways can be broken into sub- no short circuit. gap is small and there is a short circuit.
divisions. For example, hot-wire (b) A short-circuit iransfer after a drop
touches the puddle. The gap is created
transfer has a continuous short cir-
by the pinch effect or gravity.
cuit. When the short circuits are in- transfer. At low electrode feed rates,
termittent, the operation may be when the melt rate and current are
called by commercial names such as low, drops of molten metal will
short-arc welding, dip transfer, or slowly form on the electrode tip. short-circuiting the gap. if the arc
microwire welding. When there are These drops will grow in size, and gap is small, the drop of molten
no short circuits, the welder may be fall, just as a drop of water grows on metal can bridge the gap complete-
using spray, pulse, or even globular a dripping faucet and then falls from ly. (See Figure 1D-3.) The short cir-
transfer. it. When a drop of molten metal be- cuiting of the gap by the drop causes
Each of the commercially avail- comes large enough, and heavy the arc to go out. Most of the time
able processes uses one of these enough, it will fall off the end of the the drop continues to move down-
many metal transfer variations. This electrode. Surface tension of the liq- ward, into the puddle. When the
lesson discusses the major process uid is what initially holds the drop drop is completely transferred, a
variations that you will use or on the electrode tip. (See Figure new arc gap is formed. if the con-
encounter. 1D-1.) When the weight of the drop ditions at the power source are cor-
becomes too heavy for the surface rect, a new arc can start up in the
GLOBULARTRANSFER tension to hold it in place, the drop new gap. If the conditions are
The transfer of molten metal from a falls off. (See Figure 1D-2.) wrong, the arc will not reignite.
consumable electrode across the arc As long as the arc gap is large Then the electrode will continue to
in large droplets is called globular enough, the drop falls off without feed until it bumps into the work-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

Current Current
piece. When the arc fails to reignite,
your hand can feel each bump
through the gun. But your hand
won‘t feel anything when the arc
- Electrode
reignites each time.
SHORT-CIRCUIT ‘I’RANSF6R Force of

In short-circuit transfer drops of the gravity
molten metal of a consumable elec-
trode are deposited during repeated
short circuits. This type of transfer i s
a little like globular transfer, but the Workpiece
feed rate and the current are higher. (a)
Because of the higher current,
which surges even higher, there is a
new factor. Instead of just gravity,
an electromagnetic factor called the
“pinch effect” helps a drop to trans-
fer. When enough current flows in a
wire, a squeeze force develops
fl -Electrode
Arc startingin new gap A r c - A

Rapidly
-moving
drop
around the wire. (See Figure 1D-4.)
The squeeze force acts on the
molten metal on the end of the elec-
trode. It adds to the force of gravity
(b) ib)
and helps pinch the drop off the end
of the electrode. When the current F~(rnUFiP3 nnn-s (a) The pinch force 11-4)(a) The pinch force i s
FFIQirtiJIwIE
acting in a small-drop, short-circuit acting on the molten metal neck. The
is high, the pinch force is high.
transfer. (b) The transfer caused by the arc is on the drop. (b) The drop is
When the current is low, the pinch pinched off. The arc moves to the
pinch is complete. A new arc starts in
force is low. The amount of pinch the pinch gap. electrode.
force needed to produce a good
transfer depends on the shielding
gas, the type of metal, and the nar- feed rate and current, each drop of are propelled axially across the arc.
rowness of the drop’s neck. Differ- metal is pinched off neatly as it Spray transfer occurs at feed rates
ent materials and welding condi- transfers to the puddle. (See Figure and currents that are usually higher
tions call forth different pinch effect 1D-5.) than those of GMAW-S. When there
forces. When you have the proper Typically, from 20 to 200 drops is enough current, the pinch effect
per second can be pinched off by forces can cause a drop to transfer
the brief surge of current that follows without gravity playing an important
the short circuit. Processes that de- part. The pinch effect helps over-
pend on this type of transfer are come the surface tension that holds
called gas metal arc welding with the drop on the electrode tip. When
short-circuit transfer (GMAW-S). conditions are correct, the pinch ef-
Various commercial terms are ap- fect causes each metal drop to trans-
plied to this type of transfer- fer as soon as it forms. The drops are
short-arc welding, dip transfer, and usually smaller in diameter than the
microwire welding. There are vari- electrode and transfer one behind
ations in all these commercial the other. They transfer not like the
processes, but they are all short- water spray from a garden hose but
circuit metal transfer processes. like pearls falling from the string of
a broken necklace. All this happens
above a current called the transition
FìïûiWkiRE iiiiB-4 The electromagnetic SPRAY ‘I‘RANSFEII current.
pinch force is directed radially inward in spray transfer small molten drop- Below the transition current grav-
on all current-carrying conductors. lets from the consumable electrode ity plays the most important roll.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

t ------------
4-
E '
Spray arc zone
Transition
current
level
u' Globular-transfer
zone
- Time
FIGURE PD-7 Spray transfer occurs
when the arc current is above the
transition current.
4 Pulse current
/
current
- i -f
Pulse arc transfer allows vertical welding.

L
-
V'IGURE UD-8 A typical pulse cur-
Time
rent. l h e shape, size, and frequency

may vary, but all pulses must reach
above the transition current for pulse
transfer to occur.
Spray transfer occurs above the tran- a drop (see Figure 1D-8), and a high
sition current (see Figure 1D-71, current transfers the drop. Using
which sometimes has a range of val- fluctuating current lets you obtain ample, SMAW can be practiced
ues. The value depends on the sur- spray transfer at average currents be- with globular short-circuiting trans-
face tension, the pinch effect forces, low the transition current. fer. Many G M A W processes are pro-
and the factors that control them. Other benefits of pulse current are moted commercially. Their transfer
Good spray transfer occurs when also claimed. One such benefit is characteristic will depend on the
surface tension is stable. Inert that the pulsing forces stir the pud- type, of wire and its diameter, the
shielding gases such as argon yield dle. This action i s said to produce shielding gas, the type of current
stable surface tension, but oxidizing grain refinement as the puddle and its amount, and so on. Don't be
gases such as carbon dioxide do not. freezes. fooled by fancy names and claims.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Mixtures of gases that are mostly in- All metal comes off the electrode
ert can also be used for spray arc COMBINATIONS OF TRANSFER tip as drops. (See Figure 1D-9.) The
transfer. Spray transfer happens All processes can be classified ac- drops can vary in size and frequen-
without drops shorting the arc be- cording to one of the transfer types, cy, but they always transfer with or
cause the drops are small and the or combinations of them. For ex- without short circuits.
arc is long.
PULSE TRANSFER fl
A variation of spray transfer is called
pulse transfer. Instead of using cur-
rent above the transition level at all
times, pulse transfer uses currents
that fluctuate. First the current is low
and in the range for globular trans-
fer. Then the current is pulsed to FIGURE PD.8 The drops by which molten metal is transferred vary with the shield-
above the transition current. In pulse ing gas. (a, b, c) These drops are shielded by argon or argon-based mixtures. (d) This
transfer a low current is used to form drop is typical of shielding by carbon dioxide.

~~ -
LESSON 1E
SHIELDING GASES
OBJECTIVES sense, the oxygen and the hot metal air out of the way, and keeps it out
Upon completion of this lesson you burn. The oxygen combines with the of the way, while you are welding.
should be able to metal to form oxides that cause po- You can tell when gas shielding is
1. Explain why air is not a good rosity, smoke, and slag. The metal poor by the amount of porosity that
GMAW shielding gas. looks like a piece of dirty Swiss develops. Shielding gas not only
2. Name two ways to counteract the cheese, full of holes and covered protects the weld metal, but also
effect of air on hot metal. with slag and spatter. Early welders controls arc energy. The energy in
3. List four reasons for using argon found that they could reduce the ef- an arc is a function of its current and
as a GMAW shielding gas. fect of air by keeping the arc short voltage. Two arcs with the same cur-
4. Identify four characteristics of enough to be able to ward the air rent and arc length, but with differ-
carbon dioxide as a GMAW away. But some air always got into ent shielding gases, will have differ-
shielding gas. the arc zone and reacted with the ent voltages. Therefore the power of
5. Name five gases used in GMAW, metal. the two arcs will be different.
either as pure gases or in Metallurgists tried to solve the
mixtures. problem by adding deoxidizing al- Argon
loys to the filler metal. The deoxi- Argon has been found to be a good
dizers counteracted the effect of the shielding gas. It produces an arc
ARC ATMOSPHERES
oxygen in air and helped make bet- with good power characteristics at
Arcs can operate underwater, in air,
ter welds. arc lengths that are easy to use. It is
and in all kinds of gases. The elec-
Coatings of chemicals were inert. It does not react with hot
trical characteristics of an arc de-
placed on the welding electrodes to metal. It is readily available and
pend on the "stuff" in which it op-
help reduce porosity and improve doesn't cost too much. Argon helps
erates. Some gases make it easy for
the weld metal. As you remember, to stabilize the surface tension of
an arc to run, and others make it
the flux coating used on SMAW molten metal. When surface tension
more difficult. For example, a gas
electrodes serves these purposes. is uniform, the metal transfer is uni-
called sulfur hexafluoride is used to
But the only truly effective way to form and stable. Luckily, we will
extinguish arcs in high-power circuit
keep air out of an arc is to flood the never run out of argon. It comes
breakers. Air is a mixture of gases.
arc with another gas. from air. Shielding gas suppliers re-
It is not too difficult to operate an
move it from the air, purify it, and
arc in air. Gases like argon, helium,
SHIELDING GASES compress it into cylinders. You ob-
and carbon dioxide can also sustain
All GMAW guns are designed to tain the argon you use from these
an arc. The important thing to re-
provide a stable flow of shielding cylinders. As the gas is used, it is
member is that the energy in an arc
gas to- the arc zone. (See Figure dumped back into the air. Argon is
depends a great deal on what gas is
1 E-1.I The shielding gas pushes the constantly recycled.
used. This lesson will discuss the
various gases and their effects on
GMAW.
AIR
it is not too difficult to strike an arc
in air. This may happen to you when
you forget to turn on the GMAW
shielding gas. In the late nineteenth
century and early twentieth, most
arcs were operated in air. When a
welding arc operates in air, the hot (a) íb)
metal combines with the gases in the FIGURE 1E.l Gas shielding. (a) Stable flow keeps air away. (b)Turbulent flow lets
air. One of the gases is oxygen. In a air in.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

One especially important thing to much more heat. Using CO, has welding, or when considerable heat
remember about argon is that it is one drawback. Metal transfer is very is needed, pure helium is never
inert, heavier than air, and an as- erratic and unstable. (See Figure used. Hydrogen finds similar uses in
phyxiant. If argon displaces the air 1E-2.) You cannot get spray transfer mixtures. It is not used as a pure
where you are working, you will suf- with CO,, as you can with argon. shielding gas. Another reason why
focate. This is another reason why With CO, shielding there are many helium and hydrogen have limited
ventilation is so important in the short-circuit transfers, and the spat- use is that they are much lighter than
work area. ter that goes with them. air. It is very difficult to get good arc
As good as argon sounds for weld- shielding with light gases. Argon,
ing, it is not perfect. Sometimes being heavier than air, is able to stay
more arc heat is needed. Other gas- Mixtures in place and give good shielding.
es can be used to increase the arc Mixtures of argon and carbon diox- Believe it or not, oxygen i s also
heat. ide can combine the best features of used in gas mixtures. A little bit of
both gases. The more carbon diox- oxygen in argon makes the arc hot-
Carbon Dioxide ide used, the hotter the arc becomes ter without creating porosity and
Arcs operated in carbon dioxide are and the more unstable the metal spatter. Mixtures of argon with 1, 2
hotter than those in argon. Unlike transfer. The more argon used, the and even 5 percent oxygen are
argon, carbon dioxide is not inert. it cooler the arc becomes and the available. These mixtures are pop-
is a reactive gas because it contains more stable the metal transfer. (See ular, and are used extensively.
oxygen in its molecule. Therefore Figure 1E-3.) Typical mixtures range Finally, there are triple mixes and
you cannot use CO, to weld every- from about 5 percent CO, up to 75 quadruple mixes. There are mixtures
thing. However, it is a good gas percent. Below 5 percent the CO, in with gases we have not discussed.
for welding with electrodes that the mixture doesn't have a great ef- All.the mixtures are used to control
have deoxidizers to counteract the fect on the argon. Above 75 percent arc heat, improve arc stability, and
oxygen. When you operate your the CO2 in the mixture acts almost control metal transfer. Some of the
GMAW gun in COz, less oxygen is like pure CO,. One of the most pop- advantages claimed for cure-all mix-
released by the gas than would be if ular mixtures is 75 percent argon tures can be difficult to prove.
you operated in air. Changing over and 25 percent CO,. Always be wary of miraculous-
from argon to CO2, when you have Other gases, such as helium and sounding mixtures and their claimed
the correct welding wire, gives you hydrogen, have been used for advantages. Most of the time you
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
GMAW, but only to a very limited can achieve your welding results
Chielding\
m- /
Gas cup
extent. They perform best when they
are a part of mixtures. Helium and
hydrogen are used to increase the
arc heat. Most of the time helium is
used in combination with argon,
with simple commercial mixtures of
argon and carbon dioxide, or of ar-
gon and oxygen.
When a little more heat is needed,
and carbon dioxide is not to be
Contact tip
and in argon and CO, mixes. Except used, try a mixture of argon and
Electrode
for some aluminum and copper helium.
U U
íb)
FIGURE 1E-2Metal transfer changes Workpiece
with the shielding gas. (a) Argon gives Argon Carbon dioxide
spray transfer. (b) Carbon dioxide gives FIGURE BE.3 Carbon dioxide has more penetration than argon at the same arc
erratic globular transfer. current and gives a "hotter" arc.

CHAPTER 2
N
LESSON 2A
@RMECFPVES FEEDING WIRE trying to push a piece of limp spa-

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Upon completion of this lesson you The conduit that brings the wire ghetti through a soda straw. If it is
should be able to from the reel to the gun is an im- not done properly, the wire will nev-
1. Explain why the hole of a conduit portant part of the GMAW gun sys- er come out the other end.
for the GMAW wire must be the tem. Usually the wire i s pushed to For feeding GMAW wire, you
proper size. the gun through the conduit. If the must always use the recommended
2. Discuss the benefits of GMAW hole in the conduit is too large, the conduit system. Some conduits have
conduit I iners. wire will jam inside. (See Figure plastic liners, others liners that look
3. Describewhat keeps the wire and 2A-1.) The push on the wire will like a very long spring. (See Figure
tip in contact while the wire cause it to collapse and twist like a 2A-2.) The liners help feed the wire
passes through the GMAW con- bent paper clip. Pushing a welding by controlling friction and inside di-
tact tip. wire through a conduit is a little like ameter. Liners also give strength to
4. Explain what happens if the hole
in the contact tip has too large a
diameter.
5. Give two reasons why using a gas Walls of the conduit liner
cup with the correct diameter is
important.
ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS
The success of gas metal arc weld- J
Wire
ing, as a widely used industrial uCollapsed wire out
process, depends on having the (a)
proper equipment and good skills
and welding techniques in applying
it. Good GMAW requires proper
manipulation of the arc, as well as
good control of the metal transfer,
the proper shielding gas, and a sup-
ply of the correct current and volt-
age. You, too, are very important.
You must place the molten metal
where it is needed. You must control
the shape of the weld bead, and you
P-
Wire out íb)
J
Wire out íb)
must control the speed at which the F~GWilRE2A.B (a) Wire will collapse FHGURE 2A-2Typical conduit liners:
weld is made. You do your part in in a conduit that i s too large in diame- (a) spiral (spring) metal conduit liner,
making a good weld by proper use ter. (b) Wire will feed through a con- íb) metal conduit liner with inner liner
of the GMAW gun. duit of the correct size. of plastic.

The welding current i s delivered

to the tip via a power cable attached
to the torch. Current enters the
welding wire where it rubs against
with
the copper tip. For good electrical
reasons, to do with the path of least
resistance (see Figure 2A-41, current
transfers to the wire where it rubs the
edge of the exit hole. Most of the
time there is plenty of force to hold
the wire against the tip as it feeds
through the tip. The force that holds
the wire against the tip is a spring
force. The wire has curves and
FIGURE %A-3 Typical copper contact bends because of the way it is fed.
tips. The curved wire acts like a spring as
it passes through the hole in the mid-
dle of the copper tip.
Good electric contact depends on
the conduit and help keep it free of
the type of copper alloy used to
sharp bends. The conduit is de-
make the tip. It also depends on the
signed to resist being bent sharply,
size of the hole in the tip. A small
for it is very difficult to push wire FIGURE 2A-5 Typical tip problems.
hole can cause a great deal of fric-
around the curves in a conduit. You (a) A tip outlet hole with a groove
tion and may jam the wire in the
should try to keep sharp bends and worn in it from rubbing of the elec-
conduit. A large hole can cause the
curves to a minimum-and thus trode. íb) A tip outlet hole clogged by
wire to bounce and rattle round
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
your wire-feeding problems to a arcing deposits. (c) A tip with the outlet
the inside of the copper tip. The hole melted closed by burnback.
minimum. Although the conduit and
bounces make the wire lose electric
liner are not a part of the gun itself,
with the tip, and arcs and sparks de-
they are a vital part of the gun
velop inside. The arcing inside the use just any tip that happens to be
system.
contact tip deposits little pieces of handy. Always follow the torch
welding wire around the exit edge manufacturer’s instructions.
CONTACT TUBES AND TIPS of the tip. Sooner or later the tip hole
Just as the conduit guides the wire clogs up and jams the wire. GAS CUPS
to the gun, the contact tip guides the After the wire stops feeding, the The shielding gas must be delivered
wire to the weld puddle. The con- welding arc melts the last piece of to the arc in exactly the right way.
tact device may be in the form of a wire that sticks out of the contact tip. Otherwise air will get into the arc
long copper tube or a short screw-in When the welding arc burns back and ruin the weld. Designers of
tip. (See Figure 2A-3.) It doesn’t real- long enough, it jumps to the copper welding guns make the gas cups re-
ly matter whether it i s a tube or a tip and melts it. (See Figure 2A-5.) placeable because they get dam-
tip. What is important is its inside The tip and welding wire melt to- aged from too much heat, by care-
diameter. The welding wire rubs gether into a blob, called, like the less welding, and from spatter, and
along the inside of the copper tip process, a “burnback.” You can because you must have the correct
and touches the edge of the hole keep burnbacks to a minimum by diameter for the arc. High-current
where it exits the tip. using a tip of the proper size. Don’t arcs need more shielding gas than
small arcs. If you forced more gas
through an undersized gas cup, the
gas would act like a jet. Too much
- Wire
motion
gas velocity can cause the weld pud-
dle to slosh around. If the gas cup is
too large for the required volume of
Last point of contact between
shielding gas, the gas velocity is very
wire and copper tip low. When gas flow i s slow, the gas
FIGURE 2A.4 Cutaway of tip and moving electrode. column lacks stiffness.

CHAPTER 2 GAS METAL ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS 349
Shielding Shielding
gas gas
I I
t t
-Cutaway view Cooling
of gas cups water
Insulated
gun body
Shielding
gas
Contact tip
Gas nozzle
G
Shi Electrode extension
Arc
(a)
FIGURE 2A& The influence of the gas cup diaineter on the IFBGUWE 2A.ã Parts of a typical welding gun.
flow pattern of the welding gun: (a) good shielding gun,
(bì poor shielding gun. Both cups have shielding gas flowing
at the same rate. A high velocity in a srnall cup causes
turbulence nearby.
You need a firm shielding gas col- portant is to keep the connection in ing permits a manufacturer to re-
umn to resist breezes and drafts. good shape. Most welding guns are duce gun weight. Lightweight weld-
Otherwise the slightest draft can designed to remove the heat that ing guns are easier for you to use.
cause air to get into the arc. You builds up in the gas cup, by good They last longer and have a higher
should always use the proper size of surface-to-surface contact between duty cycle. The biggest problems of
gas cup. Follow the torch manufac- the cup and body of the gun. Poor water-cooled guns are water leaks
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
turer‘s recommendations. contact will cause the cups to be- and extra cost. You must have a
Gas cups are carefully designed come too hot and to fail quickly. good maintenance program for all
for length and diameter. The total welding guns, especially water-
gas path must be considered when HEAT cooled guns.
designing a gun. When the gas path, Heat i s the principal enemy of a
including the gas cup, is correct in GMAW gun. it will cause the copper THE WEJ,T)TNG GUN
length, the gas tends toward laminar tip to oxidize. The dirty tip is a poor Always think of your welding gun as
or streamline flow. (See Figure electric contact. Just as poor physi- a precision tool. Always handle it
2A-6.) You should avoid turbulent cal contact causes the gas cup to with care and follow the manufac-
gas flow, for it ruins the weld by overheat and fail, poor electric con- turer’s instructions. The gun isn’t just
dragging in air. Turbulence is also tact causes the tip to overheat and a bunch of parts thrown together.
created by spatter buildup inside the wear out. (See Figure 2A-7.) The gun is a por-
cup. Always keep the inside of the One way designers try to over- tion of a system that begins at the
gas cup clean and relatively smooth. come the problem of heat is by using wire feeder drive rolls. it helps you
Gently knock out spatter that gets up more copper in the welding gun. deliver the correct amount of wire,
inside the welding gun, where the The copper helps draw the heat from gas, and current to the arc zone. it
gas cup screws into the gun or slips the tip and into the gun handle, is up to you to keep the GMAW gun
onto the gun. where it can be removed. However, in good shape.
There are several ways to connect using more copper makes a gun
cups to welding guns, but the means heavy. This is why some designers
used is not important. What is im- water-cool their guns. Water cool-

35)o SECTION V GAS METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
LESSON 2B
B)BJE(CTPVES changes while the melt rate is It is important that there be no

Upon completion of this lesson you steady, the arc length will change. skidding between the wire and the
should be able to The arc gets shorter with an in- drive rolls. If the wire skids between
1. Explain what happens to the arc creased feed rate and vice versa. the drive rolls, its surface can be
length if the GMAW feed rate var- scratched and the feed rate will
ies while the melt rate is constant. WIRE FEED MECHANISMS vary. Metal shavings from a skidding
2. Describe the function of GMAW There are many possible ways to drive roll can clog a gun conduit and
drive rolls. feed welding wire. The technical Iit- liner. (See 28-2.) One way to pre-
3. Describe how CMAW wire skid- erature and patents are full of them. vent skidding is to put a groove
ding can be minimized. Only one or two have been found to around the drive roll. The welding
4. Explain why GMAW drive rolls do a good job most of the time, wire is squeezed into the groove by
are electrically insulated. however. They all depend on "grab- the "pinch" from the other roll. In
5. List five factors that can change bing" the wire between two or more this way the wire is grabbed more
the GMAW wire feed rate. pinch points and moving the "grab- firmly, and it can be pushed with
ber." The most popular system uses more force before it slips and skids.
THE INFLUENCE two or more drive rolls. The wire is (See Figure 2B-3.) Some drive rolls
squeezed between the drive rolls, use teeth to grab the wire. They
OF WIRE FEED
which turn and push the wire into work about the same way that the
Good GMA welding depends on a
the conduit. drive gear and cutter on an electric
stable supply of welding wire. If the
This movement of the wire i s a lit- can opener grab a metal can.
wire is supplied with a charging
tle like the way dirt and gravel are You must always be sure to fol-
speed, the arc will be erratic. As
thrown out from beneath the drive low the manufacturer's instructions
long as the wire is supplied in a sta-
wheels of your car when it is stuck when adjusting the drive rolls. Too
ble, steady fashion, the arc will be
in soft dirt. A wheel of your car con- much squeeze can flatten the round
stable. Normally, you try to move
stitutes one of the pinch points. The wire. Flattened wire will not pass
the welding gun steadily along the
ground i s the other pinch point, and through the conduit and gun as
joint you are welding. A steady trav-
the loose dirt and gravel represent smoothly as round wire. In addition,
el speed is what helps make a uni-
the welding wire. The rotating the electric contact between the
form weld bead. If you vary the trav-
wheel pinches the dirt and gravel contact tip and wire can become er-
el speed, the width of the bead will
and forces it away from the pinch ratic. When the squeeze is too little,
change. The bead gets wider when
points. (See Figure 28-1 .) The faster the wire will skid between the rolls.
you slow down and narrower when
you speed up. All this would be
the wheel turns, the faster the gravel Drive rolls come in various diame-
flies. The faster the wire drive rolls ters and widths. The grooves of drive
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
much more complicated for you if
turn, the faster the wire is fed. rolls can be of various shapes-U
the wire feeder speed were to
change while you are welding.
In addition to altering the bead
width, changes in the wire feeder
speed also cause the arc length to
vary. As long as the electrode wire
melt rate and feed rate are in bal-
ance, the arc length is constant. The
melt rate is determined for the most
part by the arc current. As long as The spinning tire
throws gravel.
the current is steady, the melt rate is
steady. This relation will be dis- W
cussed in more detail in Lesson 2c Rotating rolls push the wire.
on power sources. If the feed rate FIGILTPPE 2B.U Drive roll physics.

CHAPTER 2 6 A S METAL ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS
High
speed
Slow Flat surface Smooth V Serrated V

speed groove groove
FIIGIURN 2i%=2 Skidding clrive rolls J.UGlIJiiRH32?JJE4% Typical drive roll surfaces.
machine off wire shavings and ílakes.
Insulated motor
Two Two Two mount
V U shallow
grooves grooves V
grooves
nn Insulateddrive
rolls
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
One flat groove, One flat groove,
one V groove one serrated
V groove
FHGìiJüRI&LllE4 The grooves íormed by various feed roll combinations. IFUQIüJIE 2RbI Two ways to prevent
stray welding current.
grooves, V grooves, serrated the motor drive shaft, but you may of equipment near the drive rolls are
grooves, and so on. (See Figure encounter a system in which the en- also electrically insulated.
28-4.) Different grooves and drive tire motor is insulated from its base.
rolls are recommended for hard Some wire feeder systems have the ELIECTRIC CONTROLS
wires and soft wires. You should be area around the drive rolls, and wire The wire feeder motor speed is con-
sure to use the correct drive rolls for reel, xompletely covered with trolled by special circuits. These cir-
soft wires made of such metals as insulation. cuits can sense when the motor is
aluminum. The msulation helps minimize the slowing down or speeding up and
chance of accidental arcs and sparks make the necessary adjustment to
IIRiVIC LIOLL YIVSUI,A'II'IOJV when wire jams in the feed rolls. hold the feed rate constant. Things
You must always remember that the Quite often the wire can wrap such as dirty conduits and liners,
welding wire is electrically "hot" around the drive roll several times spatter-clogged contact tips, kinks
when the power is on. This means before you stop the feeder motor. and sharp bends in the conduit, dirty
that the drive rolls are also "hot." Wraparounds occur when wire is or rusty wire, and extra-long con-
Since the drive rolls are connected forced too tightly into a grooved duits can cause the motor speed to
to a driving motor, it is necessary to drive roll. They also occur when the drop. In order for you to be able to
insulate the drive rolls electrically space behiveen the drive roll pinch depend on a dial setting for wire
from the motor, (see Figure 28-51, or point and the conduit inlet is too feed rate, the control circuits must
insulate the motor from its mount- large. These types of wire feeder fail- compensate for changes in motor
ing. Otherwise the welding power ure are to be expected. For this rea- load. Better controls cost more mon-
could find an unwanted path. Most son most of the metal brackets, ey. You may be able to use a simple,
wire drive rolls are insulated from holders, adapters, and other pieces low-cost wire feeder when your set-

SECTION V GAS METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
up is simple. In the long run, how-

ever, a good control system will pay
for itself by giving you good reliable
wire feed rates.
Co -Wire reels
The commercially available sys-

tems come with many variations.
For example, sometimes to start the
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
arc you need a different wire feed

rate than that for welding. You may
be using a mechanized system and
want to “inch down“ the welding Inch down
until
Retract
arc start
Fast
feed
- Shielding gasi and arc
Workpiece
wire before starting. (See Figure touch

28-6.) You may want to feed the
PiiBiIüJHBiE %iOne
% @way of controlling the drive rolls and motor speed to
typical
wire through the conduit and gun make a good arc start.
without energizing the welding
power. You can choose between a
number of available circuits and
control systems to accomplish all
these special purposes and others.
Just remember, the control only
regulates the motor system. It tuate or shift. When you observe contact tip, and so on. Don’t try to
doesn’t make the weld. You do that. such changes, it may be time to repair wire feeders unless you are
A skilled welder can tell when the change or clean the conduit, or qualified.
wire feed rate is beginning to fluc- check the drive rolls, or replace the
LESSON 2C
OBJECTHVES POWER I§ IMPOK‘I‘ADIT Manufacturers Association. NEMA

Upon completion of this lesson you Welding arcs are energy conversion is an organization of member com-
should be able to devices. They convert electric pow- panies, the largest of its type in the
1. Explain why DCEP is preferred for er to heat for welding. (See Figure United States. Its standards cover all
GMAW. 2C-1.) Because of this, the welding sorts of electric equipment, not just
2. Describe how you can tell power supply plays a dominant role welding equipment. Power sources
GMAW polarity from observing in GMAW performance. You should manufactured according to its
the feed rate. become very familiar with various guidelines should perform well for
3. Explain why CP power is pre- power sources and how to control GMAW.
ferred over CC power for GMAW. them, if you want to get the most
4. Explain what “self-regulation of benefit from the GMAW process. POT,AR[TY
arc length” is. Most GMAW power sources, as As you know, gas metal arc weld-
5. Describe how you can change well as those for other welding ing, unlike SMAW and GTAW, uses
the GMAW arc length without al- processes, are designed to meet only direct current. The arc does not
tering the current or wire feed NEMA standards. NEMA is the ab- perform well on alternating current.
rate. breviation for the National Electrical All GMAW power sources provide

-
FHGWUBE 2C-fi Arcs are energy con-
ARC
"i-
-
9
-----
Current
(a)
Ideal constant-
potential output
c- Actual volt-
ampere output
version devices.
- t
u-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Reverse polarity Straight polarity Actual volt-

Direct current. Direct current
Electrode positive Electrode negative ampere output
DCRP DCSP Current
DCEP DCEN
(b)
FHGKJUIE1 C 3 GMAW current polarities. FHGURE 2C.3 Basic constant-poten-
tial and constant-current power supply
curves. (a) Typical constant-potential
and volt-ampere output curves.
direct current. When you connect feeder control dial setting of 40 per- (b) Typical constant-current and
up the power source terminals, they cent, using DCEP. If no other volt-ampere output curves.
can be arranged in one of two ways. changes are made, and you only
You can connect the positive to the reverse connections, you will have
welding gun and the negative to the to increase the wire feeder control
work, or vice versa. (See Figure dial setting. If you don't, you will get arc length can vary. Most GMAW
2C-2.) Both polarities can be used to a burnback. Extra wire is needed to systems use the CP-type power
run the GMAW arc. However, only balance the increased melt rate sup- source because with them you can
one polarity puts the heat where you plied by DCEN. For this example use constant wire feeder speeds.
want it. The preferred polarity con- you might find you have to use a 60 With the CC type you must use a
nection is DCEP, otherwise called percent dial setting at the same 175 voltage-controlled wire feeder sys-
DCRP, meaning the electrode is amperes. Always check your arc po- tem. In this system arc length is held
positive. When you have DCEP, the larity when you have a very cold constant by adjusting the feed rate.
arc energy splits up into useful welding condition. Since current is relatively constant,
amounts. One amount melts the it cannot change the melt rate.
wire, the other the workpiece. For- GMAW POWER SOURCE TYPE§ Therefore, in order to get a balance
tunately, the energy splits up just the Two broad types of power sources between the melt rate and feed rate,
right way to be useful for welding. can be used for GMAW. These are the feed rate must change. GMAW
When you reverse the connec- the constant-potential and con- practiced with CC power and a volt-
tions, you get DCEN, otherwise stant-current types. (See Figure age-controlled wire feed rate is
called DCSP. With this polarity too 2C-3.) Don't let these names fool not very popular. Other welding
much energy goes into melting the you. The CP type does not really processes, however, such as sub-
wire and not enough into the work. provide constant arc voltage, and merged arc welding (SAW), do use
This means you don't have enough the CC doesn't really provide con- a CC power source and a volt-
heat to make a good weld. Every- stant arc amperage. The names CP age-controlled wire feeder. We will
thing seems colder. A good operator and CC describe only the arc char- concentrate on the CP system for the
can spot the wrong polarity right acteristic they provide. With the CP remainder of this lesson.
away. type the arc voltage is relatively con-
The thing most operators notice stant. The arc length and voltage are CONSTANT-POTENTIAL
immediately is the wire feeder usually steady and don't change POWER SOURCES
speed. Let's say that you were weld- much. With the CC type the arc cur- Sometimes constant-potential power
ing with 175 amperes and a wire rent is relatively constant, and the sources are also called constant-

voltage, or CV, units. (Frequently, in Figure 2C-4c. The broken line

the CC power source is called a con- and X represent the original condi-
stant-amperage, or CA, unit.) Weld- tion shown in Figure 2C-4a. The sol-
-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ing power sources are not perfect id line and circle represent the new
electric devices. They have internal Current arc condition with the power
losses that use up energy and are ia) source‘s output increased,
therefore not 100 percent efficient. Since you did not change the feed
Because power sources suffer in- rate, the current doesn’t change.
ternal losses of energy, their output This i s why the circle is shown di-
voltage drops off as more current is rectly above the x. The arc voltage
drawn from them. The drop in volt- is higher now than it was before,
age with a current increase is illus- ib) and the arc is longer.
trated in Figure 2C-4a. The drop-off The reverse will happen if you de-
is also referred to as the “slope” of crease the output voltage. If you start
the power supply. (Refer to the les- with the circle condition in Figure
sons in Section I, Chapter 6 on
sources, for more details.) Slope
gives you a very important adjust-
- New operating point
Higher-voltagecurve
--Original curve
2C-4c and lower the output of the
power source, you will wind up at
the X. The important thing to re-
and operating
ment tool. As you already know point X member here is that changes in the
from Lesson 1 C on melt rates, a con- id power source’s voltage cause a
stant current melts a constant rate of change in arc length. More voltage,
FIGURE 2C-4 Typical changes in
wire. Stated another way, the feed operating points. (a) Typical operating more length. Less voltage, less
rate (melt rate) can be held constant point X. (b) Change in operating point length. You might want to try these
if the current is constant. from an increase in feed rate. experiments when you are doing
Assume for the moment that you (c) Change in operating point from an some GMAW. Things will turn out
bave a GMAW arc in operation. increase in power supply voltage. almost exactly as discussed here.
Also assume that the feed rate is Very careful observers will notice a
constant and that the current drawn slight increase in arc current as they
from the power source is represent- increase the voltage while feed rate
ed by the X in Figure 2C-4a. This is less than that shown in Figure is constant. And vice versa. The cur-
means you have a fixed arc voltage 2C-4a, the arc becomes shorter. The rent will decrease slightly when the
as well. The fixed arc voltage and reverse happens when you decrease arc becorries shorter. In most situa-
current are represented by the bro- the wire feed rate. If you had started tions the change in current will not
ken lines in Figure 2C-4a. Let us ex- with the condition represented by be noticed.
amine what happens when only the the dot in Figure 2C-4b, you would
feed rate is changed. Suppose the end up at the X in Figure 2C-4a. In SELF-REGULATION
feed rate is increased. This means this situation the lower feed rate The best feature of GMAW with
that more current is needed to melt would call for less current. When constant-potential power is its abil-
the extra wire. To get more current, less current is drawn from the power ity to adjust its arc length automati-
you must move to the right on the source, its internal losses are re- cally. You always change the dis-
voltage-current curve of the power duced, which means that more volt- tance of the gun tip to the work
supply. This is shown by the dot in age is available for the arc. The arc as you weld. It is unavoidable.
Figure 2C-4b. The dot represents the becomes longer. The important Changes in tip-to-work distance
place on the volt-ampere curve that thing to remember here is that the cause changes in the electrode melt
gives you the current needed to melt current increases and the arc be- rate. The change in melt rate unbal-
the extra wire that i s fed into the arc. comes shorter when you increase ances the arc. The feed rate and melt
The broken lines in the figure rep- the feed rate. And vice versa. rate no longer match each other.
resent the new arc voltage at the Now let‘s start with a different as- Let’s assume that you momentar-
new current. Notice that the arc sumption. Let’s assume that you ily shorten the arc length and go
voltage is less than it was before, for have the original condition shown from the X in Figure 2C-4b to the
the insides of the power source used by the X in Figure 2C-4a. What do dot. This gives you more current
up some of its voltage when it sup- you suppose will happen if all you than before, and more melt rate.
plied the extra current. do is increase the power source’s Since the feed rate wasn’t changed,
Since the voltage in Figure 2C-46 output voltage?The answer is shown the melt rate increase makes the arc

become longer. This puts you back rate falls. Since the feed rate didn't length. You usually don't have to
where you were at the X. The op- change, the arc gap gets smaller. adjust a thing. All you have to do is
posite happens when you increase The process of returning from the make the correct equipment settings
the arc length. dot to its X and vice versa, when the before you start to weld. The system
Assume that you are at the dot in arc length is changed, is called automatically seeks out the correct
Figure 2C-4b, and that you increase "self-regulation of arc length." The arc length and current and holds
the arc length, The longer arc needs important thing to remember is that them while you weld.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
more voltage and you wind up at X. GMAW with CP power automati-

The current at X is less, and the melt cally corrects most changes in arc
LESSON 2D
TYPICAL SETUPS
OBJECTIVES are going to assemble a system your- wire has a wider current range than
Upon completion of this lesson you self, be careful. Always be sure you 0.045-inch-diameter wire because it
should be able to understand the operation and capa- can deposit more.metal. Depositing
1. Explain why the GMAW current bilities of the components. Other- more metal uses more current. Typ-
range of 0.045-inch-diameter wise you can spend money for fea- ically, 'A6-inch-diameter steel wire
wire is less than that of tures and capacities you do not has a range of about 80-90 amperes
'/i6 - inch-d iameter wire. need. to 350-375 amperes. The impor-
2. Identify the approximate GMAW tance of finding out the wire current
current range of 0.045- and SELECTING RANGES range is simply this-you need it to
1/I/i6-inch-diameter steel wire. As you should know by now, cur- help you select the equipment.
3. Name two things that determine rent is what melts the wire elec- If all your work can be done with
the size of a GMAW wire feeder trode. For practical purposes you 0.045-inch-diameter wire, there is
motor. can assign a current range to wire of no need to purchase a 500-ampere
4. List three reasons for using any particular diameter and materi- power source. if you need to use
water-cooled GMAW guns. al. The current range of importance l~ó-inch-diameterwire to make the
is the one at which the wire works welds don't buy a 250-ampere pow-
MIX AND MATCH? best. For example, a 0.045-inch- er source. In the first instance you
Gas metal arc welding equipment is diameter steel wire welds well at a are paying for capacity you don't
made by many different manufac- range of from about 75 amperes to need. In the second your power
turers. Most pieces of equipment are about 250 amperes. The actual cur- source is too small. You won't be
designed to be suitable for use with rents will vary slightly with the spe- able to use the full welding range of
one another. You could connect a cific alloy and with how you use a the l/is-inch-diameter wire. You
Miller power source, a L-TEC wire welding gun. However, the range should always try to match the ca-
feeder, and a Hobart welding gun will be somewhere in the neighbor- pacity of the power source with the
together. Then you could use Lin- hood of 75 to 250 amperes. Skilled welding range of the materials you
coln wire and Airco shielding gas for operators with good equipment can expect to use. (See Figure 2D-1.)
welding. Usually, however, manu- expand this range, but they too will Sometimes people buy a larger pow-
facturers try to design equipment find the 75 to 250 amperes a good er source so that they can use higher
that operates best when used with its practical range. currents at a later date. Usually this
own components. You can purchase Each wire diameter has its own is false economy.
complete GMAW systems from a practical range. You can get the in-
single manufacturer, or you can as- formation about ranges from the WIRE FEEDERS
semble your own system from com- wire manufacturer or develop it Wire feeders come in all sizes and
ponents purchased separately. If you yourself. A %rj-inch-diameter steel shapes, and with a wide choice of

356 SECTION V GAS METAL ARC WELDING PROCE88
wire feeder with the welding wire space and reduce weight, and
you use. Bigger doesn‘t always lengthen the life of the equipment.
mean better.
Power
SOUrCBs
WELDING GUNS OPTIONS
Since your comfort will depend a The quality of the arc in a GMAW
great deal on the weight of the weld- system depends on
.. ing gun, don’t pick the one with the
450A 300A 175A power supply dynamics,
Guns highest capacity you may need.
wire feeder accuracy,
Welding guns are not that expensive
compared to the power source and gun and contact tip,
wire feeder. You might find it to wire quality, and
your advantage to have several sizes shielding gas composition.
in. 0.045 in. 0.030 in. and types of guns. The higher the
Convenience features, such as
current rating, the heavier the gun
will be. Always match the gun to the remote control,
type of welding you are doing. For current, voltage, and wire feed
example, a gun designed for 225 rate indicators,
amperes with carbon dioxide shield- automatic setting of wire feeder
ing will probably overheat if you use speed and current,
Argon CO2 Argon-CO, mix
argon shielding. Welding guns are
GaseS retract starting,
usually rated with two ranges. One
range is for use with carbon dioxide burnback control,
t hP 4 hP and the other i s for use with argon. an antistick circuit to control the
Feeden Water-cooled guns are chosen when last bit of arc current and elec-
FIGURE 2D-1Mix and match you need to keep the weight down trode melting,
equipment. for comfort. They also stand up to do not make an arc work better.
damage from hot spatter, and they
They make GMAW easier and per-
can be used at higher duty cycles. haps more consistent.
An expensive feeder, with all sorts
optional features. When you plan on MATCHING DUTY CYCLES of options, will not make up for poor
welding with many types and sizes Most CMAW power sources and power source dynamics. One last
of wire, when you are doing critical wire feeders are rated for 100 per- item of importance is this. Although
work, when your electric power cent duty. This means that you can all the information in this lesson ap-
fluctuates during the work shift, weld as long as you want, provided plies to manual welders, it i s even
when you need burnback control you don’t exceed their ratings. more important in automatic sys-
and other features, you should pur- Welding guns are usually rated for tems and systems using robotics.
chase a quality wire feeder. How- 60 percent duty, which allows you Careful selection and proper use of
ever, when all you are going to do to weld for six minutes out of ten. It equipment will improve welding
is carbon steel or aluminum weld- is a good idea to try and find out the performance and reduce downtime.
ing, when you don’t plan on much 100 percent duty rating of a gun so if pieces of equipment are carelessly
variety, you can purchase a much that you can get the most out of the combined, parts will be easily dam-
less expensive wire feeder. system. aged and welding poor.
The size of the wire feeder motor In particular, you need to know
and its drive system must be the 100 percent duty rating of a
matched to the metal of which the welding gun when it will be used for
wire is made and for the diameter mechanized welding. You may find
of the wire. This i s why wire feeders it necessary to do mechanized weld-
come in different sizes. You don‘t ing for extended periods. Always try
need as much power to feed a to match the ranges and duty cycles
1.2-millimeter-diameter aluminum of all equipment. This will usually
wire as a 1.6-millimeter-diameter save you money, give you good
stainless steel wire. Try to match the welding performance, and save
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

LESSON 3A
@BdlEclrI[\YEs THE FUSE START

Upon completion of this lesson you The method called a fuse start is sim- c-Gas cup
should be able to ilar in operation to the way an elec-
1. Name the two types of GMAW tric fuse in your house or automobile -Contact tip
arc starts. works. Current flows through a fuse
2. Identify two factors that deter- until it becomes hot and melts. The
mine the current needed to melt amount of current needed to melt a
a fuse. fuse depends on the metal it is made
3. Explain how to get an arc to start from and on its diameter.
It takes less power to melt a metal
W
at the tip of the GMAW electrode.
4. Describe what happens when the that has a low melting point. Less
GMAW contact tip is too large. current is needed for metals with
5. Explain the principle of retract high resistance (resistivity). It is also
GMAW starts. easier to melt thin wires than thick
wires because thin ones have more T The electrode stub
resistance. Arc- -melts into the puddle
11irr ~ c r r r v ~
WORK When a piece of welding wire i s
Starting a gas metal arc may seem a fed out of a gun, into contact with
very simple thing to do. When your V'nGElUIwE %A-E A typical fuse start
the workpiece, it literally becomes a with a blunt electrode tip: (a) before
equipment i s working properly, you fuse. One end of the fuse is in touch fuse action, (h)the instant after fuse
won't have any problem. But when with the workpiece, the other end is action.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
something goes wrong, you will in contact with the copper contact
have to be a good detective in order tip. (See Figure 3A-1.) Welding cur-
to search out and correct the prob- rent flows through this piece of wire
lem. The information given in this and heats it up. The greater the melt completely through in a few
lesson will be some of the most im- amount of current, the faster it heats milliseconds. A welding arc will
portant you will learn. Once you up. if there is enough current, soon start in the melted gap.
understand how GMAW starting enough, the electrode melts before The trick to getting a good fuse
works, troubleshooting wi II become too much extra wire is fed out of the start is to have the fuse gap occur
routine. gun. If the amount of current is not near the workpiece end of the elec-
enough to cause a start, the wire trode. If it starts at the gun end of the
TYPES OF ARC S'I'AR'I'S feeder continues to feed more wire electrode, the little piece of wire that
Basically, there are only two ways out of the gun. This new wire also is burned off must be melted by the
to start a gas metal arc. One way is starts to get hot and soft. (See Figure arc. Otherwise this piece of wire can
referredto as a fuse start and the oth- 3A-2.) It will pile up on the work- be left sticking up in the beginning
er as a scratch start. All starts can be piece and look like tangled string or of the weld bead. The best way to
classified with these two methods or spaghetti. Some welders call this a make sure that the arc starts on the
their combinations (High frequency bird's nest. If you have enough cur- end of the wire is to cut the wire tip
starts are not used with GMAW). rent, however, the electrode will with a wire cutter. The end you cut

r7- Gas cup
FIGURE 3A.2 Fuse start with too little current: (a) collapsing electrode,
(b) spaghetti ball.
BIIGBIRE 3 ~ Adcontact tip clogged
Electrode cut
to sharp point
7
Current -“Nipped“ electrode
with arcing and sparking buildup.
contact tip arcs actually deposit a lit-

tle spot weld inside the tip. (See Fig-
ure 3A-5.) When there are too many
contact tip arcs, the hole can fill up
with little spot welds. Finally, the
wire will get stuck in the tip and
W cause a wraparound. There is a

“best” tip size for wire of every ma-
terial and diameter. Always follow
the manufacturer’s recommenda-
tions when it comes to picking the
contact tip size.
Don’t adjust the power source to
give too much starting current. In-
(bì (b) stead of giving good starts, too much
FIGURE 3A-3 Fuse start with a sharp FIGURE 3A.4 Fuse start with a current gives explosive wire starts.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
point on the electrode tip: (a) the in- “nipped” wire: (a) The instant before Instead of the arc starting at the tip,
stant before start, (b) the instant after start, (b) the instant after start. the wire will melt in several places.
fuse action.
The arc tries to start at each melted
place and throws molten metal and
pieces of wire out of the arc zone.
will have a sharp tip and act as a electric contact between the elec- You can get these explosive wire
tiny fuse. (See Figure 3A-3.) The cut trode and workpiece. For this reason starts with large-diameter aluminum
tip will act as though it is a fuse on both the workpiece and the wire tip wires and high-output constant-
the end of a bigger fuse. The big fuse should be clean. Cutting off the potential power sources. Always use
‘
is the wire sticking out of the gun. “ball” from the last arc stop is al- the recommended type of power
The weld current will flow through ways a good way to prepare for the source when welding aluminum.
both fuses at the same time, but the next arc start. Good fuse starts also
smaller fuse will melt first, and the depend on good electric contact be- THE SCRATCH START
arc will start on the sharp wire tip. tween the wire and the contact tip. The arc-starting method called the
You can make the arc start any- If the hole in the contact tip is too scratch start depends on motion be-
where along the electrode stickout large, the wire can flop around. tween the wire tip and the work-
by nipping the wire with a cutter. Each time the wire moves around in- piece. It is like scratching a match
(SeeFigure 3A-4.) The necked-down side the tip, while current is flowing, to light it. The scratching action be-
or narrowed piece of wire acts like a spark is made inside the tip. Each tween the wire tip and workpiece
a small fuse and melts first. little spark (arc) in the tip melts a tiny causes the arc to start at the tip of
Good fuse starts depend on good part of the tip and the wire. These the wire. The scratch start is really

CHAPTER 3 GAS METAL ARC WELDING SYSTEMS OPERATION 3s9
A clean contacts and sharp contact

points. The sharper the contact
point, the smaller the fuse becomes,
and the less current needed to start
the arc.
Your drag technique has a strong
effect on scratch starts. Strong pres-
sure of the electrode against the
workpiece increases the size of the
contact points. A larger size means
that the contacts act as larger fuses;
therefore more time and current i s
needed. A light touch gives small
fuse points and good starting action.
OTHER TECHNIQUES
Retract starts and other methods are
almost always based on the fuse
principle. For example, when you
II retract an electrode that i s in contact
I I with the workpiece, you create a
small fuse. All the current flows
ib)
through the last point of contact be-
UWGiiJWU) :EA& Typical scratch-type arc stari. (a) The scrdtch start contact with the
tween the electrode and workpiece,
workpiece before the arc start, with magnified view. (01 The scratch stait immediate-
ly after the arc i s druck, with imgnificd view. before the electrode is lifted from the
workpiece. Factors that improve
fuse actions generally improve
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
the same as a fuse start, except on a tiny contact points and melts them. GMAW starts.
microscopic scale. Each contact Scratch starts can be done with low
point between the wire tip and currents, for much less current is
workpiece, as the scratch is made, needed to melt the miniature fuses
acts like a miniature fuse. (See Fig- (contact points).
Ure 3A-6.) Current flows through the Good scratch starts depend on
LESSON 3B
QDIJE6;TIXVfES feeder power are stopped at the TIMING JS IMPORïANT

Upon completion of this lesson you same time. Unlike gas tungsten arc welding,
should be able to 3. Discuss the benefit of weld circuit you cannot just turn off the power
1. Identify the three most important inductance as it relates to GMAW and stop gas metal arc welding.
factors to consider when stopping arc stops. With GMAW there is the additional
a GMAW system. 4. Name two ways to put a sharp tip problem of what to do with the r a p
2. Explain what would happen if the on the GMAW electrode to pre- idly feeding electrode. If the power
GMAW arc power and the wire pare it for the next arc start. to the arc is turned off too soon, the
\

h
wire will continue to feed and bump provide the same effect by reducing
The current, melting and arc
into the puddle. if the power is stop instantly. the output power automatically. it
turned off too late, the wire will stop
and the arc can cause a burnback.
i-
0
E
Time-
doesn't matter how the current de-
cay is obtained. just remember, cur-
Timing things to happen in the cor- rent decay is an effective way to re-
The feeding stops
rect order is very important when i+-, instantly. duce crater porosity.
you stop a GMAW system.
THE IDEAL STOP

81
L
Time - The gas flow continues

Sometimes an extra surge of cur-
rent is needed, such as in a pipe
weld, to tie two welds together. The
until the puddle freezes. extra current gives extra arc heat and
Let us examine the ideal stopping helps tie the welds together. You do
condition. This way we can see the same type of thing when you
Time
what things are the most important. change the travel speed and manip-
First of all, the arc power must be FIGURE 3B.1 The ideal arc stop.
ulation of the welding gun, except
turned off when the gun switch is then the current is not changed. in-
operated. As soon as the current is creasing or decreasing arc current
off, the melting stops. (See Figure when stopping a gas metal arc weld
38-1 .) Therefore the electrode feed i s very important if you are using a
must also stop at the same instant. mechanized welding system or a ro-
The end of the electrode will be an
arc length from the weld puddle.
Shielding gas flow should continue
for a few seconds while the weld
Time
(a)
- _.
lime -
(b)
bot. it is very difficult to design me-
chanical systems to imitate your
manual weld stop techniques.
puddle freezes. Otherwise air will FIGURE 3B.2 TWO ways to taper CUT-
rent for weld stops: (a) stepped de- STOPPING THE WIRE
contact the molten metal and cause As we have learned, most GMAW
crease, (b) linear decrease.
a weld defect. It would also be well systems use a motor and some sort
if the very last drop of metal from of drive roll system to feed the wire.
the electrode left a sharp point on It is almost impossible to stop a rno-
the wire tip. The pointed wire tip tor instantly. The motor armature
will ensure that the next arc start is has inertia, which causes it to turn a
a good one. few more times after the power is
Sometimes the ideal arc stop off. Engineers have designed circuits
needs a little extra metal transfer to to help brake the motor to a stop.
fill in a weld crater. Then it is nec- '2 Time Even so, a little extra wire is usually
essary to let the current taper off to FIGURE 3B.3 A current taper con- fed after the motor power is turned
zero, and at the same time decrease troiied by system inductance. off. If the arc current and the motor
the feed rate to hold a good arc
power stopped at the same instant,
length. Then the power to the arc is the wire could coast into the puddle.
turned off and the wire stopped. The
is a problem, the current shóuld be Then, when the puddle freezes, the
rest of this lesson will discuss what
tapered down. (See Figure 38-2.) wire is trapped in the puddle and
happens if things don't happen in an
Then the puddle freezes a little more must be cut off. Most welding con-
ideal way.
slowly and gives the gases a chance trols are designed with an antistick
to escape. One way to provide a circuit that times the arc current so
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TURNING OFF THE CURRENT current taper is to use inductance in that it melts off the piece of wire fed
As you know, the arc current affects the weld circuit. during the moments it takes the mo-
the electrode melt rate and the size An inductor stores electric energy tor to stop. (See Figure 38-4.)
of the weld puddle. If the current is in its magnetic field. When the pow- Some types of wires seem to stop
stopped instantly, the melting stops er source is turned off, the arc cur- with a sharp tip remaining after the
and the puddle begins to freeze. A rent i s kept flowing by the energy last drop of metal has been trans-
rapidly freezing puddle can trap gas- stored in the inductor. (See Figure ferred. Other wires always seem to
es that would otherwise rise to the 38-3.) This is one reason why many stop with a frozen ball of metal on
surface and escape. The trapped welders prefer power sources that the end. if you are welding with
gases cause porosity in the weld cra- have a good amount of inductance. manual equipment, it isn't that im-
ter. When porosity in the weld crater Some power sources are designed to portant. You can always cut the wire

CHAPTER 3 GAS METAL ARC WELDING SYSTEMS OPERATION 361
Current off delay time depends on how big the

puddle is and how long it takes the
metal to cool. If the gas is shut off
too soon, you can get porosity and
a dirty-looking weld. A little post-
-bTime
I flow gas shielding also helps in
I
forming a good electrode tip.
When the electrode tip is highly
oxidized by air, it is bad for the next
arc start. The oxide layer acts as an
insulator and interrupts the welding
-iTime (a) (bì current. If the gas is allowed to flow
FIGURE 3B.4 A delay in turning off FIGURE BB-5 Rapid retract helps ex- for a few seconds after the arc is out,
the current prevents the freezing of a tinguish the arc and point the electrode no oxide layer forms. Many control
stub of wire in the puddle. tip: (a) normal arc, (b) rapid retract. systems have adjustable postflow
timers or their equivalent.
Most welding operators can usu-
ally figure out a stopping problem by
tip with cutting pliers. This gives a to retract suddenly. (See Figure
observing the details. Good opera-
good starting condition for your next 3B-5.) The sudden stop and the re-
tors can spot a problem as it devel-
weld. However, it is a nuisance to versal in wire direction shake off the
ops and prevent damage before it
have to cut the wire manually after last molten drop and leave the elec-
occurs.
each stop, when you are using a trode with a pointed tip.
mechanized welding system. It is
sometimes possible to put a point on SHUTTING OFF
the wire tip by reversing the drive THE SHIELDING GAS
motor just as the arc power stops. It goes without saying that the gas is
The motor reversal causes the wire the last thing to be turned off. The
LESSON 3C
SPATTER AND ARC INSTABILITY
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
OBJECTIVES spatter than argon-based shield- into the arc. Generally speaking,
Upon completion of this lesson you ing gases. spatter i s to be avoided wherever
should be able to possible. It costs money to clean up,
1. Identify four sources of GMAW AVOID SPATTER and it clogs the front end of welding
spatter. All welding that uses consumable guns. Metal lost as spatter must be
2. indicate what type of GMAW electrodes generates welding spat- paid for just the same as metal used
spatter is reduced when you use ter. The amount of spatter depends in making a weld. And the energy
clean, deoxidized wire. on arc conditions such as the used to create the spatter reduces
3. Indicate what type of GMAW amount of current, the arc length, the welding energy. This lesson dis-
spatter is reduced by using the type of wire and its diameter, the cusses the causes of spatter and how
slope-controlled power sources. type of shielding gas used, and the it can be reduced.
4. Explain how slope control re- electrical response of the power
duces GMAW spatter. source. It is possible to have spatter TYPES OF SPATTER
5. Explain why carbon dioxide range from 20 percent down to less There are four basic sources of spat-
shielding produces more GMAW than 1 percent of the electrode fed ter. Some spatter has its source in

the evolution of gases inside a drop

of molten metal. The heat of the arc o
erc
d
-te -
and chemical reactions can cause
the gases to expand. The drop of
molten metal grows just as a balloon
- Electrode
I Arc
grows when you blow it full of air.

Sooner or later the expanding drop
of metal blows up. (See Figure
3C-1.) Then, just like the pieces of
rubber from a balloon that bursts, FIGURE 3C.1 Spatter from expanding IF8681iIkIE JC.2 Spatter from splashing
pieces of metal are thrown in all gases. drops.
direction.
A second source of spatter is pud-
dle turbulence from arc forces and
splashing from molten metal drops
as they plop into the weld pool. (See
Figure 3C-2.) This spatter can be
compared to the sloshing and
splashing of a puddle from wind and
Liquid metal bridge
raindrops. Spatter from puddle tur-
bulence is usually a small percent-
age of the total weld spatter.
ia)
Exploding fuse action in the after-
math of short circuits between the
electrode and weld puddle is a third
source of spatter. As the arc shorts,
a surge of welding current flows
through the liquid metal bridge be- lectrode
tween the wire and the molten pool. Shielding gas
The current can explode the liquid
metal bridges. (See Figure 3C-3.)
The force of the fuse action explo- íb)
sions throws molten metal in all FIGURE 3C-3Spatter from fuse ac- FHGUIR~E
8 ~ Spatter
4 from electro-
directions. tion. (a) The short-circuit transfer be- magnetic motor forces on the arc. Ran-
The fourth type of spatter is fore fuse action. (0)The spatter of an dom arc motion ejects drops from the
caused by arc forces. Electromag- exploding liquid metal bridge. arc zone.
netic motor forces can cause the
drops of molten metal to be pushed
around by the arc. In some process
variations the arc forces (see Figure no spatter from this source. You can s I w m R FROM
3C-4) are strong enough to knock keep gases to a minimum by using PUDDLE SPLASHING
drops of molten metal off the elec- clean wire and good shielding gas You can to some extent control
trode and out of the arc zone. coverage. Some wires have alloy in- the amount of puddle turbulence
All welding spatter can be ac- gredients that prevent the gases from caused by arc forces with your weld-
counted for by these four types. forming. Good shielding by an inert ing technique. You should try to
gas keeps the air out and prevents keep the arc short and the puddle
SPATTER FROM chemical reactions between the air steady. Controlling weld puddles is
TRAPPED GASES and the hot metal. There isn’t too a little like trying to carry a glass full
You can miminize spatter from the much you can do about this type of of water in the rain. In addition to
bursting of molten metal bubbles by spatter when the wire and shielding the splash from raindrops, the water
keeping internal gas formation to a gas is dictated by the welding pro- in the glass may begin to slosh
minimum. If there are no gases to cedure. However, where you have around and spill. The same goes for
heat up and expand the metal drops a choice, wires with deoxidizer al- a weld puddle. Try to keep it stable.
into bursting balloons, there will be loys have less of this type of spatter. Your motions with the welding gun
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 3 GAS METAL ARC WELDING SYSTEMS OPERATION
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
363
fi) Current circuit current rises is also impor-
3
tant. The amount of fuse action spat-
Molten metal ter is proportional to the rate at
fi'arnent \ which the short-circuit current rises.
Increase in spatter - Pinch effect -- A fast rise gives considerable spatter,

a slow rise less.
We must also reckon in the elec-
tromagnetic pinch effect produced
FIGUñKE 3C-5Spatter depends on lhe by the surging short-circuit current.
short-circuit current and the volt- It literally squeezes the drop of metal
ampere slope of the power source. I off the electrode. This pinching can
be compared to squeezing an open
toothpaste tube. If you squeeze the
will, however, be limited in some tube slowly, the paste oozes out. If
degree by the weave pattern re- you give the tube a strong, fast
quired to give you control of the squeeze the paste will squirt out.
heat input. Fortunately, puddle tur- Increased spatter This squirting effect is added to the
bulence and splash from drops are FHCGUJRIE 3c-a Spatter increases with fuse action explosions that are also
not a big source of spatter. an increased pinch rate. coming from the surging short-
circuit current. (See Figure 3C-6.)
SPATTER FROM FüSK AC'I'lON The power source's inductance can
Fuse action explosions are the specific welding condition. One be increased to slow the pinch rate,
source of a great amount of spatter. type of adjustment is called slope reduce the squeezing speed, and re-
Because the fuse action comes from control. When the slope of the pow- duce the spatter level.
the surge of current that flows in the er source is increased, the available Equipment manufacturers make
drop of molten metal, as the arc is short-circuit current is reduced. (See and sell various types of inductance
shorted, the violence of the fuse ac- Figure 3C-5.) devices. Sometimes they are built
tion can be minimized by limiting However, there are many power into the power sources. Or they may
this short-circuit current. Many sources that cannot give you control be an extra option. They have
power sources can be adjusted to re- of the amount of short-circuit cur- names such as weld stabilizer, weld-
duce the short-circuit current for a rent. The rate at which the shorting reactor, weld inductor, dynamic
stabilizer, arc stabilizer, and others.
They are used to reduce the weld
spatter by controlling the pinch rate.
These devices give you an extra
benefit. When the spatter is re-
duced, the puddle seems hotter and
wetter, for extra energy is available.
Energy is needed to create spatter.
When spatter is reduced, this energy
winds up in the arc and weld pud-
dle. Therefore inductance not only
reduces spatter but gives you a hot-
ter, more fluid puddle.
SPATTER FROM ARC FORCES

The spatter caused by electromag-
netic motor forces acting on the arc
depends to a great extent on the gas
used for shielding the arc. For ex-
ample, the GMAW system with ar-
gon shielding gas has practically
none of this spatter. On the other
Some spatter is characterisiic oí short-circuiting transfer. hand, GMAW practiced with car-

364 SECTION V GAS METAL ARC WELDING PBOCESS
bon dioxide gas has a great amount ground with a stream of water from commercially. They can operate
because the arc acting between the a garden hose. The place where the with spray transfer, short-circuit
end of the electrode and the weld water hits the ball i s the arc root. transfer, globular transfer, and pulse
puddle is unstable. The argon When the water hits the same spot, transfer. The spatter from each of
shielded arc has a good arc root and the ball moves in a straight path. If these processes will come from one
stays in one place. The CO, arc does the water hits the ball in different or all four spatter sources. A good
not have a good arc root, and jumps places, it will move in many direc- operator will learn how to keep the
around. The term arc root refers to tions. The same thing happens with total spatter down by proper adjust-
an anode spot that remains in one a CO,-shielded arc. Much molten ment of the power source, by gun
place. When the anode spot stays in metal is thrown out of the arc zone manipulation, and, wherever possi-
one place, the arc is said to have a by the wandering arc forces. You ble, by changes in the welding wire
"good root." can reduce this type of spatter by us- and shielding gas.
The push of the arc force on a ing gas mixtures of argon and COz,
molten metal drop can be compared or other mixtures.
to pushing a basketball along the Many types of GMAW are used
IMPORTANT VARIABLES
OBJECTIVES This lesson will review the major

Upon completion of this lesson you factors that control Power and qual-
should be able to ity. Many of the variables have al-
1. Identify at (east five important ready been discussed in other
variables that control GMAW
quality and arc power.
lessons. ""I'"'
2. Explain what happens to the /,R MATERIALS
melt rate in the electrode exten- GMAW i s very sensitive to the sub-
sion when the diameter of the stance of which the electrode is
GMAW wire is increased. made. Otherwise you could make
3. Explain why aluminum wires all your welds with a handful of dif-
have lower spray arc transition ferent welding conditions. The elec-
currents in GMAW than steel tric resistance of the welding wire
wires do. plays a big part in how much wire I
is melted by the current. t
4. Discuss the importance of the Current
type of power source on GMAW Obviously, aluminum is a better
conditions. conductor than steel. It has much
1'
5. Explain why carbon dioxide is less resistance per unit length. For
added to argon shielding gas for all practical purposes the melt rate
GMAW. of aluminum wire is due to the arc
heat. Practically none i s due to re-
CONTROL IS IMPORTANT sistance heating. The voltage drop
Just as with all welding processes, across aluminum electrode exten- I
there are important variables that sions is very small. (See Figure
must be properly controlled if you 3D-1.) On the other hand, steel wire (c) v
want to make good gas metal arc has a large voltage drop across the FIGURE 3D-1The electrode exten-
welds. Some of the variables control electrode extension. This is one rea- sion voltage drop depends on (a) the
the power of the arc; others have an son why at the same current level material, (bj the diameter, and (c) the
effect on the quality of the weld. steel GMAW has slightly higher volt- length.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 3 GAS METAL ARC WELDING SYSTEMS OPERATION 365
TABLE 3m.n Approximate Spray Arc Transition Currents you want to repeat welding condi-
~
tions, it is very important to use the

Wire Type and Shielding Gas same travel speed.
Electrode Size Steel/Argon-2% O, Aluminum/Argon The heat input per inch of weld is
important in determining weld
0.8 mm 160 i 5 90 I5
1.o 185 I10 100 i 5 strength. Minor changes in heat in-
1.2 220 i 10 120 4 10 put can have major effects on weld
1.4 235 i 15 130 I10 strength. The weld heat input is
1.6 275 I 2 0 170 2 15 more important than how fast you ’
2.0 310 2 20 - weld. This is why you should not
2.4 370 i 25 - change travel speed unless it i s ap-
0.030 inch 155 I5 90 5 5 proved by the welding engineer.
0.035 170 4 10 95 i 5
0.045 220 I10 120 i 10 SHIELDING GAS
‘/i6 275 i 20 170 i 15 The shielding gas too is a very im-
y32 370 i 25 - portant variable. The type of metal
transfer is dependent on the type of
gas, for changes in the gas will alter
the surface tension of the molten
age requirements. With steel wires a wire can cause delayed weld fail- drops of metal in the arc.
change in the tip-to-work distance ures from cracking and other faults. As pointed out earlier, a change
can have a big effect on the melt in surface tension has an effect on
rate. The I2R portion of the melt rate POWER the spray arc transition current. It
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
can actually become greater than One good thing about CMAW is also has a strong effect on arc en-
the arc portion. You must be sure to that it is not very sensitive to the type ergy. For just this reason carbon
use the same tip-to-work distance of power source you use. As long as dioxide is added to argon for some
when you want to repeat a welding you have the correct current, polar- GMAW gas mixtures. Carbon diox-
condition. Don’t change the size of ity, and voltage, things will usually ide makes the arc hotter. The arc
the wire’s diameter either. The di- work the same way. It will not mat- heat is very sensitive to the compo-
ameter of the wire affects the I2R ter whether you use a motor-gener- sition of the gas mixture, which is
melt rate. Large-diameter wires have ator unit, a transformer-rectifier, or one reason why you should not mix
less resistance and less effect on the some solid state design. As long as your own gases. Commercial mix-
melt rate. you have the right wire feed rate, tures have tight control of the per-
The metal of which the wire is current, and voltage, GMAW will centages. Unless you have precision
made also determines the spray arc operate smoothly. The only thing gas mixture controllers the percent-
transition current. Changing to a you cannot do is use regular power ages can change as cylinder pres-
wire made of a different alloy will in place of pulse power. Pulse pow- sure shifts. Moreover, the gases may
usually alter the surface tension of er is needed when special effects are not mix completely in the gas hose
the molten metal drops. Materials necessary, as, for example, to lower connected to the welding torch.
with high surface tension have high the current at which you get spray
transition currents. For this reason transfer or to control puddle fluidity. SUMMARY
you can do spray arc welding at It may seem as though everything is
lower currents with aluminum. (See TRAVEL SPEED critical in GMAW. In many ways
Table 30-1 .) If you run out of wire Travel speed is a variable with a very this is true, but in others it isn’t.
and need to use a new reel, don’t strong effect. Changing the travel There are an almost infinite number
change alloys. Changing to a wire speed of the welding gun can have of welding conditions you can select
made of a different alloy will ruin some effect on the arc stability and to make a weld. The important thing
the weld properties. You may have metal transfer. However, its largest to remember when you repeat a
heard the expression “a rose i s a and strongest effect is on the weld weld is to make conditions the same
rose is a rose.” This i s not true for puddle. The travel speed of the gun as they were earlier. Repeatability is
welding wire. All steels are not the combined with its motion allows the key to good GMAW. Don‘t
same. Nor are all aluminum and you to control the puddle heat. It lets make careless adjustments or guess
other metal alloys. Never change al- you prevent undercuts and change at equipment settings. Do things the
loys without the approval of the bead width, penetration, freeze right way and you will always get
welding engineer. Use of the wrong rates, and many other factors. When good results.
366 SECTION V GAS METAL ARC WELDING PROCEaIS
OBJECTHBrES Arc length meter
Upon the completion of this lesson

you should be able to
1. Describe the importance of
GMAW melt rate-feed rate ia)
Electrode+/- (
balance.
Feed raie Melt rate
2. Describe a GMAW “stubout.”
3. List three causes of GMAW
“bumps and bangs.’’ Molten
puddle
1 n
4. Describe a GMAW burnback.
5. List three causes of GMAW
burnback.
Feed rate Melt rate
DIFFERENCES
ARE IMPORTANT
Although GMAW is a relatively
complicated way of welding, it is
not very complicated to trouble- FiiG~BBE3E-2Cross-sectional view
FIIGUBE 3E.B A constant arc length
shoot. When something goes wrong depends on a balanced feed rate and of the typical stubout phenomena:
you will know right away. The arc melt rate: (a) balanced, (b) feed rate (a) normal arc, (b) Stubout-the elec-
is very sensitive to changes in pow- greater than melt rate, (c) melt rate trode runs into the bottom of the
er. Anything that changes arc power greater than feed rate. weld pool.
immediately alters the way the arc
looks and sounds. You should train
yourself to look for differences in arc
shape and sound. These differences trode touches the puddle and puts MOHE BUMPS AND HANGS
will tell you what is going wrong, or the arc out. The electrode melt rate Several things other than an increase
what will go wrong in a few is dramatically less without this arc, in feed rate can cause bumps and
seconds. and the electrode drives through the bangs. For example, a momentary
puddle to the bottom of the molten loss of contact between the wire and
WIRE FEEDER SYSTEM metal pool. There the wire bumps contact tube causes the melting to
All GMAW systems depend on good into the solid metal at the bottom stop and the arc to go out. While the
wire feeding. This means a steady (see Figure 3E-2) and causes the gun arc is out, the electrode continues to
supply of wire without fluctuations to be lifted as it continues to feed. feed into the puddle. As soon as it
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
in the feed speed. Most GMAW sys- You will feel the bump through your touches the puddle, current begins
tems work with constant wire feed welding gloves each time the elec- to flow. (See Figure 3E-3.) More
rates. They depend on a delicate trode hits bottom. often than not the arc will start with
balance between the feed rate and At the same time most systems a bang without the electrode hitting
melt rate. (See Figure 3E-1.)The arc have a dramatic increase in current. the bottom of the pool. When you
length will remain constant as long The current heats the wire electrode experience more “bang” than
as there is a balance. As soon as one like a fuse and causes it to melt and “bump,” it could be because of
of the rates changes, the arc length explode. The violence of each fuse poor contact. You should then clean
changes. Increasing the feed rate action depends on how long the the contact tip or replace it.
makes the arc shorter. If the increase electrode is bottomed out on the Another fault that can cause the
is a large one, the arc will ”stub out” weld pool, and how high the current “bump-bang” effect is poor incom-
and stumble. rises. The higher the current, the ing line power. Current surges
Stubouts occur when the elec- bigger the bang. drawn from the main power line by

CHAI"I'ER 3 GAS METAL ARC WELDING SYSTEMS OPERATION 367
Surges in the incoming line power

can also cause a burnback. When-
ever large pieces of electric equip-
ment are turned off, the line voltage
can rise. The rise in line power caus-
es a sudden increase in arc voltage
and may cause a burnback. Just as
(4 (b) (C) (dl
with line voltage drop-offs, line volt-
IFIIGWERE JE-3 A stumble through loss of contact. The normal arc (a) experiences a age surges are less of a problem with
loss of contact in the gun tip (b). This puts the arc out and causes the electrode to
rotating power sources and with
bump into the workpiece (c). The arc restarts by fuse action (d.
regulated power from solid state
sources.
other equipment can cause a mo- call, the arc becomes long enough ARC SOUNDS
mentary drop in line voltage. When to touch the contact tip in the gun. Each time a drop of metal acts as a
your shop has line power problems As soon as the arc touches the cop- fuse, a sound wave is generated.
every time a motor starts up, the line per tip, it transfers to the tip and Most GMAW arcs have a dinstinc-
voltage will drop. Each line voltage melts it. The melted copper grabs tive sound of their own, depending
drop causes the arc to become onto the wire and causes the wire on the short-circuit frequency and
weaker or go out. This makes the feeder system to jam. Several things the violence of the fuse action. Typ-
melt rate drop. The balance be- can cause the melt rate to exceed ically, the arc is less noisy with ar-
tween the melt rate and feed rate is the feed rate. For example, the feed gon-based shielding gas mixtures.
in favor of the feed rate. The arc rate can fall off because the conduit Mixtures with carbon dioxide be-
"bumps and bangs" as a conse- system is dirty. come noisier as the percentage of
quence. Static or stationary power Trouble with the electrical control carbon dioxide is increased. Two
sources such as a rectifier-trans- system can also cause the feed rate different wire alloys, all other things
former are sensitive to this trouble. to fall off. Usually electrical troubles remaining the same, will have a dif-
Rotating power sources such as an are sudden and permanent. They ferent sound. Differences in their
alternator-rectifier and generators don't creep up on you like a slowly liquid metal surface tension change
help to prevent power drops. Regu- clogging conduit system. Dirt on the the fuse action.
lated power from solid state power electrode can change the melt rate The important point to remember
sources also helps to minimize arc suddenly without any change in the is that you should always look for
stumbles. feed rate, A little dirt and contami- changes in a GMAW system. Be-
Other causes of bumps and bangs nation can cause the arc melt rate to come familiar with the shape, color,
include dirty gas shielding cups on alter momentarily. The anode, cath- and sound of the arc. Just as with
the gun. Spatter buildup can disturb ode, and plasma suddenly change your color television set at home,
the gas flow patterns and cause air because of the contamination. Thus you can detect changes in an arc by
to contaminate the arc and change intermittent dirt on an electrode can its shape, sound, and color.
the melt rate. Try to keep the gas cup show up as a fluctuating arc length.
cleaned of spatter. A strong breeze if the fluctuation is large enough, it
or draft can have the same effect. can cause a burnback. (See Figure
You may not be able to feel the 3E-4.)
breeze, but the arc can.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
BURNRACKS
Burnbacks are the opposite of
bumps and bangs. They occur when
the melt rate gets too high for the
feed rate, or when the feed rate
drops quite a bit. Whatever the
cause, when the feed rate-melt rate
balance leans in the direction of a ia) (b) (C)
higher melt rate, a burnback can oc- 3E.4 in a typical burnback sequence the normal arc (a) increases length
tF'ìïQr;fíJmE
cur. In a burnback, as you may re- (b) until the arc transfers to the contact tip (cl and causes it to melt off.

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
@BSIECïl"VEB
1. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints in the flat position
using both forehand and backhand techniques.
2. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints in the horizon-
tal position using both forehand and backhand
techniques.
3. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints, in the vertical up
and vertical down positions using both string and
weave bead techniques.
4. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints in the overhead
posit ion.
FITGEJTIBE
r
+ v-Ga-
Wire extension -Contact
4-1 Contact tip extension.
when ûhe wire is being fed through the gun. When the
wire is fed through, release the wire feed button and
tip
In this chapter you will be welding carbon steel with install the contact tip. For short-circuiting transfer the
the gas metal arc welding process, using the short-cir- tip should protrude beyond the gas nozzle '/a in. (See
cuiting method of transfer. Before you start to weld, you Figure 4-1 .)
must check out and set up your equipment. Inspect the Set the gas flow rate to 25 to 35 cfh of 75 percent argon,
equipment. If there are any pieces of equipment that 25 percent carbon dioxide. Apply an antispatter com-
needs repair, notify your instructor. Go to the power pound to the gas cup and contact tip to prevent spatter
source and check the cable connections. The correct cur- buildup.
rent for GMAW short-circuiting transfer is DCEP. Check
the work cable and turn on the power source.
Proceed to the wire feeder and check that it has the PEEISûDNAL E$UJIIPMBIEW'íï
proper size of filler wire and wire feed roils. For the pro- When personal equipment is called for in this chapter, it
cedures in this chapter you will use 0.035-in.-diameter should consist of
E70S-3 filler wire. If the wire is not threaded through the 1. Welding shield with appropriate lens.
gun and cable assembly, use the wire feeder switch or 2. Safety glasses.
gun trigger to feed wire through the conduit assembly and 3. Gauntlet-type leather gloves.
through the gun. Caution: If you use the gun trigger to 4. Appropriate welding clothing.
feed the wire, malce sure the gun is not touching or near 5, Wire brush.
objects on which an arc might be struck. Remove the tip 6. Diagonal side cutters.

CHAPTER 4 SHORT.CIRCUITIN6 ARC WELDING OF STEEL 369
IATEREAL A N D EQUHPrWEreJT
2. One piece of carbon steel, '14 in.
PROCEDURE Direction of welding

1. Adjust the power source and wire
feeder to obtain 18 to 19 volts
and 140 to 150 amperes, gas flow
25 to 35 cfh.
2. Using the forehand technique
(see Figure 4A-1), begin at the
right side of the plate and deposit
a weld bead approximately l/2 in. Forehand Torch Backhand
from the edge of the plate. (See technique perpendicular technique
Figure 4A-2.) Use an even travel FHGBTH%E4A.ü Gun angles and tech- FIGURE 4A.3 Weave patterns.
speed, which will produce a bead niques for running a flat pad of
with even width and reinforce- stringers.
ment. Use one of the weaves
shown in Figure 4A-3 to spread
the weld bead. Spreading the
bead will prevent excessive rein-
forcement and help make sure the
toe of the weld merges smoothly
with the base metal.
3. Before stopping the weld, be sure
FUGEJR-E 4A-3 Bead location. FIGURE 4A-4 Bead sequence.
you fill the crater and reinforce it
by using a circular motion of the
gun over the puddle. When you
extinguish the arc, hold the gun Figure 4A-4. Cool the plate as 6. Weld another plate with the
over the crater to allow the post- necessary. backhand technique, using the
flow of gas to protect the hot weld 5. When finished the beads should same welding conditions and
bead from the atmosphere. be straight, of even width and bead sequence. Notice the differ-
4. Continue to deposit overlapping height, and have a smooth ence in bead appearance and
beads on the plate, as shown in contour. buildup.
TdOINT FILLET, IF POSITION
IATEEHAL ANlD EQUEF'MENT x 11/' in. x 8 in. long. One

1. Personal welding equipment. piece of carbon steel, '/4 in. X 3 1. Adjust the power source and wire
2. One piece of carbon steel, Y4 in. in. x 8 in. long. feeder to obtain 18 to 19 volts
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---


25 to 35 cfh.
2. Clean the pieces to be joined.
The areas to be welded should be
thoroughly cleaned of any mill
scale or rust. The GMAW process
does not have the ability to re-
move many impurities because it
does not have a flux. Clean weld FIGURE 4A-5Weld position for a flat FIGURE 4A.6 Bead placement.
joints will allow higher-quality T-joint fillet.
welds.
3. Tack the pieces together and po-
sition them as shown in Figure clean it, and apply two more 6. Weld the second side of the T ac-
4A-5. Hold the gun perpendicu- beads as shown in Figure 4A-6. sembly, using the backhand tech-
lar to the joint and, using the Cool the plate between beads. nique. Notice the difference in
forehand technique and one of 5. When you have completed the bead appearance and buildup.
the weaves, weld a bead from three-bead fillet, cool the T as- Use the same weave techniques
right to left. Use an even travel sembly and inspect it. The legs and bead placement that you
speed, and watch for even rein- should be of equal length. The used on the first side. When you
forcement and good tie-in of the toe of the weld should merge have completed the three-bead
toe of the weld to the base metal. smoothly with the base material. fillet, inspect it as you did for the
Remember when stopping to fill The face of the weld should be first side.
and cool the crater properly. nearly flat, with no excessive
4. Complete the first weld bead, concavity or convexity.

4. Using the backhand technique,
1. Personal welding equipment. hold the gun perpendicular to the
2. Two pieces of carbon steel, 3/e in. joint and strike the arc at the tack.
x 3 in. x 6 in. long, each with Weave the gun from side to side.
a 30-degree bevel on one 6-in. When the gun is in the center of
side. the joint, watch the arc very
closely. By concentrating the arc
PROCEDURE on the leading edge of the pud-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
1. Adjust the power source and wire dle, you can cause the bead to
feeder to obtain 18 to 19 volts penetrate through the joint and
and 125 to 150 amperes, gas flow fuse both root faces.You must be FIGURE 4A.7 Assembly and weld
25 to 35 cfh. very careful. If you bring the arc position for a flat V-groove butt joint.
2. Thoroughly clean the pieces to be too far down in the puddle, the
joined. Pay particular attention to wire will go through the joint and
the top of the plate, the sidewalls the arc will become very erratic.
of the groove, and the underside If you allow the arc to go too far
of the joint. Grind or file a 3/32-in. up on the puddle, your penetra-
root face on each beveled edge. tion will decrease and you will FIGURE 4A.8 Bead placement and
(See Figure 4A-7.) not penetrate the joint. Practice reinforcements.
3. Tack the pieces together and po- will help you use the arc to con-
sition as shown in Figure 4A-7. trol the flow of the weld puddle. weld flow and to fuse to the side-
Put spacers under the plate so that 5. Complete the joint using the bead walls of the groove and the pre-
you don't weld the plate to your sequence shown in Figure 4A-8. vious beads.
table. Use a slight weave to help the 6. When you have completed the

CHAPTER 4 SHORT=CIRCUITINGARC WELDING OF STEEL 371
plate, cool it and examine it. The beyond the joint from O to l/16 in. flush with the base metal and not
root should show full penetration The face of the weld should exceed 3/32-in. reinforcement.
along the entire length. The root merge smoothly with the base
reinforcement should protrude metal. The face should be at least
~ ~ ~ ~
LESSON 4B
WELDING I N THE HORIZONTAL POSITION
T=JOINTFILLETS, 2F POSITION
FIGURE 4B3 Gun angles.
Short-circuitingtransfer can be used in all positions.

2. One piece of carbon steel, in. tack them together, and position
x 1Y2 in. x 8 in. long, one piece them as shown in Figure 4B-1.
of carbon steel, Y4 in. x 3 in. x 3. Use the forehand technique, be-
8 in. long. ginning at the right side of the
joint, and progress to the left. Use
PROCEDURE a slight weave, hesitating on the
1. Adjust the power source and wire vertical part of the T joint. Use the
feeder to obtain 18 to 19 volts gun angles shown in Figure 46-2.
and 140 to 150 amperes, gas flow 4. Deposit two more beads using the
25 to 35 cfh. FIGURE 4B.I Weld position for a bead sequence and gun angles
2. Clean the pieces to be joined, horizontal T-joint fillet. shown in Figure 4B-2.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

5. Cool the T assembly and examine base metal. The legs should be 6. Weld the second side of the T as-
the weld. The toe of the weld equal, and the face of the weld sembly using the backhand
should merge smoothly with the should be nearly flat. technique.
V=GROOVEBUTT JOINT, 2 6 POSITION
MATERHAL AND EQUHBIMENT

2. Two pieces of carbon steel, 3/a in.
x 3 in. x 6 in. long, each with
side.
PROCEDURE
1. Adjust the power source and wire AW
and 125 to 150 amperes, gas flow FIGURE 4B.4 Gun angle.
25 to 35 cfh.
2. Thoroughly clean the pieces to be
joined, file or grind a 3/32-in. root
face on each beveled edge, tack
the pieces together, and position
them as shown in Figure 48-3.
3. Use the backhand technique be-
ginning at the left side of the
Plate. Apply the arc on the Pud- FHGURE 4 1 3 Assembly and weld # max.
dle to push the weld through the position for a horizontal V-groove butt
joint to penetrate the root. Use a joint.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
slight weaving motion, hesitating

on the top plate. The gun angle is O-#
shown in Figure 48-4.
4. Complete the plate using the
bead sequence shown in Figure 5. Weld another joint using the
4B-5. Cool the plate and examine backhand tenchique for the root
it for good penetration, correct pass (pass number 1) and the
heights of reinforcement, and forehand technique for the rest of F~GUHBE4D.s Bead sequence and
smooth contours of the beads. the beads. reinforcements.

CHAPTER 4 SHORT=CIRCUITING ARC WELDING OF STEEL %733
T=JOINTFILLET, 3F POSITION, UPWARD WELDING
IWk\~JEíR:1[PU,k\Miil) IZC!liJl íII’l~iJ~~ì~‘li’

2. One piece of carbon steel, Y4 in.
x 1 Y2 in. x 8 in. long; one piece
of carbon steel, l/4 in. x 3 in. x
8 in. long.
PROCEDURE
25 to 35 cfh. Stay on the low side 4c-3Weave pattern.
IFEGUJRIE
lFllGllJlXl~34J(C-U Weld position for a
of the range for vertical welding. vertical L I ~ JT-joint fillet.
joined, tack them together, and
4C-1.
3. Beginning at the bottom of the
joint, use the gun angles shown
in Figure 4C-2. Begin to weld us-
ing a weaving motion similar to
that given in Figure 4C-3.
4. The weld will deposit a shelf at
the bottom of the joint on which
you can build. Be certain when
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
you weave the gun that the arc
reaches the root of the joint to en-
sure good root penetration. Hes-
6. Cool the plate thoroughly and de-
itate on the sides to fill in the weld
posit a second pass. Keep the size
and prevent undercut. Increase
of the second-pass fillet to Ye in.
the travel speed of the gun when
(See Figure 4C-4.)
moving from side to side to pre-
vent excessive buildup, which 7. Weld the second side of the T as-
would make a very convex bead. sembly, using the same technique
as for the first side.
5. Complete the first pass, keeping
the fillet size as close to l/4 in. as
possible.

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
SECTION V GAS METAL ARC WELDING PROCESS
T=JOINTFILLET, 3F POSITION, DOWNWARD WELDING
DíiA'll'ERIIAIL ANID, EQUJIIIPMIIEWn'

2. One piece of carbon steel, % in.
x 1% in. x 8 in. long; one piece
of carbon steel, Vi in. x 3 in. x
8 in. long.
PROCEDURE Top view

25 to 35 cfh.
2. Clean the pieces to be joined,
tack them together, and position puddle so that the arc can melt
them as shown in Figure 4C-1. the base metal. If you do not
3. Begin at the top of the joint. Use move the gun fast enough, you
the gun angles shown in Figure will lose penetration, and even-
4C-5. Use a slight weave pattern tually the puddle will sag and fall
~ii@mmix Gun angles For a vei& out of the joint.
similar to the one given in Figure cal clown T-joint fillet.
4C-3, only moving downward. 5. Apply two more beads, as shown
Some weave is necessary to en- in Figure 4C-6. Make sure you
sure fusing along the toe of the use a slight weave to ensure
weld. It is possible to get a con- sidewall penetration and fusion.
dition known as "cold lap" when puddle, which will cushion the 6. Weld the second side using the
welding vertically downward. If force of the arc and prevent same techniques you learned on
you do not weave the gun to fusion. the first side. Inspect both sides
make sure the arc melts the side- 4. Continue down the joint. Your for legs of equal length, beads
walls and fuses the weld and base speed of travel must be fast smooth in contour, and fusion at
metal, the arc will dwell on the enough to stay ahead of the weld the toe of the weld.

WITH BACKUP BAR, UPWARD WELDING
IMATEERIIATL ANID 1EQüJ~P~iE"ir 2. Clean the pieces to be joined,

1. Personal welding equipment. tack them together, and position
2. Two pieces of carbon steel, 3/8 in. them as shown in Figure 4C-7.
x 3 in. x 6 in. long, each with Thoroughly tack the backup bar
a 30-degree bevel on one 6-in. to the plates.
side.
3. One piece of carbon steel, lh in.
PROCEDURE
and 120 to 140 amperes, gas flow I F ~ G T U I ~~(i;a
I ~ I X Assembly a i d weld
25 to 35 cfh. Stay on the IOWside position for a vertical up V-groove bu[i
of the range. joint with backup bar.

CHAPTER 4 SHORT=CIRCUITING ARC WELDING OF STEEL
3. Begin at the bottom of the groove, should be just under flush, which
using the gun positions shown in will allow you to reinforce the
Figure 4C-8. Build a shelf for the joint properly. When weaving,
weld and, using a slight weave hesitate on each side to fill in the
motion, continue the weld up the weld and prevent undercut. Cool
joint. Make certain the weave is the plate between each layer.
wide enough to cause the arc to
melt the root of the joint and en-
sure good penetration of the
backup bar and fusion.
4. After completeing the root pass, &' max.
deposit two more layers using a
single bead weave to produce
each layer. (See Figure 4C-9.) In-
crease the width of the weave for IFiiGiümE 4C& Bead sequence and
each layer. The second layer 4cCr8:!lGun angles.
I~~lIGUJliKiX reinfoi cement.
V=GROOVE B U " JOINT, 36 POSITION, DOWNWARD WELDING
I~IAli'~ll'LIM\ILA\NI Il) E~QIU1íl!l'El~

IlWl
2, Two pieces of carbon steel, 3/a in.
X 3 in. X 6 in. long, each with
a 30-degree bevel on one 6411.
side. I
Top view
PROCEDURE
25 to 35 cfh.
2. Clean theapieces to be welded.
Grind or file a 3/3z-in. root face on IFII(FUJK\L%
4 C 4 n Gun angles.
each beveled edge. Tack and po-
sition the pieces as shown in Fig-
ure 4C-1O.
3. Start at the top using the gun po-
sitions shown in Figure 4C-11.
Use a side-to-side weaving tech- iiWï8üiìt~4 G n m Assembly and weld
nique. A weld will form across position for a vertical down V-groove
butt joint.
the root opening. Carefully ma-
nipulate the gun from side to side
to get sidewall fusion. Keep the
tip of the wire on the very leading
edge of the puddle and deep into speed of the gun to keep ahead
the joint. (See Figure 4C-12.) This of the puddle.
will cause the root of the weld to 4. Continue with the root pass to the
penetrate beyond the root of the end of the joint. Cool the plate
joint and give a convex root re- and add more passes to complete BIlGl!JIIGT% 4lC-1.2 Wire on the leading
inforcement. Gauge the travel the joint, using the sequence edge of the puddle.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

5. Notice that it takes more passes important to weave the puddle

to fill the joint. To prevent the enough and to point the arc to
weld puddle from sagging, you those points you want to weld.
FBGUJIE4C-83Bead sequence and must keep the wire on the leading Vertically downward short-cir-
reinforcement. edge of the puddle. The gun will cuiting GMAW does not have a
have to travel at a fast speed, "hot" arc. Gun manipulation is
which will keep deposition rates extremely important to ensure
shown in Figure 4C-13. Use a low. Whenever you are welding fusion.
slight weave on each bead. vertically downward, it is very
T = J O I N TFILLET, 4F POSITION
MA'ñ'EEIHAH, A N D IEQUJHP~ENT
x 1'h in. x 8 in. long; one piece
i x 3 in. x
of carbon steel, '/in.
8 in. long.
PROCEDURE
25 to 35 cfh.
FIIGUJWIE 4 D - 8 Weld position for an
overhead T-joint fillet.
fusion along the toe of the weld.

T
t ,:ol
2. Clean the pieces to be welded, 4. Cool the plate, clean it, and put
tack them together, and position in two more passes, using the gun
them as shown in Figure 4D-1. angles shown in Figure 4D-2.
3. Use the gun angle shown in Fig- 5. Cool the plate and weld the sec-
ure 4D-2 and the forehand tech- ond side of the T assembly, using
nique to put in the first pass. the backhand technique and the
Weave the gun slightly to ensure gun angles shown in Figure 4D-2.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
VmGROOVE BUTT JOINT, 4 6 POSITION
MATEWIAIL A N D E@KJHPMENT PROCEDURE File or grind a 3/3~-in.root face on

1. Personal welding equipment. 1. Adjust the power source and wire each beveled edge. Tack the
2. Two pieces of carbon steel, 3 h in. feeder to obtain 18 to 19 volts pieces together and position them
x 3 in. X 6 in. long, each with and 125 to 150 amperes, gas flow as shown in Figure 4D-3.
a 30-degree bevel on one 6-in. 25 to 35 cfh. 3. Keep the gun perpendicular to the
side. 2. Clean the pieces to be welded. joint, using a slight backhand

CHAPTER 4 SHORT-CIRCUITING ARC WELDING OF STEEL 377
8" through the joint to produce a

convex root surface with rein-
forcement beyond the root of the
/ \ FIGURE 4D-4 Bead sequence. joint.
6. Complete the joint using the bead
sequence shown in Figure 4D-4.
g-,+-AW
For each bead change the gun an-
technique and a weave. Begin at gle to point in the direction of the
the end of the joint and keep the bead. Weave each bead to ensure
wire at the leading edge of the good penetration with the side-
puddle. The position of the wire wails of the groove and other
will determine the amount of pe- weld beads.
netration and the shape of the
root pass. Keep the wire deep into
FIGURE 4D-3Assembly and weld the joint as you did in an earlier
position for an overhead V-groove butt procedure. (See Figure 4C-12.)
joint. This will push the weld puddle
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 5
SPRAY TRANSFER
WELDING OF STEEL
OBJECTIVES
1. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints in the flat posi-
tion, using both forehand and backhand techniques.
2. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints in the horizontal
position, using both forehand and backhand
techniques.
FIGUHE 5.1 Contact tip placement.
in this chapter you will practice welding carbon steel with chance of burning the wire back to the tip and melting it
the gas metal arc process, using the spray transfer rneth- off. We will use for the procedures in this chapter
od. As you have learned, several gases and gas mixes can 0.045-in.-diameter E70S-3 filler wire.
be used for shielding. For the lessons in this chapter we
will be using 98 percent argon, 2 percent oxygen. The
arc in GMAW spray transfer is considerably hotter than PERS6NAL EQUIPMENT
the short-circuiting GMAW process, producing more in- When personal equipment is specified, it should consist
frared and ultraviolet radiation. Precaution must be taken of
to protect yourself and others in the area from this 1. Welding shield with appropriate lens.
high-intensity arc. Painful burns can result from short ex- 2. Safety glasses.
posure to these rays. 3. Gauntlet-type leather gloves.
Set up your equipment as you did for short-circuiting 4. Appropriate welding clothing.
welding, but recess your tip '/8 in. below the lip of the 5. Wire brush.
cup. (See Figure 5-1 .) If you do not, you will stand a good 6. Diagonal side cutters.
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- _
CHAPTER 5 SPRAY TRANSFER WELDING OF STEEL 379
LESSON 5A
WELDING IN THE FLAT POSITION

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x 1'/2 in. x 8 in. long; one piece
of carbon steel, 1/4 in. x 3 in. x
8 in. long.
PROCEDURE FIGURE 5A.1 Weld position for a fiat

1. Adjust the power source and wire T-joint fillet.
and 190 to 21 O amperes, gas flow
25 to 35 cfh.
2. Clean the pieces to be welded, 4. Watch the root of the joint to
'
FIGURE 5A.2 Bead sequence.
tack them together, and position make sure that the arc melts the
them as shown in Figure 5A-1. metal completely. Regulate your
3. Using the forehand technique, travel accordingly. Move the gun
begin at the right side of the T as- only when melting is complete.
sembly and weld toward the left. Keep the gun perpendicular to the the first side, cool the plate and
Notice that the wire does not con- joint. weld the second side using the
tact the plate, and that the puddle 5. Apply a three-pass weld using the backhand technique. Use the
is very fluid and flows well, mak- bead sequence shown in Figure same bead sequence as you did
ing weaving unnecessary. 5A-2. When you are through with on the first side.
V=GROOVEBUTT JOINT, 16 POSITION WITH BACKUP BAR
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT tack them together, and position

1. Personal welding equipment. them as shown in Figure 5A-3.
2. Two pieces of carbon steel, %i in. 3. Use the forehand technique to
x 3 in. x 6 in. long, each with weld the root pass, welding from
a 30-degree bevel on one 6-in. right to left. Weld the root in one
side. pass. Keep the gun perpendicular
3. One piece of carbon steel, Y4 in. to the joint.
x 1 in. 6 in. long.
sequence shown in Figure 5A-4.
PROCEDURE When reinforcing the weld, pay
1. Adjust the power source and wire attention to the toe of the weld. It
feeder to obtain 24 to 25 volts is possible, when using spray
and 190 to 210 amperes, gas flow transfer, to undercut the base FIGURE 5A.3 Assembly and weid
25 to 35 cfh. metal at the toe of the weld. To position for a flat V-groove butt joint
2. Clean the pieces to be welded, prevent this, either slow down with backup bar.

.
your travel speed or use a slight r&"max.

weave.
5. Prepare and weld another joint
using the backhand technique.
Use the bead sequence shown in FIGURE 5A.4 Bead sequence and
Figure 5A-4. reinforcement.
~ ~~~ ~~
LESSON 5B
WELDING IN THE HORIZONTAL POSITION
T = J O I N T FILLET, 2F POSITION

X 1lh in. x 8 in. long; one piece
8 in. long.
PROCEDURE
feeder to obtain 24 to 25 volts FIGURE 58-1 Weld position for a
and 190 to 21 O amperes, gas flow horizontal T-joint fillet.
25 to 35 cfh.
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2. Clean the pieces to be welded,
tack them together, and position
them as shown in Figure 5B-1. on the vertical part of the T as-
3. Using the gun angles shown in sembly. Watch the toe of the
Figure 5B-2 and the forehand weld closely, and use the gun an-
technique, weld a three-pass fillet gle and travel speed to prevent
weld. Pay close attention to the undercut in this area. FIGURE 5B.2 Gur1 angles.
third bead. Since the weld puddle 4. Cool the T assembly and weld the
is large and very fluid, you must second side of the joint, using the
tilt the gun to deposit the metal backhand technique.
V=GROOVEB U T T JOINT, 26 POSITION WITH B A C K U P B A R
MATERIAL AND EQUIPMENT 3. One piece of carbon steel, l/4 in. and 190 to 2 1O amperes, gas flow
1. Personal weld ing equipment. x 1 in. x 6 in. long. 25 to 35 cfh.
2. Two pieces of carbon steel, Y8 in. 2. Clean the pieces to be welded,
X 3 in. x 6 in. long, each with l'ROCEDURE tack them together, and position
a 30-degree bevel on one 6-in. 1. Adjust the power source and wire them as shown in Figure 56-3.
side. feeder to obtain 24 to 25 volts 3. Use the gun angle shown in Fig-

CHAPTER 5 SPRAY TRANSFER WELDING OF STEEL
Ure 5B-4 and the forehand tech-

nique to weld the root pass in one
bead.
4. Alter the gun angle from O to 10
degrees to deposit the remaining
beads in the joint. The last bead
is one you must pay particular at-
tention to in order to prevent un-
dercut. Use a gun angle of 1O de-
grees below the horizontal, and
watch your travel speed. Keep the
arc short.
5. Weld another assembly using the
backhand technique. Use the
same gun angles and bead
sequence.
IFTIúXJET%snB.3 Assembly and weld

position for a horizontal V-groove butt
joint with backup bar.
&'ií(lr;üJu[wIF'. SB-4 Gun angle, bead se-

quence, and reinforcement.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

1. What are the major hazards of GMAW? (1A) 27. Give two reasons why the cup for the GMAW shield-
2. What types of current can be used for the following ing gas must have the correct diameter. (2A)
processes: (a) GMAW, (b) GTAW, and (c) SMAW? 28. What happens to the arc length if the GMAW feed
(1A) rate varies while the melt rate is constant?(28)
3. Why are radiation levels in GMAW lower with an 29. What is the function of GMAW drive rolls? (28)
active shielding gas? (1A) 30. How can the skidding of wire in the drive rolls be
4. What are the hazards of the fumes and gases pro- minimized? (2B)
duced by GMAW? (IA) 31. Why are most GMAW drive rolls electrically insu-
5. Name three things that can cause GMAW guns to lated? (28)
get hot. (18) 32. Name five factors that can change the GMAW feed
6. Why does aluminum GMAW seem hotter than steel rate. (2B)
GMAW? (1B) 33. Why i s DCEP preferred for GMAW? (2C)
7. What is a GMAW burnback? (1 B) 34. How can you tell the GMAW polarity from observing
8. Why can a GMAW wire wraparound be hazardous? the feed rate? (2C)
(1 B) 35. Why is CP power preferred to CC power for most
9. What happens when the GMAW melt rate and feed GMAW? (2C)
rate are not equal? (1C) 36. What i s meant by the term "self-regulation of arc
1o. Name three things that can cause the arc portion of length"? (2C)
the GMAW melt rate to change. (1C) 37. How can you change the length of the GMAW arc
11. What three things can cause the l2R portion of the without altering the current or the wire feed rate?(2C)
GMAW melt rate to change/2?(1C) 38. Why is the GMAW current range of
12. What is meant by hot-wire deposition? (1C) 0.045-inch-diameter wire less than that of
13. What are the two principal ways in which metal can '/i6-inch-diameter wire? (2 D)
transfer across the GMAW arc gap? (1D) 39. What is the approximate current range of 0.045- and
14. What is globular transfer?(1 D) 'í16-inch-diameter steel wire in GMAW?(2D)
40. Name two things that determine the motor size re-
15. What is meant by transition current? (1D)
quired for feeding GMAW wire. (2D)
16. What are three things that determine when spray
41. What are three reasons for using water-cooled
transfer occurs? (1 D)
GMAW guns? (2D)
17. Name three commercial variations of GMAW-S. (1D)
42. Name two types of GMAW arc starts. (3A)
18. Why is air a poor shielding gas for GMAW? (1E)
43. What are two factors that determine the current
19. What are two ways to counteract the effect of air on needed to melt a fuse? (3A)
hot metal? (1E)
44. How can you get an arc to start at the tip of a GMAW
20. What are four reasons for using argon as a GMAW electrode? (3A)
shielding gas? (1 E)
45. What happens when the hole of the GMAW contact
21. Name four characteristics of carbon dioxide as a tip has too large a diameter?(3A)
shielding gas. (1E)
46. How does a GMAW retract start work? (3A)
22. Name five gases that can be used for GMAW, either
47. What are the three most important factors to consider
as pure gases or in mixtures. (1E)
when stopping a GMAW system?(3B)
23. Why must the hole of a conduit for the GMAW wire
be the proper size? (2A) 48. What would happen if the GMAW arc power and
the wire feeder power are stopped at the same time?
24. What are the benefits of conduit liners? (2A)
(3B)
25. What keeps the wire and tip in contact while the wire
49. How does weld circuit inductance affect GMAW arc
passes through a GMAW contact tip? (2A)
stops?(38)
26. What happens if the hole of the GMAW contact tip 50. What are two ways to put a point on the tip of a
has too large a diameter? (2A)
GMAW electrode to prepare it for the next start?(3B)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

REVIEW EXERCISES 3%3
51. What are four sources of GMAW spatter?(3C) 58. Why do aluminum wires have lower spray arc tran-
52. What type of spatter is reduced when you use clean, sition currents in GMAW than steel wires do? (3D)
deoxidized wire? (3C) 59. What is the effect of the type of power source on
53. What type of spatter can be reduced by using GMAW conditions?(3D)
slope-controlled power sources?(3C) 60. Why i s carbon dioxide added to argon when it i s
54. How does slope control reduce GMAW spatter?(3C) used for GMAW? (3D)
55. Why does carbon dioxide shielding produce more 61. What is the importance of GMAW melt rate-feed
GMAW spatter than argon-based shielding gases? rate balance?(3E)
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(3C) 62. What i s meant by a GMAW “stubout“? (3E)
56. Name five important variables that control GMAW 63. What are three causes of GMAW “bumps and
quality and arc power. ( 3 0 ) bangs”? (3E)
57. What happens to the /*R melt rate in the electrode 64. What are three causes of GMAW burnback?(3E)
extension when the diameter of the GMAW wire is
increased? (3D)

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FLUX=COREDARC
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Flux-cored arc welding is sometimes called cored wire welding by mistake.

The term “cored wire” would cover any wire with a core. For example, it
could be a piece of low-carbon steel wire covered by a jacket of high-alloy
steel. Or it could be a steel wire with a core of aluminum. The term “flux-
cored wire” means exactly what it says. It is a wire with a core of flux. In a
sense the wire is an inside-out shielded metal arc electrode. Instead of the flux
covering the outside of the electrode as it does in SMAW, the flux is on the
inside. The proper abbreviation for the “flux cored arc welding process,’’ as
defined by the American Welding Society, is FCAW.
The FCAW process was first developed in the early 1950s. At that time there
was a great deal of welding developmental activity. Gas tungsten arc welding
was in full commercial bloom. Gas metal arc welding was beginning to be
recognized as a valuable industrial tool, which could do some things that
shielded metal arc welding could not do. However, GMAW was unable to
make some welds that could be made easily by SMAW. The flux was the
critical difference.
One line of development tried to place flux on the outside of normal GMAW
electrodes. These efforts put together a process that used a magnetic flux. The
flux was carried along in the shielding gas stream and then attracted to the
wire magnetically. (See Figure VI-1 .I The flux covered the wire quite well and
gave good-quality welding. However, the magnetic flux process was never a
commercial success because of equipment problems.
During the same period other investigators tried to make tubular wire with
a core of flux. They had much better luck. At first there were many problems
such as the seam of the tubular wire opening up and the flux spilling out.
Moisture in the flux and void spots (hollows) in the flux core were other
problems, but they were eventually solved by the engineers and technicians.
Today FCAW wires come in a wide range of diameters and materials. The
wire can be used with confidence that the seams will not split and that the
flux will not be intermittent.
Because of its similarity to GMAW wire, FCAW wire is fed into the arc with

Magnetic flux
carried by a
gas stream
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FIGURE VI.1 Magnetically attracted
flux shielding of a consumable Workpiece
electrode.
equipment that is almost the same. Only slight variations are necessary be-
cause of the tubular and collapsible nature of the wire.
FCAW competes with SMAW as well as with GMAW. It is used mostly to
weld steels. The flux acts to reduce porosity, control penetration, and stabilize
and shield the arc. When used properly, it gives high-quality welds which
have a clean, smooth appearance and can be made in all positions. Just as in
SMAW, however, the flux produces a slag covering that must be removed. In
addition, a great amount of fumes and gases are produced. The process is
dirtier than GTAW and GMAW.
Because it costs more to make tubular wire than solid wire, FCAW wire is
more expensive to use on a weight basis than GMAW wire. Several variations
of FCAW are practiced today. Because of its similarity to GMAW, it is easy
to provide gas shielding to assist the flux. Some flux-cored electrodes do not
provide enough gases and vapors to protect the weld metal from air. Then gas
shielding, such as carbon dioxide, is used to provide extra protection. Both
shielded (with gas) and unshielded (without gas) FCAW are current commercial
processes.
The flux also makes it possible to use any type of electric power. Flux-cored
wires are available for use with DCEP and DCEN, as well as alternating cur-
rent. Both constant-current and constant-potentialpower sources can be used.
The most popular systems, however, use constant-potential, direct-current,
electrode-positive power. The equipment used for FCAW is slightly larger and
more expensive than that of GMAW. Flux-cored wire i s more difficult to feed
and in general i s used at higher currents. More current means larger, more
expensive power sources, cables, and welding guns.

~~ ~
CHAPTER 1
FLUXmCORED ARC
WELDING PROCESS BASICS
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
LESSON IA
REVIEW OF THE HAZARDS
OBJECTIVES
should be able to
1. Identify the major hazards of
FCAW.
2. List the polarities that can be used
with FCAW.
Electrode
kq Power source
3. Explain why FCAW has more

fumes and gases than SMAW.
FIGURE I A 4 FCAW can use any FIGURE 1A.2 The relative fume levei
4. Describe the effect of fume
type of power supply. at normal arc current for electrical
extractor devices on radiation welding processes.
levels.
5. Identify the cause of FCAW noise.
sources is normally less than about just as with SMAW, the flux helps
50 volts. The electric shock hazard the arc to make good welds, but in
INSIDE-OUT SMAW i s the same as for GMAW. if you doing so the flux releases a consid-
Flux-cored arc welding can be keep your cables and other electri- erable amount of fumes and gases.
thought of as GMAW that uses an cal equipment in good repair, the Some flux-cored electrodes are for-
inside-out SMAW electrode. When hazard will be minimized. When- mulated to work with carbon diox-
thought of in this simple way, the ever you change electrode reels or ide shielding gas. In some situations
hazards of FCAW become clear. do any maintenance, be sure to turn the level of fumes and gases i s not
Obviously, the hazards are a com- off the power. Don't touch live elec- much greater than with GMAW.
bination of those of GMAW and trical parts. The wire feeding system (See Figure 1A-2.) However, in most
SMAW-the possibility of electric is energized when you operate the cases, you should expect FCAW to
shock, fumes and gases, arc radia- control switch on the welding gun. have more fumes and gases than
tion, spatter and noise. This means that the power source is GMAW or even SMAW. Part of the
off when the electrode is not feed- reason for the extra amount i s the
THE ELECTRICAL HAZARDS ing. When the wire feeds the power higher duty cycle. FCAW can be
The flux core in the electrode can be is on; when the wire i s stopped the operated at higher deposition rates
varied by the manufacturer. It is pos- power is off. Be careful you don't lay and for longer periods than SMAW.
sible to add arc stabilizers and other the gun down carelessly and acci- The extra current and time cause
materials. As a result there are flux- dentally operate its switch. The wire FCAW to give off more fumes and
cored electrodes that can use both will feed out of the gun and may ig- gases.
dc, electrode positive and electrode nite an arc on any metal connected You should always be sure that
negative, power (see Figure 1A-1) to the work lead. there i s enough ventilation. More-
and ac power. Most FCAW is done over, try to position yourself to be
with constant-potential direct cur- FUMES AND GASES out of the path of the fumes and gas-
rent and a positive electrode. The Compared to GMAW, the FCAW es. Whatever means you use to pro-
output voltage of such power process has more fumes and gases. tect yourself, try to keep from

388 SECTION VI FLUX-CORED ABC WELDING PBOCESS
breathing fumes and gases. They

can be harmful to your health and
may cause lung injury. just as with
the other welding processes, if you
develop any strange symptoms
when welding, stop and check on
the ventilation. Be sure you follow
the precautionary information pro-
vided by the manufacturer. Don't
take shortcuts.
ARC RADIATION
FCAW has fewer problems with ra-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
diation than GMAW operated at the

same current level. The fumes and
gases help block out some of the ra-
diation. (See Figure 1A-3.) If you are
using a torch that has a fume extrac-
tion system, be careful of radiation
injuries. The fume extractor will re-
move the fumes and gases, but the
arc radiation will not be blocked out
Keep your head out of the welding plume.
to the same extent. Some FCAW
electrodes work better when the arc
is long. Then the longer arc adds to
the radiation hazard. Finally, re-
member FCAW is a relatively high-
current process compared to Pressure
waves from
SMAW. The extra current produces exploding fuse
more radiation. Be sure to use a pro- action
tective lens shade in your helmet
that is dark enough. The longer duty
cycle and higher current make it
easier to receive an eye injury.
FIGURE BA4 Some radiation is FIGURE 1 A 4 Explosive reignition
blocked by the welding fumes. with spatter and noise.
SPATTER AND NOISE
The two hazards, spatter and noise,
are related. Most of the noise of
FCAW comes from exploding mol- helps trap the spatter in the weld the work area while you are weld-
ten metal bridges and drops that in- pool. But, on the average, FCAW ing. The fire watcher will be able to
ternal gases explode. (See Figure has more spatter and noise than any spot fires and take immediate action
1A-4.) The same forces that produce other, welding process consuming to prevent their spread. Be sure that
the noise produce the spatter. electrodes. You must be especially the work area is clear of combustible
FCAW has more spatter and noise alert for fires started by spatter. Un- material before you start to weld,
than most SMAW and GMAW. like GTAW, in which there i s no and inspect the area when you are
Some flux-cored wires are designed spatter, with the FCAW process you finished. Help prevent accidental
to work at short arcs. The short arc may need a fire watcher to observe fires.

CHAPTER 1 FLUX=COREDARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS
LESSON 1B
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ammmriwm
,- Wire feed rate
should be able to
\li- Insulated guide
1. Explain why good ventilation is
so important with FCAW.
2. Describe why FCAW slag i s an
1 - and contact tip
Spatter buildup
eye and skin hazard.

3. Name two hazards connected to i~WGiUii{:iX ìiiiibll Typical slag layer on a
the spatter of FCAW. FCAW weld.
4. Explain why you should wear
safety glasses, even after a weld
done by the FCAW process has JFII(G;UJUGJE llIk2? Spatter buildup can
jam the wire feeder system.
been completed.
MORE FUlViES A I W QXSKS

Flux-cored arc welding does not monsense ventilation precautions, Cooling shrinkage forces can pop
have any unusual safety problems. and you will minimize your off slag chips up to ten or fifteen
As was pointed out in the previous exposure. minutes after the weld is completed.
lesson, it has the same hazards as Therefore; until the slag has been re-
other welding processes consuming WII:II,D SLAG moved and discarded, treat it as an
electrodes. As you use the process, The flux core in FCAW is changed eye and skin hazard. It is good prac-
however, you will note that it does into slag, which covers the weld tice to wear your .safety glasses
produce a great deal more fumes bead. The slag i s intended to protect whenever you are in a work area,
and gases than GMAW. It is this in- the weld metal from contamination even when no welding is taking
creased amount of fumes and gases by air. (See Figure 18-1.) Always be place.
that requires special consideration. sure you keep your safety glasses on
when the weld is finished. As the SPATTER BUPLDUP
VENTI&ATUOlV weld and slag cool off, the slag may Spatter can be an indirect source of
A wide range of materials are used “pop off.” In fact, slag chips have trouble. FCAW produces more spat-
in the flux cores, some of them po- been known to be thrown several ter than GMAW, even when supple-
tentially hazardous to your health. feet upon cooling. The shrinkage mentary gas shielding i s used. The
Therefore it is important for you to stresses between the metal and slag spatter, as you already know, is a
work with ventilation systems in are what cause the slag to pop off. potential fire harzard. The balls of
good repair. The greater amount of Some slag sticks to the weld and spatter can be thrown long distances
fumes from FCAW will cause air fil- does not come off easily. To remove and can ignite the material on which
ters to clog in a much shorter time. this type of slag covering, you must they land. (See Figure 18-2.) How-
Be sure to check filters frequently use a chipping hammer or some oth- ever, there is another possible haz-
and change them, or clean them, on er tool. Slag is like glass. When it ard, from spatter buildup around the
a regular basis. breaks up, chips, pops off, or peels tip of the welding gun. FCAW guns
Good ventilation i s always impor- away from the weld, it makes sharp can become very hot from arc radia-
tant, and it is especially important edges and pieces. Do not brush slag tion and spatter building up on the
when you are using FCAW. Make chips away with your bare hands. contact tip. Unless you clean the
sure you position yourself to mini- Bits of slag, called “shards,” are like spatter from the torch tip, it will jam
mize the fumes blowing toward your little glass slivers. They can stick you the wire in the tip. The possibility of
face. Their high visibility makes it like a needle or cut you like a sharp wire-feeding problems is greater
easier to position fans or exhaust knife. Always use a brush or vacuum with FCAW than with GMAW.
ducts to remove them. Follow com- cleaner to pick up the slag particles. Whenever the wire feeder system

sY&ul SECTION VI FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING PROCESS
jams in the gun, the wire can wrap the wire is electrically energized against the wire feeder housing or
around the drive rolls. Always be along its entire length, all the way to some other metal surface. Not only
sure to stop welding as soon as you the wire reel. If you continue to hold is the arcing a hazard to the equip-
notice the wire beginning to jam, for the gun switch after the system has ment, but it can start a fire and may
a wraparound can cause arcing be- jammed, the wire will continue to even become a shock hazard.
tween the wire and anything at feed and pile up at the drive rolls.
workpiece potential. Remember, Sooner or later the wire will arc
. . -. - ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . I
............... . . . . . . . .
LESSON IC
umr: [wi~s
<i1,m71
should be able to
1. Name three factors that interfere
with uniform flux flow when
making flux-cored electrodes.
2. Explain why it is necessary during
manufacturing to bake flux-cored
electrodes in an oven.
3. Describe how the flux-to-metal
ratio can be changed without al- c-Reel of steel strip
tering the diameter of a flux-cored
electrode.
4. List three electrical factors that
are controlled by the shape of a
Rolled flux.
flux-cored electrode. cored wire
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
111"s HOIL,lLOW
The construction of a flux-cored
electrode seems simple. The elec-
trode is nothing more than a hollow Moreover, when you roll the paper similar to a ribbon to be tied around
metal tube with flux inside. The trick around the tobacco, the two togeth- a package. The flat strip is gradually
is to put the flux inside without leav- er should form a nice even cylinder. bent into a U groove by a series of
ing any empty spaces. You might Most people who "roll their own" rollers. Before the U is closed over
compare making a flux-cored elec- make a lumpy-looking "thing" that to make a tube, the flux is added.
trode to making your own cigarette. hardly resembles a machine-made Flux is usually sprinkled into the
When you compare rolling your cigarette. (See Figure 1C-1 .) This les- U groove from a hopper. (See Figure
own cigarette, from paper and to- son describes how flux-cored elec- 1C-2.) The flux must flow onto the
bacco, to making a flux-cored electrodes are fabricated and how they moving strip at a uniform rate.
trode, the problems become much melt. Otherwise there will be voids in
clearer. One thing that is needed in some parts of the wire and overfill
rolling a cigarette is an even amount , ~ ~ ] j [ ~ l '['~[II!:
~ ~ l l 'It'iJ
{ G IdIl[; in others. Possible problems that can
of tobacco on the paper. Otherwise Metal for the electrode is provided prevent uniform flow are moisture in
the cigarette will not roll properly. in the form of a metal strip on a reel, the flux, lumps and uneven grain

CHAPTER 1 FLUX=COREDARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS
Flux
I
Tube-
rolls
b7g,,d7
f Tube-
forming rolls ~
0-0 Flat strip

Finished Direction of strip
electrode movement
FnGüJRE 1 1 ~ 2Elementary mill for making a flux-core wire.
Moving strip
n a x Cross section showing
IFIIGUITIAIIE
poor flux distribution onto a moving
strip.
J""' tube
PnûÌiüJmiE i i C 4 Typical flux-cored wire flì'i(IEiü@iEiìC.% Cross sections of insulated guides of various lengths used to increase
cross sections used to change the flux- electrode extensions.
to-metal ratio.
size, and segregation of the grains in When the flux is properly mixed, ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES
the flux hopper. Flux is like a and cared for, a good-quality core is Only the metal tube carries current.
sponge. It can pick up moisture from made. The U groove is rolled The flux itself is an insulator for all
the air. Therefore it is essential that closed, and the flux is sealed inside. practical purposes. Therefore a flux-
moisture be kept away from the flux. Closing the seam is one of the se- cored electrode has more resistance
When flux is put into the electrode, crets in making good flux-cored than a solid wire of the same diam-
it is dry. Then the electrode is heated electrodes, If the seam is not tight, eter. The welding conditions of fiux-
in an oven, to drive off any residual moisture will be picked up. The cored electrodes are more sensitive
moisture, before it is packaged for seam will also open as the electrode to changes in their extension, or
sale. is fed around curves and through the stickout. (See Figure 1C-5.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
welding gun. In addition, the folded Long electrode extensions can be

THE FLUX edge in the closing seam is used to used with good effect. The resist-
Flux is made by combining powders vary the flux-to-metal ratio. (See Fig- ance heating helps increase the
of various types, or by grinding a ure 1C-4.) Several different rnetal- electrode melt rate, and at the same
fused material. There is a tendency to-flux ratios can be obtained with- time it heats the flux core. A small
for the larger particles of flux to out changing the electrode diameter amount of moisture can be driven
separate from the small ones. There- or the thickness of the metal rib- from the heated flux as it moves to-
fore the composition of flux can vary bon. A well-manufactured electrode ward the arc.
from one place to another in the flux will have uniform flux, no voids, a The flux acts to change the anode
core. Lumps and clumps of flux can minimum amount of moisture, and and cathode voltages of the arc. As
jam the flux dispenser and leave it will not collapse or open up a direct result of these voltage
voids or hollow spaces in the wire when it is fed through the system changes, the arc portion of the melt
where flux is missing. (See Figure and around bends in the gun rate is controlled. Changes in the
1C-3 .) conduit. flux can create major changes in the

392 SECTION VI FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING PROCESS
overall melt rate, even though the generally responsible for the quality short, the arc may become too long.
diameter of the metal tube and the of the weld. For best operation you Too much current increases the melt
material are held constant. should always follow the recom- rate and gives convex beads and in-
The use to which flux-cored elec- mendations of the electrode manu- effective-looking welds. Too little
trodes are put i s controlled for the facturer. Each electrode has a best current gives poor penetration,
most part by the flux formulation. current range, polarity, and elec- makes the metal transfer in large
The flux not only affects the electri- trode extension. For example, if the droplets, and causes more spatter.
cal properties of the arc but also de- extension is too long, the arc may But a good welder will not have
termines the arc force, helps control become unstable and spatter will be many problems if the manufacturer’s
penetration, reduces porosity, and is excessive. If the extension is too recommendations are followed.
aDB&ECTIIVJES
should be able to
1. Describe the effects of flux voids
on metal transfer during FCAW.
2. Discuss the effect of a crater cup
on the flux-cored electrode tip.
3. Explain the effects of the gas
I A- Molten drop of
flux and metal
f
formed when the flux reacts with
its surroundings.
SPECTACULAR TRANSFER
Metal transfer in flux-cored wire
[FI~GUREnne-II Electrode cross section FUGIU~~KIEiiib2 Electrode cross section
welding is more spectacular than or-
showing metal transfer and the cavity showing metal transfer and a slow-
dinary GMAW metal transfer. It is melting flux core.
formed in an easily melting flux.
very much the same as in shielded
metal arc welding. Depending on
the specific flux formula and the tions in the moisture content and the Some flux melts very easily. Other
electrode construction, the metal amount of flux all change the metal fluxes are more difficult to melt.
transfer may even look like that of transfer. Flux voids, or areas of in- When the flux melts easily, a crater
GMAW or SMAW. This lesson dis- sufficient flux in an electrode, are is formed at the electrode tip. (See
cusses the factors that control metal one of the factors affecting metal Figure 1D-1.) The crater, or cup,
transfer. transfer the most. Sometimes the arc tends to focus the arc forces. Other
will shift length suddenly, the metal fluxes are more difficult to melt. The
FLUX EFFECTS transfer will change from spray to metal tube melts first and leaves flux
As with all molten metal, the surface globular, and spatter will quickly in- sticking out into the arc. (See Figure
tension has a great effect on metal crease. All these changes are usually 1 D-2.) You might compare this type
transfer. Uniform surface tension caused by flux voids. When the flux of melting to that of chocolate-cov-
tends to produce drops of even size. is missing, surface tension changes ered ice cream on a stick. The choc-
The drop size will depend on the dramatically. Missing flux also olate melts first and the ice cream is
amount of surface tension itself. Un- means missing gases and poor left sticking out the end. Metal trans-
even flux composition and varia- shielding. fer is more erratic with this type of
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 1 FLUX*CORED ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS $93
flux. Without a crater cup the arc

forces cannot focus themselves. r"lJ Flux-core electrode
Molten tip
THE COMBINED EFFECTS
Fortunately, the manufacturers of
flux-cored electrodes have learned
to control many of the factors that
GAS EVOLUTION disturb metal transfer. Electrodes
The flux is purposely designed to that have uniform transfer and a
react with molten metal. The reac- moderate amount of spatter are
tions remove unwanted oxides, con- available. But you cannot get the
trol surface tension and arc forces, good effects of flux without some of
and determine alloy composition.
AI1 these effects require chemical re-
actions of some type. Most of the
I l- Arc
the bad side effects. It is therefore
important for you to use the exten-
sion, current, and arc length rec-
reactions liberate gases, such as car- ommended for a specific electrode.
bon dioxide. The gases, which are FFIIGURE RB3 A drop exploding as The recommended welding condi-
liberated inside a molten metal gases expand. tions are designed to give good
drop, expand. The expanding gases welding results while keeping spat-
can cause a molten metal drop to ter to a minimum.
explode like a balloon. (See Figure Anytime you experience sudden
ten bridges vary greatly in size, com-
ID-3.) The gases can also act like changes in the arc performance, you
pared to those with GTAW. The
small jets of air that blow the drops should check into the quality of the
many large-diameter bridges mean
sideways. All these various effects of wire. You should care for flux-cored
that, as the arc shorts out, the cur-
expanding gases make metal transfer electrodes in the same way as you
rent surges higher, the electromag-
erratic. would GMAW wire. Keep it clean
netic pinch force is stronger, and the
fuse explosions are larger. The great- and keep it dry. Anything foreign on
ELECTRICAL EFFECTS er magnitudes of these electrical ef- the wire surface can cause a change
Short-circuiting molten metal fects combine to create more spat- in arc performance.
bridges between the electrode and ter. For this reason FCAW has more
puddle occur frequently because of noise than GMAW and sounds more
the erratic metal transfer. The mol- like SMAW.
LESSON 1E
ELECTRQDES A N D SHIELDING GASES
OBJECTEVES HELPING THE FLUX CARBON STEEL

Upon completion of this lesson you Normally, in FCAW shielding of the ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATIONS
should be able to arc and weld puddle is provided by Shielding gas is not used with every
1. Tell what the designation E70T-3 the flux in the flux-cored electrode. flux-cored electrode, for some of
means. Decomposition of the flux causes it these electrodes need it more than
2. Tell what the designation EXXXT- to give off vapors that shield the arc. others. The American Welding So-
2 means. Molten flux floats across the molten ciety has a classification system that
3. Explain why flux-cored elec- weld puddle and shields it from the describes electrodes. Carbon steel
trodes designed for carbon diox- air. You can use auxiliary gas shield- electrodes are identified with a clas-
ide shielding have oxidizers in ing to help the flux in the electrode sification code made up of letters
the flux. do its job, however. The shielding and numbers in the order EXXT-X.
4. Explain the benefit of argon- gas helps stabilize the arc and pro- For example, in the designations
carbon dioxide shielding mix- vides additional protection for the E60T-7 and E70T-1 the E stands for
tures to FCAW. puddle. electrode and the T represents tu-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

-Y-
-.
SECTION VI FLUX=COREDARC WELDING PROCESS
-. bular, for a flux-cored electrode. gle- or multiple-pass welds in the flat positions. They can be used for sin-
The first X, such as the 6 in 60 or or horizontal positions. gle- or multiple-pass welds.
the 7 in 70, represents the minimum The T-5 classification electrodes The T-G classification electrodes
welded strength. Here it means are designed for use with CO, or are not covered by any of the other
60,000 or 70,000 pounds per CO,-argon mixtures. They use dc, classifications. Their Properties are
square inch (psi). electrode-positive, power and give not described by them. These elec-
The second X represents the pri- welds in the flat or horizontal posi- trodes are for multiple-pass welding.
mary welding position. It can be O tions. The smaller sizes can be used Be sure to understand what the elec-
or 1. The O in 60 or 70 means that for welding in all positions. These trode manufacturersays about a T-G
the electrode i s designed for flat and electrodes have good resistance to electrode. Each one has its own
horizontal positions. A 1 means that cracking. characteristics.
the electrode is good in all positions. The T6 classification electrodes The T-GS electrodes are about the
Then the electrode would be called use dc, electrode-positive power, same as the T-C, except that the
an E61T-7 or E71T-7. The last X in- are self-shielded, and give spray T-GS is for single-pass welds.
dicates the usability and per- transfer. These electrodes have good
formance capability of the elec- low-temperature impact properties, LOW-ALLOY STEEL
trode. The following paragraphs give deep penetration, and remove ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATIONS
summarize the meanings of the last slag well. They are used for single- Low-alloy steel electrodes have a
number. These descriptions are and multiple-passwelding in the flat clascification system almost like that
based on AWS specification A5.20. or horizontal position. of carbon steel electrodes, except
The T-1 classification electrodes The T7 classification electrodes that they have an extra X, as EXXTX-
are for multiple- or single-pass use dc, electrode-negative, power X. The EXX part is the same as for
welds. They use dc, electrode-posi- and are self-shielded. Large-diame- carbon steels. The TX part is about
tive, power and CO,-argon mix- ter electrodes give high deposition the same as the T-X part for carbon
tures. They produce spray transfer, rates in the flat position. Finer elec- steels, except some classifications
are missing. Low-alloy steel classi-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
little spatter, and a moderate slag trodes can be used in all welding po-
cover. sitions. Both can be used for single- fications are described in AWC spec-
The T-2 classification electrodes or multiple-pass welding. They help ification A5.29. There are only four
are for single-pass welds with dc, to desulfurize the weld metal and types, T1, T4, T5, and T8.
electrode-positive, power. They can promote good crack resistance. The T1 classification electrodes
use the same shielding gases as T-1 The T-8 classification electrodes use CO, or CO,-argon mixtures.
electrodes and produce the same use dc, electrode-negative, power They give spray transfer, little spat-
spray transfer and little spatter. They and are self-shielded. They have ter, and a moderate slag cover.
have more deoxidizers and work good toughness against fracture at These electrodes can be used for sin-
well on mill scale and rust. low temperatures and good resist- gle- or multiple-pass welds, in all
The T-3 classifiction electrodes ance to cracking. These electrodes positions, if they are ' / I 6 inch in di-
are self-shielded. They do not use can be used in all positions and for ameter or finer. Heavier electrodes
gas shielding. However, they use single- and multiple-pass welding. are for flat and horizontal fillets.
dc, electrode-positive, power and There are no electrodes designat- The T4 classification electrodes
give spray transfer. These electrodes ed as T-9. This classification is are self-shielded, have globular
are designed for single-pass welds in omitted. transfer, and use dc, electrode-posi-
the flat or horizontal positions or for The T-1O classification electrodes tive, power. They give little penetra-
up to 20 degrees downhill. They are use dc, electrode-negative, power tion and offer good resistance to
especially good for high-speed and are self-shielded. These elec- cracking. These electrodes can be
welding of sheet metal up to 3/16 trodes are designed for single-pass, used for single- or multiple-pass
inches thick. Do not use a T-3 elec- high-speed welding in the flat or welds in the flat or horizontal
trode for multipass welds or on horizontal position or for up to 20 position.
metal thicker than 3/16 inches. degrees downhill. The T5 classification electrodes
The T-4 classification electrodes The T-1 1 classification electrodes use CO, or CO,-argon mixtures.
are also self-shielded. They use dc, use dc, electrode-negative, power They give globular transfer and a
electrode-positive, power and give and give spray transfer. These elec- thin slag cover. They have good
globular transfer. They do not pene- trodes are self-shielded and are de- toughness to ward off fractures, that
trate deeply and can be used for sin- signed for high-speed welding in all is, good impact properties, and

CHAPTER 1 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING PROCESS BASICS 395
good crack resistance. Most elec- TABLE IIE-ï Stainless Steel Electrode Characteristics
trodes are designed for single- and
multiple-pass welds in the flat or AWS Class Polarity Shielding Gas
horizontal positions. A few T5 elec- EXXXT-1 DCEP Carbon dioxide
trodes can be used with dc, elec- EXXXT-2 DCEP Argon plus 2% oxygen
trode-negative, power and CO,- EXXXT-3 DCEP None
argon gas for out-of-position EXXXT-G Not specified None specified
welding.
The T8 classification electrodes
are self-shielded and use dc, elec-
trode-negative, polarity. They are
good for welding in all positions, AWS specification that describes its move the excess oxygen and make
have good impact properties at low characteristics. Every electrode the shielding gas mixtures useful for
temperatures, resist cracking, and manufacturer can provide you with welding purposes.
are used for single- or multiple-pass the details about each electrode they Argon is an inert gas. When it is
welds. sell. Be sure you request these data used to shield an electrode that was
The last X in this classification sys- if they are not readily available in designed for use with CO, the
tem describes the chemical compo- your work area. This information deoxidizers in the flux will act on
sitions. It has many variations such may give you a better understanding the weld puddle. Instead of working
as Al, B1, B2, B2H, B2L, 83, B3H, of the electrode's capabilities. on the oxygen from carbon dioxide,
B3L, Nil, Ni2, Ni3, D1, D2, D3, One important point to remember the deoxidizers in the flux will be
K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, K6, K7, and W. is this. Two different manufacturers able to work on oxides in the
The only way you can determine the can sell the same AWS class elec- puddle.
chemical information is to obtain a trode. The flux composition, how- Therefore, when carbon dioxide
copy of the AWS specification ever, does not have to be the same. must be used for shielding, the flux
A5.29, or you can ask the Another thing to realize is that many will act as a weak puddle deoxidiz-
manufacturer. of the electrodes sold are not cover. All the deoxidizers in the flux
There is an EXXTX-G classifica- ered by AWS' specifications. The will combine with the oxygen from
tion. The G covers new electrodes good thing about flux-cored elec- the carbon dioxide. If pure argon is
trodes is that they can be made to used, all the deoxidizers in the flux
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
designed for multiple-pass welding. .

They can be anything already de- weld practically any type of base can work on the puddle. When you
scribed in the A5.29 specification. metal. It i s relatively easy to change want to control the deoxidizer effect
Only the manufacturer can tell you the flux formula to make a new of a selected electrode, you can mix
about a TX-G electrode performance electrode. carbon dioxide and argon together.
and characteristics. The more carbon dioxide you add,
TYPES OF SHIELDING GAS the more the puddle oxidation; the
STAINLESS STEEL Flux-cored electrodes are made more argon you add, the less the
ELECTRODE CLASSIFICATIONS from materials that do not contain puddle oxidation. You can buy ar-
Stainless steel electrodes have a hydrogen and are therefore consid- gon-CO, mixtures such as argon 75
slightly different classification sys- ered low-hydrogen electrodes. percent and CO, 25 percent, argon
tem. These electrodes are described Moreover, you cannot use just any 92 percent and CO, 8 percent,
in AWS specification A5.22 and type of carbon dioxide gas for These two mixtures are popularly
have identifications such as E308T-1 shielding the arc. The carbon diox- known as C-25 and C-8. Other mix-
or E502T-3. The identification is ide you use must be labeled "weld- tures are readily available.
based on the form EXXXT-1, 2, 3, or ing grade" or something similar. Just because argon-carbon diox-
G. The letter E represents electrode, Weídíng grade CO2 i s dry. Other ide mixtures sound as though they
the letter T tubular. The XXX stands types of CO, may contain moisture, are useful is not any reason to use
for the AISI type of steel, such as which is harmful to welds. When them all the time. Remember, when
308, 316, 410, and 502. The rest of the CO, is heated by the arc, it splits the deoxidizers in the flux are not
the designation is shown in Table up into carbon monoxide (CO) and used up because of the argon, they
1E-1. oxygen (O,). For this reason elec- wind up in the puddle and may
Whatever type of flux-cored electrode manufacturers put deoxidizers result in too much silicon or
trode you use, there should be an in the flux core. The deoxidizers re- manganese.

CHAPTER 2
FLUXICORED ARC WELDING
QUIPMENT BASICS
LESSON 2A
ELIDING GUMS
BPBBJECTIVES ond purpose. (See figure 2A-1.) It

Upon completion of this lesson you can be used to help guide the elec-
should be able to trode toward the weld pool. For ex-
1. Describe why FCAW guns have ample, if you wanted to weld with
larger curves and are bigger than a 2-inch electrode extension, the in-
GMAW guns. sulated guide would keep the elec-
2. Explain why contact tips of trode from wandering about. Some
self-shielded FCAW guns are manufacturers sell a collection of in-
Insulation for contact tube sulated contact tips so that the op-
.. insulated.
3. Give a reason for increasing erator can weld with different elec-
the extension of a flux-cored trode extensions. As you will
electrode. remember, lengthening the exten-
4. Describe what happens if the sion is one way of increasing the
drive rolls grip the flux-cored electrode melt rate.
electrode too strongly. (-Eelcrtode Gas-shielded FCAW guns are de-
5. Explain why self-shielded FCAW signed almost the same as CMAW
FPGUIRE 218.1 The basic FCAW gun.
is suited for groove welds. The electrode passes through the spring
guns. The basic difference is in the
liner to the contact tube, which is pro- curve of the gun. Solid wires have
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
WELDING GUNS ARE CRITICAL tected by insulation. The spring liner i s more column strength than cored
Just as in gas metal arc welding, the held inside an insulated metal goose- (tubular) wires. Solid wires can be
welding gun is a critical part in flux- neck attached to the gun handle. pushed with greater force because
cored arc welding systems. The gun the drive rolls can squeeze solid
is designed to make sure that there wires with more gripping pressure.
is good electric contact between the feeding self-shielded wire, the other A tubular flux-cored wire will col-
cored wire and the contact tube. for feeding gas-shielded wire. The lapse if it is squeezed too strongly.
The shape of the welding gun has a guns for self-shielded wires are less (See Figure 2A-2.)
strong influence on its performance. complicated. They do not need any The curve of the FCAW gun is
Flux-cored wires do not feed as eas- passages for the shielding gas, nor therefore not as sharp as that of a
ily as solid wires. The cored wires do they need a place to connect a GMAW gun. The gentler curve of an
can buckle and collapse if they are shielding gas cup. FCAW gun makes it look larger and
pushed around too sharp a bend. Guns for self-shielded wires are heavier than a GMAW gun.
This is one reason why FCAW guns made with insulated contact tubes.
are made with larger curves and They are not simply a CMAW gun
seem bigger than GMAW guns. with the gas cup removed. A bare GUN VARIATIONS
copper contact tip could short-cir- FCAW guns come in a variety of siz-
cuit to the workpiece if the welder es. it makes no difference whether
TYPES OF WELDING GUNS were not careful. Therefore an in- they are for self-shielded or for gas-
There are two basic types of welding sulator i s placed over the contact shielded wires. Flux-cored elec-
guns for FCAW. One type is used for tip. The tip insulation serves a sec- trodes are usually used where more

CHAPTER 2 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS
Shielding gas,
*:y”
Electrode from
wire reel 7
Water cooling passages
Contact tip
Feed dir Electrode-
\---Contact
Shielding gas nozzle
tube tip
/
Electrode
FìiGüJIìRiE 2A4! A flux-cored electrode rFuGuJIIfiE 2A-8A water-cooled neck FìiGüllRE !&& AIself-shielded FCAW
collapsed by too much drive roll assembly for a lightweight FCAW gun. gun, adapted for gas shielding.
pressure.
current and deposited metal is need-

ed, as compared to GMAW weld-
ing. The guns therefore come with
higher capacities, and the wire feed-
ers are larger. It takes more wire to
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
weld at high current, and large mo-
exhaust nozzle
tors are needed to provide the higher
feed rates.
Welding guns for high currents
and heavy wires can be very heavy
and tiresome for a welder. When- -[\hrorl<piece
ever you are going to weld for a long
iipii(i;;UiikiE ??A& A simple fuine exhaust system added to a standard gun.
time, you will be more comfortable
with a water-cooled gun. (SeeFigure
2A-3.) The light weight of a water-
cooled gun must be traded off FCAW guns are available, with or manufacturers make FCAW guns
against the greater amount of main- without water cooling. with fume extraction systems. Weld-
tenance it requires. As with all Some manufacturers offer adapter ing guns able to extract fumes are
water-cooled equipment, leaks can kits so that you can use a GMAW heavier and more complicated, and
be a problem. gun for FCAW. The reverse i s also cost more, than ordinary guns (see
Mechanized guns are used when true. The adapter kits supply com- Figure 2A-5), but you might want to
the welding is too difficult for a binations of contact tips and liner as- use one of them where fumes and
welder. Mechanized guns are usu- semblies for the conduits. Most gases are a problem. They are espe-
ally straight; they do not have the FCAW guns for use with a shielding cially useful for self-shielded wires.
curved front ends of manual guns. gas can be adapted for GMAW. The Fume extraction with self-shielded
Sometimes a mechanized gun for large curvature doesn’t hinder feed- wires i s not as likely to ruin the arc
self-shielded wires can be adapted ing of the GMAW electrode. The because too much is extracted.
for gas-shielded electrodes. The sharp curve of some GMAW guns, Some systems may suck up the
shielding gas is delivered to the arc however, may make it impossible to shielding gas as well as the fumes.
by way of a separate gas nozzle. adapt them to cored wires.
(See Figure 2A-4.) The separate noz- GROOVE WELDING
zle is nothing more than a properly Self-shielded flux-cored wires are
sized tube attached alongside the FUME EXTRACTOR §Y§TEMS particularly useful for welds in deep
self-shielded gun. Just as with FCAW produces more fumes and grooves. Because there is no worry
GMAW, however, gas-shielded gases than most GMAW. Some about ruining the flow of the shield-

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ing gas, the guns can be tailored to

fit the shape of the groove. Some
manufacturers offer a series of spe-
cially shaped contact tips for reach-
ing deep into grooves. (See Figure
2A-6.) These special tips are care-
fully insulated to prevent arcing to
the groove walls.
Tvoical
SUMMARY
All things considered, FCAW is very
similar to GMAW when it comes to
welding gun design and operation.
But you should remember that the
gun is a precision tool. The materials
of construction are carefully chosen
to give good electrical characteris-
tics and at the same time good heat
and good resistance to wear. Con-
duits, liners, and contact tips are
matched to one another. A good FEWfJRiE2.Q-ûB Insulated guides for FCAW in deep grooves.
maintenance program for guns and
equipment is a must. Always re-
move spatter buildup, for it can
cause the gun to overheat. Keep lin- gun. Too much current will de- tact will also cause additional heat
ers and conduits clean; dirt can crease the life of the equipment. Hot buildup and premature system fail-
cause the wire feeder to fail. Don't contact tips will oxidize and cause ure. Treat a welding gun with care
exceed the current rating for the poor electric contact. The poor con- and it will care for you.
LESSON 2B
E$
OIJEC:TH[VE$ FCAW WIRES ARE DIFFERENT Wire feeders need special feed rolls
Upon completion of this lesson you Wire feed problems of FCAW are for use with flux-cored electrodes.
should be able to similar to those of GMAW. How-
1. Explain why you should not use ever, there is one very important dif- DRIVE ROLLS
an ordinary GMAW wire feeder ference. Flux-cored electrodes are Most wire feeder systems use drive
for f Iux-cored wire. not solid metal. They are tubular rolls to push the electrode. Some
2. Describe the relation between wires with a core of flux. As you feeders use two rolls, others four.
feed force, the drive roll area of would expect, a tubular wire can Usually, when there are two, one
contact, and pressure. collapse, or bend, more readily than roll is driven by the wire feeder mo-
3. Explain why FCAW drive rolls solid wires. This important differ- tor and the other turns freely and is
have different groove shapes. ence i s the reason why you should used to apply pressure to the wire.
4. Give the reason why some oper- not use just any wire feeder you hap- Most feeders have an adjustment
ators prefer to lessen drive roll pen to have available, for example that can change the pressure applied
pressure and cause skidding a CMAW wire feeder. GMAW wire to the wire. inspect the wire feeder
when a conduit i s dirty. feeders are designed for solid wires. you have in the shop. it may have a

CHAPTER 2 FLUX=COREDARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS
coiled spring that can be com- -Pressure adjustment

wing screw
pressed to give more drive roll pres-
sure. (See Figure 26-1.) If your unit
does not have a coil spring, it may
have a leaf spring. It doesn't really
matter what type of spring the wire
feeder has; the amount of drive roll 1 - ?* Electrode
n
pressure supplied by the spring
Driven roll Insulation
helps to control the feed force.
m- Adjustment nut
,I( 1: ,;;X; ',
I:i12? 1;
The feed force depends on the area

of contact between the drive rolls
and the wire, as well as drive roll
pressure. You can compare the drive
roll-wire contact area to the area in
.
..
which the automobile tire contacts -::+Electrode
the road. The larger the contact
area, the more horsepower a driver
can apply without skidding. The
same is true for wire electrodes.
Greater drive roll pressure can be
compared to vehicle weight. (See
Figure 26-2.) Light vehicles "burn
rubber" more easily than heavy ve- Electrode
hicles. Therefore, if you don't have
enough drive roll pressure, the wire
T D r i v e n roll
will skid. However, instead of
"burning rubber" you will "shave
wire." The drive roll will skid on the Pressure
I hIlA
wire surface and scrape off metal.
You can teil when wire has been t t
skidding by the pile of metal shav-
ings accumulated near the drive roll.
Some manufacturers use four
drive rolls instead of two. Their de-
signers feel that you can get more
?al Increasing
-
_I. __II
Y .[ -
insulation-
I
-
area of contact and better feeding
with four rolls. it does not really
matter to you. The choice of two
rolls or four rolls is a design choice.
Both can give you more than
enough force to feed the wire. When
there are four drive rolls, two are "skid" a little and wear the tires out. grooves, some with U grooves, oth-
usually driven by the feeder motor The same can be true with four ers with special complex curves.
and two are idler rolls for applying driven rolls for feeding wire. Unless Each groove design is for increasing
pressure. the four rolls are all driven at exactly the area of contact between the wire
In some systems all the drive rolls the same speed, they can skid on the and drive roll. You will even find
are driven. (See Figure 26-3.) There wire and shave and splinter it. grooves with knurl marks and other
are no idler pressure rolls. You machined surfaces to grip the wire
might compare such a system to a ItiJ11'i \/!!i I ~ Q,I(Ie SlÌ;,) better.
four-wheel drive vehicle. Unless all just as with tire treads, there are It doesn't really matter what the
wheels are the same, and driven at many versions of wire drive rolls. manufacturer claims. You can put
the same speed, tires will always Some rolls are made with simple V only so much push on a wire and
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

then it will collapse. All well-de-

signed wire feeders can make a wire
collapse. Sooner or later the feed
force requirement will exceed the
strength of the wire and the wire will
collapse.
Feed\
WIRE FEEDER FAILURE force
in most wire feeder failures the wire IFiiBIuIIE ,?IIp>4 Dirty conduits aiid liners can jam ihe flux-cored electrode and cause
collapses because of too much feed it to collapse and kink.
force. The wire feeders are designed
to push wire up to and through the
gun, no matter what happens. When
the conduit and liner system be- Sometimes the drive rolls will skid chance on getting a burnback before
come dirty and full of wire slivers and recover intermittently. When stopping the arc, rather than have a
and shavings, more feed force is you drive your car on ice and snow, jammed conduit to clean up. It is
needed. Unless the drive rolls begin the tires sometimes catch and some- easier to clean a conduit with the
to skid on the wire, the feeder will times they skid. It is the same way electrode removed. However, you
push on the wire until it “buckles” with drive rolls. This condition can should always adjust your equip-
and collapses. (See Figure 2B-4.) cause your arc length to vary ran- ment according to the manufactur-
While welding you can tell when domly. Some operators prefer to use er‘s instructions. When you become
the drive rolls begin to skid. As the low drive roll pressure in order to familiar with the way the equipment
rolls skid the wire feed rate slows cause skidding as the conduit begins behaves, you will be able to keep
down. The arc becomes longer and to jam. That way they can immedi- wire feeder failures to a minimum.
longer, until you must stop welding ately stop welding when they ob- Most of what you learned in this les-
to prevent a burnback. it is always serve a changing arc length. Then son will be useful for any wire feeder
good practice to keep your con- the wire will not collapse and jam system. It does not apply only to
duits and liners clean and well itself into a conduit. FCAW systems.
maintained. Operators would rather take a
aDmmccirmms PRACTICAL CQNC ERNS lem is that FCAW uses a rapidly

Upon completion of this lesson you For all practical purposes you can moving electrode. SMAW elec-
should be able to consider FCAW as needing direct trodes feed slowly into an arc, but
1. Explain why FCAW is difficult current. However, the use of the flux-cored electrodes are fed rapid-
with alternating current. correct flux could allow you to use ly. in the event of a momentary arc
2. Explain why FCAW power alternating current. Just as with outage, an SMAW operator can
sources can cost less than GMAW shielded metal arc electrodes, it is quickly recover the arc. With
units. possible to formulate a flux for cored FCAW, if the arc goes out, the mov-
3. Name three FCAW characteristics wire that will work on alternating ing electrode continues to run into
that vary with polarity. current. But FCAW has some prob- the workpiece. The electrode can
4. Cive the reason why CP power is lems that make it difficult to use with jam inside the gun system, or high
preferred to CC power for FCAW. alternating current. The main prob- short-circuit current can surge
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 2 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS 401
r
f
i
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
through the system, or both can hap-

pen. It is easier to use direct current a) 1- M
-
+
and avoid all the problems of ac
5
-
power. Current-
DIRECT-CURRENT
POWER SOURCES
Ordinary GMAW power sources
will work quite well with FCAW.
Just be sure you have the correct
current rating. Relatively speaking,
FCAW uses more current than
GMAW. However, FCAW is not as
sensitive to power supply dynamics
as is GMAW. The flux core formu-
lations help to stabilize the arc. This
:2
Time -
is why FCAW power sources do not
need as much weld circuit induct-
ance as you find in GMAW units.
FCAW units can cost less than
tI
I
c
s
GMAW units of the same size. (See
Figure 2C-1.)
If you are sure that all you want a a + b a+c a+b+c
Features
to do is FCAW, you can shop
around for a less expensive power IFHGUWE !&GR The cost of a power source depends on the number of features it
combines.
unit. If you think that you may want
to do some GMAW, it might be bet-
ter to purchase a more expensive
power source. You can always use
a GMAW unit for FCAW, but the Power source
reverse is not always true.
Just as with GMAW, you can use
either a constant-potential power
source or a constant-current unit.
With the CP unit all you need is a
i--)
-
c
9
constant-speed wire drive system.
Current -f
(See Figure C-2.) When you have a
CC power source, you must use a ~ i 2C-2 Constant-current
I ~ power
~ sources ~ electrode feed rate that is
~ require an
variable-speed drive unit, one in proportional to arc voltage.
which the wire feeder speed is con-
trolled by an arc voltage signal.
Most FCAW is done with CP power
sources because arc length self-
regulation is good (see Figure 2C-3),
!--
and constant-speed wire drive sys- C o n d u i t ; - d Wire
tems are less complicated than volt- Power source
age-controlled systems.
-
7 I
Y
Power
9
POLARITY
FCAW can use dc power, either I
U Motor
meed
Icontrol I
Current-
electrode positive or electrode nega-
tive. It all depends on the flux for- FHGURE 2C-3Constant-potential power sources require an electrode feed rate that
mulation. This ability to use positive i s constant and independent of arc voltage.

402 SECTION VI FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING PROCESS
and negative polarity makes FCAW of the arc differences possible with require shielding gases. The means
more versatile than GMAW. Almost changes in polarity. This is one rea- of metal transfer is determined by
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
all GMAW is done with DCEP (re- son why FCAW i s so versatile. the materials in the flux core, with
verse polarity). The penetration, some help from the shielding gas, if
puddle fluidity, overall arc heat, and SHIELDING GASES it is used. Most of the time FCAW
other factors vary with polarity. AND POLARITY shielding gas i s used to control Pud-
FCAW can take advantage of both Arc behavior in various shielding dle chemistry and not metal transfer,
dc polarities, whereas in practice gases i s very dependent on polarity. But you can get some help in reduc-
GMAW is restricted to DCEP. It is This is another reason why GMAW ing spatter and stabilizing the arc,
possible to run GMAW with DCEN, uses DCEP most of the time. Arcs The arc performancedepends on the
but the arc “runs a lot colder.” seem to be more stable when DCEP specific flux formulation and the
Sometimes the ability of FCAW to is used. With DCEP the arc anode is manufacturer’s recommendations.
use either polarity, depending on well defined and stable in most gas- Changes in shielding gas with
the flux core formulation, can help es. A good stable arc is needed for FCAW will not produce the same
to reduce spatter. Arcs can operate good welding. dramatic changes you find in
with a different length, at the same When shielding gas is used with GMAW. Justremember, with FCAW
current, when polarity is changed. the FCAW process, this welding too you must consider the use of polarity
This gives FCAW an advantage over is usually done with DCEP power. If and shielding gases together. Each
GMAW. You can choose flux-cored you look up AWS specifications for affects the other. Always check with
electrodes for use with either one flux-cored electrodes, you will note the electrode manufacturer for spe-
polarity or the other. Manufacturers that carbon dioxide shielding i s used cific recommendations.
have designed a whole range of flux- with DCEP. Flux-cored electrodes
cored electrodes to take advantage designed for DCEN polarity do not
LESSON 2D
TYPICAL SETUP
OBJECTIVES MIX AND MATCH not overly sensitive to variations be-

FCAW systems are like any other tween power sources and wire
Upon completion of this lesson you welding system that consumes elec- feeders.
should be able to trodes. In addition to the electrode,
1. identify three factors that deter- the system needs a source of arc cur- EQUIPMENT RANGE
mine the flux-cored electrode rent, an electrode drive unit, a weld- Just as with other consumable-elec-
current range. ing gun, cables, and sometimes a trode welding systems, the melt
2. Give the approximate current supply of gas. Since FCAW pro- rates of flux-cored electrodes de-
range for a ’/ie-inch-diarneter duces more fumes and gases than pend on arc current. Each type of
flux-cored electrode. most other processes consuming electrode has a preferred current
3. Explain why the electrical char- electrodes, a good ventilation sys- range, determined by the overall
acteristics of GMAW power tem should also be available. electrode diameter, its flux formu-
sources can give good FCAW Although most manufacturers of lation, and the thickness of the metal
conditions, and why the reverse welding materials and equipment sheath. You will recall that it is pos-
is not always true. offer complete systems, you do not sible to change the ratio of metal to
4. List three reasons why having have to purchase complete systems. flux when electrodes are designed.
convenience features on your The power sources and welding Electrodes of the same diameter can
equipment can make you a better guns of various manufacturers can have dífferent current ranges.
welder. usually be interchanged. FCAW is Table 2D-1 shows the typical cur-

CHAPTER 2 FLUX=COREDARC WELDING EQUIPMENT BASICS 483
i -
TA~iLiE2iiû-ii Effect of Electrode have lower current limits because

they can be used with short-circuit
Diameter on Current
Range
- -
Short-circuit metal transfer. Equipment rated for
current use with both FCAW and GMAW is
Minimum Maximum
more complex and costs more.
Diameter, Current, Current,
inches amperes amperes
GMAW units have better dynamic
- characteristics than FCAW units.

~~ ~ ~
0.045 140-1 50 350-375 They will always be able to give you

Time
%6 160-1 75 425-450 good FCAW welds. The reverse is
275-300 525-550 (a)
y3 2 not true. Simple FCAW units re-
'/a 375-400 650-675 spond at high speed and do not have
tI enough control over the current
rent ranges to expect for electrodes

I Short-circuit
surges to keep GMAW spatter within
limits. (See Figure 2D-1.) Sometimes
current
of various diameters. The values in it is possible to add dynamic control
Table 2D-1 are only typical values. to simple FCAW units by placing ex-
You should not expect all electrodes tra inductance in the weld circuit,
to have the ranges shown. The ac-
tual range will depend on the way
the electrode was made. However,
Time
íb)
- but this adds to the cost.
Therefore, if you expect to do
both FCAW and GMAW with the
the table can show you what the IFliGUJiXlE ZIDuil The rapid current re- same equipment, the pieces will
range should be when you purchase sponse of basic FCAW power sources cost more in the beginning. In the
a power source. For example, if you will create more spatter than GMAW long run the equipment will save
expect to be able to do all your power sources: (a) basic GMAW re- you money.
welding with 0.045- and '/is-inch- sponse, (b) basic FCAW response.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
diameter electrodes, you don't real- WIRE FEEDERS
ly need a power source with more Wire feeder systems are similar to
than 450 or 500 amperes. if you ex- power sources, in that they too cost
pect to use electrodes with diame- more when you expect more from
ters of up to '/8 inch, you need a unit them. Units for feeding only flux-
that can give you up to about 700 cored electrodes will not cost as
amperes, or maybe even 750. much as those that can feed both
GMAW and FCAW electrodes.
COST FACTORS The accuracy of the wire feeder
The cost of most equipment depends has an effect on cost. Wire feeders
on its minimum adjustment capabil- that are not sensitive to power line
ity as well as its maximum output. variation, whose settings give con-
A 500-ampere power source with a sistent operations, and whose speed
minimum output of 50 amperes at under load can be well regulated al-
10 volts will be more difficult to ways cost more. The electronic con-
build than one with a minimum of trol circuits for controlling wire feed-
100 amperes at 20 volts. The same er motors can become very
is true for the maximum output. A complex. They can be equipped
500-ampere unit with a 35-volt out- with digital controls, memory ca-
put will cost less than one with a 40- pability, welding feed rate readout,
volt capability. Therefore, when you and remote indication of current and
buy equipment for FCAW, be sure it arc voltage, arc time, and other
1
matches the electrode range. Other- (b)
readings. (See Figure 2D-2.) None of
wise you will be paying for more iPii@ìüi:tiE ?;IJJ~% Complex control unitcJ these extra features makes the arc
than you need. cost more thaii simple control units. run better. They do make it easier to
If you are going to use your FCAW (a) Elernentary wire speed control unit. operate the system and keep accu-
setup for GMAW as well, that is a (b) Typical digital control wire feeder rate records. What is needed for
different story. GMAW electrodes system. good arc operation is a stable elec-

404 SECTION VI FLUX=COREDARC WELDING PROCESS
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
trode feed rate and a good power three pieces of equipment perform. 4. Burnback control.
source. Your performance as a welder also 5. “Hot start” conditions.
Many manufacturers offer systems plays a very important part. Conven- 6. An antistick circuit to time the arc
that are designed to work best when ience features can help you be a current so that it melts the last
all the pieces are coordinated. Don’t good welder. They will help to keep piece of electrode and prevents it
expect to get superior welding when you from becoming fatigued, make from sticking in the puddle when
you throw existing power sources, it easy to adjust and maintain the you finish welding.
wire feeders, and other pieces of equipment, and give you confi-
7. Preflow and postflow gas control
equipment together. You might be dence in your abilities. Most of the
when gas shielding is used.
able to get superior performance if time good convenience features will
you understand arc dynamics, but it pay for themselves because they will The list of convenience features is
is unlikely. increase your welding output. almost endless. However, as was
Typical optional features include mentioned earlier, they are no sub-
stitute for a good, sound combina-
OPTIONS 1. Remote power source control.
tion of power source, welding gun,
The heart of a good FCAW setup is 2. Remote. wire feed rate control. and wire feeder.
the wire feeder-welding gun-power 3. Programmed welding conditions
source combination. The arc per- that select the proper current and
formance depends on how these feed rate.

@B3ECTEVES
Upon completion of this lesson you Arc condition, 100 amperes
should be able to
1. Explain why the tip of a flux-
cored electrode must be clean
current B
when it comes to arc starts. I
2. Describe why manual arc starts Current- 200 A 300 A

are easier than mechanized starts. iEA flux-cored electrode
n 7 n ~ ~ J m ; 3A.n
ia)
electrically insulated from the work-
3. Write a brief description of fuse
piece by a piece of fused flux.
starts.
4. Explain why a fast dynamic re-
sponse in a power source is good
. for starts.
CLEAN WIRE TIP§

The trick to getting good arc starts
with FCAW depends on the condi- learn a few little motions of the
tion of the electrode tip. You must welding gun that will help the arc to íb) (d
have good current flow in order to start. It is not easy to teach a ma- IFiiGiiJiifiiE3A-Z The starting power
start the arc. This means that it is chine to change its starting tech- (I’R) depends on the power source.
vital to have a clean electrode tip. If nique automatically when some- Power source B gives two and a quar-
ter times more starting power than
there is any leftover flux, from the thing goes wrong.
power source A. fa) The power source
last time you welded, it will act as characteristics. (b) The gun and elec-
an electric insulator. (See Figure Fust; START CURHENT trode. íc) The electrode resistance
3A-1.) Even a very tiny piece of flux There are several ways to get an arc ci rcu it.
stuck on the end of the wire can to start on the end of an electrode.
keep current from flowing. You must One of the best ways is the fuse start.
be sure the tip is clean before start- With this method the tip of the elec-
ing. This lesson will discuss having trode acts like a fuse. Any fuse melts
a clean electrode tip and other steps when enough current passes on the amount of current. In fact, the
that you can take to make sure you through it. To start an arc the fuse heat is proportional to the “square
have a good start. should be the tip. Sometimes it isn’t, of the current.” (See Figure 3A-2.)
and the arc tries to start somewhere This means that if the current is dou-
along the electrode extension. Cur- bled, the heat is increased four times
MANUAL §TART§ rent that passes through the elec- (2 x 2 = 4). If the current is tripled,
Manual starts are easier than starts trode extension heats it up. The the heat is increased nine times
with mechanized systems. You can amount of heat produced depends (3 x 3 = 9).
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

FUSE START RELiISTANCE

The heat also depends on the resist-
- Flex-cored
electrode
Current flow
ance of the electrode through which
the current passes. This means that Sharp tip cut by
you get the most heat when the re- wire snippers
sistance is high. Therefore, if you
want the arc to start at the tip of the
electrode, it must have the most re-
sistance. This in turn means that the
contact point between the electrode
\ C
-,\urent
(b)
and workpiece should be very

small. Small contacts act as high re-
sistance. Large contacts have low
resi stance.
If you put a point on the electrode
tip by cutting it with a wire cutter, it
will have a small point of contact
when it runs into the workpiece.
(a)
(See Figure 3A-3.) All the current in
BHOüJJIiE 3A-3 Small contacts increase the resistance and restrict current flow. This
the body of the electrode has to pass helps start an arc on the pointed electrode. (a) During start. (b) Immediately after
through the pointed tip to get to the start.
workpiece. This causes it to heat up
and fuse off. The arc starts in the gap
created by the fuse action.
THE MOVING ELECTRODE

If you hold the welding gun at a right BEEP THE CONTACT SMALL
angle to the workpiece, the elec- You can keep the contact area small
trode can jam into the workpiece. by the way you move the welding
This is especially true if the wire gun. If you allow your hand to act
feeder speed is high. As soon as the as a shock absorber, it can keep the
electrode tip runs into the work- electrode tip from jamming into the
piece, the circuit is completed. Then workpiece. You can also angle the
a race begins. The moving electrode welding gun so that the wire tip
continues to feed into the work- strikes the workpiece with a glanc-
piece. The contact between the tip ing blow. It is also possible to swing
and workpiece becomes larger as the electrode tip as though you are
more electrode is forced toward the striking a match. All these tech-
work. (See Figure 3A-4.) The contact niques keep the contact point small.
resistance decreases as the area of
contact increases. The decreased re- GET THE CURRENT FAST
sistance causes a drop in the heat Your power source should be able
being produced by the current. If the to give you enough current to start
contact area becomes too large, the íb) the arc. You should have no trouble
arc will never start. Therefore one of FHGURE 3A.4 When current response when using constant-potential pow-
i s slow, the contact area can increase
two things must happen if you want er sources with high short-circuit
faster than the 12R heat can build up.
a good start. You must either do current capability. Let us assume
This can cause poor arc starts. (a) The
something to keep the contact area appearance of the electrode tip as it that you have plenty of current.
small or put enough current in fast first touches the workpiece. (b) The ap- What you need now is a fast rise in
enough that the arc can start before pearance of the electrode tip after the current. Some power supplies have
the electrode jams into the work- rapidly moving wire, heated by I'R en- a slow rate of current rise. This
piece. ergy, has mashed it into the workpiece. means that it takes quite a bit of time
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 3 FLUX=COREDARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION 407
tl Start current
Inch down Touch Retract Normal

arc feed
tI
L!%
Peak starting
current
Time - 3
Normal
arc current
(b)
IFü6iüñùE 3A.5 (a) The current should
rise quickly for the arc to start proper-
ly. (b) Otherwise the electrode will pile
- (al íbì ícì
Time
(4
FliGWRE 3A-6 A typical retract arc start cycle for power sources with a slow cur-
up like hot spaghetti. rent response.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
for the current to increase from zero CONSTANT-CURRENT STARTS Load.” If you do switch under load,
(before the arc starts) to final short- When you have a constant-current an arc will start in the switch con-
circuit current. Long rise times are system with a voltage-controlled tacts, just as an arc will start on the
typical of power sources with con- wire feeder speed, you must do end of an electrode.
siderable iron in their transformers, things differently. One way to get a
inductors, reactors, and other circuit good start is to retract the electrode THE GOOD START
components. Power sources such as after it runs into the workpiece. The Keep the following principles in
motor generators, magnetic ampli- retract motion causes a rapid de- mind when you are having starting
fiers, and some solid state units with crease in the contact area between difficulties with constant-potential
slow control circuits have long rise the tip and workpiece. The fuse ac- power.
times. tion takes place at this point. (See
1. Keep a sharp tip.
It is possible for the current rise to Figure 3A-6.) After the arc has start-
be too slow. (See Figure 3A-5.) Then ed, the-control unit reverses the mo- 2. Keep a clean tip.
the contact resistance will decrease tion of the wire and pushes it toward 3. Provide plenty of current.
faster than the current rises. This the arc normally. 4. Provide a fast rise in current.
means that you get a poor start. A One way to improve retract starts
With constant-current power you
good dynamic response i s essential is to put inductance in the weld cir-
should
when you want a good start. Older cuit. The electric energy stored in
power sources that you have around the inductor during the first contact 1. Have a sharp tip.
the shop may not give a good start- between the electrode and work- 2. Have a clean tip.
ing performance. piece is discharged, while the retract 3. Use a retract motion or a good
Most constant-potential units motion tries to break the circuit. This scratch motion.
have a good enough dynamic re- is the same action that creates a
4. Provide plenty of inductance.
sponse. Starts with constant-current spark when you open a switch under
units are difficult to make unless you load. Some power units come with Good starts are simply a matter of
modify the electrode motion. a warning “Do Not Switch Under watching out for the details.

4@8 SECTION VI FLUX=COREDARC WELDING PROCESS
LESSON 3B
ûDDlJECTHVIES
should be able to
1. Point out two characteristicsof an
ideal arc stop.
2. Explain what causes a burnback
during an arc stop.
I I
WuSharp point
3. Describe the cause of a "stubout"
during an arc stop.
4. Give a description of how an (a)
\ I íb).
\
adaptive control system stops the ~iiGWHBIE%E:-nThe ideal arc stop has a gap and a sharp electrode tip: (a) before the
arc. stop, (b) after the stop.
5. Explain how you can stop an arc
and have a pointed electrode tip.
DESIGN METHODS
Fortunately, the stopping techniques
for GMAW were developed before
FCAW was invented. Engineers and
designers of GMAW systems apply
the same designs to FCAW systems.
Except for the flux in FCAW systems,
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
they behave almost identically to
GMAW systems when it comes to
arc stops. Time -
íFEQEü.ikïiiiE 8B2 Burnbacks occur when FIIGUJKN%I&% Siubouts occur when
THE IDEAL STOP the current is turned off after the feed- the current is turned off Before feeding
ing stops. stops.
When you stop welding, you want
to leave a gap between the electrode
tip and workpiece. Otherwise the
electrode can freeze into the weld When the current is turned off too cia1 because it protects the puddle
puddle. (See Figure 3B-1.) It is also late, the arc will continue to melt the while it cools.
helpful to leave a sharp point on the stopped electrode. Flux-cored elec- When the current is turned off too
electrode tip, to make the next start trodes can give a very long arc be- soon, the wire feeder motor will
a little easier. When you are using cause of the flux in the wire. (See continue to feed wire while it coasts
supplementary gas shielding, it may Figure 3B-2.) Some systems are de- to a stop. (See Figure 38-3.) If the
be helpful to have a postflow period. signed to measure the arc voltage coasting time is too long, it i s pos-
Finally, the stops should be con- during a stop. When the voltage sible for the electrode to run into the
sistent, leaving uniform gaps be- reaches a predetermined value, the workpiece and stub out.
tween the tip and plate. arc power i s turned off. This pre-
vents too long an arc from forming ADAPTPVBC CQWTBZOP, SYSTEMS
THE CONTROL SYSTEM and stops a burnback from It is not easy to design a stopping
A good control system will give you happening. sequence, for it is practically impos-
the proper stopping sequence. It will A good control system will also sible to pick one set of conditions
turn off the power and wire feed to cycle the shielding gas when it is that will work for all stopping situ-
prevent burnbacks or stubouts. used. A postflow i s usually benefi- ations. For example, at high welding

,Power off signal turns off the current sooner

than it does at slow speeds.
Some control units combine arc
voltage sensing and motor speed
sensing to give optimum control.
Your own control equipment may
be provided with adjustments allow-
ing you to trim the stopping se-
quence. Such extra adjustments
make it possible for you to stop with
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
-
Time-
ia)
1
?+-
ibì
Amount fed
+during
coasting
longer or shorter electrode exten-
sion. For example, you may prefer a
longer electrode stickout because
you intend to cut offa piece to pre-
pare the tip for its next arc start. This
FIGURE 38-4 Allowing the wire feeder motor to coast to a stop decreases the stop technique may be a little more con-
gap: (4before the stop, (b) coasting to a stop. venient than one in which you use
the control to “inch out” the wire
after you cut it close to the tip.
THE RETRACT STOP

Some controls are so designed that
they actually reverse the wire feeder
motor. This causes the wire to re-
tract toward the contact tip. Very,
very careful sequencing of the re-
drop tract motion and current cutoff will
put a point on the electrode tip. The
retract stop doesn’t always work and
it can give a burnback. What re-
versing the wire feeder motor tries to
do is cut off the arc just before the
burnback occurs. Then the last drop
of molten metal on the tip is
squeezed off as the wire is drawn
back inside the contact tip. In a
sense, the last drop is squeezed off
by the contact tip because the drop
is larger than the hole in the tip. (See
FIGURE 3B-5A fast reverse of the motor direction can shake off the last drop and
Figure 36-5.)Then when the wire is
leave a pointed electrode tip. (a) Before the stop. (b) During reverse feeding.
(c) Feeding out the electrode before the final stop. fed normally, the wire that is up in-
side the contact tip comes back out
with a jagged point. This technique
of “retract inside the contact tip”
currents the wire speed is high. This stopping time may give a %-inch works better with GMAW than with
means that if the current is turned off gap. An adaptive control system can FCAW.
the same way each time, the elec- sense the arc length by measuring The retract method i s not reliable
trode tip coasts closer to the puddle the voltage. It will turn the current in most GMAW stops, however. It is
at higher feed rates. (See Figure off at the correct instant to prevent used sometimes in mechanized
’
36-4.) For example, a %-inch gap either a burnback or a stubout. welding systems and in robot sys-
may be left at 150 inches per minute Some adaptive systems also sense tems so that an operator need not
of wire feed. When the wire feed .is the speed of the wire feeder motor. point the electrode tip by hand
300 inches per minute, the same When the speed is high, the control cutting.

THE WELDER’S INFLUENCE to kill the arc before it gets a chance plies to FCAW stops. In fact, any
You can overcome most problems in to burn back. You might even find consumable-electrode welding sys-
stopping with elementary control that rapid motion of the gun, away tem works along the same lines. If
systems. An elementary system from the puddle, whips the last drop you remember the principles in this
merely turns off the power and wire of metal off the electrode tip. The lesson, you will understand the way
motor. It does it the same way every fast motion leaves a pointed elec- in which most welding controis stop
time. When you know the electrode trode because the last drop was an arc.
is going to stub out, you need mere- shaken off.
ly pulí the welding gun away from
the workpiece. After a few tries you
will learn when to pull away and FCAW AND GMAW COMPARISON
prevent stubbing in the workpiece. Most of what you have learned in
When you know you are going to this lesson applies to GMAW, and
get a burnback, you can do the same most of the information on GMAW
thing. You can use your gun motion stops in lesson 3B, Section V, ap-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
LESSON 3C
OBJECTR’VES trode. The flux-cored electrode curs inside of molten balls of metal
Upon completion of this lesson you works in the reverse. With it current and flux. When this happens, the
should be able to passes around the flux core. The gas inside a molten drop causes it to
1. Explain how flux of a cored wire metal tube provides the path for the expand like a balloon, until it bursts.
causes spatter. arc current. The arc heats and melts The explosion tosses spatter in all
2. Explain why electromagnetic the flux core as it passes into the arc. directions.
pinch forces do not play a strong Gases given off by the flux help to With other fluxes the chemical re-
role in the formation of FCAW push the arc all over the tip of the action may be slow. The flux doesn’t
spatter. metal tube. Moreover, the material melt right away, and it seems to
3. Describe how FCAW power in the flux i s not absolutely uniform, squirt through the arc into the Pud-
sources control the amount of which causes the chemical reactions dle, like toothpaste squeezed out of
spatter. in the flux to change locations from a tube. The flux then reacts with the
4. Name two steps you can take to time to time. This too influences hot puddle. Sometimes it melts be-
reduce FCAW spatter when the metal transfer. All in all, FCAW neath the puddle surface and creates
wire type and the power source metal transfer is relatively violent gases in the puddle. (See Figure
are predetermined. and unstable compared to that of 3C-1.)The gases erupt and bubble
GMAW. out of the puddle and cause spatter.
Flux formulas are carefully de-
IT’S A COMBINATION signed to give the right metallurgical
Metal transfer in FCAW is a combi- SPATTER AND GAS FOKCES reaction with the puddle. However,
nation of GMAW and SMAW trans- A flux may generate a great deal of it isn’t always possible to obtain a
fer characteristics. In a sense, FCAW gas as it is heated by the arc. Chem- good formula for welding and keep
is GMAW practiced with an inside- ical reactions of all types take place. the formation of gases low. There is
out SMAW electrode. The rate of the reaction depends a a constant trade-off between chem-
With SMAW the flux covering of great deal on the temperature of the istry and spatter. Usually, chemistry
the electrode helps stabilize the arc flux. Gases formed at a hot spot on is more important and you have to
and focus the arc forces. The current the flux can blow the arc to another live with the spatter caused by
flows down the core of the elec- position. Sometimes the reaction oc- gases.

Spatter from not nearly as much as with GMAW.

bursting
bubble Gas With some flux-cored wires the
drops can grow to large sizes, and
the gas forces are not very strong.
These flux-cored wires produce
spatter in almost the same way as
GMAW wires.
SPATTER AND
BOWER SOURCES
With GMAW, controlling the rate at
which the current rises i s a good
IFHGüJWE 364 Gas bubbles in the puddle can burst and cause spatter. way to reduce spatter, for control-
ling the rise in current is a very good
way to control the rate of electro-
magnetic pinch. Power sources that
control the time during which cur-
Molten rent rises are more expensive than
drop those without the feature. You can
use such GMAW units on FCAW,
but usually without much effect.
Most of the spatter of FCAW comes
Molten from chemical reactions and not
puddle pinch forces.
Therefore, if you are going to do
much FCAW and very little or no
GMAW, you don’t need an expen-
sive GMAW power source. A simple
,Electrode New constant-potential unit with a built-
Irr
in dynamic response will work fine.
This in turn means that FCAW pow-
er units don’t cost as much as
GMAW units. Not all flux-cored
electrodes will work this way, how-
ever. Some FCAW wires work a
good deal like GMAW wires. If you
have this kind of FCAW wire, a good
(C) id) GMAW power unit can be of
BHQirBTiiRE:3G2! The typical metal transfer sequence. (a) Before the short circuit. advantage.
(6) Immediately after the short circuit. (c) Slight spatter from the fuse action that fol- Generally, you can make the fol-
lows the short circuit. (d) The new arc formed after several short circuits and the lowing observations about spatter,
final release of the drop. FCAW wires, and power sources.
1. Self-shielded wires generate more
spatter than gas-shielded wires.
SPATTER AND CURRENT cause many short circuits of small
The unstable metal transfer of FCAW drops, elongated drops, odd-shaped 2. Self-shielded wires have a depo-
causes it to have many more short drops, and bouncing drops. During sition efficiency of somewhere
circuits than GMAW. The gases the brief moment of contact be- between 80 and 85 percent.
evolved in good, stable GMAW tween the random drops and the 3. Gas-shielded wires have a depo-
have a minimal effect. The electro- workpiece (see Figure 3C-21, there sition efficiency of about 85 to 90
magnetic pinch effect causes most isn’t enough time for the electro- percent or higher.
GMAW spatter. With FCAW the sto- magnetic pinch forces to do their 4. The higher the deposition effi-
ry is different. The violent gas forces dirty work. There is some effect, but ciency, the greater the possibility
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

3
r
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
longer length reduces the number of

short circuits that can occur. (See
Figure 3C-4.) Fewer short circuits
mean less fuse action and pinch ac-
tion and therefore less spatter. Since
you will not know ahead of time
which is better, a short arc or a long
arc, you will have to experiment
with your technique. just remember,
you may be able to reduce spatter
by trimming the arc length. At times
FIGURE 3C-3 Short arcs tend to bury FIGURE 3C.4 Long arcs tend to pre-
a slight decrease in spatter can make
themselves in the puddle and trap vent short circuits and reduce spatter.
spatter.
all the difference in a weld. The few
extra percent of metal that is depos-
ited, instead of being spattered, can
that you might benefit by using a the power unit on hand. What you give you the extra bead reinforce-
GMAW power source for FCAW. can do is keep the arc short and trap ment needed to make a weld in one
the spatter in the puddle. (See Figure pass instead of two. Less spatter also
OTHER TECHNIQUES 3C-3.) The short length makes it means less cleanup and usually low-
TO CONTROL SPATTER harder for the spatter to escape from er costs.
There isn’t much you can do to the arc zone.
eliminate or control spatter when Sometimes you can reduce spatter
you have to use a specific wire and by increasing the arc length. The
LESSON 3D
IMPORTANT VARIABLES
OBJECTIVES have a stronger effect than others. A trode diameter makes large changes
Upon completion of this lesson you change in the electrode filler metal in the weld. When you change the
should be able to strength, from a grade E70T to a diameter of the electrode, all other
1. List three things that change when grade E80T, for example, is consid- things remainingthe same, you alter
the diameter of the FCAW elec- ered an important one. The impor- the effect of I2R (joule) heating. The
trode is changed. tant variables are described in doc- energy distribution between arc heat
2. Describe the effect on FCAW of a uments giving the qualifications for and I2R Heat shifts, and this shift in
change in shielding gas com- procedures. One such document is energy in turn alters the puddle flu-
position. Structural Welding Code-Steel, idity, as well as its temperature. A
3. Identify at least four important AWS D1.l-XX. This American change in diameter also alters the
variables in FCAW. Welding Society document is re- arc length. When you increase the
4. Explain the effect of a change in vised annually; the XX represents diameter, the resistance of the elec-
voltage on FCAW arcs. the year of revision. This lesson dis- trode extension decreases. The en-
5. Explain why a change in current cusses typical important variables ergy, which was used up by I2R
may be an important factor in that you should know about. heating of the smaller electrode (see
FCAW. Figure 3D-1), usually increases the I
THE ELECTRODE arc length automatically. As you

EVERYTHING COUNTS The FCAW process is very sensitive should know by now, any change in
Everything you do has an effect on to alterations in the electrode. For arc length alters the puddle.
weld quality. However, some things example, a simple change in elec- Some flux-cored electrodes work

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
CHAPTER 3 FLLJX4ORED ARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION
Long arc, little force
(a) íb)
Il~iiGüJIXiE311DuIi Thc! arc length increases as the electrode diameter increases and to- IF~~Gu3 HH~ E Arc force varies with
D.3
tal voltage i s held consíant: (a) small diameter, (O) large dianieter. In this example arc length. Long arcs are said to be
the total voltage is 30 volts. "soft," short arcs to "dig."
centrate their forces and give in-

creased penetration. (See Figure
30-3.) Long arcs tend to spread the
arc forces over a larger area. Just re-
member, when you want to repeat
a welding procedure, it is best to use
the same voltage settings. You may
be able to alter your gun motion to
(a) íb) correct for voltages that are as much
i1piiGuiiiiiE :I;iii~% Changes in tlic tip-to-work distance can be used to alter arc length as 10 percent higher or lower. But if
and arc voltage. (21) Norinal arc length and extension. (O) A greater tip-to-work dis- anything else is wrong, you will not
tance decreases the arc length. be able to help out as much as you
could otherwise.
CURRENT
best when gas shielding is used. The VO LTA Q;E Wire melt rate (feed rate) and cur-
electrode manufacturer will tell you When you set the arc voltage, the rent usually have a strong relation.
which gas or gas mixture you should arc length is also fixed. High voltage More current needs more wire.
use. You cannot shift to an ar- means a long arc and vice versa. Otherwise the arc length would get
gon-carbon dioxide mixture from Most operators can learn to com- longer as the current is increased.
pure carbon dioxide without ex- pensate for small fluctuations in You can compensate for more or
pecting a change in the puddle. voltage. Sometimes you have to in- less current by shifts in the travel
Changes in gas composition always crease-or decrease the torch-to-work speed of the welding gun. When
alter the puddle as well as the arc. distance to adjust for a voltage you have more wire, you move the
Some operators have been known change. (See Figure 30-2.) Most gun faster and vice versa.
to joke about changes in materials. welders cannot handle more than a Most operators can handle up to
They say "Even a change in an op- 5 to 10 percent shift in voltge with- about a 10 percent change in cur-
erator's birthday will cause a change out harming the weld. This is why it rent. The Structural Welding code,
in the weld." At times you may al- is stated in the Structural Welding AWS D7.1, calls for procedure
most come to believe that this is Code that you must requalify a requalification when there is "a
true. The important thing to remem- welding procedure if the arc voltage change of more than 10% above or
ber is that any change in the elec- changes "more than 7% above or below the specified mean amperage
trode will alter the arc and puddle. below the specified mean arc volt- for each size electrode used."
This means you must be careful age for each size electrode used."
to keep changes to a minimum When you change the arc length, TRAVEL §PEED
when you want to repeat welding the energy distribution in the arc Many of the changes discussed up
conditions. zone shifts. Short arcs tend to con- to this point could be corrected for

by changes in travel speed. When Weld

bead
you change the travel speed of the
welding gun, you also alter the heat
input. (See Figure 3D-4.) Slow travel
causes heat to build up and fast trav-
el dissipates heat. You should be
able to alter travel speed by as much
as 1O percent without losing control
of your welding. Most of the time
you can use travel speed to fine-tune
the welding condition. When other
variables are controlled within
specified limits, travel speed is a
very good way to control puddle
heat. However, if you are already
using a change in travel speed to
compensate for a change in current, FñdiUIÆE 3D.Q Faster travel speed decreases the penetration and bead size, and
you may not have enough vice versa.
maneuverability of travel speed left
to satisfy the welding condition. You
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
should keep the other variables
closely set so that you can use travel
speed to trim the welding condition.
POLARITY
All metal transfer i s strongly affected
by polarity. In addition, the energy
distribution in the arc zone changes Current
drastically when polarity i s altered.
It is not possible to make the same Deeper More
weld when all you do is change po- penetration buildup
larity. Almost everything about the
welding condition is different when
polarity is altered. (See Figure
3D-5.)This is why all procedure
qualifications list polarity as a criti-
Weld cross sections at the same travel
cal variable. About the only thing speed and current
not affected by a polarity change is FIGURE 3D.5 Polarity changes the melt rate and penetration. Straight polarity
the 12R heating effect. One ampere (DCEN) melts more wire, which leaves less energy for the arc.
of alternating current will do the
same I2R heating as one ampere of
direct current. This is true because
electrical engineers set up the cur- SHIELDING GAS the weld. Always use the manufac-
rent-measuring system to work this As was mentioned earlier in the sec- turer’s recommended flow rates
way. By definition, one ampere of tion on the electrode, a change in when you use a shielding gas.
alternating current is equal to one gas composition is an important var-
ampere of direct current, when the iable. Another factor to consider
12R heating is the same amount. Al- about the shielding gas is its flow
ways check your polarity when rate. Heavier flows tend to cause
welding conditions seem drastically turbulence, which draws in air and
different from the last time you ruins the weld. Lighter flows let air
welded. penetrate into the arc zone and ruin

CHAPTER 3 FLUX=COREDARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION 49s
@IWEC’Ji’HVES
should be able to
1. Name two sources of moisture
that can cause “wet wire.’’
2. Explain how to keep your flux-
cored wire clean.
3. Describe three causes of contact
tip problems.
4. Identify the FCAW problems re-
lated to excessive drive roll
pressure.
5. Give the principal reason electric
3n.n Moisture of all types should be avoided
IFIIGUUIR;~~~
connections become hot.
rr’s NOT IMPOSSIBLE

At times you may feel it is impossi-
ble to get a good welding condition.
FïiGUiRE %t&.2Magnified view of a
Everything seems to go wrong at
dirty wire surface.
once. just remember, the wire man-
ufacturer did not design the elec-
trode to be troublesome. Most wires ers. Where it is wet, rainy, and fog-
have good weldability. Therefore, if gy, moisture can play havoc with a
you are having difficulty, you are wire. (See Figure 3E-1.) In a dry
probably doing something wrong. desertlike climate moisture is less of
This lesson will give you some idea a problem. You should always be
of the things you can look for when alert for problems from moisture,
you are having trouble welding. such as porosity and cracking.
DJIRTY WIRE
WET WIRE Many shops have poor ventilation.
One of the worst things that you can Dusts of all kinds, oil vapors, and
do is let the wire get wet. This warn- other dirt can deposit on the reel of
ing does not mean merely that you wire. If you are stopping for a few
must be careful to keep the wire out hours (see Figure 3E-2), the dirt and
of the rain. Of course you should. grime that settle on the electrode
But much more is meant. You must can ruin your welding. This is par-
not let the reel of electrode wire sit ticularly true if you shut down for
around soaking up moisture from the day. Always cover the wire reel
the air. If you are stopping work for with a clean plastic sheet or a dry, arc length and arcing in the contact
a long time, you should cover the clean cloth. Otherwise, remove the tip.
wire reel with a plastic cover. You wire reel from the feeder unit and
could also remove the wire from the pack it away in the manufacturer’s CONTACT TIPS
feeder unit and put it away in a dry original box. Dirty wire can cause Many problems concerning wire
place. This step is more important in porosity, cracking, and other faults. feeding can be due to the contact
some parts of the country than 0th- It will also cause erratic changes in tip. Even when the electrode is in
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SECTION VI FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING PROCESS
good condition, there may be arcing Contact tip cross section

7 I
inside the tip. The contact tip may
have too large a hole. (See Figure
3E-3.)This lets the electrode bounce
around and arc inside the tip. Weld
spatter can collect on the end of the
contact tip and restrict the feeding.
Although the fault i s unusual, an
electrode may be too straight. A Iit-
tle curvature is needed to press the
electrode against the tip outlet and IFIIGILTIIGE 8 1 ~ 3Good contact is needed for stable arc conditions. Loose wire can
give good electric contact. cause problems. (a) Straight wire can flop around inside the tip. (b) Curved wire
Always use a tip of the recom- maintains contact by rubbing against the tip outlet.
mended size, keep the tip clear of
spatter buildup, and use clean wire
with a little curvature. These steps
will help keep the tip from jamming.
Some people try to ream out a con-
tact tip after it clogs. Most of the
time this does not work., The tip
quickly fails again for the same rea-
sons. Using new tips is less expen-
sive in the long run because you will
have less downtime.
DRIVE ROLLS
The drive mechanism can be the
source of many problems. Depend- W
ing on the type of drive unit you FïiGüJTmiE 8 ~ 4 Drive
1 roll pressure can open up the wire seam and cause flux to
have, it is possible to squeeze the spill out while the wire i s being fed.
electrode too much. High drive roll
pressure can distort the electrode
and make it difficult to push to the
welding gun. The wrong pressure Conduits are sometimes rolled over
can cause the folded seam to open by fork lifts, smashed by heavy
and spill flux inside the conduit plates, or stomped on by careless
leading to the gun. (See Figure feet. Always inspect the conduit for
3E-4.) damage when you experience feed-
When pressure is too light, the ing problems.
drive rolls can skid on the electrode.
The skidding will shave off metal
CABLES AND CONNECTIONS
flakes and raise burrs, all of which
FCAW is not as clean as GMAW, for
can jam the conduit system. In ad-
as you know it generates more spat-
dition, a skidding drive roll causes
ter and fumes. When you are doing
fluctuations in feed rate and changes
a considerable amount of piece-
in arc length. A change in arc length
work, the spatter can collect be-
indicates wire feeding problems. A
neath the place where you connect
gradual increase in length means
the work clamp. Dirt and spatter can
that the electrode is slowing down.
The slowdown can be due to slip-
page at the drive rolls or dirt in the
conduit system. Other things to look
for are kinks in the conduit and dam- FiiGüJìiûIE Dirt and spatter can
age from collapse of the sidewalls. cause poor electric connections.
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CHAPTER 3 FLUX-CORED ARC WELDING SYSTEM OPERATION 417
interfere with a good electric con- and feel for heat with your hand. of crocus cloth in their tool box to
nection and create a “hot” connec- You can feel the radiation from a clean cable splices.
tion. Here “hot” does not mean a very hot connection. If the connec-
shock hazard but a high tempera- tion doesn’t seem too hot to touch, GOOD HOUSEKEEPING
ture. (See Figure 3E-5.) The high tap it with your finger. A good con- Most problems stem from sloppy
temperature is caused by welding nection will run slightly above room work habits. Keep your equipment
current flowing through a poor con- temperature and can even feel clean and properly maintained at all
nection. Anytime there is a slow drift warm. if you think that you are times. You will have less downtime
in welding conditions i s a good time going to be burned by holding the and make better welds, which trans-
to check all electric connections. contact, this i s a good indication lates into more production at less
Heat buildup i s slow but relent- that the connection is poor. The cost. Your employer will appreciate
less. When a poor connection be- only cure for a bad connection is this, and if you are in business for
gins to heat up, the heat makes the cleanliness. Clear out all foreign yourself you surely will.
connection worse, and it heats up matter and scrape away any obvious
even more. A good way to check buildup of spatter and oxide. Some
connections is to turn off the power operators carry a small file or piece
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CHAPTER 4
@BJECTiíVES
1. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints with backup bar Gas nozzle
in the flat position.
2. Weld fillets and V-groove butt joints with backup bar
in the horizontal position.
in the vertical up position, using weave bead
techniques.
IUiGelUIfifE 4.Ji Contact tip placement
in the overhead position.
whenii the wire is being fed ihrowgh the gun. When the
wire is 6ed through, resease the wive k e d b u t t ~ nand
In this chapter you will be welding carbon steel with the insta00 ûhe cormtact ûip. Icor fipax-cored arc weidling the tip
flux-cored arc welding (FCAW) process. Before you start shoeaid be even with the gas n~zzûe.(See Figure 4-1.)
to weld, you must check out and set up your equipment. Set the gas flow rate to 30 to 40 cfh of carbon dioxide.
Inspect the equipment. If there are any pieces that need Apply antispatter compound to the gas cup and contact
repair, notify your instructor. Go to the power source and tip to prevent spatter buildup.
check the cable connections. Check the correct current
for the wire you are using and set the power source ac-
cordingly. Check the work cable and turn on the power
source.
Proceed to the wire feeder and check that it has the ~ I ~ I E I I G S ~ D Wn$IuiiIP->muvir
A~IL
proper size of filler wire and wire feed rolls. For the pro- When personal equipment is called for in this chapter, it
cedures in this chapter you will use 0.045-in.-diameter should consist of
E71T-1 filler wire. If the wire is not threaded through the 1. Welding shield with appropriate lens.
gun and cable assembly, use the wire feeder switch or 2. Safety glasses.
gun trigger to feed wire through the conduit assembly and 3. Gauntlet-type leather gloves.
through the gun. Caution: If p n i use the gun trigger to 4. Appropriate welding clothing.
feed the wire, make sure the gum is not touching or new 5. Wire brush.
objects on which an arc might be strnic?~ W W ~ I Q V ~ the tip 6. Diagonal side cutters.
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CHAPTER 4 FLUX4ORED ARC WELDING OF STEEL 419
IATEBIIAiL AIMD EaQüJ~PMENT

PROCEDURE
1. Adjust the power source and wire FHGURE 4A.2 Bead location.
30 to 40 cfh.
2. Using the backhand technique
(see Figure 4A-11, begin at the
right side of the plate and deposit
a weld bead approximately i/’ in.
from the edge of the plate. (See
Figure 4A-2.) Use an even travel t
Direction of welding
speed, which will produce a bead
with even width and reinforce- FEIOKJIE 4A-Ji Gun angle.
ment. Use one of the weaves
shown in Figure 4A-3 to spread bead to cool and clean the slag
the weld bead. Spreading the from the weld.
bead will prevent excessive rein- 4. Continue to deposit overlapping
forcement and help make sure the beads on the plate, as shown in PIIBEUIE 4A.3 Weave patterns.
toe of the weld merges smoothly Figure 4A-4. Cool the plate as
with the base metal. necessary.
3. Before stopping the weld, be sure 5. When finished the beads should
you fill the crater and reinforce it be straight, of even width and
by using a circular motion of the height, and have a smooth
gun over the puddle. Allow the contour. FHQBUIRE4A-4Bead sequence.
I?IIATIEltcIIAJLANIID EQUJiíllQMIEWIT PROCEDURE scale or rust. Clean weld joints

1. Personal welding equipment, 1. Adjust the power source and wire will allow higher-quality welds.
2. One piece of carbon steel, 1/4 in. feeder to obtain 21 to 23 volts 3. Tack the pieces together and po-
x 1V2 in. x 8 in. long; one piece and 170 to 190 amperes, gas flow sition them as shown in Figure
of carbon steel, 1 h in. x 3 in. x 30 to 40 cfh. 4A-5. Hold the gun perpendicu-
8 in. long. 2. Clean the pieces to be joined. lar to the joint and, using the
The areas to be welded should be backhand technique and one of
thoroughly cleaned of any mill the weaves, weld a bead from left
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

beads as shown in Figure 4A-6.

Cool the plate between beads.
5. When you have completed the
three-bead fillet, cool the T as-
sembly and inspect it. The legs
should be of equal length. The
toe of the weld should merge
smoothly with the base material.
FIGURE 4A-5,Weld position for a flat
T-joint fillet.
The face of the weld should be
nearly flat, with no excessive
concavity or convexity.
6. Weld the second side of the T as-
sembly, using the same technique
to right. Use an even travel FIGURE 48.6 Bead placement. and bead placement that you
speed, and watch for even rein- used on the first side.
forcement and good tie-in of the
toe of the weld to the base metal.
Remember when stopping to fill 4. Complete the first weld bead,
the crater properly. clean it, and apply two more

x 3 in. x 6 in. long, each with FIGURE 4A-8 Bead placement.
FCAW
side.
3. One piece of carbon steel, '/in.i
x 1 in. x 6 in. long. use the arc to control the flow of
the weld puddle.
PROCEDURE
FIGURE 4A-7 Assembly and weld
sequence shown in Figure 4A-8.
1. Adjust the power supply and wire Use a slight weave to help the
feeder to obtain 21 to 23 volts position for a flat V-groove butt joint
with backup bar. weld flow and to fuse to the side-
and 170 to 190 amperes, gas flow walls of the groove and the pre-
30 to 40 cfh. vious beads.
2. Thoroughly clean the pieces to be 6. When you have completed the
joined. Pay particular attention to When the gun is in the center of plate, cool it and examine it. The
the top of the plate, the sidewalls the joint, watch the arc very face of the weld should merge
of the groove, and the underside closely. By concentrating the arc smoothly with the base metal.
of the joint. (See Figure 4A-7.) on the leading edge of the pud- The face should be at least flush
3. Tack the pieces together and po- dle, you can cause the bead to with the base metal and not ex-
sition as shown in Figure 4A-7. penetrate into the backup bar and ceed 3/32-in. reinforcement.
Tack the backup bar firmly to the fuse both sides of the root. You
plates. must be very careful. If you allow
4. Using the backhand technique, the arc to go too far up on the
hold the gun perpendicular to the puddle, your penetration will de-
joint and strike the arc at the tack. crease and you will not penetrate
Weave the gun from side to side. the joint. Practice will help you
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 4 FLUX=COREDARC WELDING OF STEEL 421
~ ~~ ~~
LESSON 4B
WELDING IN THE HORIZONTAL POSITION

2. One piece of carbon steel, 9'4 in.
X 1 % in. x 8 in. long; one piece
8 in. long.
PROCEDURE
30 to 40 cfh.
2. Clean the pieces to be joined,
tack them together, and position
them as shown in Figure 46-1.
3. Use the backhand technique, be-
ginning at the left side of the joint,
and progress to the right. Use a
slight weave, hesitating on the
vertical part of the T joint. The Flux-cored arc welding is readily used in all positions.
gun angles are shown in Figure
48-2.
4. When using the backhand tech- 5. Deposit two more beads using the
nique you are pulling the metal. bead sequence and gun angles
Be careful to maintain a 15-20 shown in Figure 46-2. Make sure
degree torch angle. Too little or to clean the slag before adding
too much drag angle can lead to another pass.
slag entrapment. 6. Cool the T assembly and examine
the weld. The toe of the weld
should merge smoothly with the
base metal. The legs should be
equal, and the face of the weld
should be nearly flat.
7. Weld the second side of the T
assembly using the backhand
technique, and the same bead se-
quence as you did on the first
side.
PIGURRE 4B.I Weld position for a

horizontal T-joint fillet. FIGURE 4B-2Gun angles.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

422 SECTION VI FLUX*COREDARC WELDING PROCESS
V=GROOVE BUTT JOINT, 26 POSITION WITH BACKUP BAR

2. Two pieces of carbon steel, 3h in.
x 3 in. x 6 in. long, each with
side.
X 1 in. X 6 in. long.
PHGUIWLE QB-4Gun angle.

PROCEDURE
1. Adjust the power supply and wire
30 to 40 cfh.
joined, tack them together, and
46-3.
3. Use the backhand technique be-
ginning at the left side of the
plate. Use a slight weaving mo-
tion, hesitating on the top plate.
PHGtJBE4B.3 Assembly and weid
The gun angle is shown in Figure
position for a horizontal V-groove butt
46-4. joint with backup bar. &' rnax.
4. Complete the plate using the
bead sequence shown in Figure
4B-5. Cool the plate and examine
it for correct height of reinforce-
ment and smooth contours of the ~ B BBead
F'HúùEJH%E . % sequence and
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
beads. reinforcement.
LESSON 4C
WELDING EN
POSHTION, u
T - J O I N T FILLET, 3F POSITION
MATERIAL ANQ EQKJPPIENT PROCEDURE 2. Thoroughly clean the pieces to be

1. Personal welding equipment. 1. Adjust the power source and wire joined, tack them together, and
2. One piece of carbon steel, 1/4 in. feeder to obtain 21 to 23 volts position them as shown in Figure
X 1'/2 in. x 8 in. long; one piece and 170 to 190 amperes, gas flow 4C-1.
of carbon steel, '/i in. x 3 in. x 30 to 40 cfh. Stay on the low side 3. Beginning at the bottom of the
8 in. long. of the range for vertical welding. joint, use the gun angles shown

CEAPTER 4 FLUX=COREDARC WELDING OF STEEL 423
! TOP view
FIGURE 4C.1 Weld position for a

vertical up T-joint fillet. FIGURE 4C-3 Weave pattern.
in Figure 4C-2.Begin to weld us-

ing a weaving motion similar to
that given in Figure 4C-3.
4. The weld will deposit a shelf at FIGURE 4C.2 Gun angles.
the bottom of the joint on which
you can build. Be certain when
you weave the gun that the arc
reaches the root of the joint to en- FIGURE 4C-4 Bead sequence.
sure good root penetration. Hes- 5. Complete the first pass, keeping
itate on the sides to fill in the weld the fillet size as'close to Y4 in. as
and prevent undercut. Increase possible.
the travel speed of the gun when 6. Cool the plate thoroughly and de-
moving from side to side to pre- posit a second pass. Keep the size 7. Weld the second side of the T as-
vent excessive buildup, which of the second-pass fillet to Ya in. sembly, using the same technique
would make a very convex bead. (See Figure 4C-4.) as for the first side.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
MATEREIAL A N D EQUIPMENT 2. Clean the pieces to be joined,
1. Personal welding equipment. tack them together, and position
2. Two pieces of carbon steel, 3/8 in. them as shown in Figure 4C-5.
x 3 in. x 6 in. long, each with Thoroughly tack the backup bar
a 30-degree bevel on one 6-in. to the plates.
side.
x 1 in. X 6 in. long. FIGURE 4C.5 Assembly and weld
position for a vertical up V-groove butt
joint with backup bar.
PROCEDURE
30 to 40 cfh. Stay on the low side ~~~
of the range. Backing strip f" x 1" x 6"

424
-- . SECTION VI FLUX=COBEDARC WELDING PROCESS
3. Begin at the bottom of the groove, max.

using the gun positions shown in
Figure 4C-6. Build a shelf for the
weld and, using a slightly weav-
ing motion, continue the weld up
the joint. Make certain the weave
is wide enough to cause the arc
to melt the root of the joint, en-
suring good penetration of the each layer. The second layer
backup bar and fusion. should be just under flush, which
4. After completing the root pass, will allow you to reinforce the
deposit two more layers using a joint properly, When weaving,
single bead weave to produce , hesitate on each side to fill in the
each layer. (See Figure 4C-7.) In- weld and prevent undercut. Cool
crease the width of the weave for IFHGeTIIE 4(cmeiiGun positions. the plate between each layer.
MATEREAH, A N D EQUHPMENT
2. One piece of carbon steel, YI in.
x 1 % in. x 8 in. long; one piece
8 in. long.
PROCEDURE @"IIúÙBTiiiiIE 4m.n Weld position for an

1. Adjust the power supply and wire overhead T-joint fillet.
30 to 40 cfh.
2. Clean the pieces to be welded,
tack them together, and position 4. Cool the plate, clean it, and put
them as shown in Figure 4D-1. in two more passes using the gun
3. Use the gun angle shown in Fig- angles shown in Figure flD-2.
ure 40-2 and the backhand tech- 5. Cool the plate and weld the sec-
nique to put in the first pass. ond side of the T assembly, using
Weave the gun slightly to ensure the backhand technique and the
fusion along the toe of the weld. gun angles shown in Figure 4D-2.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

CHAPTER 4 FLUX=COREDARC WELDIN6 OF STEEL 425
V=GROOVEBUTT JOINT,4 6 POSITION WITH B A C K U P BAR

-
FIGURE 4D4 Bead sequence.
X 3 in. x 6 in. long, each with
a 30-degree bevel on one 647.
side.
3. One piece of carbon steel, Y4 in. wire at the leading edge of the
X 1 in. x 6 in. long. puddle. The position of the wire
will determine the amount of
penetration into the backup bar
PROCEDURE and the shape of the root pass.
1. Adjust the power supply and wire Keep the wire deep into the
feeder to obtain 21 to 23 volts puddle.
and 170 to 190 amperes, gas flow 4. Complete the joint using the bead
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
30 to 40 cfh. FIGURE 4D.3 Assembly and weld sequence shown in Figure 40-4.
2. Clean the pieces to be welded. position for an overhead V-groove butt For each bead change the gun an-
Tack the pieces together and po- joint with backup bar. gle to point in the direction of the
sition them as shown in Figure bead. Weave each bead to ensure
4D-3. good penetration with the side-
3. Keep the gun perpendicularto the technique and a weave. Begin at walls of the groove and other
joint, using a slight backhand the end of the joint and keep the weld beads.

1. What are the major hazards of FCAW?(1A) 26. What could happen if you used an ordinary GMAW
2. What polarities can be used with FCAW?U A ) wire feeder for feeding flux-cored wire? (28)
3. Why does FCAW produce more fume and gases than 27. Describe the relation between feed force, the drive
SMAW? (1A) roll area of contact, and pressure. (28)
4. Describe the effect of fume extractor devices on 28. Why do FCAW drive rolls have different groove
FCAW radiation levels. (1A) shapes? (28)
5. What causes the noise of FCAW?(1A) 29. Why do some operators prefer to lessen the drive roll
pressure and cause wire skidding when a conduit is
6. Why is good ventilation so important with FCAW?
dirty? (28)
(18)
30. Why i s it difficult to accomplish FCAW on alternating
7. Why is the slag of FCAW an eye and skin hazard?
current?(2C)
(18)
31. Why do FCAW power sources cost less than GMAW
8. What are two hazards of FCAW spatter? (1 8)
units?(2C)
9. Why is it important to wear safety glasses, even after
a weld done by the FCAW process has been com- 32. What are three FCAW characteristics that vary with
pleted? (1B) polarity? (2C)
33. Give the reason why CP power is preferred to CC
1o. What are three factors that can interfere with uniform
flux flow when making flux-cored electrodes? (1C) power for FCAW. (2C)
11. Why is it necessary during manufactureto bake flux- 34. What three factors determine the flux-cored elec-
cored electrodes in an oven? (1C) trode current range?(2D)
12. How can the flux-to-metal ratio be changed without 35. What is the approximate current range for a lA6-inch-
altering the diameter of a flux-cored electrode?(1C) diameter flux-cored electrode?(20)
36. Why do most GMAW power sources give good
13. What three electrical factors are controlled by the
FCAW conditions, and why is the reverse not usually
shape of a flux-cored electrode?(1C)
true? (2D)
14. What is the effect of flux voids on metal transfer?(1 D)
37. List three reasons why having convenience features
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
15. What is the effect of the crater cup on the flux-cored on your equipment can make you a better welder.
electrode tip? (1D) (2 D)
16. what are the effects of the gas that forms when the 38. Why must the tip of a flux-cored electrode be clean
flux reacts with its surroundings?(1D) when it comes to arc starts?(3A)
17. What is the meaning of E70T-3? (1E) 39. Why are manual arc starts easier than mechanized
18. What is the meaning of EXXXT-2?(1E) starts? (3A)
19. Why do flux-cored electrodes that are designed for 40. Give a brief description of fuse starts. (3A)
carbon dioxide shielding have oxidizers in the flux? 41. Why is a fast dynamic response in a power source
(1 E) good for arc starts? (3A)
20. What is the benefit of argon4arbon dioxide shield- 42. What are two characteristics of an ideal arc stop?(38)
ing mixtures on FCAW?(1E)
43. What causes a burnback during an arc stop? (38)
21. Why do FCAW guns have larger curves, and why are
44. What causes a "stubout" during an arc stop? (38)
they bigger, then GMAW guns? (2A)
45. Describe how an adaptive control system stops the
22. Why are the contact tips of self-shielded FCAW guns
arc. (38)
insulated?(2A)
46. How can you stop an arc and have a pointed elec-
23. What is a reason for increasingthe extension of flux-
trode tip when you are finished? (38)
cored electrodes?(2A)
47. How does the flux of a cored wire cause spatter?(3C)
24. What happens if the drive rolls grip the flux-cored
electrode with too much pressure? (2A) 48. Why doesn't the electromagnetic pinch effect have
a strong role in the formation of FCAW spatter?(3C)
25. Why is self-shielded FCAW suited for groove welds?
(2A) 49. How do FCAW power sources control the amount
of spatter? (3C)

50. What are two steps you can take to reduce FCAW 55. Why is it necessary to consider a change in current
spatter when the wire type and the power source are as an important factor in FCAW?(3D)
predetermined?(3C) 56. What are two sources of moisture that can cause
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
51. What are three things that change when the flux- "wet wire"? (3E)
cored wire diameter is changed?(3D) 57. How should you keep flux-cored wire clean?(3E)
52. How does changing a shielding gas affect the FCAW 58. What are three causes of contact tip problems?(3E)
condition? (3D) 59. What are the problems associated with excessive
53. Name four important variables in FCAW. (3D) drive roll pressure?(3E)
54. What is the effect of a change in voltage on FCAW 60. What is the principal reason that electric connections
arcs? (3D) can get hot?(3E)

Most of the terms and definitions in this glossary are ex-
tracted by permission of the American Welding Society
from AWS A3.0-85, Standard Welding Terms and Defi-
nitions. For a complete copy of AWS A3.0-85 contact the
American Welding Society, 550 N.W. Lejeune Road,
P.O. Box 351040, Miami, Florida 33135. Telephone
305-443-9353.
acceptable weld. A weld that meets arc cutting (AC). A group of cutting arc time. The time during which an
all the requirements and the ac- processes which melts the metals arc is maintained in making an arc
ceptance criteria prescribed by to be cut with the heat of an arc weld.
the welding specifications. between an electrode and the
arc voltage. The voltage across the
base metal. See carbon arc cut-
air acetylene welding (AAW). An welding arc.
ting, metal arc cutting, gas metal
oxy-fuel gas welding process in
arc cutting, gas tungsten arc cut- arc welding (AW). A group of weld-
which coalescence is produced
ting, plasma arc cutting, and air ing processes which produces co-
by heating with a gas flame or
carbon arc cutting. Compare with alescence of metals by heating
flames obtained from the combus-
oxygen arc cutting. them with an arc, with or without
tion of acetylene with air, without
the application of pressure, and
the application of pressure, and arc eye. A condition caused by ex- with or without the use of filler
with or without the use of filler posure to an open arc; a burn on metal.
metal. An obsolete process. the exterior surface of the eye.
Also called flash eye. arc welding electrode. A compo-
air carbon arc cutting (AAC). An arc
nent of the welding circuit
cutting process in which metals to arc force. The axial force developed through which current is con-
be cut are melted by the heat of a by a plasma. ducted between the electrode
carbon arc and the molten metal
arc gap. The distance between the holder and the arc. See arc
is removed by a blast of air.
tip of two electrodes, normally welding.
all-weld-metal test specimen. A test between an electrode and the arc welding gun. A device used in
specimen with the reduced sec- workpiece. Also known as arc semiautomatic, machine, and
tion composed wholly of weld length. automatic arc welding to transfer
metal.
current, guide the consumable
arc gouging. An arc cutting process
alternating current. Electric current electrode, and direct shielding gas
variation used to form a bevel or
that changes direction at a regular when used.
groove.
frequency. When it reverses 120
as-welded. The condition of weld
times a second, it is referred to as arc oxygen cutting. See preferred
metal, welded joints, and weld-
60 hertz. Each complete cycle term oxygen arc cutting.
ments after welding but prior to
(two reversals) is one hertz.
arc plasma. A gas that has been any subsequent thermal, mechan-
amperage. The customary measure heated to an at least partially ion- ical, or chemical treatments.
of the strength of an electric ized condition, enabling it to con- atomic hydrogen welding (AHW).
current. duct an electric current. An arc welding process which
angle of bevel. See preferred term arc spot weld. A spot weld made by produces coalescence of metals
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
bevel angle. an arc welding process. by heating them with an electric

arc maintained between two
arc. A sustained electric discharge,
arc strike. A discontinuity consisting metal electrodes in an atmosphere
where current flows through the
of any localized remelted metal, of hydrogen. Shielding is obtained
gap between two electrodes.
heat-affected metal, or change in from the hydrogen. Pressure may
arc blow. The deflection of an elec- the surface profile of any part of a or may not be used and filler
tric arc from its normal path be- weld or base metal resulting from metal may or may not be used. An
cause of magnetic forces. an arc. obsolete process.

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
430 GLOSSARY
autogenous weld. A fusion weld backing. A material (base metal, base metal. The metal to be welded,
made without the addition of filler weld metal, carbon, or granular brazed, soldered, or cut. The use
metal. material) placed at the root of a of this term implies that materials
weld joint for the purpose of sup- other than metals are also referred
automatic gas cutting. See preferred porting molten weld metal. to, where this is appropriate. S ee
term automatic oxygen cutting. also base material and substrate.
backing filler metal. See consuma-
automatic oxygen cutting. Oxygen ble insert. base metal specimen. A test speci-
cutting with equipment which men composed wholly of base
performs the cutting operation backing ring. Backing in the form of metal.
without constant observation and a ring, generally used in the weld-
adjustment of the controls by an ing of piping. bead. See preferred term weld bead.
operator. The equipment may or bead sequence. The method used to
backing strap. See preferred term
may not perform loading and un- deposit the beads.
backing strip.
loading of the work. See machine
oxygen cutting. backingstrip. Backing in the form of bend test. A test to determine the
a strip. ductility of weld metal.
automatic welding. Welding with
equipment which performs the bevel. An angular type of edge
backing weld. Backing in the form
welding operation without adjust- preparation.
of a weld.
ment of the controls by a welding bevel angle. The angle formed be-
operator. The equipment may or backstep sequence. A longitudinal
tween the prepared edge of a
may not perform the loading and sequence in which the weld bead
member and a plane perpendic-
unloading of the work. See ma- increments are deposited in the
ular to the surface of the member.
chine welding. direction opposite to the progress
of welding the joint. See block se- bevel groove. See groove weld.
axis of a weld. A line through the quence, cascade sequence, con-
blind joint. A joint, no portion of
length of a weld, perpendicularto tinuous sequence, joint buildup
which is visible.
and at the geometric center of its sequence, and longitudinal
cross section. sequence. block sequence. A combined longi-
tudinal and buildup sequence for
back weld. A weld deposited at the a continuous multiple-pass weld
back of a single groove weld. in which separated lengths are
back blow. Arc blow opposite to the
direction of travel. bare electrode. A filler metal elec- completely or partially built up in
trode consisting of a single metal cross section before intervening
backfire. The momentary recession or alloy that has been produced lengths are deposited. See also
of the flame into the welding tip backstep sequence, longitudinal
into a wire, strip, or bar form and
or cutting tip followed by imme- sequence, etc.
that has had no coating or cover-
diate reappearance or complete
ing applied to it other than that blowpipe. See brazing blowpipe
extinction of the flame.
which was incidental to its man- and soldering blowpipe.
back gouging. The removal of weld ufacture or preservation.
bottle. A nonstandard term for gas
metal and base metal from the
bare metal arc welding (BMAW). cylinder.
other side of a partially welded
An arc welding process which
joint to assure complete penetra- braze. A weld produced by heating
produces coalescence of metals
tion upon subsequent welding an assembly to suitable tempera-
by heating them with an electric
from that side. tures and by using a filler metal
arc between a bare or lightly coat-
ed metal electrode and the work. having a liquidus above 840°F
backhand welding. A welding tech-
Neither shielding nor pressure is (45OOC) and below the solidus of
nique in which the welding torch
used and filler metal is obtained the base metal. The filler metal i s
or gun i s directed opposite to the
from the electrode. An obsolete distributed between the closely
progress of welding. Sometimes
process. fitted faying surfaces of the joint
referred to as the "pull gun tech-
by capillary action.
nique" in GMAW and FCAW. See base material. The material to be
travel angle, work angle, and welded, brazed, soldered, or cut. brazeability. The capacity of a metal
drag angle. See also base metal and substrate. to be brazed under the imposed

GLOSSARY 431
fabrication conditions into a spe- buttering. A surfacing variation in carburizing flame. A nonstandard
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
cific, suitably designed structure, which one or more 1ayers.ofweld term for reducing flame.
and to perform satisfactorily in the metal are deposited on the groove cascade sequence, A combined lon-
intended service. face of one member (for example, gitudinal and cross-sectional se-
a high-alloy weld deposit on steel quence in which weld passes are
braze welding. A welding process base metal which is to be welded
variation in which a filler metal, made in overlapping layers.
to a dissimilar base metal). The
having a liquidus above 840°F buttering provides a suitable tran- chamfer. A nonstandard term for
(450°C)and below the solidus of sition weld deposit for subsequent bevel.
the base metal, i s used. Unlike completion of the butt joint. chemical flux cutting (FOC). An
brazing, in braze welding the fill-
oxygen cutting process that severs
er metal is not distributed in the butt joint. A joint between two
base metals using a chemical flux
joint by capillary action. members aligned approximately
to facilitate cutting.
in the same plane.
brazing (B). A group of welding
chill ring. A nonstandard term for
processes that produces coales- butt weld. A nonstandard term for a backing ring.
cence of materials by heating weld in a butt joint.
them to the brazing temperature choke. Another name for a weld cir-
in the presence of a filler metal cuit inductor.
having a liquidus above 840°F capillary action. The force by which clad metal. A laminar composite
(450°C)and below the solidus of liquid, in contact with a solid, is consisting of a metal, with a metal
the base metal. The filler metal is distributed between closely fitted of a different chemical composi-
distributed between the closely faying surfaces of the joint to be tion applied to one or two sides
fitted faying surfaces of the joint brazed or soldered. by surfacing, casting, thick chem-
by capillary action. ical deposition, or thick
carbon arc brazing (CAB). A braz-
brazing blowpipe. A device used to ing process that produces coales- electroplating.
obtain a small, accurately direct- cence of metals by heating them cladding. A surfacing variation that
ed flame for fine work. A portion with an electric arc between two deposits or applies surfacing ma-
of any flame is blown to the de- carbon electrodes. The filler metal terial usually to improve corrosion
sired location by the blowpipe, is distributed in the joint by cap- resistance or heat resistance.
which is usually mouth operated. illary attraction.
closed circuit. The completed weld-
brazing filler metal. The metal that carbon arc cutting (CAC). An arc ing circuit when welding is taking
fills the capillary gap and has a cutting process that severs base place and current is flowing.
liquidus above 840°F (450°C)but metals by melting them with the
below the solidus of the base coalescence. The growing together
heat of an arc between a carbon
metals. or growth into one body of the
electrode and the base metal.
materials being welded.
brittleness. The inability to deform carbon arc welding (CAW). An arc
under load without cracking or coated electrode. A nonstandard
welding process that produces co- term for covered electrode and
breaking. alescence of metals by heating lightly coated electrode.
burnback time. A nonstandard term them with an arc between a car-
bon electrode and the base metal. cold welding (CW). A solid state
for meltback time.
No shielding is used. Pressure and welding process in which pres-
burner, A nonstandard term for oxy- filler metal may or may not be sure is used at room temperature
gen cutter. used. to produce coalescence of metals
with substantial deformation at
burning. A nonstandard term for carbon electrode. A nonfiller metal the weld. See also hot pressure
oxygen cutting. electrode used in arc welding or welding, diffusion welding, and
burnoff rate. A nonstandardterm for cutting, consisting of a carbon or forge welding.
melting rate. graphite rod, which may be coat-
ed with copper or other coatings. complete joint penetration. A pe-
burn-through. A nonstandard term netration by weld metal for the
for excessive melt-through or a carbonizing flame. A nonstandard full thickness of the base metal in
hole. See melt-through. term for reducing flame. a joint with a groove weld.

GLOSSARY
complete penetration. A non- constricted arc (plasma arc welding organic salts and acids, organic
standard term for complete joint and cutting). A plasma arc col- salts and acids, or activated rosin.
penetration. umn that is shaped by a constrict-
cosmetic pass. A weld pass made
ing nozzle orifice.
composite electrode. Any of a num- primarily to enhance appearance.
ber of multicomponent filler metal constricting nozzle (plasma arc
welding and cutting). A water-
COz welding. A nonstandard term
electrodes in various physical
for gas metal arc welding.
forms such as stranded wires, cooled copper nozzle surround-
tubes, and covered wire. See cov- ing the electrode and containing coupon. A strip of metal used as a
ered electrode, flux-cored elec- the constricting orifice. testing sample.
trode, metal-cored electrode, and constricting orifice (plasma arc covered electrode. A composite fill-
stranded electrode. welding and cutting). The hole in er metal electrode consisting of a
concave. Curved, with the center the constricting nozzle through core of a bare electrode or metal-
lower than the edges. which the arc passes. cored electrode to which a cov-
consumable guide electroslag weld- ering sufficient to provide a slag
concave fillet weld. A fillet weld layer on the weld metal has been
having a concave face. ing. An electroslag welding
process variation in which filler applied. The covering may con-
concave root surface. A root surface metal is supplied by an electrode tain materials providing such
which is concave. and its guiding member. See elec- functions as shielding from the at-
mosphere, deoxidation, and arc
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
constant-amperage (CA) power troslag welding (ESW).
stabilization and can serve as a
source. See preferred term con- consumable insert. Preplaced filler source of metallic additions to the
stant-current power source. metal that is completely fused into weld.
the root of the joint and becomes
constant-current (CC) power cover lens (eye protection). A round
source. The preferred term for a part of the weld.
cover plate.
power source with means for adcontact tube. A device which trans-
justing the load current and hav- fers current to a continuous cover plate (eye protection). A re-
ing a static volt-ampere charac- electrode. movable pane of colorless glass,
teristic curve that tends to plastic-coated glass, or plastic that
produce a relatively constant load continuous sequence. A longitudi- covers the filter plate and protects
nal sequence in which each pass it from weld spatter, pitting, or
current. The load voltage at a giv-
en load current is responsive to is made continuously from one scratching when used in a helmet,
end of the weld to the other. See hood, or goggles.
the rate at which a consumable
electrode is fed into the arc. But backstep sequence, longitudinal
sequence, etc. crack. A fracture-type discontinuity
when a nonconsumable electrode characterized by a sharp tip and
is used, the load voltage is re- continuous weld. A weld that ex- high ratio of length and width to
sponsive to the electrode-to-work tends continuously from one end opening displacement.
distance. of a joint to the other. Where the
joint is essentially circular, it ex- crater. A depression at the termina-
constant-potential (CP) power tion of a weld bead.
tends completely around the
source. The preferred term for a
joint. crater crack. A crack in the crater of
power source with a means for
adjusting the load voltage and convex. Curved, with the center a weld bead.
having a static volt-ampere char- higher than the edges. cross-sectional sequence. The order
acteristic curve that produces a
convex fillet weld. A fillet weld hav- in which the weld passes of a mul-
relatively constant load voltage.
ing a convex face. tiple pass weld are made with re-
The load current at a given load
spect to the cross section of the
voltage i s responsive to the rate at corrective lens (eye protection). A weld. See also block sequence
which a consumable electrode is lens ground to the wearer’s indi- and cascade sequence.
fed into the arc. vidual corrective prescription.
cup. See preferred term nozzle.
constant-voltage (CV) power corrosive flux. A flux with a residue
source. See preferred term con- that chemically attacks the base current. The rate of flow of electric
stant-potential power source. metal. It may be composed of in- charge; the net transfer of electric

GLOSSARY 433
charge per unit time. Customarily product unable to meet minimum tive pole and the electrode is the
measured in amperes. appl icable acceptance standards negative pole of the welding arc.
or specifications. This term des- See also straight polarity.
cutting attachment. A device for
ignates rejectability. See also dis-
converting an oxyfuel gas welding direct current, electrode positive.
continuity and flaw.
torch into an oxygen cutting (DCEP) The arrangement of di-
torch. defective weld. A weld containing rect-current arc welding leads in
one or more defects. which the workpiece is the nega-
cutting head. The part of a cutting
tive pole and the electrode i s the
machine or automatic cutting deposited metal. Filler metal that positive pole of the welding arc.
equipment in which a cutting has been added during welding. See also reverse polarity.
torch or tip is incorporated.
deposition efficiency (arc welding). direct current, reverse polarity
cutting nozzle. A nonstandard term The ratio of the weight of depos- (DCRP). A nonstandard term for
for cutting tip. ited metal to the net weight of fill- direct current, electrode positive.
cutting process. A process which er metal consumed, exclusive of
direct current, straight polarity
brings about the severing or re- stubs.
(DCSP). A nonstandard term for
moval of metals. See also arc cut-
deposition rate. The weight of ma- direct current, electrode nega-
ting and oxygen cutting.
terial deposited in a unit of time. tive.
cutting tip. That part of an oxygen direct current transformer-recti-
cutting torch from which the gases depth of fusion. The distance that
fusion extends into the base metal fier. An arc welding power source
issue. that combines a transformer, rec-
or previous pass from the surface
cutting torch (arc). A device used in melted during welding. tifier, and associated controls to
air carbon arc cutting, gas tung- produce direct current suitable for
sten arc cutting, and plasma arc diffusion welding (DFW). A solid arc welding.
cutting to control the position of state welding process that pro-
duces coalescence of the faying discontinuity. An interruption of the
the electrode, to transfer current typical structure of a weldment,
to the arc, and to control the flow surfaces by the application of
pressure at elevated temperature. such as a lack of homogeneity in
of gases. the mechanical, metallurgical, or
The process does not involve
cutting torch (oxyfuel gas). A device macroscopic deformation, melt- physical characteristicsof the ma-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
used to direct the preheating ing, or relative motion of the terial or weldment. A discontinu-
flame produced by the controlled workpieces. A solid filler metal ity is not necessarily a defect. See
combustion of fuel gases and to (diffusion aid) may or may not be also defect and flaw.
direct and control the cutting inserted between the faying sur- downhand. A nonstandard term for
oxygen. faces. See also forge welding, hot flat position.
cylinder. A portable container used pressure welding, and cold
welding. drag angle. The travel angle when
for transportation and storage of a
the electrode is pointing back-
compressed gas. dilution. The change in chemical ward. This angle can be used to
cylinder manifold. A multiple head- composition of a welding filler define the position of welding
er for interconnection of gas or metal caused by the admixture of guns, welding torches, high-
fluid sources with distribution the base metal or previous weld energy beams, welding rods,
points. metal in the weld bead. It i s and thermal cutting and thermal
measured by the percentage of spraying guns. See also backhand
base metal or previous weld metal welding.
in the weld bead.
decarburizingflame. A flame which ductility. The ability of metal to
removes carbon from molten direct current. An electric current stretch, bend, or twist without
metal. flowing in one direction only. breaking or cracking.
defect. A discontinuity or discontin- direct current, electrode negative. duty cycle. The percentage of time
uities which by nature or accu- (DCEN) The arrangementof direct during an arbitrary test period,
mulated effect (for example, total current arc welding leads in usually 1O minutes, during which
crack length) render a part or which the workpiece is the posi- a power supply can be operated

QLOSSARY
at its rated output without electroslag welding (ESW). A weld- face reinforcement.Weld reinforce-
overheating. ing process producing coales- ment at the side of the joint from
cence of metals with molten slag which welding was done. See
that melts the filler metal and the also root reinforcement.
surfaces of the workpieces. The
edge joint. A joint between the face shield (eye protection). A de-
weld pool is shielded by this slag
edges of two or more parallel or vice positioned in front of the eyes
which moves along the full cross
nearly parallel members. and over all or a portion of the
section of the joint as welding
face to protect the eyes and face.
edge preparation. The surface pre- progresses. The process is initiat-
See also hand shield and helmet.
pared on the edge of a member ed by an arc which heats the slag.
for welding. The arc i s then extinguished by faying surface. That mating surface
the conductive slag, which is kept of a member that is in contact or
effective length of weld. The length molten by its resistance to electric in close proximity to another
throughout which the correctly current passing between the elec- member to which it is to be
proportioned cross section of the trode and the workpieces. See joined.
weld exists. In a curved weld, it electroslag welding electrode and
shall be measured along the axis consumable guide electroslag ferrous metal. Metal that contains
of the weld. welding. iron.
effective throat. The minimum dis- filler metal. The metal to be added
electroslag welding electrode. A fill-
tance minus any convexity be- in making a welded, brazed, or
er metal component of the weld-
tween the weld root and the face ing circuit through which current soldered joint. See also brazing
of a fillet weld. filler metal, consumable insert,
is conducted from the electrode
welding electrode, solder, weld-
guiding member to the molten
elasticity. The ability of a metal to ing rod, and welding wire.
slag.
return to its original shape after
the load is released. fillet weld. A weld of approximately
elongation. The distance or amount
triangular cross section joining
the metal stretches during the
electrode. See welding electrode. two surfaces approximately at
pulling process.
right angles to each other in a lap
electrode extension (GMAW,
emissive electrode. A filler metal joint, T joint, or corner joint.
FCAW, SAW). The length of un-
electrode consisting of a core of a
melted electrode extending be- filter choke. Another name for
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bare electrode or a composite

yond the end of the contact tube. inductor.
electrode to which a very light
electrode holder. A device used for coating has been applied to pro- filter glass. A nonstandard term for
mechanically holding the elec- duce a stable arc. filter plate.
trode while conducting current to
exhaust booth. A mechanically ven- filter lens (eye protection). A round
it.
tilated, semienclosed area in filter plate.
electrode lead. The electrical con- which an air flow across the work
filter plate (eye protection). An opti-
ductor between the source of arc area is used to remove fumes, gas-
cal material that protects the eyes
welding current and the electrode es, and solid particles.
against excessive ultraviolet, in-
holder. frared, and visible radiation.
explosion welding (EXW). A solid
electrogas welding (ECW). An arc state welding process in which
firecracker welding. A variation of
welding process which produces coalescence is effected by high-
the shielded metal arc welding
coalescence of metals by heating velocity movement together of the
process in which a length of cov-
them with an arc between a con- workpieces produced by a con- ered electrode is placed along the
tinuous filler metal electrode and trolled detonation. joint in contact with the work-
the work. Molding shoes are used pieces. During the welding oper-
to confine the molten weld metal ation, the stationary electrode is
for vertical position welding. The consumed as the arc travels the
face bend test. A test in which the
electrodes may be either flux- length of the electrode.
weld face is on the convex surface
cored or solid. Shielding may or
of a specified bend radius. fisheye. A discontinuity found on
may not be obtained from an ex-
ternally supplied gas or mixture. face of weld. See weld face. the fracture surface of a weld in

GLOSSARY
. steel that consists of a small pore tinuous filler metal (consumable) fused zone. A nonstandard term for
or inclusion surrounded by an ap- electrode and the work. Shielding fusion zone.
proximately round, bright area. is provided by a flux contained
fusion. The melting together of filler
within the tubular electrode. Ad-
fissure. A nonstandard term for metal and base metal (substrate),
ditional shielding may or may not
crack. or of base metal only, which re-
be obtained from an externally
sults in coalescence. See also
fixture. A device designed to hold supplied gas or gas mixture. See
depth of fusion.
parts to be joined in proper rela- also flux-cored electrode.
tion to each other. fusion welding. Any welding
flux-cored electrode. A composite
process that uses fusion of the
flame cutting. A nonstandard term filler metal electrode consisting of
base metal to make the weld.
for oxygen cutting. a metal tube or other hollow con-
figuration containing ingredients fusion zone. The area of base metal
flashback. A recession of the flame to provide such functions as melted as determined on the cross
into or back of the mixing cham- shielding atmosphere, deoxida- section of a weld.
ber of the torch. tion, arc stabilization, and slag
flashback arrester. A device to limit formation. Alloying materials may
damage from a flashback by pre- be included in the core. External gas brazing A nonstandard term for
venting propagation of the flame shielding may or may not be used. torch brazing.
front beyond the location of the flux lines. Imaginary lines of mag- gas carbon arc welding (CAW-G).
arrester. netic flux, which represent a mag- A carbon arc welding process
flash eye. A condition caused by ex- netic field. variation that produces coales-
posure to an open arc; a burn on cence of metals by heating them
forehand welding. A welding tech- with an electric arc between a sin-
the exterior surface of the eye. nique in which the welding torch
Also called arc eye. gle carbon electrode and the
or gun is directed toward the work. Shielding i s obtained from
flat position. The welding position progress of welding. See also trav- a gas or gas mixture.
used to weld from the upper side el angle, work angle, and push
of the joint; the face of the weld angle. gas cutter. A nonstandard term for
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
is approximately horizontal. oxygen cutter.

forge welding (FOW). A solid state
flaw. A near synonym for disconti- welding process that produces co- gas cutting. A nonstandard term for
nuity but with an undesirable con- alescence of metals by heating oxygen cutting.
notation. See also defect and them in air in a forge and by ap- gas gouging. A nonstandard term for
discontinuity. plying pressure or blows sufficient oxygen gouging.
to cause permanent deformation
flow welding (FLOW). A welding at the interface. See also cold gas metal arc cutting (CMAC). An
process which produces coales- welding, roll welding, diffusion arc cutting process in which met-
cence of metals by heating them welding, and hot pressure als are severed by melting them
with molten filler metal poured welding. with the heat of an arc between a
over the surfaces to be welded un- continuous filler metal electrode
til the welding temperature is at- forward blow. A condition in which
and the workpiece. Shielding i s
tained and until the required filler the arc is blown in the direction
obtained entirely from an exter-
metal has been added. The filler of travel. nally supplied gas.
metal is not distributed in the joint fracture. The place at which a weld
by capillary attraction. gas metal arc welding (CMAW). An
breaks or separates. arc welding process that produces
flux. Material used to prevent, dis- freezing point. A nonstandard term coalescence of metals by heating
solve, or facilitate removal of ox- for liquidus and solidus. them with an arc between a con-
ides and other undesirable surface tinuous filler metal electrode and
substances. fuel gases. Gases usually used with the workpieces. Shielding is ob-
oxygen for heating such as acet-
tained entirely from an externally
flux-cored arc welding (FCAW). An ylene, natural gas, hydrogen, pro-
supplied gas.
arc welding process that produces pane, methylacetylene propa-
coalescence of metals by heating diene stabilized, and other gas metal arc welding-pulsed arc
them with an arc between a con- synthetic fuels and hydrocarbons. (GMAW-P). A gas metal arc

GLOSSARY
welding process variation in trode across the arc. See also the eyes, face, and neck. A hand
which the welding current is short-circuiting transfer and shield is equipped with a suitable
pulsed. See also pulsed power spray transfer. filter plate and is designed to be
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welding. held by hand.

gouging. The forming of a bevel or
gas metal arc welding-short cir- groove by material removal. See hardfacing. A surfacing variation in
cuit arc (CMAW-S). A gas metal also back gouging, arc gouging, which surfacing metal is deposit-
arc welding process variation in and oxygen gouging. ed to reduce wear. See also but-
which the consumable electrode tering, cladding, and surfacing.
groove. An opening or channel in
is deposited during repeated short hardness. The ability to resist pene-
the surface of a part or between
circuits. tration by a harder material.
two components which provides
gas pocket. A nonstandard term for space to contain a weld. hardness test. A test that determines
porosity. the ability of a metal to resist
groove angle, The total included an-
gas regulator. A device for control- gle of the groove between penetration by a harder metal or
ling the delivery of gas at some workpieces. diamond.
substantially constant pressure. hard surfacing. A nonstandard term
groove weld. A weld made in a
groove between the workpieces. for surfacing and hardfacing.
gas shielded arc welding. A general
term used to describe gas metal Standard types of groove welds head. See welding head and cutting
arc welding, gas tungsten arc are as follows: ' head.
welding, and flux-cored arc weld- double-bevel-groove weld

heat-affected zone (HAZ). The por-
ing when gas shielding is double-flare-bevel-grooveweld
tion of the base metal that has not
employed. double-flare-V-groove weld
been melted, but whose mechan-
double-J-grooveweld
gas torch. A nonstandard term for ical properties or microstructure
double-U-groove weld
welding torch and cutting torch. has been altered by the heat of
double-V-groove weld
welding, brazing, soldering, or
gas tungsten arc cutting (CTAC). An single-bevel-grooveweld
cutting.
arc cutting process in which met- si ngle-flare-bevel-groove weld
als are severed by melting them single-flare-V-grooveweld helmet (eye protection). A , device
with an arc between a single tung- si ngle-J-grooveweld designed to be worn on the head
sten electrode and the workpiece. single-U-groove weld to protect eyes, face, and neck
Shielding i s obtained from a gas. single-V-groove weld from arc radiation, radiated heat,
square-groove weld spatter, or other ' harmful matter
gas tungsten arc welding (CTAW).
expelled during arc welding.
An arc welding process that pro- ground connection. An electric con-
duces coalescence of metals by nection of the welding machine high pulse current. The current lev-
heating them with an arc between frame to the earth for safety. See els during the high pulse time
a tungsten (nonconsumable)elec- also work connection and work which produces ,the high heat
trode and the workpieces. Shield- lead. level.
ing is obtained from a gas. Pres- high pulse time. The duration of
ground lead. A nonstandardterm for
sure may or may not be used and high current pulse time.
workpiece lead.
filler metal may or may not be
used. guided bend test. A test in which the horizontal fixed position (pipe
specimen is forced to bend in a welding). The position of pipe
gas tungsten arc welding-pulsed joint in which the axis of the pipe
predetermined and contolled
arc (GTAW-P). A gas tungsten arc is approximately horizontal and
manner.
welding process variation in the pipe is not rotated during
which the current i s pulsed. See gun. See arc welding gun. we1ding.
also pulsed power welding.
horizontal position (fillet weld). The
gas welding. A nonstandard term for hammer welding A nonstandard position in which welding is per-
oxyfuel gas welding (OFW). term for forge welding and cold
formed on the upper side of an
welding.
globular transfer (arc welding). The approximately horizontal surface
transfer of molten metal in large hand shield. A protective device, and against an approximately ver-
drops from a consumable elec- used in arc welding, for shielding tical surface.

GLOSSARY 437
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
horizontal position (groove weld). modifying the rate of current of the base metal, expressed in
The position of welding in which change when the welding load is percent.
the axis of the weld lies in an ap- varied rapidly.
joint geometry. The shape and di-
proximately horizontal plane and
inert gas. A gas which does not nor- mensions of a joint in cross secton
the face of the weld lies in an ap-
mally combine chemically with prior to welding.
proximately vertical plane.
the base metal or filler metal. See
joint penetration. The depth a weld
horizontal rolled position (pipe also protective atmosphere.
extends from its face into a joint,
welding). The position of a pipe
inert gas metal arc welding. A non- exclusive of reinforcement.
joint in which the axis of the pipe
standard term for gas metal arc
is approximately horizontal, and joint root. The portion of a joint to
welding.
welding is performed in the flat be welded where the members
position by rotating the pipe. inert gas tungsten arc welding. A approach closest to each other. In
nonstandard term for gas tungsten cross section, the root of the joint
hot pressure welding (HPW). A sol-
arc welding. may be a point, a line, or an area.
id state welding process that pro-
duces coalescence of metals with infrared radiation. Electromagnetic joint welding sequence. See weld-
heat and application of pressure energy with wavelengths from ing sequence.
sufficient to produce macro- 770 to 12,000 nanometers.
deformation of the base metal.
initial current. The current after
Vacuum or other shielding media kerf. The width of the cut produced
starting, but before establishment
may be used. See also forge weld- during a cutting process.
of welding current.
ing and diffusion welding.
keyhole. A technique of welding in
intermittent weld. A weld in which
hot-start current. A very brief cur- which a concentrated heat source
the continuity is broken by recur-
rent pulse at arc initiation to sta- penetrates completely through a
ring unwelded spaces.
bilize the arc auicklv. workpiece forming a hole at the
interpass temperature. In a multi- leading edge of the weld pool. As
hot-wire welding. A variation of the ple-pass weld, the temperature of the heat source progresses, the
gas tungsten arc, plasma arc, and the weld metal before the next molten metal fills in behind the
submerged arc welding processes hole to form the weld bead.
pass is started.
in which a filler metal wire is re-
sistance heated by current flowing
jaws. The copper pieces of an elec-
through the wire as it is fed into lack of fusion. A nonstandard term
trode holder that grip the
the weld pool. for incomplete fusion.
electrode.
joint. The junction of members or lack of joint penetration. A non-
inadequate joint penetration. Joint the edges of members which are standard term for inadequate joint
penetration which is less than that to be joined or have been joined. penetration.
specif ied.
joint buildup sequence. A non- land. A nonstandard term for root
inclined position (with restriction standard term for cross-sectional face.
ring). The position of a pipe joint sequence.
lap joint. A joint between two over-
in which the axis of the pipe is
joint clearance. The distance be- lapping members in parallel
approximately at an angle of 45" planes.
tween the faying surfaces of a
to the horizontal and a restriction
joint. In brazing, this distance is
ring is located near the joint. The laser beam cutting (LBC). A thermal
referred to as that present before
pipe i s not rotated during cutting process that severs mate-
brazing, at the brazing tempera-
welding. rials by melting or vaporizing
ture, or after brazing is com-
them with the heat obtained from
included angle. A nonstandard term pleted.
a laser beam, with or without the
for groove angle.
joint design. The joint geometry to- application of gas jets to augment
incomplete fusion. Fusion which is gether with the required dimen- the removal of material.
less than complete. sions of the welded joint.
laser beam welding (LBW). A weld-
inductor. A device used in arc weld- joint efficiency. The ratio of the ing process that produces coales-
1
ing circuits for the purpose of strength of a joint to the strength cence of materials with the heat
I

GLOSSARY
obtained from the application of a machine oxygen cutting. Oxygen with the heat of an arc between a
concentrated coherent light beam cutting with equipment that per- metal electrode and the base
impinging upon the joint. forms the cutting operation under metal. See shielded metal arc cut-
the constant observation and con- ting and gas metal arc cutting.
layer level wound. A nonstandard
trol of an oxygen cutting operator.
term for level wound. metal arc welding. See shielded
The equipment may or may not
metal arc welding, flux-cored arc
layer wound. A nonstandard term load and unload the workpieces.
welding, gas metal arc welding,
for level wound. See automatic oxygen cutting.
gas tungsten arc welding, sub-
lead angle. A nonstandard term for machine welding. Welding with merged arc welding, plasma arc
travel angle. equipment which performs the welding, and stud arc welding.
welding operation under the con-
lead burning. A nonstandard term metal-cored electrode. A composite
stant observation and control of a
for the welding of lead. filler metal electrode consisting of
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
welding operator. The equipment
a metal tube or other hollow con-
lens. See filter lens. may or may not load and unload
figuration containing alloying in-
the workpieces. See automatic
level wound. Spooled or coiled filler gredients. Minor amounts of in-
welding.
metal that has been wound in dis- gredients providing such
tinct layers such that adjacent malleability. The ability of metal to functions as arc stabilization and
turns touch. deform permanently when ham- fluxing of oxides may be includ-
mered, compressed, or rolled. ed. External shielding gas may or
lightly coated electrode. A filler
may not be used.
metal electrode consisting of a manifold. See cylinder manifold.
metal wire with a light coating ap- metal electrode. A filler or nonfiller
manual oxygen cutting. A cutting
plied subsequent to the drawing metal electrode used in arc weld-
operation performed and con-
operation, primarily for stabilizing ing or cutting that consists of a
trolled completely by hand. See
the arc. metal wire or rod that has been
also automatic oxygen cutting
manufactured by any method and
liquidus. The lowest temperature at and machine oxygen cutting.
that is either bate or covered.
which a metal or an alloy is com-
manual welding. A welding opera-
pletely liquid. metal powder cutting (POC). An
tion performed and controlled
oxygen cutting process that sev-
local preheating. Preheating a spe- completely by hand. See also
ers metals through the use of
cific portion of a structure. automatic welding, machine
powder, such as iron, to facilitate
welding, and semiautomatic arc
local stress relief heat treatment. cutting.
welding.
Stress relief heat treatment of a
MIC welding. Metal inert gas weld-
specific portion of a structure. meltback time. The time interval at
ing. A nonstandard term for gas
the end of crater fill time to arc
locked-up stress. A nonstandard metal arc welding and flux-cored
outage during which electrode
term for residual stress. arc welding.
feed i s stopped.
longitudinal. Running the length of mismatch. The amount of offset of
melting point. The temperature at
a weid. the centerline of two members to
which the metal melts.
be joined.
longitudinal sequence. The order in
melting range. The temperature
which the weld passes of a con- mixing chamber. The part of a weld-
range between solidus and
tinuous weld are made with re- ing or cutting torch in which a fuel
liquidus.
spect to its length. See backstep gas and oxygen are mixed.
sequence, block sequence, cas- melting rate. The weight or length
of electrode melted in a unit of molten weld pool. A nonstandard
cade sequence, continuous se-
term for weld pool.
quence, and random sequence. time.
low pulse current. The current lev- melt-through. Visible root reinforce-
els during the low pulse time ment produced in a joint welded neutral flame. An oxyfuel gas flame
which produce the low heat from one side. in which the portion used is nei-
levels. ther oxidizing nor reducing.
metal arc cutting (MAC). Any of a
low pulse time. The duration of the group of arc cutting processes that nondestructive testing. Testing of
low current pulse time. severs metals by melting them welds or metal when there is no

GLOSSARY
damage done to the item being or flames obtained from the com- chemical flux cutting, and metal
tested. bustion of acetylene with oxygen. powder cutting.
The process may be used with or
nontransferred arc (plasma arc oxygen cutting operator. One who
without the application of pres-
welding and cutting, and thermal operates machine or automatic
sure and with or without the use
spraying). An arc established be- oxygen cutting equipment.
' of filler metal.
tween the electrode and the con-
stricting nozzle. The workpiece is oxyfuel gas cutting (OFC). A group oxygen gouging. An application of
not in the electric circuit. See of cutting processes used to sever oxygen cutting in which a bevel
transferred arc. metals by means of the chemical or groove is formed.
notch. A section of the weld that has reaction of oxygen with the base
oxygen grooving. A nonstandard
a sharp break or cut. metal at elevated temperatures.
term for oxygen gouging.
The necessary temperature i s
notch toughness. The ability to with- maintained by means of gas oxygen lance. A length of pipe used
stand sudden forces in an area flames obtained from the combus- to convey oxygen to the point of
that has been weakened by a tion of a specified fuel gas and cutting in oxygen lance cutting.
notch. oxygen. See oxygen cutting, ox-
nozzle. A device that directs shield- yacetylene cutting, oxyhydrogen oxygen lance cutting (LOC). An
cutting, oxynatural gas cutting, oxygen cutting process used to
ing media.
' and oxypropane cutting. sever metals with oxygen supplied
through a consumable lance. The
open-circuit voltage. The voltage oxyfuel gas welding (OFW). A preheat to start the cutting is ob-
between the output terminals of group of welding processes that tained by other means.
the welding machine when no produces coalescence by heating
current i s flowing in the welding materials with an oxyfuel gas oxygen lancing. A nonstandard term
circuit. flame or flames, with or without for oxygen lance cutting.
the application of pressure and
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
overhead position. The position in with or without the use of filler oxyhydrogen cutting (OFC-H). An
which welding is performed from metal. oxyfuel gas cutting process used
the underside of the joint. to sever metals by means of the
oxygas cutting. A nonstandard term chemical reaction of oxygen with
overlap. The protusion of weld for oxygen cutting. the base metal at elevated tem-
metal beyond the toe or weld
oxygen arc cutting (AOC). An oxy- peratures. The necessary temper-
root.
gen cutting process used to sever ature i s maintained by gas flames
overwelding. Depositing more filler metals by means of the chemical resulting from the combustion of
metal than required. reaction of oxygen with the base hydrogen with oxygen.
oxidizing flame. An oxyfuel gas metal at elevated temperatures.
oxyhydrogen welding (OHW). An
flame having an oxidizing effect The necessary temperature is
oxyfuel gas welding process that
due to excess oxygen. See also maintained by an arc between a
produces coalescence of mate-
neutral flame and reducing consumable tubular electrode and
rials by heating them with a gas
flame. the base metal.
flame or flames obtained from the
oxyacetylene cutting (OFC-A). An oxygen cutter. One who performs a combustion of hydrogen with
oxyfuel gas cutting process used manual oxygen cutting operation. oxygen, without the application
to sever metals by means of the of pressure and with or without
oxygen cutting (OC). A group of the use of filler metal.
chemical reaction of oxygen with
cutting processes used to sever or
the base metal at elevated tem-
remove metals by means of the oxynatural gas cutting (OFC-N). An
peratures. The necessary temper-
chemical reaction of oxygen with oxyfuel gas cutting process used
ature is maintained by gas flames
the base metal at elevated tem- to sever metals by means of the
resulting from the combustion of
peratures. In the case of oxida- chemical reaction of oxygen with
acetylene with oxygen.
tion-resistant metals, the reaction the base metal at elevated tem-
oxyacetylene welding (OAW). An is facilitated by the use of a chem- peratures. The necessary temper-
oxyfuel gas welding process that ical flux or metal powder. See ature is maintained by gas flames
I produces coalescence of metals oxygen arc cutting, oxyfuel gas resulting from the combustion of
' 1
by heating them with a gas flame cutting, oxygen lance cutting, natural gas with oxygen.
GLOSSARY
oxypropane cutting (OFC-P). An metal may or may not be preheat temperature. A specified
oxyfuel gas cutting process used suppt ied. temperature that the base metal
to sever metals by means of the must attain in the welding, braz-
plug weld. A weld made in a cir-
chemical reaction of oxygen with ing, soldering, thermal spraying,
cular hole in one member of a
the base metal at elevated tern- or cutting area immediately be-
joint fusing that member to anoth-
peratures. The necessary temper- fore these operations are
er member, A fillet-welded hole is
ature is maintained by gas flames performed.
not to be construed as conforming
resulting from the combustion of
to th is definition. pressure gas welding (PGW). An
propane with oxygen.
oxyfuel gas welding process that
polarity. See direct current, elec-
produces coalescence simultane-
trode negative; direct current,
parent metal. A nonstandard term ously over the entire area of faying
electrode positive; straight polar-
for base metal. surfaces by heating them with gas
ity; and reverse polarity.
flames obtained from the combus-
partial joint penetration. Joint
porosity. Cavity-type discontinuities tion of a fuel gas with oxygen and
penetration that i s intentionally
formed by gas entrapment during by the application of pressure,
less than complete. See also com-
solidification. without the use of filler metal.
plete joint penetration.
positioned weld. A weld made in a primary circuit. The first of two or
pass. A nonstandard term for weld
joint which has been so placed as more coupled circuits. Where
pass.
to facilitate making the weld. changes in the input current in-
peel test. A destructive method of duces a voltage in another, or sec-
position of welding. See flat posi- ondary, circuit by induction and
testing that mechanically sepa-
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rates a lap joint by peeling. tion, horizontal position, hori- without physical contact.
zontal fixed position, horizontal
peening. The mechanical working of rolled position, inclined position, primary coil. The transformer coil
metals using impact blows. overhead position, and vertical into which the input current
position. enters.
penetration. A nonstandard term for
joint penetration and root postflow time. The time interval procedure. The detailed elements of
penetration. from current shutoff to either a process or method used to pro-
shielding gas or cooling water duce a specific result.
plasma. See arc plasma.
shutoff. procedure qualification. The dem-
plasma arc cutting (PAC). An arc
postheating. The application of heat onstration that welds made by a
cutting process that severs metal
to an assembly after a welding, specific procedure can meet pre-
by melting a localized area with a
brazing, soldering, thermal spray- scribed standards.
constricted arc and removing the
molten material with a high- ing, or thermal cutting. See also procedure qualification record
velocity jet of hot, ionized gas is- postweld heat treatment. (PQR). A document providing the
suing from the constricting orifice. postweld heat treatment. Any heat actual welding variables used to
treatment after weld i ng. produce an acceptable test weld
plasma arc welding (PAW). An arc
and the results of tests conducted
welding process that produces co- power source. Sometimes called the on the weld to qualify a welding
alescence of metals by heating welder. The welding machine that procedure specification.
them with a constricted arc be- provides the welding current.
tween an electrode and the work- protective atmosphere. A gas' or
piece (transferred arc) or the elec- preflow time. The time interval be- vacuum envelope surrounding the
trode and the constricting nozzle tween start of shielding gas flow workpieces used to prevent or fa-
(nontransferred arc). Shielding i s and arc starting. cilitate removal of oxides and oth-
obtained from the hot, ionized gas er detrimental surface substances.
preheat. A nonstandard term for
issuing from the orifice which
preheat temperature. puddle. A nonstandard term for
may be supplemented by an aux-
weld pool.
iliary source of shielding gas. preheating. The application of heat
Shielding gas may be an inert gas to the base metal immediately be- pulsed power welding. An arc weld-
or a mixture of gases. Pressure fore welding, brazing, soldering, ing process variation in which the
may or may not be used, and filler thermal spraying, or cutting. power is cyclically programmed

GLOSSARY 441
to pulse so that effective but short reactor (arc welding). A device used root opening. A separation of the
duration values of a parameter in arc welding circuits to mini- joint root between the work-
can be utilized. Such short dura- mize irregularities in the flow of pieces.
tion values are significantly differ- welding current.
root penetration. The depth that a
ent from the average value of the
rectifier. An electric device which weld extends into the joint root.
parameter. Equivalent terms are
converts alternating current to di-
pulsed voltage or pulsed current root reinforcement. Weld reinforce-
rect current.
welding. See also pulsed spray ment opposite the side from
welding. reducing atmosphere. A chemically which welding was done.
active protective atmosphere
pulsed spray welding. An arc weld- root surface. The exposed surface of
which at elevated temperature
ing process variation in which the a weld opposite the side from
will reduce metal oxides to their
current is pulsed to utilize the ad- which welding was done.
metallic state.
vantages of the spray mode of
metal transfer at average currents reducing flame. A gas flame having
equal to or less than the globular a reducing effect owing to excess scarf. A nonstandard term for edge
to spray transition current. fuel gas. See also neutral flame preparation.
and oxidizing flame.
push angle. The travel angle when seal weld. Any weld designed pri-
the electrode is pointing forward. regulator. A nonstandard term for marily to provide a specific de-
This angle can be used to define gas regulator. gree of tightness against leakage.
the position of welding guns,
reinforcement of weld. See weld seam weld. A continuous weld
welding torches, high-energy
reinforcement. made between or upon overlap-
beams, welding rods, thermal cut-
ting and thermal spraying torches, residual stress. Stress present in a ping members, in which coales-
and thermal spraying guns. See member that is free of external cence may start and occur on the
also forehand welding. forces or thermal gradients. faying surfaces, or may have pro-
ceeded from the outer surface of
reverse polarity. The arrangement of one member. The continuous
direct-current arc welding leads weld may consist of a single weld
qualification. See welder per-
with the work as the negative pole bead or a series of overlapping
formance qualification and pro-
and the electrode as the positive spot welds.
cedure qualification.
pole of the welding arc. A non-
quick quench. Term given to the act standard term for direct current, seam welding. The making of seam
of rapidly cooling metal by meth- electrode positive. welds.
ods such as immersion in water.
roll welding (ROW). A solid state secondary circuit. The portion of a
welding process that produces co- welding machine that conducts
alescence of metals by heating the secondary current between
random intermittent welds. Inter-
and by applying pressure with the secondary terminals of the
mittent welds on one or both sides
rolls sufficient to cause deforma- welding transformer and the elec-
of a joint in which the weld incre- tion at the faying surfaces. See trodes, or electrode and work.
ments are made without regard to
also forge welding.
spacing. secondary coil. The coil that has a
root. A nonstandard term for joint voltage induced in it without
random sequence. A longitudinal root and weld root. coming into physical contact with
sequence in which the weld bead
the primary coil.
increments are made at random. root bend test. A test in which the
weld root i s on the convex surface semiautomatic arc welding. Arc
random wound. Spooled or coiled of a specified bend radius. welding with equipment that con-
filler metal that has not been
trols only the filler metal feed. The
wound in distinct layers. See also root face. The portion of the groove
advance of the welding is man-
level wound. face adjacent to the joint root.
ually controlled.
rate of deposition. See deposition root gap. A nonstandard term for
semiblind joint. A joint in which one
rate. root opening.
extremity of the joint is not
1
rate of travel. See travel speed. root of joint. See joint root. visible.
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442 GLOSSARY
series submerged arc welding shoulder. A nonstandard term for a liquidus not exceeding 840°F
(SAW-S). A submerged arc weld- root face. (450°C) and below the solidus of
ing process variation in which the base metals. The filler metal is
shrinkage stress. A nonstandard distributed between the closely
electric current is established be-
term for residual stress. fitted faying surfaces of the joint
tween two consumable electrodes
which meet just above the surface shrinkage void. A cavity-type dis- by capillary action.
of the workpieces which are not continuity normally formed by
soldering blowpipe. A device used
part of the electric circuit. shrinkage during solidification. to obtain a small, accurately di-
shielded carbon arc welding skip weld. A nonstandard term for rected flame for fine work. A por-
(CAW-S). A carbon arc welding intermittent weld. tion of any flame is blown to the
process variation that produces desired location by the blowpipe,
coalescence of metals by heating slag inclusion. Nonmetallic solid which is usually mouth operated.
them with an electric arc between material entrapped in weld metal
or between weld metal and base solid state welding (SSW). A group
a carbon electrode and the work-
metal. of welding processes that pro-
pieces. Shielding is obtained from
duces coalescence at tempera-
the combustion of a solid material slope (of the static volt-ampere tures essentially below the melt-
fed into the arc, or from a blanket characteristic curve). The slant of ing point of the base metal being
of flux on the workpieces, or the volt-ampere curve expressed joined, without the addition of a
both. Pressure may or may not be as the ratio of the load voltage brazing filler metal. Pressure may
used and filler metal may or may change to the change in load am- or may not be used.
not be used. perage, in volts per 100 amperes.
solidus. The highest temperature at
shielded metal arc cutting (SMAC). slot weld. A weld made in an elon- which a metal or alloy is com-
A metal arc cutting process in gated hole in one member of a pletely solid.
which metals are severed by melt- joint fusing that member to anoth-
ing them with the heat of an arc er member. The hole may be spatter. The metal particles expelled
between a covered metal elec- open at one end. A fillet welded during fusion welding that do not
trode and the base metal. slot should not be construed as form a part of the weld.
shielded metal arc welding conforming to this definition.
spatter loss. Metal lost due to
(SMAW). An arc welding process slugging. The act of adding a sepa- spatter.
that produces coalescenceof met- rate piece or pieces of material in
als by heating them with an arc spool. A filler metal package con-
a joint before or during welding
between a covered metal elec- sisting of a continuous length of
that results in a welded joint not
trode and the workpieces. Shield- welding wire in coil form wound
complying with design, drawing,
ing is obtained from decomposi- on a cylinder (called a barrel)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
or specification requirements.
tion of the electrode covering. which i s flanged at both ends. The
Pressure is not used and filler soft solder. A nonstandard term for flange contains a spindle hole of
metal is obtained from the solder. smaller diameter than the inside
electrode. diameter of the barrel.
solder. A filler metal used in solder-
shielding gas. Protective gas used to ing which has a liquidus not ex- spot weld. A weld made between or
prevent atmospheric contamina- ceeding 840°F (450°C). upon overlapping members in
tion. which coalescence may start and
solderability. The capacity of a ma- occur on the faying surfaces or
short-circuiting arc welding. See terial to be soldered under the im- may proceed from the surface of
gas metal arc welding-short cir- posed fabrication conditions into one member. The weld cross sec-
cuit arc (GMAW-S). a specific, suitably designed struction (plan view) is approximately
ture and to perform satisfactorily circular. See also arc spot weld.
short-circuiting transfer (arc weld-
in the intended service.
ing). Metal transfer in which mol- spot welding. The making of spot
ten metal from a consumable soldering (S). A group of welding welds.
electrode is deposited during re- processes that produces coales-
peated short circuits. See also cence of materials by heating spray transfer (arc welding). Metal
globular transfer and spray them to a suitable temperature transfer in which molten metal
transfer. and by using a filler metal having from a consumable electrode is

GLOSSARY 443
propelled axially across the arc in strain. The distortion caused by the be accomplished by arc, resist-
small droplets. application of a load or force. ance, friction, or other suitable
process with or without external
stabilizer. Another name for stranded electrode. A composite gas shielding,
inductor. filler metal electrode consisting of
stranded wires that may mechan- submerged arc welding (SAW). An
stack cutting. Thermal cutting of
ically enclose materials to im- arc welding process that produces
stacked metal plates arranged so
prove properties, stabilize the arc, coalescence of metais by heating
that all the plates are severed by
or provide shielding. them with an arc or arcs between
a single cut.
a bare metal electrode or elec-
stress. The force which produces
staggered intermittent weld. An in- trodes and the workpieces. The
strain.
termittent weld on both sides of a arc and molten metal are shielded
joint in which the weld incre- stress corrosion cracking. Failure of by a blanket of granular, fusible
ments on one side are alternated metals by cracking under com- material on the workpieces. Pres-
with respect to those on the other bined action of corrosion and sure is not used, and filler metal
side. stress, residual or applied. In is obtained from the electrode and
brazing, the term applies to the sometimes from a supplemental
start current. The current value dur-
cracking of stressed base metal source (welding rod, flux, or
ing start time interval.
owing to the presence of a liquid metal granules).
start time. The time interval prior to filler metal.
substrate. Any base material to
weld time during which arc volt-
stress relief cracking. intergranular which a thermal spray deposit is
age and current reach a present applied.
cracking in the heat-affectedzone
value greater or less than welding
or weld metal that occurs during
values. suck-back. A nonstandard term for
the exposure of weldments to ele-
concave root surface.
start voltage. The arc voltage during vated temperatures during pos-
the start time. tweld heat treatment or high-tem- surface preparation. The operations
perature service. necessary to produce a desired or
static volt-ampere characteristic specified surface condition.
curve. The curve or family of stress relief heat treatment. Uni-
curves that gives the steady-state form heating of a structure or a surfacing. The application by weld-
load voltage of the arc welding portion thereof to a sufficient tem- ing, brazing, or thermal spraying
power source as ordinate, plotted perature to relieve the major por- of a layer(s) of material to a sur-
against the steady-statè load am- tion of the residual stresses, fol- face to obtain desired properties
perage as abscissa. lowed by uniform cooling. or dimensions, as opposed to
making a joint. See also buttering,
step-down transformer. A device stringer bead. A type of weld bead
cladding, and hardfacing.
that decreases the voltage and in- made without appreciable weav-
creases the amperage of line ing motion. See also weave bead.
tack weld. A weld made to hold
current.
stud arc-welding (SW). An arc weld- parts of a weldment in proper
stick electrode. A nonstandard term ing process that produces coales- alignment until the final welds are
for covered electrode. cence of metals by heating them made.
with an arc between a metal stud,
stick electrode welding. A non- taps. Connections to a transformer
or similar part, and the other
standard term for shielded metal winding which are used to vary
workpiece. When the surfaces to
arc welding. the transformer turns ratio, there-
be joined are properly heated,
by controlling welding voltage
stickout. A nonstandard term for they are brought together under
and current.
electrode extension. pressure. Partial shielding may be
obtained by the use of a ceramic temporary weld. A weld made to at-
straight polarity. The arrangement
ferrule surrounding the stud. tach a piece or pieces to a weld-
of direct-current arc welding leads
Shielding gas or flux may or may ment for temporary use in han-
in which the work is the positive
not be used. dling, shipping, or working on the
pole and the electrode is the nega-
weldment.
tive pole of the welding arc. A stud welding. A general term for the
nonstandard term for direct cur- joining of a metal stud or similar tensile strength. The load per unit
rent, electrode negative. part to a workpiece. Welding may area required to pull a specimen
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444 GLOSSARY
apart. Typically pounds per torch brazing (TB). A brazing used. Pressure and filler metal
square inch. process in which the heat re- may or may not be used.
quired is furnished by a fuel gas
thermal expansion. An increase in
flame.
the linear dimension of a solid underbead crack. A crack in the
and in the volume of a fluid be- torch tip. See welding tip and cut- heat-affected zone generally not
cause of a rise in temperature. ting tip. extending to the surface of the
base metal.
thermal stress. Stress in metal re- transferred arc (plasma arc weld-
sulting from nonuniform temper- ing). A plasma arc established be- undercut. A groove melted into the
ature distribution. tween the electrode and the base metal adjacent to the toe or
work piece. root of a weld and left unfilled by
thermit crucible. The vessel in
weld metal.
which the thermit reaction takes travel angle. The angle that the elec-
place. trode makes with a reference line underfill. A depression on the weld
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
perpendicular to the axis of the face or root surface extending be-

thermit mixture. A mixture of metal
weld in the plane of the weld axis. low the adjacent surface of the
oxide and finely divided alumi-
This angle can be used to define base metal.
num with the addition of alloying
. -
metals as required. the position of welding guns, underwelding.' Depositing less filler
welding torches, high-energy metal than required.
thermit mold. A mold formed beams, welding rods, thermal cut-
around the parts to be welded to ting and thermal spraying torches, upset. Bulk deformation resulting
receive the molten metal. and thermal spraying guns. See from the application of pressure in
,
also drag angle and push angle. welding. The upset may be
thermit reaction. The chemical re-
measured as a percent increase in
action between metal oxide and
travel angle (pipe). The angle that interface area, a reduction in
aluminum which produces super-
the electrode makes with a refer- length, a percent reduction in lap
heated molten metal and alumi-
ence line extending from the cen- joint thickness, or a reduction in
num oxide slag.
ter of the pipe through the molten cross wire weld stack height.
thermit welding (TW). A welding weld Poo¡ in the plane of the weld upslope time (automatic arc weld-
process that produces coales- axis. This angle can be used to de- ing). The time during which the
cence of metals by heating them fine the position of welding guns, current changes continuously
with superheated liquid metal welding torches, high-energy from initial current value to the
from a chemical reaction between beams, welding rods, thermal cut- welding value.
a metal oxide and aluminum, ting and thermal spraying torches,
with or without the application and thermal spraying guns.
of pressure. Filler metal, when vertical position. The position of
used, is obtained from the liquid travel speed. The rate of movement welding in which the axis of the
metal. of the welding gun or welding weld is approximately vertical.
torch along the weld path. Also
throat. See effective throat. vertical position (pipe welding). The
called rate of travel.
position of a pipe joint in which
TIC welding. Tungsten inert gas tungsten electrode. A nonfiller welding is performed in the hori-
welding. A nonstandard term for metal electrode used in arc weld- zontal position and the pipe may
gas tungsten arc welding. ing or cutting, made principally of or may not be rotated.
tungsten.
T joint. A joint between two mem- voltage. Electric potential or poten-
bers located approximately at twin carbon arc brazing (TCAB). A tial difference, expressed in volts.
right angles to each other in the nonstandard term for carbon arc voltage regulator. An automatic
form of a T. brazing. electrical control device for main-
toe crack. A crack in the base metal twin carbon arc welding (CAW-T). taining a constant voltage supply
occurring at the toe of a weld. A carbon arc welding process to the primary of a welding
variation that produces coales- transformer.,
toe of weld. See weld toe.
cence of metals by heating them
torch. See cutting torch and weld- with an electric arc between two wandering sequence. A longitudinal
ing torch. carbon electrodes. No shielding is sequence in which the weld bead

GLOSSARY 445
increments are deposited at welding current. The current in the See also welding procedure
random. welding circuit during the making specification.
of a weld.
weave bead. A type of weld bead welding procedure specification
made with transverse oscillation. welding cycle. The complete series (WPS). A document providing in
of events involved in the making detail the required variables for
weld. A localized coalescence of
of a weld. specific application to assure re-
metals or nonmetals produced
peatabiiity by properly trained
either by heating the materials to welding electrode. A component of
welders and welding operators.
the welding temperature, with or the welding circuit through which
without the application of pres- current is conducted and which welding process. A materials joining
sure, or by the application of pres- terminates at the arc, molten con- process that produces coales-
sure alone and with or without the ductive slag, or base metal. See cence of materials by heating
use of filler material. also arc welding electrode, bare them to the welding temperature,
electrode, carbon electrode, with or without the application of
weldability. The capacity of a ma-
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
emissive electrode, flux-cored pressure or by the application

terial to be welded under the im-
electrode, lightly coated elec- of pressure alone, and with
posed fabrication conditions into
trode, metal-cored electrode, or without the use of filler metal.
a specific, suitably designed struc-
metal electrode, stranded elec-
ture and to perform satisfactorily welding rectifier. A device in a
trode, and tungsten electrode.
in the intended service. welding machine for converting
weld bead. A weld resulting from a welding generator. A generator used alternating current to direct cur-
pass. See stringer bead and for supplying current for welding. rent. See also direct-current
weave bead. transformer-rectifier.
welding ground. A nonstandard
weld crack. A crack located in weld term for workpiece connection. welding rod. A form of welding filler
metal or heat-affected zone. welding gun. A nonstandardterm for metal, normally packaged in
arc welding gun. straight lengths, that does not con-
welder. One who performs a man- duct the electric current.
ual or semiautomatic welding op- welding head. The part of a welding
eration. (Sometimes erroneously machine or automatic welding welding sequence. The order of
used to denote a welding equipment in which a welding making the welds in a weldment.
machine.) gun or torch is incorporated. welding technique. The details of a
welder certification. Certification in welding leads. The workpiece lead welding procedure that are con-
writing that a welder has pro- and electrode lead of an arc weld- trolled by the welder or welding
duced welds meeting prescribed ing circuit. operator.
standards.
welding machine. Equipment used welding tip. A welding torch tip de-
welder performance qualification. to perform the welding operation. signed for welding.
The demonstration of a welder’s For example, spot welding ma-
ability to produce welds meeting welding torch (arc). A device used
chine, arc welding machine,
prescribed standards. in the gas tungsten and plasma arc
seam welding machine, etc.
welding processes to control the
welder registration. The act of reg- welding operator. One who oper- position of the electrode, to trans-
istering a welder certification or a ates machine or automatic weld- fer current to the arc, and to direct
photostatic copy of the welder ing equipment. the flow of shielding and plasma
certification. gas.
welding position. See flat position,
weld face. The exposed surface of a horizontal position, horizontal welding torch (oxyfuel gas). A de-
weld on the side from which fixed position, horizontal rolled vice used in oxyfuel gas welding,
welding was done. position, inclined position, over- torch brazing, and torch soldering
weld gauge. A device designed for head position, and vertical for directing the heating flame
measuring the shape and size of position. produced by the controlled com-
welds. bustion of fuel gases.
welding procedure. The detailed
welding. A materials-joining process methods and practices involved in welding transformer. A transformer
t
used in making welds. the production of a weldment. used for supplying current for

446 GLOSSARY
welding. See also reactor (arc term for joint penetration and trode makes with the referenced
welding). root penetration. plane or surface of the base metal
in a plane perpendicular to the
welding voltage. See arc voltage. weld pool. The localized volume of
weld axis. This angle can be used
molten metal in a weld prior to its
welding wire. A form of welding fill- to define the position of welding
solidification as weld metal.
er metal, normally packaged as guns, welding torches, high-
coils or spools, that may or may weld reinforcement. Weld metal in energy beams, welding rods, ther-
not conduct electric current de- excess of the quantity required to mal cutting and thermal spraying
pending upon the welding fill a joint. See face reinforcement torches, and thermal spraying
process with which it is used. See and root reinforcement. guns. See also drag angle and
a'so and weld root, The points, as shown in push angle.
ing rod.
cross section, at which the back
weld interface. The interface be- of the weld intersects the base work angle (pipe). The angle that the
tween weld metal and base metal electrode makes with the refer-
metal surfaces.
in a fusion weld, between base enced plane extending from the
weld stabilizer. Another name for center of. the pipe through the
metals in a solid state weld with-
inductor. molten weld pool. This angle can
out filler metal, or between filler
metal and base metal in a solid weld tab. Additional material on be used to define the position of
state weld with filler metal and in which the weld may be initiated welding guns, welding torches,
high-energy beams, welding rods,
a braze. or term inated.
thermal cutting and thermal
weld length. See effective length of weld toe. The junction of the weld spraying torches, and thermal
weld. face and the base metal. spraying guns.
weldment. An assembly whose weld voltage. See arc voltage.
component parts are joined by work connection. The connection of
wetting. The phenomenon whereby the workpiece lead to the work.
welding.
a liquid filler metal or flux spreads Also called workpiece connec-
weld metal. The portion of a weld and-adheres in a thin continuous tion.
that has been melted during layer on a solid base metal.
welding. work lead. The electric conductor
wire feed speed. The rate of speed
weldor. A nonstandard term for at which a filler metal i s con- betweenthe source of arc welding
welder. sumed in arc welding or thermal current and the workpiece con-
spraying. nection. Improperly called the
weld pass. A single progression of ground lead. Also called work-
welding or surfacing along a joint wire straightener. A device used for piece lead.
or substrate. The result of a pass controlling the cast of coiled wire
is a weld bead, layer, or spray to enable it to be easily fed into
yield point. The point at which the
deposit. the gun.
metal begins to "neck down" or
weld penetration. A nonstandard work angle. The angle that the elec- narrow. Elastic limit.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

APPENDIXES
~ ~~ ~~
Appendix A Charts and Diagrams

Appendix B Letter Designations of Welding and Allied Processes
Appendix C Conversions
Appendix D Organizations which Publish Documents Relating to
Welding and Cutting
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

APPENDIX A
A
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
t
(From AWS A3.0-85, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions. Courtesy of American Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
I

450 APPENDIX A #
-
atomic hydrogen welding.. . . AHW
MI $TERCHART OF WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES
gas metal arc welding. . . . . . . GMAW
-
bare metal arc welding . . . . . . BMAW
carbon arc welding. . . . . . . . . CAW
-*S.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .CAW-G
n -pulsed arc . . . . . . . . . . . .GMAW-P
-short circuiting arc . . . . . GMAW6
gas tungsten arc welding , , , . GTAW
-shielded.. . . . . . . . . . . . .CAW4 -pulsed arc . . . . . . . . . . . . GTAW-P
-twin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .CAW-T plasma arc welding . . . . . . . . PAW
electrogas welding ......... EGW shielded metal arc welding. . . CMAW
flux cored arc welding . . . . . . FCAW stud arc welding . . . . . . . . . . SW
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
WELDING
submerged arc welding. . . . . . SAW
coextrusion welding. . . . . . CEW -series.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .CAW4
cold welding . . . . . . . . . . . CW I
diffusion welding. . . . . . . . DFW arc brazing. . . . . . . . . ..AB
explosion welding . . . . . . . EXW block brazing.. . . . . . . .EB
forge welding. . . . . . . . . . . FOW carbon arc brazing . . . . .CAE
friction welding . . . . . . . . . FRW diffusion brazing. . . . . .DFE
hot pressure welding . . . . . HPW dip brazing . . . . . . . . . .DB
roll welding . . . . . . . . . . . . ROW flow brazing , . . , . , . , . FLE
ultrasonic welding . . . . . . . USW
infrared soldering. . . . . . . . IRS

iron soldering . . electron beam welding. . , EBW
-high vacuum . , . . , . . , EEW-HV
torch soldering . . . . . . . . .TS -medium vacuum . . . . . EBW-MV
wave soldering . . . . . . . . . . WC
- high frequency . . . . . RSEW-HF

-induction.. . . . . . . . . RSEW-I
resistance spot welding. . RSW
upset welding . . . . . . . . . UW air acetylene welding . . . AAW
-high frequency . . . . . UW-HF oxyacetylene welding. . . OAW
-induction . . . . . . . . . UW.1 oxyhdrogen welding. . , . OHW
pressure gas welding. . , . PGW
chemical flux cutting. . . . . FOC
-oxyacetylene cutting. . OFC-A

-oxyhydrogen cutting. . OFC-H shielded metal arc cutting. . SMAC
-0xynatural gas cutting. OFC-N
-0xypropane cutting. .. OFC-P electron beam cutting . . . . . EBC
oxygen arc cutting . . . . . . AOC laser beam cutting . . . . . . ..LEC
- air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..LEGA
-evaporative LBGEV
-inert gas . . . . . . . . . . ..LBC-IG
-oxygen. . . . . . . . . . . . . LBC.0

45 I
APPENDIX A CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS
JOINING METHOD DIAGRAM

Welding
Joining process
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Operation method class

452 APPENDIX A
1
FUSION WELDING CLASSIFICATION DIAGRAM

Energy Thermal Mechanical Shielding Process
Welding
category source source loading"
"Pressure normal t o
faying surfaces
Fusion
Induction
Definitions Definit ions Definitions
Designation Welding process Designation Welding process Designation Welding process

AAW Air acetylene GCAW Gas carbon arc PW Projection
AHW Atomic hydrogen GMAW Gas metal arc RSEW Resistance seam
BMAW Bare metal arc GTAW Gas tungsten arc RSW Resistance spot
CAW Carbon arc IW Induction SCAW Shielded carbon arc
EBW Electron beam LBW Laser beam SAW Submerged arc
EGW Electrogas OAW Oxyacetylene SMAW Shielded metal arc
ESW E lectrorlag OHW Ox yhdrogen sw Stud arc
FLOW Flow PAW Plasma arc TW Therinit
FCAW Flux cored arc PEW Percussion uw upset
FW Flash PGW Pressure gas
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

APPENDIX A CHARTS AND DIAGRAMS 453
SOLID-STATE WELDING CLASSIFICATION DIAGRAM

Welding Energy Thermal Mechanical Shielding Process
category source source loading'
"Pressure normal t o faying surfaces

--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Gas
Electrical Induct ion Pressure

Vacuum
O
Solid-
state
welding
Definitions Definitions
Designation Welding Process Designation Welding process

CEW Coextrusion IW Induction
cw Cold PGW Pressure gas
DFW Diffusion RSEW Resistance seam
EXW Explosion RSW Resistance spot
FOW Forge ROW Roll
FRW Friction usw Ultrasonic
HPW Hot pressure uw Upset

I .
454 APPENDIX A
I
BRAZING AND SOLDERING CLASSIFICATION DIAGRAM

Welding Energy Thermal Mechanical Process
category source source loading'
'Pressure normal to faying surfaces
L Chemical
Definitions Definitions
Designation Process Designation Process
AB Arc brazing IS Induction soldering

BB Block brazing IRB Induction
CAB Carbon arc brazing IRB Infrared brazing
DB Dip brazing I RS Infrared soldering
DS Dip soldering INS Iron soldering
DFB Diffusion brazing RB Resistance brazing
FB Furnace brazing RS Resistance soldering
FS Furnace soldering TS Torch Soldering
F LB Flow brazing ws Wave soldering
IB Induct ion brazing
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

APPENDIX B
LETTE SIGNATIONS OF
WELDI ED PROCESSES
(From AWS A3.0-85, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions. Courtesy of American
Welding Society, Miami, Florida.)
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

I
APPENDIX B
l
TABLE B=l Letter Designation of Welding and Allied Processes

Welding and Letter Welding and Leiter
Allied Processes Designation Allied Processes Designation
adhesive bonding ............................... ABD resistance spot welding.. .......................
RSW
arc welding ..................................... AW upset welding ................................. UW
atomic hydrogen welding.. .................... AHW high frequency ..........................UW-HF
bare metal arc welding.. ..................... BMAW induction .................................. UW-I
carbon arc welding ............................ CAW soldering ......................................... S
.................................... CAW-G dip soldering ................................... DS
shieided ................................. CAW-S furnace soldering ............................... FS
twin .................................... CAW-T induction soldering.. .............................IS
electrogas.. .................................. EGW infrared soldering .............................. IRS
flux cored arc welding ....................... FCAW iron soldering ................................. INS
gas metal arc welding.. ..................... .GMAW resistance soldering.. ............................RS
pulsed arc ............................ .GMAW-P torch soldering ................................. TS
short circuiting arc ...................... GMAW-S wave soldering ................................ WS
gas tungsten arc welding .....................
GTAW solid-state welding ..............................SSW
pulsed arc .............................GTAW-P coextrusion welding ...........................
CEW
shielded metal arc welding.. ..................
SMAW cold welding .................................. CW
stud arc welding ...............................SW diffusion welding .............................DFW
submerged arc welding.. .......................
SAW explosion welding.. ...........................
EXW
series ................................... SAW-S forge welding.. ............................... FOW
brazing ........................................... B friction welding ............................... FR W
arc brazing.. ...................................
.AB hot pressure welding.. .........................
HPW
block brazing .................................. BB roll welding ................................. ROW
carbon arc brazing ............................
CAB ultrasonic welding.. ...........................
USW
diffusion brazing.. ............................
DFB thermal cutting ................................... TC
dip brazing .................................... DB arc cutting .................................... .AC
flow brazing .................................
.FLB air carbon arc cutting.. ......................
AAC
furnace brazing.. ...............................FB carbon arc cutting.. .........................
CAC
induction brazing ............................... 1,B gas metal arc cutting.. .....................
GMAC
infrared brazing ...............................
IRB gas tungsten arc cutting .....................
GTAC
resistance brazing ...............................RB metal arc cutting.. ..........................
MAC
torch brazing.. ................................. TB plasma arc cutting ..........................
PAC
other welding processes shielded metal arc cutting ..................
SMAC
electron beam welding .........................
EBW electron beam cutting.. ........................ EBC
high vacuum ...........................EBW-HV Irser beam cutting.. ........................... LBC
medium vacuum ........................
EBW-MV air ...................................... LBC-A
nonvacuum ............................EBW-NV evaporative ............................. LBC-EV
electroslag welding ............................
ESW inert gas.. .............................. .LBC-IG
flow welding .............................FLOW oxygen .................................. LBC-O
induction welding.. ..........................
,1W oxygen cutting ................................ .OC
laser beam welding.. ........................
LBW chemical flux cutting ........................FOC
thermit welding.. ............................TW metal powder cutting ........................POC
oxyfuel gas welding .............................
OFW oxyfuel gas cutting .......................... OFC
air acetylene welding .........................
AAW oxyacetylene cutting. ....................OFC-A
oxyacetylene welding .........................
OAW oxyhydrogen cutting. ....................OFC-H
oxyhydrogen welding .........................
OH W oxynatural gas cutting ...................
OFC-N
pressure gas welding.. .........................
PGW oxypropane cutting .....................OFC-P
resistance welding ................................RW oxygen arc cutting .......................... AOC
flash welding.. ................................FW oxygen lance cutting. ........................LOC
percussion welding ............................
PEW thermal spraying.. ............................. THSP
projection welding .............................
PW arc spraying.. ................................ ASP
resistance seam welding .......................
RSEW flame spraying.. ............................. FLSP
high frequency ........................
RSEW-HF plasma spraying ............................... PSP
induction ............................... RSEW-I
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

APPENDIX B LETTER DESIGNATIONS OF WELDING AND ALLIED PROCESSES 457
'I€Ai%EEB-2 Alphabetical Cross-Reference t o Table B-1

I
Letter Welding and Letter Welding and
Designation Al Iied Processes Designation Al I ied Processes
AAC ........................... air carbon arc cutting IRS ................................ infrared soldering
AAW ............................ air acetylene welding IS ................................ induction soldering
AB ...................................... arc brazing IW ................................ .induction welding
ABD ............................ . :. adhesive bonding LBC.. ............................. laser beam cutting
AC ....................................... arccutting LBC-A ......................... laser beam cutting-air
AHW ........................ atomic hydrogen welding LBC-EV .................laser beam cutting-evaporative
AOC .............................. oxygen arc cutting LBC-1G ...................laser beam cutting-inert gas
ASP .................................... arc spraying LBC-O ..................... laser beam cutting-oxygen
AW ..................................... arc welding LBW ............................. .laser beam welding
B........................................... brazing LOC.. ........................... oxygen lance cutting
BB .................................... block brazing MAC ............................... metal arc cutting
BMAW ........................ bare metal arc welding OAW ............................ oxyacetylene welding
CAB.. ........................... ..carbon arc brazing OC ................................... oxygencutting
CAC. .............................. carbon arc cutting OFC.. ............................. oxyfuel gas cutting
CAW ............................. .carbon arc welding OFC-A .......................... oxyacetylene cutting
CAW-G ........................ gas carbon arc welding OFC-H .......................... oxyhydrogen cutting
CAW-S .................... shielded carbon arc welding OFC-N ......................... oxynatural gas cutting
CAW-T ....................... twin carbon arc welding OFC-P ............................ oxypropane cutting
CEW ............................. coextrusion welding OFW ............................. oxyfuel gas welding
CW.. ................................... cold welding OH W ........................... oxyhydrogen welding
DB ...................................... dip brazing PAC.. ............................. plasma arc cutting
DFB, .......................... . . i . .diffusion brazing PAW ............................. plasma arc welding
DFW ................................ diffusion welding PEW .............................. percussion welding
DS ..................................... .dip soldering PGW ............................ pressure gas welding
EBC ............................ electron beam cutting POC.. ......................... ..metal powder cutting
EBW .......................... .electron beam welding PSP ................................. plasma spraying
EBW-HV ........... electron beam welding-high vacuum PW ................................ projection welding
EBW-MV .......electron beam welding-medium vacuum RB ................................. resistance brazing
EBW-NV ............ electron beam welding-nonvacuum RS ............................... resistance soldering
EGW .............................. electrogas welding RSEW ......................... resistance seam welding
ES W ............................ .
.l electroslag welding RSEW-HF ...... resistance seam welding-high frequency
EX W .............................. explosion welding RSEW-I .............. resistance seam welding-induction
FB .................................. furnace brazing ROW ................................... .roll welding
FCAW.. ........................ flux cored arc welding RSW .......................... resistance spot welding
FLB .................................... flow brazing RW ............................... resistance welding
FLOW.. ................................ flow welding S .......................................... soldering
FLSP ................................. flame spraying SAW .......................... submerged arc welding
FOC.. ........................... chemical flux cutting SAW-S ................... series submerged arc welding
FOW ........................... J.. .... forge welding SMAC ....................... shielded metal arc cutting
FRW ........................... .I.... friction welding SMAW ..................... shielded metal arc welding
FS .................................. furnace soldering SSW. .............................. solid-state welding
.................................... S W .................................. stud arc welding
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
FW .flash welding
GMAC .......................... gas metal arc cutting TB .................................... torch brazing
GMAW ......................... gas metal arc welding TC .................................. .thermal cutting
GMAW-P ............. gas metal arc welding-pulsed arc THSP .............................. thermal spraying
GMAW-S ......gas metal arc welding-short circuiting arc TS ................................... torch soldering
GTAC ........................ .gas tungsten arc cutting T W . . ................................ thermit welding
GTAW.. ...................... gas tungsten arc welding USW .............................. ultrasonic welding
GTAW-P ........... gas tungsten arc welding-pulsed arc UW ................................... upset welding
HPW ............................ hot pressure welding UW-HF .................. upset welding-high frequency
IB .................................. induction brazing UW-I ........................ upset welding-induction
INS ................................... iron soldering WS ................................... wave soldering
IRB ................................. infrared brazing

I .
APPENDIX B
I
TABLE B.3 Suffixes for Optional Use in Applying Welding and Allied Processes
~~ - ~~~~
Automatic ...................................... AU Manual ........................................ MA

Machine.. ...................................... ME Semiautomatic ................................... SA
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
TABLE B.4 Obsolete or Seldom Used Processes
Welding Process Letter Designation Welding Process Letter Designation

Air acetylene welding.. ......................... AAW Flow braring.. .................................. FLB
Atomic hydrogen welding ....................... AHW Flow welding.. ............................... FLOW
Bare metal arc welding.. ....................... BMAW Gas carbon arc welding ....................... CAW-G
Block brazing .................................... BB

APPENDIX C
CONVERSIONS
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I
460 APPENDIX C
1
TABLE C.1 Wire Cross-Sectional Area and Wire Diameter, Inches into Millimeters
Area,
Diameter, Equivalent Diameter, Area, Square
Inches Millimeters Square Inches Millimeters
0.01 0.254 0.00007854 0.05067

0.01 5 0.381 0.0001 767 0.1140
0.020 O. 508 0.0003142 0.2027
0.025 O. 735 0.0004909 0.31 67
0.030 O. 762 0.0007069 0.4560
%2 0.03125 O. 794 0.0007669 0.4951
0.035 0.889 O. 000962 1 0.6207
0.040 1.016 0.001 257 0.8107
0.045 1.143 0.001 590 1 .O261
y
64 0.046875 1.191 0.001 726 1.1141
0.05 1.270 0.001964 1.2668
0.055 1.397 0.002376 1.5328
0.06 1.524 0.002827 1.8241
%6 0.0625 1.587 0.003068 1.9780
0.07 1.778 0.003848 2.4829
0.08 2.032 0.005027 3.2429
0.09 2.286 0.006362 4.1043
y3 2 0.09375 2.381 0.006903 4.4525
0.10 2.540 0.007854 5.0671
o. 120 3.048 0.01 131 7.2966
0.125 3.175 0.01 227 7.91 73
O. 15625 3.969 0.01 91 7 12.3723
O. 1875 4.762 0.02761 17.8102
0.21875 5.556 0.03758 24.2446
0.250 6.350 0.04909 31.6692
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

APPENDIX C CONVERSIONS 461
TABPEE 6-2 Wire Cross-sectional Area and Wire Diameter, Millimeters into Inches
~~~~ __
Area,
Diameter, Equivalent Diameter, Square Area,
M i IIimeters inches MiIlimeters Square Inches
0.2 0.007874 0.0314 0.0000487

0.4 0.015748 O.1257 0.0001947
0.6 0.023622 0.2827 0.0004381
0.8 0.031496 O.5027 0.0007790
1 .o 0.03937 0.7854 0.001217
1.2 0.047244 1.131 0.001753
1.4 0.055118 1.539 0.002386
1.6 0.062992 2.01 1 0.003116
1.8 0.070866 2.545 0.003944
2.0 0.078740 3.142 0.004869
2.2 0.086614 3.801 0.00589
2.4 0.094488 4.524 0.007012
2.6 O.10236 5.309 0.008229
2.8 O.1 1024 6.158 0.009545
3.0 0.11811 7.069 0.010956
3.2 O.12598 8.042 0.012465
3.4 O. 13386 9.076 0.014073
3.6 0.14173 10.179 0.015776
3.8 O. 14961 11.341 0.017580
4.0 0.15748 12.566 0.019478
4.5 O.1771 7 15.904 0.024653
5.0 O. 19685 19.635 0.030434
5.5 0.21654 23.758 0.036827
6.0 0.23622 28.274 0.043825
._
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

I
462 APPENDIX C
TABLE C.3 Approximate Wire Feed Rate Conversion to Deposition Rate for steels,
Inches per Minute into Pounds per Hour
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Wire Diameter, To Convert iprn to Pounds per Hour,

Inches Multiply by
0.020 0.00533
0.030 0.012
1/32 0.013
0.045' 0.027
3/64 0.0293
'/i6 0.0521
3/32 0.1172
IL9 0.2083
v 32 0.3254
3/1 6 0.4686
?h2 0.6379
Y4 0.8332
Factor = (wire cross section in square inches) x 16.974

Example: Given: 200 ipm of 1h-¡n.-diameter steel wire
Find: Deposition rate in pounds per hour
Answer: From table find 0.0521 and multiply by 200. The deposition rate
is 10.42 pounds per hour, approximately.

APPENDIX C CONVERSIONS
TABLE C.4 Approximate Wirt?Feed Rate Conversion to Deposition Rate for

Aluminums, Inches per Minute into Pounds per Hour
Wire Diameter, To Convert ipm to Pounds per Hour,
Inches Multiply by
0.020 0.0018379
0.030 0.0041379
y3 2 0.0044828
0.045 0.0093103
3/64 0.0101034
6 0.0179655
y3 2 0.0404138
'h 0.0718276
y3 2 0.1122069
b 0.1615862
v
32 0.2199655
Y4 0.2873103
Factor = (wire cross section in square inches) x 5.8276

Example: Given: 300 ipm of 0.045-in.-diameter aluminum wire
Find: Deposition rate in pounds per hour
Answer: From table find 0.0093103 and multiply by 300. The deposition
rate is 2.79 pounds per hour, approximately.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

464 APPENDIX C
TABLE C.5 Approximate Wire Feed Rate Conversion to Deposition Rate for Steels,
Millimeters per Second into Kilograms per Hour
Wire Diameter, To Convert Millimeters per Second
Millimeters to Kilograms per Hour, Multiply by
o.2 0.0008874
0.4 0.0035523
0.6 0.0079891
0.8 0.0142063
1 .o 0.0221954
1.2 0.0319627
1.4 0.0434921
1.6 0.0568309
1.8 0.071921 7
2.0 0.0887929
2.4 O.1278482
2.8 O. 1740251
3.0 0.1 997699
3.2 0.2272669
3.6 0.2876585
4.0 0.3551 152
Factor = (wire cross section in square millimeters) x 0.02826

Example: Given: 85 mm/s of 1.6-mm-diametersteel wire
Find: Deposition rate in kilograms per hour
Answer: From table find 0.0568309and multiply by 85.The deposition
rate is 4.83 kilograms per hour, approximately.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

TABLE C.6 Approximate Wire Feed Rate Conversion to Deposition Rate for
Aluminum, Millimeters per Second into Kilograms per Hour
Wire Diameter, To Convert Millimeters per Second
Millimeters to Kilograms per Hour, Multiply by
0.2 0.0003060
0.4 0.0012249
0.6 0.0027549
0.8 0.0048987
1 .o 0.0076536
1.2 0.0110214
1.4 0.0149973
1.6 0.0195969
1.8 0.0248006
2.0 0.0306182
2.4 0.0440856
2.8 0.0600087
3.0 0.0688862
3.2 0.0785066
3.6 0.0991926
4.0 O.1224535
Factor = (wire cross section in square millimeters) X 0.009745

Example: Given: 250 mm/s of 1.2-mm-diameteraluminum wire
Find: Deposition rate in kilograms per hour
Answer: From table find 0.01 10214 and multiply by 250. The deposition
rate is 2.76 kg/hr, approximately.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

466 APPENDIX C
TABLE C.7 Weld Metal Volume Deposited by Solid Wire Length,

Millimeters into inches
~ ~~
Length of Wire, Length of Wire,

Wire Diameter, Equivalent Diameter, Linear Millimeters Linear Inches
Mill imeters inches per Cubic Millimeter per Cubic Inch
0.2 0.007874 31.8310 20536.09

0.4 0.015748 7.9554 5132.51
0.6 0.023622 3.5373 2282.12
0.8 0.031496 1.9893 1283.42
1 .o O.039370 1.2732 821.42
1.2 0.047244 0.8842 570.45
1.4 0.055118 0.6498 41 9.22
1.6 0.062992 0.4973 320.84
1.8 0.070866 0.3929 253.48
2.0 0.078740 0.3183 205.36
2.2 0.086614 0.2631 169.74
2.4 0.094488 0.2210 142.58
2.6 O. 10236 O.1 ô84 121.55
2.8 0.11024 O.1624 104.77
3.0 0.11811 0.1415 91.29
3.2 O.12598 O.1243 80.19
3.4 0.13386 0.1102 71.10
3.6 0.14173 0.0982 63.35
3.8 O.14961 0.0882 56.90
4.0 O.15748 0.0796 51.33
4.5 0.1 771 7 0.0629 40.58
5.0 O.19685 0.0509 32.84
5.5 0.21654 0.0421 27.16
6.0 0.23622 0.0354 22.82
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

TAüBLE fc.8 Weld Metal Volume Deposited by Solid Wire Length,

inches into Millimeters
Equivalent Length of wire, Length of Wire,

Wire Diameter, Wire Diameter, Linear inches Linear Millimeters
Inches Millimeters per Cubic Inch per Cubic Millimeter
0.01 0.254 , 12732.40 19.74

0.015 0.381 5659.31 8.77
0.02 0.508 3182.69 4.93
0.025 0.735 2037.07 3.16
0.03 0.762 1414.63 2.19
%z 0.03125 O. 794 1303.95 2.02
0.035 0.889 1039.39 1.61
0.040 1.O1 6 795.54 1.23
0.045 1.143 628.93 0.975
Ys4 0.046875 1.191 579.37 0.898
0.05 1.270 509.16 O. 789
0.055 1.397 420.88 0.652
0.06 1.524 353.73 0.548
1/16 0.0625 1.587 325.95 O. 505
0.07 1.778 259.88 0.403
0.08 2.032 198.93 O. 308
0.09 2.286 157.18 0.244
Y32 0.09375 2.381 144.86 0.225
0.10 2.540 127.32 O. 197
0.12 3.048 88.42 0.137
1
h 0.125 3.175 81 .SO O. 126
%2 0.15625 3.969 52.16 0.0808
%6 0.1875 4.762 36.22 0.0561
%z 0.21875 5.556 26.61 0.0412
'/4 0.25 6.350 20.37 -- 0.0316
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

468 APPENDIX C
TABLE C b Approximate Inches of Solid Wire per Pound of Weid Metala
Wire Diameter, Stainless Steel 400 Stainless Steel 300 Nickel or

Inches Magnesium Alum inum Series, 4xx Mild Steel Series, 3xx Copper
0.01 202,200 129,988 45,496 44,698 43,924 39,685

0.01 5 89,800 57,745 20,212 19,857 19,515 17,630
o. 02 50,500 32,476 11,367 11,167 10,975 9,915
0.025 32,333 20,786 7,275 7,148 7,024 6,346
0.03 22,450 14,435 5,052 4,964 4,878 4,407
fi2 0.03125 20,698 13,306 4,657 4,575 4,496 4,062
0.035 16,498 10,606 3,712 3,647 3,584 3,238
0.040 12,628 8,118 2,841 2,791 2,743 2,478
0.045 9,983 6,418 2,246 2,207 2,169 1,959
0.046875 9,196 5,912 2,069 2,033 1,998 1,805
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
0.05 8,082 5,196 1,818 1,787 1,756 1,586
0.055 6,681 4,295 1,503 1,477 1,451 1,311
0.06 5,615 3,609 1,263 1,241 1,220 1,102
%6 0.0625 5,174 3,326 1,164 1,144 1,124 1,O1 5
0.07 4,125 2,652 928 912 896 81O
0.08 3,158 2,030 71O 698 686 620
0.09 2,495 1,604 561 552 542 490
'132 0.09375 2,299 1,478 51 7 508 500 451
0.10 2,022 1,299 455 447 439 397
0.12 1,403 902 316 31O 305 275
'/e 0.125 1,294 832 29 1 286 281 254
%2 0.15625 828 532 186 183 180 162
3/6 0.1875 575 370 129 127 125 113
7/32 0.21875 422 2 72 95 93 92 83
Yi 0.25 323 208 73 71 70 63
"TO convert from inches per pound to millimeters per kilogram, multiply by 55.997 410 (approximately 56).

TABLE C.10 Conversion Factors Used in Welding and Cutting
Given To Get Multiply by This
area square inches (in2) square millimeters (mm2) 6.4516 X lo2

square millimeters (mm2) square inches (in.2) 1.5500 X
deposition rate pounds per hour (Ib/h) kilograms/per hour (kg/h) 0.45 approximately
kilograms per hour (kg/h) pounds per hour (Ib/h) 2.2 approximately
force pound-force (Ibf) newtons (N) 4.4482
ki logram-force (kgf) newtons (N) 9.8066
newtons (N) pound-force (Ibf) 2.2481 X lo-'
newtons (N) kilogram-force (kgf) 1.0197 X lo-'
flow rate cubic feet per hour (ft3/h) liter per minute ( h i n ) 4.7195 X lo-'
liter per minute (Iímin) cubic feet per hour (ft3/h) 2.1189
heat input joules per inch (yin.) joules per meter (J/m) 3.9370 X 10
joules per meter Wm) joules per inch (Jin.) 2.5400 X
length inches (in.) millimeters (mm) 25.4000
feet (ft) millimeters (mm) 3.0480 X lo2
millimeters (mm) inches (in.) 3.9370 X
millimeters (mm) feet (ft.) 3.2808 X
power density watts per square inch (W/in.2) watts per square meter (W/m2) 1.5500 X lo3
watts per square meter (W/m2) watts per square inch (W/in.'ì 6.4516 X
pressure or tensile pounds per square inch (psi) pascals (Pa) 6.8948 X 10'
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
strength pounds per square feet (ib/ft2) pascals (Pa) 4.7880 X 10
newtons per square millimeter (N/mm') pascals (Pa) 1.0000 x 106
pascals (Pa) pounds per square inch (psi) 1.4504 X
pascals (Pa) pounds per square foot (Ib/ft2) 2.0885 X lop2
pascals (Pa) newtons per square millimeter (N/mm2) 1.0000 x 10-6
travel speed, inches p e r minute (in./min) millimeter per second (mm/s) 4.2333 X lo-'
wire speed millimeters per second (mm/s) inches per minute (in./min) 2.3622
feet per minute (ft/min) millimeters per second (mm/s) 5 .O800
volume cubic inches (in.3) cubic millimeters (mmJ) 1.6387 X lo4
cubic feet (fi3) cubic millimeters (mm3) 2.8317 X lo7
cubic millimeters (mm3) cubic inches (in.3) 6.1024 X
cubic millimeter (mm3) cubic feet (ft3) 3.5314 X
' 1

APPENDIX D
ORGANIZATIONS WHICH PUBLISH
DOCUMENTS RELATING TO
WELDING AND CUTTING
American Association of State Highway and American Water Works Association (AWWA)
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) 6666 W. Quincy Ave.
444 N. Capital St., N.W. Denver, CO 80235
Washington, DC 20001 303-794-771 1
202-624-5800 This organization publishes standards concerning the
This organization publishes information on the design, welding of water storage and transmission systems.
construction, and welding of steel highway bridges. American Welding Society (AWS)
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS) 550 N.W. LeJeune Road
45 Eisenhower Dr. Miami, FL 33126
Paramus, NJ07652 305-443-9353
201-368-91O0
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
This organization publishes codes, standards, specifica-
This organization publishes information concerning con- tions, recommended practices, guides, books, and other
trol of quality of ship construction, and approved welding publications, on all phases of welding and cutting. Check
materials. here first when you want information on welding and
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) cutting.
400 N. Michigan Ave.
Association of American Railroads (AAR)
Chicago, IL 60611
1920 L Street, N.W.
3 12-670-2400
Washington, DC 20036
This organization publishes information on steel con- 202-835-91O0
struction, design, fabrication, and erection of buildings,
This organization is the primary source of information on
and quality and inspection criteria and standards.
the construction of new railroad equipment as well as
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) repair of existing equipment.
1430 Broadway
Canadian Standards Association (CSA)
New York, NY 10018
178 Rexdale Boulevard
212-354-3300
Rexdale, Ontario
This organization coordinates the standards publishing of Canada M9W1R3
other groups. They have nearly 10,000 documents cov- 4 16-744-4000
ering every field, many of which deal with welding.
This organization i s the Canadian equivalent of ANSI.
American Petroleum Institute (API)
1220 L Street, N.W. Compressed Gas Association (CGA)
Washington, DC 20005 1235 Jefferson Davis Highway
202-457-7000 Arlington, VA 22202
703-979-0900
This organization publishes documents concerning weld-
ing and safety requirements for all types of tanks, pipe- This organization publishes books, standards, and other
lines, and refinery services. publications, many of which apply to welding and cutting
gases and their mixtures.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
345 E. 47th St. International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
New York, NY 1O01 7 1430 Broadway
212-705-7722 New York, N Y 10018
This organization publishes codes and standards covering 2 12-642-4995
products that may be fabricated by welding, such as boil- This organization is similar to ANSI on an international
ers and pressure vessels, and pressure piping. scale. its documents are available through ANSI.
I
'i

472 APPENDIX D
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) Pipe Fabrication Institute (PFI)

2101 L Street, N.W. 1326 Freeport Road
Suite 300 Pittsburgh, PA 15238
Washington, DC 20037 41 2-782-1 624
'202-457-8400 This organization publishes documents used by the pip-
This organization publishes documents relating to the ing industry, including standards relating to the welding
manufacture of power sources, feeders, guns, labels, and of piping.
so on, for electric welding equipment. Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE)
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) 400 Commonwealth Drive
Batterymarch Park ' Warrendale, PA 15096
Quincy, MA 02269 41 2-776-4841
61 7-770-3000 This organization publishes many welding related do-
This organization publishes documents on the safe use cuments on automotive and aerospace topics. These
and installation of gas systems and equipment relating to documents cover materials, processes, and so on, used
welding and cutting. Its emphasis is on fire prevention. in welding and cutting.
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

INDEX
A
AAC (Air carbon arc cutting), 21 0-21 6 Aluminum oxide, 280, 281, 300, 301 Atomic hydrogen welding, 271, 282
air supply, 211, 213-214 Aluminum welding: AWS (American Welding Society), 11
burnback, 21 6 gas metal arc, 338 AWS codes and standards:
cables, 214 gas tungsten arc, 321-328 A 2.4, 69
constant current, 21 1 oxyfuel gas, 135 A 3.0, 51, 215
constant potential, 21 1 shielded metal arc, 188, 194 A 5.1, 22, 218
current range, 214, 215 American National Standards Association, A 5.20, 394
cutting angle, 21 5 see ANSI C 5.3,'216
description, 210 American Society of Mechanical Engineers, D 1.1, 48, 51-52, 412, 413
electrical power, 21 i see ASME AWS covered electrode specifications, 188,
electrodes, 211, 213, 214 American Welding Society, See AWS, 11 189
equipment, 212-214 Ampère, Andre-Marie, 91 Axis, weld, 52
gouging angle, 214 Ampere, definition, 91, 414 Ayrton, Hertha, 90
hazards, 212, 214 Anderson, Nelson E., 335
history, 2 10-2 11 Anode, 277 B
power source, 21 1 Anode spot, 280, 364
system operation, 214-21 6 ANSI (American National Standards Back blow, 107
torches, 212-213 Association), 11, 214 Backfire, 138, 140, 144, 158
trouble shooting, 216 ANSI aluminum classification, 35 Backhand travel, 52
typical conditions, 215-21 6 Antistick circuit, 360 Backing:
uses, 210, 212 AOC (oxygen arc cutting), 21 1 rings, 62-64
water supply, 214 Appearance test, 27 strips, 63
AC, see Alternating current Arc: weld, 87
Acetone, 124 blow, 107-1 09 weld symbol, 87, 89
Acetylene: energy, 287 Back seating of valves, 13 1
discovery of, 113 force, 13 Backstep welding, 68
flame properties, 117, 1 18 CMAW, 342-344 Backup bars, 62-63
hose nut, 128 CTAW, 280-281 Back weld, 87
lighter than air, 134 heat, 90, 106 Back weld symbols, 87, 89
storage, 124 length, self regulation of, 354 Balanced-pressuretorch, 122, 123
torch pressure, 122 noise, see Sound, arc Balanced wave current, 279, 288, 289
Acetylene cylinder: polarity effect, 106, 200-203, 209, 280- Basic joints, 55-57
construction, 124 281, 287-289, 302-303, 352-353, Basic positions and joints, 50-89
opening of valve, 125 414 distortion, 64-68
withdrawal rate, 125 power, -49, 90, 289, 302-303 joints, 55-57
Acetylene flame: root, 364 penetration factors, 57-64
carburizing, 121 SMAW, -179 positions, 50-54
decarburizing, 121 sound, 4, 281, 322, 337, 367 symbols, 69-89
excess, 121, 133 stabilizer, 300 Battery, 93, 103
neutral, 121 starts, 219, 296-297, 357-359 Bead sequence, 56
oxidizing, 121 Stops, 205, 298-299, 359-361 Benardos, Nikolai, 179
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
ACGIH (American Conference of strikes, 16 Bend tests, 37-38

Governmental Industrial Hygienists), Arcair, see AAC face, 37
273 Arc air cutting, see AAC guided, 37
Air carbon arc cutting, see AAC Arcless metal deposition, 341 root, 37
AISI-SAE steel classification, 32-34 Argon, 3, 274-275, 282, 283, 336, 338, side, 37
All around, weld symbol, 76, 77 344, 345-346, 363, 395 Bevel, 58
Alternating current, 93, 55, 198-200, 21 1, Armature, 95 Bevel angle, 49, 62
281, 288-289, 352 Arrow line, break in, 73 Bevel cutting, 148-1 51
Alternator, 95, 97, 201 Arrow side, symbol, 69 Bird's nest, 338-339, 357
Alumina, 300 ASME (American Society of Mechanical Braze welding, oxyacetylene, 166-1 71
Aluminum, see also Aluminum welding Engineers), 38-39 definition, 166
classification system, 35 ASME boiler and pressure vessel code, 38- fiat position, 167-1 68
I 39, 41-44, 48
temper (table), 35 beads, 167
' 1

INDEX
Braze welding, oxyacetylene, flat position Collet nut, 286 Cylinder, oxyfuel, 124-1 25
(Continued) Color of metal, table of, 26 care, 117
oxidizing flame, 167 Commutator, 97 carts, 130
V-groove butt, 167-1 68 Compressed Gas Association, see CCA handling, 141-142
horizontal position, 168-1 69 Concave fillet, 57 leak test connections, 131
lap joint fillet, 168 Conductivity: moving of, 130
T-joint, 168 electrical, 25 safe practices, 141-142
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
V-groove butt, 169 thermal, 25 storage, 124-1 25, 141
vertical position, 170-1 71 Conduits and lines, 339, 347-348 Cylinder valve:
T-joint, 170 Confined spaces, 8-9 care of, 130
V-groove butt, 170-1 71 Connections, electrical, 105 opening of, 125
Breakdown voltage, 290 care of, 207 Cylinder withdrawal rate, acetylene, 125
Breaking edges, 233 effect, 203
Brinell tester, 40 on slope, 105 D
Brittleness, 23 importanceof, 202
Brownouts, electrical, 208 Connections, oxyfuel gas hose, 128- Davy, Sir Humphrey, 90, 93
Bumps and bangs, 366-367 129 DC, see Direct current
Burnback, 338-339, 348, 367, 378, 408, Constant amperage power (CA), 1O1 Decarburizing flame, 121
409 Constant current power (CC), 100-1 01, Density, relative, 26
Butt joint, 55 198, 353 Department of Transportation, see DOT
Constant potential power (CR, 1ûû-101, Deposition efficiency, 41 1
C 353-355 Depressurizing oxyfuel gas systems, 143
Constant voltage power (CV), 1O1 Depth of preparation symbol, 80-83
Cables, 105 Consumables, critical variables, 49 Destructivetests, 36-44
condition, 203 Contact tip, 348, 358, 366-367 bend, 37
effect on arc, 202 Containers and pipes, hazards, 8 elongation, 39
effect on slope, 105 contamination, effect on weld, 19 hardness, 40
hazards, 9 Contour symbols, 76 impact, 40
Calcium carbide, 113 Convex fillet, 57 tensile, 38
Capacitor, 201 Cored wire welding, 385 Dimensional discrepancies, 18
CA power, 101, 354 Corner joint, 55 Dimensional tolerance, 19
Carbon arc cutting, 21O Coupon, 227 Dimensioning, groove weld symbols, 80-83
Carbon dioxide, 3, 336, 338, 344, 346, Covered electrode specifications, 188 Dimensions, critical variables, 49
364, 395,413 Covered electrode welding, see SMAW Diode, 97, 201
Carbon dioxide welding process, 333. See CP power, 101, 353 symbol, 96
also GMAW Cracking, 59 Dip transfer welding (GMAW-SI, 342
Carbon steel, 32-34. See also specific cold, 18 Direct current, 92, 93, 94, 96, 97, 200,
welding processes hot, 18 201, 211
Carburizing flame, 121 Cracking valves, 130, 142 Discontinuities, 15-1 8
Cathode, 277 Cracks, 45 Distortion, causes and cures, 64-68
Cathode sputtering, 280, 281 effect of, 18 DOT (Departmentof Transportation),
CC power, 101, 353 Crater cracks, (CTAW), 298 regulations for cylinders, 125
CGA (Compressed Gas Association), 11 Craters, filling (SMAW), 226 Downhand position, 52
Charpy V-notch test, 23, 40-41 Critical variables, 48-49, 207-208 Downhill method (SMAW), 234
Check valves, reverse flow, 129 arc length, 206 Down slope, 100
Chemical identity test, 29 consumables, 49 Drag angle, 218, 220
Chemical source of electricity, 93 current, 206 Drag technique, 192
Chipping hammer, 9-1 O dimensions, 49 Drive rolls, 350-351, 398-399
Chipping slag, 9-10 electrical, 49 Ductility, 23, 60
Chip test, 29 heat input, 49 Duty cycle, 102, 104, 200-201, 356
Choke, electric, 103 materials, 206 Dynamic power source characteristic, 102-
Circuit breakers and fuses, 106 polarity, 296 103
Classificationof metals, 32-35 travel speed, 2 i 6
AISI-SAE, steels, 32 Cups, gas, 286, 287
ANSI, aluminum, 35 Curie point, 26
E
Cleaning action, arc, 280, 281, 300-302 Current flow, direction, 93 Eddy current testing, 47
Cleaning torc I tips, 144-1 45 Current range, wire electrode, 355 Edge joint, 55
Closed-circuit voltage, 198 Cut examples, oxyfuel gas: Edge preparation, 58
C motion (SMAW), 223 bevel cuts, 151 Effective throat, 57
CO2, see Carbon dioxide straight cuts, 149 Elasticity, 23
Coffin, Charles Lewis, 179 Cutting, air carbon arc, see AAC Elastic limit, 25
Cold arcs, 90 Cutting, oxyfuel flame, 141-154 Electrical, critical variables, 49
Cold cracking, 18 Cutting torch tips, 144-145 Electrical conductivity, 25
Cold-wire addition, 275, 306 CV power, 101, 354 Electricity, chemical source of, 93
Collet, 285, 286 Cylinder, hazards, 1O Electric shock, 4, 6, 7, 8

INDEX 475
Electrode: deposition efficiency, 411 drive rolls, 416

AAC, 211, 213, 214, 215 development of, 385-386 dynamic response, 407, 411
coatings (SMAW), 185-1 87 drive roll adjustment, 400 electrode motion, 406
evolution, 185 electrode, electrical properties, 391 electrode tip resistance, 406
extension, 286, 341, 364-365 electrode classifications, 393-395 electrode variables, 412-41 3
functions, 185 carbon steel, 393-394 fuse starts, 405-406
reconditioning, 186, 187 low alloy steel, 394-395 gas force and spatter, 41O
types, 185 stainless steel, 395 ideal stop, 408
current ratings, (SMAW), 218 electrode construction, 390-392 important variables, 412-41 4
lead (SMAW), 183 electromagnetic pinch effect, 393 inductance, effect of, 407
packaging (SMAW), 187 equipment basics, 396-404 manual starts, 405
stickout, 286, 341 contact tips, 396 manual stops, 410
stuck to work (SMAW), 205 drive rolls, 396 moisture, effect of, 415
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
wet (SMAW), 183 electrode extension, 396 pinch effect, 41 1

Electrode melt rates, 340-341 fume extractors, 397 polarity, effect of, 414
arc portion, 340-341 gas shielding, 397 power source and spatter, 41 1
resistance heating portion, 341 guns, 396-398 problems and solutions, 415-41 7
Electromagnetic: insulated guides, 398 retract start, 407
induction, 93, 95 maintenance, 398 retract stop, 407
motor force, 362, 363 flux, effect on melt rate, 391-392 shielding gas, effect of, 414
pinch effect, 343, 363, 411 flux, effects on metal transfer, 392 travel speed, effect of, 413
testing, 47 flux actions, 386 voltage, effect of, 413
Electron flow, 93 flux problems, 390-391 weld spatter, 410-41 2
Electroplating, 91 gas evolution, 393 weld stops, 408-410
Elektron, 93 hazards, 387-388 ventilation, 389
Elongating holes, oxyfuel gas, 152 electrical, 387 welding of steel, 418-425
Elongation, 22, 39 fumes and gases, 387-388 flat position, 419-420
End effects, arc blow, 108 noise, 388 stringer pad, 419
Energy source, electric power, 92 radiation, 388 T-joint fillet, 419-420
Engine-driven generators, 201 shards, 389 V-groove butt joint, 420
Equipment repair, hazard, 1O spatter, 388 horizontal position, 421-422
Essential variables, 49, 207-208. See also liners, 400 T-joint fillet, 421
Critical variables melt rate, 390 V-groove butt joint, 422
SMAW, see SMAW, essential variables metal transfer, 392-393 overhead position, 424-425
EWP (pure tungsten electrode), 278, 279 polarity, 401-402 T-joint fillet, 424
Excess acetylene flame, 133, 135, 137 power source(s1, 386, 400-402 V-groove butt joint, 425
Excess oxygen flame, 133, 135, 137 cost, 401 vertical position, uphill, 422-424
Exhaust: requirements, 401 T-joint fillet, 422
ducts, 5 problems and solutions, 415-41 7 V-groove butt joint, 423-424
torches, 5 setup, typical, 402-404 wire feeders, 398-400
Explosions, 8, 9, 10 cost factors, 403 drive rolls, 398-399
Explosive starts, GMAW, 358 dynamic control, 403 feed force, 399
Extension, electrode, 286, 341 electrode current range, 403 FCC (Federal Communications
Extruded electrode coatings, 187 mix and match, 402 Commission), 276
options, 402 Federal CommunicationsCommission, see
F range of equipment, 402 FCC
wire feeder, 403-404 Feed rate, 350, 366
F-1, F-2, F-3, F-4 (SMAW electrode groups), shards, 389 Field weld symbol, 76, 78, 79
190-1 91 shielding gases, 395, 402, 413, 414 File test, table, 29
Face bend, 41-44 slag, 389 Fillet, intermittent (symbol), 79
test, 37 spatter, 389, 393 Fillet, positions, 51
Failure causes, 19-20 system operatign, 405-41 7 Fillet weld, 17
contamination, 19 adaptive control, 408-409 Filter, power source, 201
dimensional tolerances, 19 arc length and spatter, 412 Fires, 4, 7
heat treatment, 19 arc starts, 405-407 Fire watcher, 388
moisture, 19 cables and connectors, 4; 6-41 7 Flame:
welding rate, 19 clean wire tips, 405 by-products, 115
Fans, 5, 8 constant current power, 407 carburizing, 121
Faraday, Michael, 93, 94 constant potential power, 406, 407 characteristics, 120
FCAW (Fluxcored arc welding), 384-427 contact area, 406 color, 133
arc length effect, 4 13 contact tips, 415-416 cutting, 141-154
burnback, 400 control sequence, 408 decarburizing, 121
carbon dioxide, 413 current, effect of, 413 excess acetylene, 133
conduit, 400 current rise, rate of, 406-407 excess oxygen, 133
deep groove welding, 398 dirty wire, 415 force, 13

476 INDEX
Flame (Continued) burnback, 338-339, 348 V-groove butt joint, upward, 374-
neutral, 121, 133, 145 conduits, 339 375
oxidizing, 121 constant current power (CC), 353 short-circuit transfer, 343
primary, 120 constant potential power (CP), 353- sound, 337
properties, 1 17-1 18 355 spaghetti, ball of, 338-339
reducing, 121 critical factors, 334 spray transfer, 343-344
secondary, 120 drive rolls, 350-351 spray transfer arc, steel, 378-381
shape, 138 electrode melt rate, 340-341, 350 flat position, 379-380
soft, 138 equipment basics, 347-356 T-joint fillet, 379
stiff, 138 conduit, 347-348 V-groove butt joint, 379-380
temperature, 118, 120-1 21 contact tips, 348 horizontal position, 380-381
type, 120-1 21 feeding wire, 347-348 T-joint fillet, 380
type to use, 137 liners, 347-348 V-groove butt joint, 380-381
for unknown metal, 137 welding guns, 347-349 systems operation, 357-368
Flashback, 129, 138, 140, 144, 158 equipment options, 356 arc starts, 357-359
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Flashback arrestor, 129 feed rate, 350, 354 problems and solutions, 366-367
Flat position, 52 gas cups, 348 spatter, 361-364
Fluoride, flux containing, 136 globular transfer, 342-343 stability, 361-364
Flux, braze welding, 166 hazards, 336-339 transition current, 344
Flux, effect on porosity, 14 electrical, 336, 338-339 variables, important, 364-365
Flux, oxyfuel gas process, 117, 135, 136 fumes and gases, 336-337 water cooled guns, 349
Flux-cored arc welding process, see FCAW noise, 337 wire current range, 355
Flux-cored wire, definition, 385 radiation, 337, 338 wire feeders, 350-352, 355-356
Foot control, power source, 297 spatter, 338 wraparounds, 338-339
Forehand travel, 52 history of, 333-335 GMAW-S (Short circuiting transfer), 343
Forward blow, 107 ideal stop, 360 Gouging, see AAC
Fracture test, 29 metal rate, 340, 350 Grain size, effect, 20
Franklin, Benjamin, 93 arc portion, 340-341 Great battery, 90, 93
Freeze rate, effect on porosity, 15 resistance, heat portion, 341 Groove, shapes, 58
Friction lighter, 133 metal transfer, 342-344 Groove angle symbols, 86
Fuels, oxyfuel gas process, 1 17-1 19 polarity and effects, 353 Groove positions, 50
Fume: power sources (supplies), 352-355 Ground:
collectors, 5 process basics, 336-346 clamp, 183, 198
extractors, 388, 397 pulse transfer, 344 effect, 107, 108
relative levels, 387 robotics, 356 electric, 107, 183-1 84, 198
Fumes and gases, 4 self regulation, 354-355 GTAW (Gas tungsten arc welding), 271-330
hazard, 3 setups, typical, 355-356 anode, 277
precautionary measures, 4 duty cycles, 356 anode spot, 280
Fumes and gases, oxyfuel gas process, 1 15 equipment ranges, 355 arc, 280
Fuse action, 4, 362, 367 guns, 356 arc noise, 281
Fuse plugs, 125 wire feeders, 355-356 balanced wave, 279, 288, 289
Fuses and circuit breakers, 106 shielding gases, 345-346 cables, 293-294
Fuse start, GMAW, 357-358 air, 345 cathode, 277
Fusion, incomplete, causes of, 16, 46 argon, 345-346 cathode spot, 280
carbon dioxide, 346 cleaning action, 280, 3.00-302
G helium, 346 collet, 285
hydrogen, 346 collet nut, 286
Galvani, Luigi, 93 mixtures, 346 constant potential power (CP),289
Gamma rays, inspection, 45 oxygen, 346 conventional current (CC), 289
Gaps and spaces, 58 short-circuiting arc, steel, 368-377 cracter cracks, 298
Gas cups, 286, 287, 348 flat position, 369 current types, 289
Gases, produced by welding, 3 stringer pad, 369 equipment, 285-295
Gas leaks, oxyfuel gas process, 1 17 T-joint fillet, 369-370 filler metal, 305-306
Gas lens, 287 V-groove butt joint, 370-371 gas backup, 284
Gas metal arc welding, see GMAW horizontal position, 371-372 gas cups, 286, 287
Gas mixtures, 346, 365 T-joint fillet, 371-372 gas mixtures, 284
Gas regulators, see Regulator, gas, 126-1 27 V-groove butt joint, 372 gas shielding, 282-284
Gas tungsten arc welding, see GTAW overhead position, 376-377 hazards, 273-277
Generators, 94, 95, 201 T-joint fillet, 376 electric shock, 274, 275-276
Gibson, Glenn J., 335 V-groove butt joint, 376-377 gas shielding, 274-275
Globular transfer, 342 vertical position, 373-376 high frequency, 276
GMAW (Gas metal arc welding), 332-383 T-joint fillet, downward, 374 moisture, 274
aluminum welding, 338 T-joint fillet, upward, 373 noise, 274
arc, 342-344 V-groove butt joint, downward, 375- oxygen, 274
bird’s nest, 338-339 376 ozone, 273

INDEX 477
H 1
radiation, 273 Hammers, chipping, 9-10 Identification, color of metal, table, 26
radioactivity, 276 Hardness, 23 Identity tests, metal, 27-31
water, 274 Hardness test, 27-28, 40 appearance, 27
high frequency units (ho, 290-292 file test, 29 chemical, 29
important variables, 302-304 Hardness tester, 23 chip, 29
material, effects of, 281 Brinell, 40 file, 29
moisture, 283 Rockwell, 23-24 fracture, 29
noises, 281 HAZ (heat affected zone), 59-60 hardness, 27
polarity, 280-281, 287-289, 302-303 Hazardous Substances Fact Sheet, see MSD magnetic, 27
postflow shielding, 299 Sheet spark, 29-31
power response, 289, 303 Hazards: ignition procedure, oxyfuel gas torch, 145
problems and solutions, 304-306 cables and hoses, 9 Impact tester, 40
process basics, 273-284 chipping slag, 9-10 Important variables, GTAW, 302-304
runoff tabs, 299 confined spaces, 8-9 Impulse generator, 300
shielding gas, 294-295, 304-305 containers and pipes, 8 Inadequate penetration, 16, 46
spitting tungsten, 296 electric shock, 4 Inch down, 352
starting problems, 296-297 explosion, 8, 9 Incomplete fusion, 16, 46
Stops, 298-299 fumes and gases, 3 Inductance extra (chokes, dynamic reactor,
system operation, 296-306 heat and fatigue, 8 inductor, reactors, stabilizer, weld
torches, 285-287 hidden, 8 stabilizer), 103
trailing shields, 284, 305 horseplay, 10 Inductor, 103, 201, 360, 363
travel speed, effect of, 303-304 ladders, 10 Infrared radiation, 3, 115, 181, 378
unbalancedwave power, 279, 288, major, 3 injector-type torch, 123
289 noise, 3 inner flame, see Primary flame
uses of, 272 radiation, 3 Inspection and testing, 36-49
water cooled cables, 294 spatter and sparks, 4 critical variables, 48-49
GTAW, welding aluminum, 321-328 water and moisture, 9 destructive tests, 36-44
alternating current, 321 Hazards, process: nondestructivetests, 44-48
filler metal addition, 322, 323 air carbon arc process, 212 Interlocks, gas and water, 106
flat position, 322-323 flux-cored arc process, 387-388 intermittent fillet, 79
square groove butt joint, 323 gas metal arc process, 336-337 Intermittent welds, 66
stringer beads, 322 gas tungsten arc process, 273-275 / 2 R heating, 337-338
T-joint fillet, 321-322 oxyfuel gas process, 115-1 16 Izod test, 40
horizontal position, 324-325 shielded metal arc process, 181-1 82
square groove butt joint, 324-325 Hearing damage, 6 J
T-joint fillet, 324 Heat affected zone, see HAZ
Joint parts, 57
overhead position, 327-328 Heat and fatigue, 8
Joint variations, 56
square groove butt joint, 328 Heat input, critical variables, 49
T-joint fillet, 327 Heat treatment, effect on weld, 20
vertical position, uphill, 325-326 Heliarc, see GTAW, 271 K
square groove butt joint, 326 Helium, 271, 282, 346 Kerf, cut, 148
T-joint fillet, 325 Hf, see High frequency systems Keyhole technique (OAW), 159, 228-229,
GTAW, welding steel plate, 308-328 High-frequency systems, 276, 290-292, 239
filler metal addition, 308-309 301 Kjellberg, Oscar, 180
flat position, 308-31 1 High voltage start, GTAW, 290 Krypton, 282
outside corner joint, 309 Holder safety, SMAW, 202
stringer beads, 308-309 Hole piercing, oxyfuel gas, 151-1 52 L
T-joint fillet, 310-31 1 Horizontal position, 53
V-groove butt joint, 31 1 Horseplay, 1O Label, oxyfuel gas precautionary:
horizontal position, 31 2-31 4 Hose, GTAW, 282, 283 fluoride flux, 136
outside corner joint, 312-313 Hose, oxyfuel gas, 127-1 29 general use, 116
T-joint fillet, 31 3 colors, 129 Label, precautionary, 3, 4, 116, 136
V-groove butt joint, 314 connections, 129, 131 Ladders, 10
keyhole technique, 309, 31 1 fittings, 128 Lag angle, 2 15
overhead position, 31 7-320 markings, 128 Lap joint, 55
outside corner joint, 318 size, 128 Lead angle, 220, 221
T-joint fillet, 318-319 Hose, hazards, 9 Leak, check of:
V-groove butt joint, 31 9-320 Hot arcs, 90 cylinder connections, 131
touch starting, 308 Hot cracking, 18 hose, 129
vertical position, 31 5-31 7 Hot-start current, GTAW, 297 oxyfuel system, 143
outside corner joint, 315 Hot-wire addition, GTAW, 306 torch valves, 1 38-1 39
T-joint fillet, 315-316 Hot-wire deposition, 341, 342 Leak tests, 48
V-groove butt joint, 3 16-3 1 7 Hydrogen, 271, 282, 300, 346 Lighting up, oxyfuel gas flame, 132, 133
Guided bend test, 37 Hydrogen cracking, 19 Linde Air Products Company, 271
Guns, welding, 356 effect of, 15 Liquid penetrant inspection, 45
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

INDEX
478
M
Muller, Albert, 335 pipe horizontal (SC), 174
Macrostructures, 61
Multiple reference lines, symbol, 76, 78 pipe vertical (ZC), 173
MAC (Metal active gas), 333. see a h
vertical position, 161-163
CMAW
fillet, 163
Magnetic flux, 385
Magnetic particle inspection, 44-45 N outside corner, downhill, 162
outside corner, uphill, 161
Magnetic test, 27 , National Bureau of Standards, see NBS square groove butt, 162-1 63
Maintenance, 10 National Electrical Manufacturers weave patterns, 156
Malleability, 23 Association, see NEMA
Material identificationtests, 27-31 Odorizer, shielding gas, 275
National Fire Protection Assn. See NFPA OFC and OFW (oxyfuel cutting and
appearance test, 27 Natural gas, flame properties, 117, 188
chemical test, 29 weldine):
NBS (National Bureau of Standards), 91 basics, 115-1 21
chip test, 29 NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturen combustion products, 115
fracture test, 29 Association), 11, 102, 352 cutting, 146-151
hardness test, 27 nameplate, 200
magnetic test, 27 bevel, 148-1 51
power source classification, 102, 104 equipment, 146
spark test, 29-31 power source sizes, 104 examples, 149
table of, 28 Neon, 282 operator stance, 150
Materials, 21-35 Neutral flame, 121
classification systems, 32-35 straight, 146-1 48
adjustment, 133 cylinders, 124-1 25
identificationtests, 27-31 cutting, 145 fire prevention, 115
mechanical factors, 21-24 welding, 135
physical factors, 25-26 flame by-products, 115
NFPA (National Fire Protection Association), flame light up, 132
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSD Sheet), 11
118-1 19 fluxes, 117
Nitrogen, 284 fuels, 117-1 19
Mechanical properties, 21-23 Nitrogen oxides, 3
brittleness, 23 fumes and gases, 115
Noise, 6 gas leaks, 117
ductility, 23 arc, 4, 281, 322 hazards, 115-1 16
elasticity, 23 hearing damage, 6
hardness, 23 history, 113-1 14
protedive measures, 6 hole elongation, 152
malleability, 23 sources, 4, 6
notch toughness, 23 hole piercing, 151-1 52
Nondestructivetests, 44-48 infrared radiation, 115
strain, 21 eddy current, 47
strength, 22 pipe bevels, 152-1 54
leak, 48 pipe cutting, 152-1 54
stress, 21 liquid penetrant, 45
yield strength, 22 precautionary label, 115-1 16
magnetic particle, 44-45 setup, 130-1 31
Melting points, 26 proof, 47
Melt rate, 350, 366. See also CMAW system operation, 132-140
radiographic, 45 system shutdown, 134-1 35
Melt-through symbol, 76 ultrasonic, 46-47
Meredith, Russell, 271 torch, 122-1 23
Notch, effect of, 17 Ohm, definition, 91, 91-92
Metal active gas process (MAC), see Notch toughness, 23
CMAW; MAC Ohm, Ceorg Simon, 91
Nozzle, gas, see gas cups Ohm?slaw, 92, 100
Metal grains, 20 Nubs, backing ring, 64
Metal inert gas process (MIG), see CMAW; Olszewski, Stanislaus, 179
MIG Open-circuit voltage, 198
Metal transfer, CMAW, 342-344 OSHA, 10, 183
O OSHA, Material Safety Data Sheet, 119
Metal transfer, SMAW, 192-1 94
Methane, see Natural gas OAW (oxyacetylenewelding): Other information, symbol, 78
Methylacetylene-propadiene stabilized, see carbon steel, 155-1 65 Other side, symbol, 69
MPS defects, 156-1 57 Outer flame, see Secondary flame
Microporosity, 14 flat position, 155-1 59 Overhead position, 54
Microstructures, 59-60 outside corner, 157, 158 Overlap, 17
Microwire welding, 342. See also CMAW square groove butt, 159 Overwelding, 18
MIC (Metal inert gas), 333. See also CMAW horizontal position, 159-1 60 Oxidizing flame, 121
Mismatch, 18 fillet, lap joint, 160 Oxidizing flame, braze welding, 167
Moisture effects, 14-1 5, 19, 60, 415 outside corner, 159 Oxyacetylene braze welding, 166-1 7 1
Morehead, JamesT., 113 square groove butt, 160 definition, 166
Morton, Harry D., 334 overhead position, 164-165 Oxyacetylene welding, see OAW
Motor-generators, 201 fillet, 165 Oxyfuel gas welding and cutting, see OFC;
Moveable coil transformer, 199 outside corner, 164 OFW
MPS (Methylacetylene-propadiene square groove butt, 164 Oxygen:
stabilized) flame properties, 117, 118, pipe joints, 172-1 74 characteristics, 116
119 sidewall melting, 165 hose nut, 128
MSD (Material Safety Data) Sheet, 118-1 19, V-groove joint: regulator adjustment, 143
183 pipe horizontal (1G),172 shielding gas mixtures of, 346
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---

INDEX
storage, 125 Power source: Pressurizing:

torches, use with, 122-1 23 air carbon arc cutting, 211 oxyfuel gas systems, 132-1 33, 142-1 43
Oxygen arc cutting, see AOC CMAW, 352-355 regulators, 127
Ozone, 3, 273 CTAW, 287-289 Primary circuit, 199
Ozone, effect on hose, 135 SMAW, 198-201 Primary coil, 199
Power source filter, 201 Primary flame, 120
P Power source nameplate, 200 Primary winding, transformer, 95
Power sources, general, 90-1 O6 Product safety data sheet, see MSD Sheet
Patts of welds and joints, 57 alternating current, 92 Proof tests, 47-48
Peening, 68 control types, 97-99 hydrostatic, 48
Penetration, SMAW, 193 electrical, 97 kerosene, 48
Penetrationfactors, 12, 57-64, 200, 201 mechanical, 97 pneumatic, 48
arc force, 13 waveshape, 99 Propane, flame properties, 117, 118
backup bars, 62-63 current flow, 93 Propylene, flame properties, 117, 118, 119
backing ring, 62-64 definitions: Protective clothing, 5
edge preparation, 58 ampere, 90-91 Puddle:
flame force, 13 ohm, 90-91 arc force, 13
gaps and spaces, 58 volt, 90-91 flame force, 13
inadequate, 16, 46 wan, 92 heat losses, 13
polarity, effect of, 200, 201 devices, 94-97 penetration, 57, 58
preheating, 59-60 alternators, 95 position, 12, 50
puddle, 57 generators, 95 size, 12, 13
tacking, 60 rectifiers, 96 steel, 13
V, J, U grooves, 58 transformers, 95 Puddle defects, 15-1 8
Phase shift, high frequency, 292 energy sources, 93-94 arc strikes, 16
Phosgene, 5 chemical, 93 cracks, 18
Phosphine, 5 mechanical, 93 dimensional discrepancies, 18
Photocells, 94 power stations, 94 inadequatepenetration, 16
Physical factors, material, 25-26 solar panels, 94 incomplete fusion, 16
color, 26 Ohm's law, 92 mismatch, 18
density, 26 problems, 105-1 06 overlap, 17
electrical conductivity, 25 cables, 105-1 06 overwelding, 18
magnetic, 26 connections, 105 poor profile, 17
melting points, 26 fuses and circuit breakers, 106 porosity, 15
thermal conductivity, 25 polarity, 106 slag inclusions, 16
thermal expansion, 25 staticddynamics, 102-1 04 tungsten inclusion; 16
Pilot arcs, 306 duty cycle, 104 undercut, 17
Pinch effect, 343, 363 dynamic characteristics, 103 Puddles, aluminum, 13
Pipe beveling, oxyíuel gas, 152-1 54 sizes of sources, 104 Pull gun technique, 52
Pipe cutting, oxyfuel gas, 152-1 54 volt-ampere characteristics, 99-1 02 Puise power, 99, 365
Pipes and containers, hazards, 8 constant current (CC), 101 Pulse transfer, 344
Plasma, 277 constant potential (CP), 101 Purge, oxyfuel gas systems, 143
Plastic clothes, potential hazards, 5 curves, 100 Purging, 284
Plug weld, 55 NEMA classifications, 102 Push angle, 215
Polarity: slop, 100-101
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
arc, 106 Power supply, see Power sources 0

effect: Precautionary label, for oxyfuel gas
on melt rate, 353 process: Quick quench, 59
on penetration, 200, 201 equipment, 116
on safety, 202-203 flux, 136 R
on system, 414 materials, 116
Porosity, 14-1 5,45, 360 Precautionary measures, 4 Radiation hazards, 3, 5-6
Positions, basic, 50-54 electric shock, 6 infrared, 3
backhand travel, 52 fumes and gases, 4 precautionary measures, 5-6
downhand, 52 label,' 4 ultraviolet, 3
flat, 52 noise, 6 visible light, 3
forehand travei, 52 radiation, 5 Radioactivematerial, 276
horizontal, 53 spatter and sparks, 7 Radiographic inspection, 45-46
overhead, 54 Precautions and safe practices, 3-1 1 Reactive metals, 284
puddle, 50 Preheat flame, 145, 147-148 Reactor, welding, 103, 363
standard, 50 Preheating, 59-60 Rectifier, 96, 201
vertical down, 53 Prepositioning, 49, 62, 66-67 Reducing flame, 121
vertical up, 53 Pressure-adjusting screw, 126, 127 Reference line, symbol, 69, 70, 76, 78
Postflow shielding, 299, 361 Pressure gauge, 127 References, symbol, 75

INDEX
Refractory oxide, 300 Short arc welding (CMAW-S), 342 stringer beads, 220, 223, 224
Regulator, gas, 126-1 27 Short-circuittransfer, 342-343 system cost, 194
care, 127 Shutdown, oxyfuel gas system, 134-135 uses, 194-195
connections, 130 Side bend, 4144 SMAW, pipe welding, 254-267
filters, 127 Side bend test, 37-38 45' angle (6G),265-267
leak testing, 127 Sidewall melting, OAW, 165 downhill, 265-266
operation, 126-1 27 SIGMA (shielded inert gas metal arc), 333. uphill, 266-267
pressurizing, 127, 130-1 31 See also GMAW horizontal, not rotated (SG),261-264
purpose, 126 Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR), 97-98 downhill, 262-264
shut-off, 134 Sine wave, 95, 99 uphill, 261-262
single-stage, 126 Singlestage regulator, 126 horizontal, rotated (lG),257-258
two-stage, 126-1 27 Slag, 9-10 preparationfor, 254-257
Resistivity, 341, 357 Slag inclusion, 16,45 alignment, 255-257
Restarting SMAW, 205 Slag removal, SMAW, 192 beveling, 254-255
Retract start, 359 Slavinoff, N., 179 bit UP, 255-257
Retract stop, 361 Slope, power supply, 354 positions, 256, 257
Reverse-flow check valve, 129, 131 Slope, volt-ampere, 100 tacking, 255-257
Reverse polarity, 200, 201 Slope control, 363 vertical (2G),258-260
RMA (Rubber Manufacturer Association), 5iot weld, 55 SMAW, plate welding, 21 7-243
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
128 SMAW (shielded metal arc welding): crater fill, 226

Rms ampere, 92 arc force, 193 drag technique, 225
Robot, 360,409 current type, 200 flat position, 21 7-229
Rockwell hardness tester, 23-24, 40 drag technique, 192 outside corner joint, 228-229
Root bend, 37,41-44 effect of: square groove butt joint, 227-228
Root face, 49, 58 current settings, 208 stringer beads, 220
Root gap, 63 electrode condition, 208-209 T-joint fillet, 224-226
Root of joint, 16 polarity, 209 horizontal position, 229-234
Root-mean-square, 92 voltage settings, 208 lap joint fillet, 229
Root opening, 49, 63 electrode open root, V-groove butt joint, 233
symbols for, 83-85 cavity, 192-1 93 single bevel butt joint, 232
Root pass, 148 classification, 187-1 89 stringers, 230
Royal Institution, 90,93 coatings, 183 T-joint fillet, 229, 230
Rubber hose, effect of ozone, 135 cup, 191 overhead position, 239-243
Rubber Manufacturer Association, see RMA current ratings, 218 open root, V-groove butt joint,
Runoff tabs, 299 designations, 188, 189 242-243
dimensions, 188, 195 T-joint fillet, 240
S F groups, 188-191 V-joint butt joint, 241-242
length, 188, 195 tap starting, 225
SAE-AISI designation, 32-33 moisture effect, 208 vertical position, 234-239
Safety, process, see Hazards selection, 189-1 92 T-joint fillet, downhill, 237
Safety glasses, 5 equipment, 196-203 T-joint fillet, uphill, 235
shade selection, 5-6 essential variables, 221-223 V-groove butt, uphill, 237, 238
Safety information, sources 10 arc length, 221 SMAW, sheet metal, 244-253
SCR (Silicon controlled rectifier), 97-98 current, 221 box, Six sided, 252-253
Scrap zone, cutting, 153 effects of, 222 flat position, 244-245
Scratch start, GMAW, 358-359 electrode angle, 221 outside corner joint, 244-245
Scratch start, SMAW, 204 electrode size, 221 horizontal position, 246-247
Secondary circuit, 199 travel speed, 221 lap joint fillet, 247
Secondary coil, 199 hazards, 181-1 82 T-joint fillet, 246-247
Secondary flame, 120 electric shock, 182 overhead position, 250-252
Secondary winding, transformer, 95 fumes and gases, 181 lap joint fillet, 250-251
Self-regulation, arc length, 354-355 radiation, 181 outside corner joint, 251-252
Shielded inert gas metal arc process spatter and sparks, 181 16 gauge limit, 244
(SIGMA), 333. See also GMAW stubs, 181 vertical position, downhill, 248-250
Shielded metal arc welding, see SMAW holders, 196-1 97 lap joint fillet, 249-250
Shielding gas: holder safety, 202 outside corner joint, 248-249
argon, 3 limitations, 195 Soft flames, 138
FCAW, use with, 414 metal transfer, 193-1 94 Solar panels, 94
GMAW, use with, 365 penetration, 193 Solvents, effect of radiation, 5
GTAW, use with, 284 power source, 198-201 Sound, arc, 367
hazard, 3 problems, 207-209 Spacers, 62
use, 1 scratch starts, 21 9 Spaghetti, ball of, 338-339, 357
Ship compartments, 8 slag removal, 192 Spalling, 184
Shock, electric, see Electric shock striking an arc, 219 Spark test, 29-30

INDEX 481
Spatter and instability, 361-364 intermittent, 79 Tracer gas, test, 48

arc forces, 363-364 other information, 78 Trailing shield, GTAW, 284, 305
fuse action, 363 references, 75 Transformer, 95, 97, 198, 199
gases, trapped, 362 supplementary, 75 electrical control, 97
splashing, 362-363 gurfacing, 89 function, 199
Spatter and sparks, 4 welding symbol, 69 mechanical control, 97
protective measures, 7 weld symbol, 69 moveable coil, 199
Spray transfer, 334, 343-344, 365 primary coil, 199
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---
Square wave current, 279 T secondary coil, 199

Stabilizer, arc, 300 step down, 198
Stabilizer, weld, 103, 363 Tack welds, 60-62 Transformer, sliding brush, 97
Stainless steel, SMAW electrodes, 189 Tap start, SMAW, 204 Transformer-rectifier, 201
Standard cell, 91 Temper designation, aluminum, 35 Transformer taps, 97
Standard positions, 50-52 Temporary threshold shift, 6 Transition current, 343, 365
Starting block, 297 Tensile strength, 21 Travel speed, effect on FCAW, 413414
Starts, explosive GMAW, 358 Tensile test, 38 Travel speed, effect on GMAW, 365
Starts, GTAW: Tensile tester, 21 Travel speed, effect on heat input, 49
high voltage, 290 Test: Travel speed, effect on porosity, 15
torch, 290 Charpy, 24 Triangle weave (SMAW), 236
Static charges, GTAW, 296, 297 hardness, 23 Trisodium phosphate, 135
Static electricity, 91 Izod, 24 Tubular wire, 385
Static power source characteristic, 102 tensile, 22 Tungsten:
Steady rest, 2 15 U-bend, 23 electrodes, 277-279
Steel, classification system, 32-34 Test positions 1G-4G, 1 F-4F, 50-51 current rating, 279
Steel, oxyfuel gas cutting, 146-151 Tests, metal identification, 27-31 emissive, 278
beveled cuts, 148-1 51 appearance, 27 polarity, effect of, 277-279
equipment, 146 chernical, 29 thoriated, 278, 279
straight cuts, 146-148 chip, 29 tip shapes, 277, 278
Steel welding, 155-1 65, 308-328, fracture, 29 zirconiated, 278, 279
368-381,418-425 hardness, 27 oxide, 274, 282
Stepath, Myron D., 210 magnetic, 27 radioactive, 276
Stepdown transformer, 198 spark, 29-31 spitting, 296
Stickout, electrode, 286, 341 Thales, of Miletus, 93 tungsten electrode, 16, 321, 323
Stick welding, see SMAW, 179 Thermal conductivity, 25 tungsten inclusion, 16, 46
Stiff flames, 138 Thermal expansion, 26 Tungsten inert gas process (TIC) 271. See
Stopping, SMAW, 205 Thoria, 276, 278, 279, 290 also GTAW
Storage, oxyfuel gas, 124-1 25 Thoriated tungsten electrodes, 278, 279 Two-stage regulator, 126-1 27
Straight polarity, 200, 201 Thorium, see Thoria
Strain, 21 Throat, weld, 57 U
Strength: TIC (tungsteninert gas process), 271. See
factors, 1 also GTAW U-bend test, 23
metal, 22 Tinning, 136 Ultrasonic inspection, 46-47
tensile, 22 Titanium, 284, 302 Ultraviolet GTAW, 297
yield, 22 T-joint, 55 Ultraviolet radiation, 3, 5, 181, 338, 378
Stress, 21 Torch, air carbon arc cutting process, 21 2 Unbalanced wave current, 279, 288, 289
Striking an arc, SMAW, 204 Torch, oxyfuel gas process, see also OFC; Undercut, 17, 46, 54, 379, 380, 381
Stringer beads, 67 OFW Underwelding, 18
Stringer pad, 53 balanced pressure type, 122 Uphill method (SMAW), 234
Striped tungsten electrode, 278, 279 connections, 131 Upset, 64
Stubout, 366, 408, 409 gas adjustment, 133 u p slope, 100
Supplementary symbols, 75-76, 78 gas pressure limits, 122, 124, 131
Surface tension, 13, 48, 58, 192, 234, 342, ignition, 132 V
344, 345, 365, 367, 392 injector type, 123
Surfacing weld symbol, 88-89 pressurizationof, 132-1 33 VA curve, 100
Surge injector, 300 shutoff, 134 Valve, cylinder, 125, 130
Swaging, 139 valve, leak check, 138-1 39 Variable polarity current, 288
Symbols, welding, 69-89 Torch exhaust system, 5 Ventilation, 9, 181
all around, 76, 77 Torch tips (OAW, OFC, OFW), 123 exhaust ducts, 5
arrow side, 69 cleaning, chemical, 140 fan, 5, 8
back weld, 87 cleaning, mechanical, 140, 144-1 45 torch exhaust, 5
dimensioning, 78, 80, 83 construction, 139 Vertical position (up, down), 52, 53
extent of welding, 78 fouling, 135 Volt, definition, 90-91
fillet, 71, 74, 75, 78, 79 types, 139 Volta, Allesandro, 91, 93
groove, 72, 73, 74, 80 Touch start, GTAW, 290 Voltage control, transformer, 97

482 INDEX
Voltaic pile, 91 Weld stops, 298-299, 359-371, 408, 410 Workpiece contact, 203
Volt-ampere characteristics, 99-102 Weld zone, 12-20 Wormhole porosity, 14
Wetting action, 137 WPS (Welding procedure specification), 207
Whipping motion (SMAW), 224, 229 Wraparounds, 338-339, 351
W Willson, Thomas L., 113
Wandering sequence, 68 Wire, dirty, 415
Water and moisture hazard, 9 Wire electrode current range, 355 X
Watt, definition, 92 Wire feeder, FCAW, 398-400
Waveshape control, 97, 98-99 Wire feeder, CMAW, 350-352, 366 X-ray inspection, 4 5 4 6
Weave beads, 67, 228-229 controls, 351-352
Weld axis, 52 drive rolls, 350-351
Weld dimension symbols, 78 failures, 351 Y
Welding procedure specification, 207 features, 355-356
Welding puddle, 12-20 mechanisms, 350 Yield point, 22
Welding rate, effect on weld, 19 Wolfram, 278
Weldment, 15 Work clamp, 183, 184, 198, 416-417
Weld parts, 57 Work connection, 107, 416 4 17
Z
Weld profile, 17 Work lead, 183
Weld stabilizer, 363 Work lead effect, 107, 108 Zirconia, 278, 279, 290
Weld starts, 290, 296-297,357-358, Workpiece clamp, 106, 107, 183, 184, Zirconiated tungsten electrodes, 278, 279 .
405-406 198 Zirconium, see Zirconia
--`,``,,,`,``,,````,,,,`````,`-`-`,,`,,`,`,,`---


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Welding Processes and

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REVIEW EXERCISES 110

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C H A P T E R 6 OXYACETYLENE Lesson 58 Welding in the Horizontal Position 229

Lesson 1B Special Safety Considerations 183

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C H A P T E R 5 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC

Lesson 4C Welding in the Vertical Position,

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as their shapes and sizes. (See Figure

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If you have a fan to help blow

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ducts electricity, never weld in the

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chapter cannot cover all the hazards

HEAT AND FATIGUE

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When welding in a confined

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aDBdBECTHVEB n fl enough. When you use too much

CNNTROLLING THE PUDDLE

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moisture, especially. flux covering FRl<I.:%ERATE AND POROSITY EFFECTS OF POROSITY

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Excessive heat from using too

The shape of a weld when viewed

of the weld to allow the metal to fill

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Longitudinal crack Offset

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@BJJ€ECTJIVNS find their way to places in grain

and drive off surface moisture. Then

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FIGURE 3A.2 If sufficient stress is applied to metal, the

FIGURE S A 4 A specimen pulled beyond its yield point.

PIIGUIIBE 318.4 A specimen mounted in a tensile tester ready

STRENGTH FPQiiüJRE3A-5 A tensile specimen of a ductile material be-

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the elongation and reduction in DUCTILITY BRITTLENESS

specimen is made with a notch cut

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FIGURE 3A.10 Izod-Charpy testing machine. (Photograph

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1. Describe a simple test for deter- Relative

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TABLE 3c.i Summary of Some Metal Identification Tests

Copyright American Welding Society