The 

Hong Kong Polytechnic University 
Department of Electrical Engineering 

High Voltage Engineering
EE509
Prof. Derek S.W. Or

2016 / 2017
 Chapter 3  Breakdown of Liquid Insulation ...................................................................................... 3-1 
3.1  Introduction....................................................................................................................................... 3-1 
3.2  Purification and Breakdown Test ..................................................................................................... 3-2 
3.2.1  Purification ......................................................................................................................... 3-2 
3.2.2  Breakdown Test .................................................................................................................. 3-3 
3.3  Breakdown in Pure Liquids .............................................................................................................. 3-5 
3.4  Breakdown in Commercial Liquids .................................................................................................. 3-7 
3.4.1  Breakdown due to Gas Bubbles ......................................................................................... 3-8 
3.4.2  Breakdown due to Water Droplets ..................................................................................... 3-9 
3.4.3  Breakdown due to Solid Particles..................................................................................... 3-12 
3.4.4  Power Law Dependence between Breakdown Voltage and Gap Distance ...................... 3-13 
3.5  References....................................................................................................................................... 3-14

EE509 High Voltage Engineering v

Chapter 3
Breakdown of Liquid Insulation

3.1 Introduction

Pure liquids are chemically pure, structurally simple, and do not contain impurities even in traces of 1 in 109.
Commercial liquids are not chemically pure and normally contain impurities.

In highly purified liquids, the dielectric breakdown strengths are on the order of 1,000 kV/cm. This order of
magnitude is not only several times higher than the preferred high pressure gases (e.g., ~250 kV/cm for SF6), but
also several ten times larger than that of air (30 kV/cm) at both room temperature (20 ºC) and atmospheric pressure
(760 torr). The basic breakdown mechanisms of this type of liquid insulation can be described by the ones used for
gaseous insulation.

Under actual service conditions, liquids are easily contaminated by the presence of impurities such as “gas
bubbles”, “water droplets”, “solid (dust) particles”, etc. In fact, gases may dissolve from the liquids and form gas
bubbles. Since these gas bubbles have lower dielectric breakdown strengths than their parental liquids, and if more
gases are dissolved, more gas bubbles are formed and ultimately cause breakdown. Water droplets may experience
shape instability, become elongated, and eventually bridge the two electrodes under applied electric fields. Solid
(dust) particles may line up in the applied field direction, causing a local enhancement of electric fields and giving
rise to breakdown at relatively low field levels. Fortunately, as the line-up action needs time to establish,
breakdown may not occur with short duration pulses (<10 μs).

Because of the tendency to become contaminated at elevated temperatures and prolonged operating cycles,
commercial liquids are not usually used alone in continuously energized equipment with an electric field stress
>100 kV/cm. At elevated stress levels of 100–200 kV/cm, they act as barriers to fill up the voids in solid dielectrics.
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3
3.2 Purifiication an d Breakdo
own Test

3
3.2.1 Puriffication

Fig. 3.1 shows

s a closeed-cycle liquiid purification system to prepare puriffied liquids by b removing the main
i
impurities in unpurified liq quids containing impurities such as gass bubbles (O2, CO2, N2, H2, etc.), waterr droplets,
s
solid (dust) paarticles, etc. First,
F the unpu
urified liquid stored in the reservoir is subject
s to a distillation
d pro
ocess by a
d
distillation co
olumn to rem move solid (du ust) particles of relatively heavy massees and large sizes,
s but to allow the
g
gases, water vapor,
v and smmall-light solidd (dust) particcles to flow in
nto a cooling tower
t unction with the liquid
in conju
v
vapor. Second d, the gases arre pumped ou ut by a degasssing process with
w a vacuum m pump; the water
w vapor iss removed
b a drying process using drying agentss, vacuum dry
by ying or freezin ng out in a lo
ow-temperaturre bath; the sm mall-light
s
solid (dust) paarticles are removed by a filtration
f proceess using filteers upon the condensation
c of
o the liquid vvapor into
l
liquid. With further
f degasssing, some off the purified liquid can bee used in a tesst cell for breakdown test. The used
l
liquid, after being degassed d, flows back into the reserrvoir.

Fig. 3.1 A closed-cycle

c liq
quid purificattion system wiith test cell.
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3.2.2 Break
kdown Tes t

The breakkdown test forr liquid dielecctrics is commmonly conductted using a test cell. For pu ure liquids, thhe test cell
i generally in
is ntegrated withh a liquid puriification systeem similar to the one in Figg. 3.1. The test cell is usuaally small,
a only smaall amount off liquid is reequired. Spheere electrodes of 0.5–1 cm
and m in diameterr with very small s gap
d
distances of 100–200 µm area used to red duce the test voltages
v to 50––100 kV. Parrallel-plane, unniform-field electrodes
e
a sometimes used. The gap
are g distance and a quality of o the electroddes have greaat influences on o the accuraacy of the
m
measurement. . The dielectrric breakdown n strengths of
o pure liquid ds are on the order of 1,00 00 kV/cm (Table 3.1).
T
These values are several tim
mes higher than those of coommercial liq quids (Table 3.2).

T
Table 3.1 Ma
aximum break
kdown strengths of some pu
ure liquids.

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T
Table 3.2 Electrical properrties of some commercial liq
quids.

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3.3 Break
kdown in P
Pure Liquiids

Fig. 3.2 sh hows the typical current growth

g curve of pure liquiids. Three disstinct regionss are observed d. At low
f
fields (<200 kV/cm),
k the presence
p of coonduction currrent is due too the dissociaation of ions. At intermediiate fields
(
(200–800 kV//cm), the cond duction currennt increases raapidly becausse the electron ns librated fro
om the cathodde by field
e
emission get multiplied in the liquid (o
or at the liquidd-impurity intterfaces) by a process sim milar to the To
ownsend’s
p
primary ionizzation processs in gases (aat uniform fiields and low w pressures). At high field ds (>800 kV V/cm), the
c
conduction cuurrent rises up
p even more greatly becauuse the libratted positive io ons reach thee cathode andd generate
s
secondary eleectrons by a process
p similaar to the Townnsend’s secondary ionizatio on process in gases. The in ncrease in
c
conduction cu urrent by the Townsend-tyype ionization n processes continues
c till breakdown occurs
o (see Chapter
C 2,
S
Section 2.3). This type off breakdown is called the electronic breakdown,
b iinvolving the emission of electrons
e
either at the electrode surrface irregularrities or at th
he liquid-impu urity interfacces for fields >100 kV/cm m, and the
s
subsequent m
multiplication o electrons by the Townseend-type ionizzation processses, leading to
of o breakdown.

Fig. 3.2
2 Typical currrent growth cu
urve of pure liquids.
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 If the dissolved gases are
a electroneg gative in charaacter (like oxy
ygen gas), breakdown streess increases (Fig.
( 3.3).
S
Similarly, liqu
uid hydrostatiic pressure inccreases, break
kdown stress increases
i (Fig
g. 3.4).

Fig. 3.3 Effect

E of partia
al pressure of dissolved oxygen Fig. 3.4 Effecct of hydrosta
atic pressure on
o the
gas on
n the breakdoown stress of n-hexane.
n breakdoown stress of n-hexane.
n

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3.4 Breakdown in Commercial Liquids

Commercial liquids are not chemically pure and have impurities like gas bubbles, water droplets, solid (dust)
particles, etc. These impurities not only reduce considerably their breakdown strengths, but also influence greatly
their breakdown mechanisms. When breakdown occurs in these liquids, additional gases and gas bubbles are
evolved and solid decomposition products are formed. The electrode surfaces become rough, and explosive sounds
are produced due to the generation of impulsive pressure through the liquids. The breakdown phenomena in
commercial liquids vary significantly and depend highly on the nature of the containing impurities. They are
classified as follows:

(a) Breakdown due to Gas Bubbles – Gas bubbles have breakdown strengths much lower than their
parental liquids so that the gas inside the bubbles breaks down relatively easy and thus induces total
breakdown of the liquids.

(b) Breakdown due to Water Droplets – Water droplets have shape instability which produces elongation
under applied electric fields and leads to a total breakdown by forming a low resistance bridge of
droplets across the electrodes.

(c) Breakdown due to Solid (Dust) Particles – Solid (dust) particles lineup in the applied electric field
direction and cause local enhancement of electric fields in liquids, thereby initiating local breakdown
and hence total breakdown.

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3.4.1 Breakdown due to Gas Bubbles

Gas bubbles may exist in impure liquid dielectrics as a result of the dissolved gases, temperature and pressure
variations, or other causes. Once a gas bubble is formed, it will be forced and stressed in the direction of the
applied electric field E under the influence of the electrostatic force F by

1
∙ (3.1)
2 2

where r is the initial radius of the spherical gas bubble, is the relative permittivity of the liquid, and is the
relative permittivity of the gas inside the bubble.

As < , the electrostatic (negative) force tends to move the gas bubbles towards the regions of lower fields.
The gas bubbles will be moved continuously while undergoing continuous elongation with increasing field levels.
At a critical field level, the gas inside the bubbles (which has lower breakdown strength) breaks down, causing
decomposition of the liquid molecules into solid decomposition products and then producing total breakdown. The
critical electric field intensity can be expressed as
/
π 8
600 √cosh (3.2)
3
where = Surface tension (in N/m),
= Ratio of the longer to the shorter diameter of the gas bubble,

1,

1 , 2 1 ,
/
cosh , and

P = Hydrostatic pressure.

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3
3.4.2 Break
kdown due
e to Water D
Droplets

If an insullating liquid contains

c suspeended water (or other liquid) droplets, breakdown
b cann result from the shape
i
instability of the droplets ini the electricc field and thee subsequent formation off a low resistaance bridge of droplets
a
across the elecctrodes (Fig. 3.5).

Fig. 3.5 Brreakdown of siilicon oil due tto instability of

o a water dro
oplet in the eleectric field.

Due to thhe incompresssible nature, the droplets can elongatee and take th he shape of elongated
e sphheroids at
c
constant volum me under thee influence off the applied electric
e field. The critical electric
e field intensity
i prodducing the
s
shape instabillity can be wriitten as

π
600 (3.3)

w
where = Surrface tension (in N/m), r = Initial raadius of the sp
pherical droplet (in m),
= Relative permitttivity of the liquid, = Relativee permittivity of the droplett ( > ),

1, 2 2 1 ,

= Rattio of the long

ger to the shorrter diameter of the droplett.

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 hows the plot of Eq. (3.3) for
Fig. 3.6 sh fo the variatioon of on E at
a different d⁄ .

For “ > 20
2 ”, and wh
hen the applieed electric fieeld reaches th
he critical valu
ue
, the dro
oplets becomee unstable
a no longerr depend on . They keep elongating in
and nstead, and ev
ventually cau
using bridgingg of the electrrodes and
t
total breakdow
wn. The correesponding at
a is ~1.85, and now can be simpliified as

1.524 in kV/cm
m (3.4)

Fig.. 3.6 Variation of on E att different ⁄ .

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Example

Consider a water droplet having an initial radius r = 1 μm with a relative dielectric permittivity = 90 and
a surface tension = 4310-3 N/m suspended in a transformer oil with = 2.

Since = = 45 >> 20, Eq. (3.4) can be used, giving the critical electric field intensity for producing shape

instability as

1.524 1.524 = 223 kV/cm

This value agrees with the dielectric breakdown strength of commercial oils of 150–300 kV/cm (see Table 3.2),
indicating that the presence of water droplets as small as 1 μm radius (quite unobservable) can greatly reduce the
dielectric breakdown strength of liquids.

Now, if r is reduced to 0.05 μm, an increased of ~999 kV/cm is obtained.

This is approximately the dielectric breakdown strength of “pure liquid” of ~1,000 kV/cm (Table 3.1),
suggesting that pure liquids should contain droplets even smaller than 0.05 μm.

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3
3.4.3 Break
kdown due
e to Solid P articles

In commeercial liquids, solid (dust) particles

p cann
not be avoided d and will be present as diispersed particles or as
p
particulate chains. If the paarticles are co
onsidered to bee spheroid in shape of relattive permittiv
vity ( > ) and are
p
present in a liiquid of relatiive permittiviity , they wiill experiencee an electrostaatic force as described
d by Eq. (3.1):
∙ . Thee different way is that is generally
y larger than in the currrent case so
o that the
e
electrostatic (p
positive) forcce has a tenden
ncy to move the
t particles toowards the regions of stron
nger fields.

If there iss only a singlle (or a few) particle betwween the electtrodes, the paarticle will bee subject to local field
e
enhancement depending on n the shape off the particle. If the applied
d field exceed
ds the dielectrric breakdown n strength
o the liquid ( > ), locaal breakdown will occur near the particlee. This will reesult in the forrmation of gaas bubbles
of
w
which may, inn turn, lead to
o the breakdow
wn due to gass bubbles as described
d in Section
S 3.4.1, thereby initiaating local
b
breakdown annd hence totall breakdown.

If the num
mber of particlles present in the liquid is large,
l the partticles may beccome aligned due to the eleectrostatic
f
force, and thuus form stablle particulate chains bridging the electrrode gap and d causing a brreakdown bettween the
e
electrodes (Fiig. 3.7).

Fig
g. 3.7 Particlees forming parrticulate chain
ns bridging th
he electrode ga
ap.

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3
3.4.4 Powe
er Law Dep endence be
etween Bre
eakdown V oltage and Gap Distan
nce

While all the breakdown phenomeena discussed d above are not n simple, they,
t very offten, still falll short of
d
describing thee experimentaal observation ns. The phenomena all try to t account forr the maximum m obtainable dielectric
b
breakdown strrength withouut consideringg the effect off electrode gaap distance. In
n fact, the estaablishment off an easily
u
understandabl le and relatively accurate breakdown
b m
mechanism forr commercial liquids contaaining variouss types of
i
impurities is being
b developped. The relationship betweeen the breakddown voltagee and the ellectrode gap distance d d
f a given liq
for quid is essentiially determin
ned by experimmental approaach via the folllowing expreession

(3.5)
where A and n are constantts with n alwaays less than uunity. It is notted that
w obtained for sm
mall volumes should
s not
b used in thee case of largee volumes.
be

Table 3.3 gives the ty ypical breakd down strengthhs for highly purified liqu
uids and the design field strengths
a
actually used. A design saffety factor of ~10
~ is generallly employed.

Table 3.3 Com

T mparison betw ween the maxiimum breakdo own strengthss for several highly
h purified
d liquids and the
t design
f
field strengthss actually used
d for insulatio
on systems.

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3.5 References

1. Adam Czewski, L, lonization, Conduction and Breakdown in Dielectric Liquids, Taylor and Francis, London (1969).
2. Gallager, T.J., Simple Dielectric Liquids, Clarendon Press, Oxford (1975).
3. Hawley, R. and Zaky, A.A., Conduction and Breakdown in Mineral OU, Peter Peregrinus, London (1973).
4. Alston, L.L, High Voltage Technology, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1968).
5. Lewis, TJ., Progress in Dielectrics, Vol. 1, Heywood, London (1959), pp. 97-140.
6. Sharbough, A. and Watson, P.K., Progress in Dielectrics, vol. 4, Heywood, London (1962), pp. 199-248.
7. Specifications for new insulating oils for transformers and switchgear", IEC No. 269 (1969).
8. Wilson, A.C.M., Insulating liquids: Their uses, manufacture and properties, Peter Peregrinus and IEE, London (1980).
9. BEE Colloquim on New Dielectric Fluids for Power Engineering" IEE, London (1980).

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