Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery

: Basic Concepts
 Outline

1.1 Introduction
1.3 Systems of Units
1.4 Terminology and Definitions
1.5 Degrees of Freedom (Mobility)
1.7 Transmission Angle
1.8 Limiting Positions of Slider-Crank Linkages
1.9 Quick-Return Mechanisms
1.10 Linkage Interference
1.11 Mechanisms for specific Applications

2
 1.1 Introduction
Kinematics and dynamics of machinery involve the design of the
basis of their motion requirement.

Machine: A combination of interrelated parts having definite

motions and capable of performing useful work may be
called a machine.

Mechanism: A mechanism is a component of a machine consisting

of two or more bodies arranged so that the motion of
one compels the motion of the others.

P.S. Machinery can be machine and mechanism.

3
 1.1 Introduction
Planar motion: Many mechanisms undergo planar motion, motion in a
single plane or in a set of parallel planes..

Spatial motion: Applies to mechanisms in which the motion must be

described in three dimensions.

Kinematics: Kinematics is the study of motion in mechanisms

without reference to the forces that act on the mechanism.

Dynamics: Dynamics is the study of the motion of individual bodies

and mechanism under the interference of force and torques.

4
 1.1 Introduction

Static: The study of forces and torques in stationary systems (without

inertial effects) is called static.

Analysis: If a product configuration is tentatively specified and then

examined to determined to determine whether the performance
requirements are met, the process is called analysis.

Synthesis: Synthesis is a procedure by which a product (a mechanism)

is developed to satisfy a set of performance requirements.

5
 1.3 Systems of Units
We invite errors when we fail to check the consistency of units.
Preferred systems are the International System of Units, or Systme
International (SI), a modernized version of the meter-kilogram-second
(mks) system.

6
 1.3 Systems of Units
And the customary U.S. inch-pound-second system.

Common to both SI and Customary U.S. Systems

7
 1.3 Systems of Units
SI prefixes may be used to eliminate non-significant digits and
leading zeros. The following are in most common use:
It is generally most convenient to perform calculations by using
scientific notation (power of 10) or engineering notation (10-6,10-3,
103,106, etc). A suitable unit and prefix should be chosen to express
the results of calculations so that the numerical value falls between
0.1 and 1000, where convenient.

8
 1.4 Terminology and Definitions
Link: A link is one of the rigid bodies or members joined together
to form a kinematic chain. The term rigid link, or sometimes
simply link, is an idealization used in the study of mechanisms
that does not take into account small deflection due to strains
in machine members.

Frame: The fixed or stationary link in a mechanism is called the

frame. When there is no link that is actually fixed, we may
consider one as being fixed and determine the motion of the
other links relative to it.

9
 1.4 Terminology and Definitions
Joint or Kinematic Pair:
The connection between links that permit constrained relative
motion are called joints. The joint between a crank and connecting
rod, for instance, may be called a revolute joint or a pin joint.

A number of common joint types are idealized in Fig 1.2. Some

of the practical joints that they represent are made up of several
elements. Examples include the universal joint, ball and roller
bearings that are represented by the revolute joint, ball slides
represented by the spline joint, and ball screws represented by
the helix.

10
 1.4 Terminology and Definitions
Lower and Higher Pairs:
Connections between rigid bodies consist of lower and higher
pairs of elements. Theoretically, the two elements of lower pair
are in surface contact with one another, while the two elements
of a higher pair are in point or line contact.

From a design standpoint, lower pairs are desirable, since the

load at the joint and the resultant wear are spread over the
contact surface. Thus, geometric changes or failure due to high
contact stresses or excessive wear may be prevented. In practice,
we may utilize a ball or roller bearing as a revolute pair to
reduce friction.

11
 Fig 1.2

12
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F8xEfygF3tY
Fig 1.2
13
 1.4 Terminology and Definitions
Closed-Loop Kinematic Chains:
A kinematic chain is an assembly of links and pairs (joints).
Each link in a closed-loop kinematic chain is connected to two
or more other links.

Open-Loop Kinematic Chains:

A linkage failing to meet the closed-loop criterion is an open-
loop kinematic chain. In this case, one (or more) of the links is
connected to only one other link. The industrial robot shown in
Fig 1.4 is an open-loop kinematic chain.

14
 1.4 Terminology and Definitions
Manipulators:
Manipulators designed to simulate human arm and hand motion
are an example of open kinematic chains. A typical manipulator
consists of a supporting base with rigid links connected in series the
final link containing a tool or hand.

Robots:
Programmable manipulators, called robots, can follow a
sequence of steps directed by a computer program. Unlike
machines dedicated to a single task, robots can be retooled and
reprogrammed for a variety of tasks.
Fig 1.4 shows an industrial robot with six revolute joints.

15
 Fig 1.4
16
 Fig 1.5(a) Fig 1.5(b)

Fig 1.5(c)

17
 1.4 Terminology and Definitions
Linkage:
Although some references define linkages as kinematic chains
joined by only lower pairs, the term is commonly used to
identify any assemblage of rigid bodies connected by kinematic
joints. The same linkage configuration may serve as a
component of a mechanism, a machine, or an engine. Thus, the
terms linkage, mechanism, machine, and engine are often used
interchangeably.

18
 1.4 Terminology and Definitions
Planar Motion and Planar Linkages:
If all points in a linkage move in parallel planes, the system
undergoes planar motion and the linkage may be described as a
planar linkage. The portable drafting instrument shown in Fig 1.6
is a planar linkage.

Spatial Motion and Spatial Linkages:

The more general case in which motion cannot be described as
taking place in parallel planes is called spatial motion, and the
linkage may be described as a spatial or three-dimensional (3D)
linkage. The Fig 1.4 is a spatial linkage.

19
 1.4 Terminology and Definitions
Inversion:
The absolute motion of a linkage depends on which link is fixed-
that is, which link is selected as the frame. If two otherwise
equivalent linkages have different fixed links, then each is an
inversion of the other.
Cycle and Period:
A cycle is the complete sequence of positions of the links in a
mechanism (from some initial position back to that initial position).
In a four-stroke-cycle engine, one thermodynamic cycle
corresponds to two revolutions or cycles of the crankshaft, but to
one revolution of the camshaft and, thus, one cycle of motion of
the cam followers and valves. The time required to complete a
cycle of motion is called the period.
20
 1.4 Terminology and Definitions
A portable drafting instrument. The linkage consists of two
parallelograms, which permit translation of the straightedge in any
direction without rotation.

Fig 1.6

21
 1.5 Degree of Freedom (Mobility)
The number of degrees of freedom of a linkage is the number of
independent parameters we must specify to determine the position
of every link relative to the frame or fixed link.
If the instantaneous configuration of a system may be completely
defined by specifying one independent variable, that system has one
degree of freedom. Most practical mechanisms have one degree of
freedom.
An unconstrained rigid body has six degrees of freedom:
translation in three coordinate directions and rotation about three
coordinate axes.
Discuss DoF of joints in Fig. 1.2

22
 Constraints Due to Joints
For a spatial mechanism with nL links (including one fixed link
with zero degrees of freedom), the number of freedom of the linkage
is given by DF 6(n - 1) - n
spatial L C nC : the total number of constraints
nJ nJ : joints
nJ: number withwith
of joints individual connectiveity
individual connectiveityf i
nC 6nJ - fi fi: DoF of each joint
i =1

nJ
DFspatial 6(nL - nJ - 1) + fi
i =1

Linkages are often named according to their joint configurations,

using the symbols given in Fig 1.2 (R for revolute, S for sphere, etc).
For example, Fig 1.7a shows a closed-loop RSSR mechanism, and the
Robot in Fig 1.4 is called RRRRRR, or 6-R, open linkage.

23
 Constraints Due to Joints
Examining the industrial robot of Fig 1.4, we see that there are
seven links and six revolute joints, each joint having one degree of
freedom and introducing five constraints.
DFspatial 6(7 - 1) - 5 - 5 - 5 - 5 - 5 - 5 = 6 Using Eq(1.1)
DFspatial 6(7 - 6 - 1) + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 6 Using Eq(1.3)

24 Fig 1.4
 Constraints Due to Joints
Consider the closed-loop kinematic chain of Fig 1.7a, a general
closed-loop RSSR mechanism.
DF = 6(4 - 1) - 5 - 3 - 3 - 5 = 2 Using Eq(1.1)
Let one of the spherical joints in the preceding RSSR mechanism
be replaced by a universal joint with two degrees of freedom (four
constraints). We then from an RSUR mechanism
DF 6(4 - 1) - 5 - 3 - 4 - 5 = 1
In Fig 1.7b, RRRR linkage
DF 6(4 - 1) - 5 - 5 - 5 - 5 = -2
In Fig 1.7c, RRRC linkage
DF 6(4 - 1) - 5 - 5 - 5 - 4 = -1
Fig 1.7
25 Fig 1.7 a~c
 Planar Linkages
A planar RRRR linkage may be called a four-bar linkage, which,
together with other planar link systems, is shown in Fig 1.8.
The Joints or pairs that apply to planar linkages are as follows:

If the actual number of degrees of freedom, is greater than the

Minimum determined by using the equation for spatial linkage; the
linkage is over constrained, Over constraint tends to strengthen a
linkage.
26
 A well-known example of an overconstrained mechanism is the Sarrus mechanism,
which consists of six bars connected by six hinged joints.
A general spatial linkage formed from six links and six hinged joints has mobility

and is therefore a structure.

The Sarrus mechanism has mobility M=1, rather than M=0, which means it has a
particular set of dimensions that allow movement.[1]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overconstrain
ed_mechanism

27
 Determination of Degrees of
Freedom for a Planar Linkage
The number of degrees of freedom for a planar linkage made up
of nL links and nJ one-degree-of-freedom pairs is given by
DFplanar = 3(nL - 1) - 2n 'J
Or, for nJ joints with individual connectivity fi
nJ
DFplanar = 3(nL - nJ -1) + fi
i =1

For the four-bar linkage in Fig 1.8a nL = 4 , n'J = 4 , DF= 1

For the five-bar linkage in Fig 1.8b nL = 5 , n'J = 5 , DF= 2
The linkage of Fig 1.8d has a double point at B nL = 6 , n'J = 7 , DF= 1

28
 Fig 1.8 a~d
29
 Fig 1.8 e~f
30
 Determination of Degrees of
Freedom for a Planar Linkage
If a planar linkage is made up of nJ one-degree-of-freedom
pairs and nJ two-degree-of-freedom pairs, the number of degree
of freedom of the linkage is given by
DFplanar = 3(nL - 1) - 2n 'J - n''J

In Fig 1.9
DFplanar = 3(6 - 1) - 2 5 - 3 = 2

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v
=tOSQK5ZZzhg

31 Fig 1.9
 One-Degree-of-Freedom Configurations
Planar mechanisms with one degree of freedom are of considerable
Practical importance. One-degree-of-freedom planar mechanisms
made up of lower pairs satisfy Grblers criterion:

2n 'J - 3nL + 4 = 0

Fig 1.10
32
 Adjustable-Parameter Linkages
We need to vary the output of a pump without changing the
rotation speed of the crank. Suppose that we would like the output
to respond to some other variable while the pump is running. A
variable-stroke pump with a stroke transformer is one way to
satisfy this requirement.

When stating the number of degrees of freedom of adjustable-

Parameter linkages, be sure to state whether the control feature is
assumed to be in a fixed position. Fig 1.11b uses an equivalent
linkage to represent the variable-stroke pump when the transformation
is set for an intermediate stroke.

33


Fig 1.11a Fig 1.11b

34
 Sample Problem 1.1
Design of freedom of a Variable-Stroke Pump
a. Determine the number of degrees of freedom for the variable-
stroke pump shown in Fig 1.11. Let the adjustment cylinder be
fixed in a position that results in an intermediate stroke length.
b. Suppose the adjustment cylinder position is nit fixed. Find the
number of degree of freedom .
Sol:
a. DFplanar = 3(nL - 1) - 2nJ' =3(6 - 1) - 2(7) = 1

b. DFplanar = 3(nL - 1) - 2nJ' =3(9 - 1) - 2(11) = 2

35
 1.6 Classification of
Closed Planar Four-Bar Linkages
Closed planar linkages consisting of four pin-connected rigid
links are usually identified simply as four-bar linkages. If one
of the links can perform a full rotation relative to another link,
the linkage is called a Grashof mechanism.
Lmax Lmin + La + Lb
since it is obvious that these links Lmax : The longest link
could not be assembled to form a Lmax
min : The shortest link

closed four-bar linkage La : Links of intermediate length

Lb : Links of intermediate length
Suppose we wish to design a crank-rocker mechanisma
linkage with a drive crank that rotates continuously, causing a
driven rocker to oscillate through a limited range.

36
 L0 < L2 - L1 + L3

L3 < L0 + L2 - L1

L1 + L2 < L0 + L3

Lmax + Lmin < La + Lb

Lmax : The longest link

Lmax
min: The shortest link
La : Links of intermediate length
37 Fig 1.12 a~c Lb : Links of intermediate length
 Sample Problem 1.2

Crank-rocker mechanism
Design a mechanism that converts continuous rotation into
oscillating motion.
Design decisions:
fixed link L0 = 40 mm
Coupler L2 = 30 mm
drive crank L1 = 10 mm
driven crank L3 = 32 mm

Sol:
40+ 10 < 30 + 32

38 Fig 1.13
 Sample Problem 1.2

Drag link mechanism (double-crank mechanism)
Design decisions:
fixed link L0 = 20 mm drive crank L1 = 30 mm
Coupler L2 = 30 mm driven crank L3 = 32 mm

Sol: 32 + 20 < 30 + 30

39 Fig 1.14
 Sample Problem 1.2
Design decisions:(double rocker)
fixed link L0 = 20 mm
Coupler L2 = 7 mm
drive crank L1 = 27 mm
driven crank L3 = 32 mm

Sol: 32 + 7 < 27 + 20

https://www.youtube.com/wat
ch?v=3kUoqw8D5sU

40 Fig 1.15
 Sample Problem 1.2
A Change-point or crossover-position mechanism results when
Lmax + Lmin = La + Lb
Fig 1.16 shows a change-point mechanism in which L0 = Lmax , L1 = Lmin ,
And Lmax + Lmin = La + Lb is satisfied. Relative motion of a change-point
mechanism may depend on inertia, spring forces when the links
become collinear.

41 Fig 1.16
 1.6 Classification of
Closed Planar Four-Bar Linkages
Crank-rocker, drag link, double-rocker, and change-point
mechanisms satisfy the following relationship:

Lmax + Lmin La + Lb

These mechanisms are called Grashof mechanisms, after the

investigator who published this criterion in 1883.
Four-bar linkages that do not satisfy the Grashof criterion are
called double-rocker mechanisms of the second kind or triple-
rocker mechanisms. If Lmax + Lmin > La + Lb , no link can rotate
through 360o.

Computer program (See Fig 1.17)

42
 Fig 1.17
43
 Applications

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-
bar_linkage

44
 Sample Problem 1.3

45
 Sample Problem 1.3

46
 Sample Problem 1.3

47
 1.7 Transmission Angle
The inequalities that classify four-bar linkages give the extreme
theoretical limits of each class of mechanism. Additional limits apply
to the design of practical mechanisms. One important consideration is
the transmission angle, the angle between the coupler centerline and
the driven crank centerline.
Fig 1.18 shows a linkage that satisfies the crank-rocker criteria.

Fig 1.18
48
 1.7 Transmission Angle

L= + 1 - 2 L0 L1 cos 1
2 2 2
d L0 L

L= + 3 - 2 L2 L3 cos
2 2 2
d L2 L

L22 + L23 - L2d

cos =
2L2 L3

= L1 + L0
Ld (max)

Ld (min) = L0 - L1 Fig 1.19

49
 Sample Problem 1.4
Given the driver crank length L1 = 100mm, coupler length L2 = 200
mm, and follower length L3 = 300mm, and considering the
transmission angle, find the range of values for the fixed link L0 if
the linkage is to be a crank rocker. In a previous example, we
determined that the mechanism theoretically acts as a crank rocker
for 200mm < L0 < 400 if we put no limit on the transmission angle.
Let us make the design decision to limit the transmission angle to
450 < < 1350
Sol:

50
 Sample Problem 1.4

From which 3(max)= 58.61o

Fig 1.20

51
 Sample Problem 1.4

52
 1.7 Transmission Angle
Spatial linkages may also have transmission angle problems.
Consider the RSSR linkage shown in Fig 1.7a. IF link 1 drives,
then the angle between coupler link 2 and driven crank 3 is of
interest. We could compute transmission angle
r2 r3
= cos
-1

r2 r3
Values of the transmission angle that do not fall in the range

40o 140o

Fig 1.7 a~c

53
 1.8 Limiting Positions of
Slider-Crank Linkages
Limiting positions are of interest for several reasons. The limiting
positions of a slider-crank mechanism define the stroke of the
position (slider). The position has zero velocity at the instant it
reaches one of the limiting positions.

If a single piston serves as a driver, the linkage may driven through

the limiting position by inertia of the crank. Likewise, the limiting
positions define the range of the oscillating crank of a crank-rocker
mechanism.

54
 In-Line Slider-Crank Mechanisms
A slider-crank mechanism with the usual proportions has two
limiting positions, both occuring when the crank and the
connecting rod are collinear. (see Fig 1.22a)

What is
Dead-center positions
Crank (bottom) dead center
Head (Top) dead center
In-line slider-crank

55
 In-Line Slider-Crank Mechanisms

56 Fig 1.22
 Offset Slider-Crank Mechanisms
The wrist-pin path of the offset slider-crank mechanism does not
extend through the center of the crankshaft. The limiting
positions shown represent positions of zero piston velocity.
From its limiting position in Fig 1.22a left to its limiting position
in Fig 1.22b right, the crank turns through the angle
= 180o + 1 - 2 =S ( L + R )2 - E 2 - ( L - R )2 - E 2
= 180o - 1 + 2 L - R + S > L + R
E
1 =sin -1 R: crank length
L-R
L: rod length
E
2 =sin -1
E: offset distance
L+R

57
 1.9 Quick-Return Mechanisms
Quick-Return Mechanisms:
Quick-Return Mechanisms include an oscillating link or
reciprocating slider that moves forward slowly and returns quickly
(with an input of constant speed).
If there is an intentional difference between the time required for
the forward and return strokes, the linkage may be called a quick-
return mechanism.

Drag Link:
May from part of a mechanism designed for large forward-to-
return-time ratios.

58
 1.9 Quick-Return Mechanisms
Slider Stroke:
S = 2 L3

The time for the slider to travel between limiting positions is

proportional to the angle between corresponding positions of the
driving crank, as long as the angular velocity of the driving crank is
constant.

Fig 1.23

59
 http://mechanical-engineering-
concepts.blogspot.tw/2014/03/slider-crank-mechanisms.html

60
 Sample Problem 1.7

61
 Fig 1.24

Fig 1.24 (b)

Fig 1.24 (c)

62
 Fig 1.24 (d)
63
64
65
 Trial-and-Error Graphical Method
The preceding problem can also be solved by a trial-and-error
graphical method (see Fig 1.25). The coupler length is varied in
the three trials. The third trial results in a forward-to-return-time
ratio of about three to one.

Sliding contact linkages also form a basis for quick-return

mechanisms. Fig 1.26 shows a quick-return mechanism that can
be used to drive the cutting tool in a mechanical shaper.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ichaxnX3UNg

66
67 Fig 1.25 Fig 1.26
 Sample 1.8 Problem
Variable-Stroke Quick-Return Mechanism
Design a mechanism with a stroke that may be varied from 80 to 200 mm,
having a working-stroke-to-return-stroke time ratio of two to one at maximum
stroke length.
Sol:

68
 Linkage Interference
The interference problem encountered
in drag link mechanism design is more
severe since drive crank, coupler, and
follower rotate through 360o. To avoid
link interference, the plane of the coupler
should be between the planes of the cranks.
The fixed bearing of the cranks must be
placed on opposite sides of the linkage, with
clear space for the linkage to pass between
the bearings.

Fig 1.27
69
 1.11 Mechanisms for
Specific Applications
Drafting Instruments:
The drafting instrument using rigid links and pins shown in Fig
1.6 is proportioned so that distance AB = CD and AD = BC from a
parallelogram. If the line between fixed centers A and B is
horizontal, then DC is also horizontal at all time.

Another drafting system, shown in Fig 1.28 uses tight steel

bands (belts) on two pairs of disks with equal diameters. Disk 1 is
not permitted to rotate, and as the arm between disks 1 and 2 is
moved, disk 2 and 3 translate without rotating. The bands between
disk 3 and 4 prevent rotation of disk 4 and the attached straight-
edge.

70
 Fig 1.28 Fig 1.6

71
 Pantograph Linkages
The parallelogram also forms the basis for pantograph linkages.
At one time, pantograph linkages were used to reproduce and
change the scale of drawings and patterns.

The operation may be automated by using a sensing device to

drive the tracing point over the pattern. A number of other linkages
are used for similar purposes, including engine indicators, which
reproduce a pressure signal.

72
 Fig 1.29 Fig 1.29 a~b
73
 Slider-Crank Mechanism
The slider-crank mechanism is probably the most common of the
most common of all mechanisms because of its simplicity and
versatility.

A single slider-crank mechanism and the associated cam and

valve train typical of a multi-cylinder internal-combustion
engine are shown in Fig 1.31, Fig 1.32 shows the piston and
connecting rod of a small one-cylinder gasoline-powered engine.

74
75 Fig 1.30 Fig 1.31 Fig 1.32
 A cutaway illustration of a V6, 24-valve, DOHC engine,
an example of a Vee-configured six-cylinder engine.
76


77
 H.W. Ch. 1
1.1 (a), 1.2 (b), 1.15, 1.21, 1.23, 1.31, 1.36, 1.45, 1.51, 1.77,
1.79, 1.87, 1.89, 1.95
3/31 A4

78
 H.W. Ch. 2
2.1, 2.37, 2.40, 2.43, 2.45, 2.51, 2.61
4/7 A4

79
 Rotating Combustion Engine
The rotating combustion (Wankel) engine in Fig 1.33 is another
solution to the same problem with little kinematic resemblance
to the conventional piston engine.

Fig 1.33 (a)

80
 Rotating Combustion Engine
In the preceding discussion, we traced only one charge of air and
fuel through a complete cycle. The three-sided eccentric rotor
and two-lobed block, however, correspond to three sets of points
and cylinders.

Fig 1.33 (b)

81
 Fluid Links
Mechanical systems frequently include fluid links utilizing
hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders or fluid drive transmissions.
The backhoe shown in Fig 1.34 uses hydraulic cylinders
arranged to give it a wide range of operating positions.

For kinematic analysis, a hydraulic cylinder linkage of the type

shown in Fig 1.35a is usually represented as shown in Fig 1.35b
and c.

82
 Fig 1.34

83 Fig 1.35
 Swash Plate
Converting rotational motion to reciprocating rectilinear motion
is a common problem, and many mechanisms have been devised
for this purpose. In the swash plate type of mechanism, shown in
Fig 1.36, a cam like swash plate is rotated about an axis that is
not perpendicular to its face.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swashplate
As noted earlier, an inversion of a mechanism exhibits the same
relative motion as the mechanism, but the links do not have the
same absolute motion.

Volume control is effected by designing the pump so that the

angle between the cylinder axes and the plane of the swash plate
may be varied.

84
 Fig 1.36

Fig 1.37 Fig 1.36

85
 Gear Trains
Gear trains are particularly suitable for use at high speeds and in
drives with high power ratings. Since gears offer precise speed
ratios, they are also used in machine tools and other applications in
which precision is required.

Gearing is often combined with other mechanical components. A

worm and worm wheel drive a power screw in the linear actuator
of Fig 1.40. For reduction of friction to rotation of the worm, the
actuator may be used as a precision jack or a locating device. Gear
will be discussed in detail in later chapters.

86
 Fig 1.38

87 Fig 1.39 Fig 1.40

 Lamination-Type Impulse Drive

Fig 1.41 a~b

88
 Oscillating Lawn Sprinkler with Speed
Reducer and Variable Stroke Linkage

Fig 1.42

89
 Power Screws
Power screws, one of the most common and precise methods,
are frequently employed as machine tool drives in conjunction
with gear trains. If a screw with a single thread engages a nut
that is not permitted to rotate, the nut will move relative to the
screw a distance equal to the pitch for each screw rotation.

When a right-hand screw turns clockwise, the relative motion of

the nut is toward the observer; for a left-hand screw turning
clockwise, the relative motion of the nut is away from the
observer.

90
 Differential Screws
n v : slider velocity
v= ( L2 - L1 )
60 n : number of clockwise revolutions
per minute of the screw
L1 : screw lead at the frame
L2 : screw lead in the slider

Fig 1.43
91
 Ball Screws
Ball screws are used when friction
must be reduced. The thrust load
is carried by balls circulating in
helical races, reducing typical
friction losses to 10 percent of the
power transmitted.

Fig 1.44
92
 Universal Joints
Most flexible couplings are
intended only for small amounts
of misalignment, and flexible
shafts have limited torque
capacity. Where high torque Fig 1.48

and large misalignment occur,

a universal joint, shown in
Fig 1.48, is the typical solution.

Fig 1.50 Fig 1.49

93
 Universal Joints
VA 1
2 = =
r cos cos

vA = 1r cos
2
Fig 1.51 a~b

A
2 = 1

r cos
2

94
 Automotive Steering Linkage
The Ackerman-type steering linkage, sketched in Fig 1.52,
incorporates a parallelogram linkage made up of the Pitman arm
O1B, the relay rod BE, the idler arm EO2, and the frame. Tie
rods CF and DG are connected to the relay rod and to the
steering arms FO3 and GO4. The steering arms turn the front
wheels about pivoted knuckles O3 and O4 when the Pitman arm
is rotated by a gear at O1.

To avoid unnecessary tire wear when the vehicle turns, the

centerlines of the four wheels should meet as closely as possible
at a single point- the center of rotation of the vehicle.

95
 Fig 1.52

96
 Computer-Controlled Industrial Robots
Demands for increased productivity have led to the development
of computer-controlled robots. Fig 1.4 shows an industrial robot
with a highly maneuverable six-axis jointed arm.

The robot is controlled by a flexible minicomputer program and

may be interfaced to peripheral equipment or to external
computer.

Fig 1.53 shows an application of robotics to drilling and

perimeter routing of aircraft panels. A combination of positive-
location part fixtures and compliant tooling systems was used to
overcome the problem.

97
 Fig 1.53

98