First Edition : 2009 V. S. Bagad Technical Publications Pune®8 Get Microwave Enginerring ISBN 9788184313604 All rights reserved with Technical Publications. No part of this book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Photocopy or any information storage ond retrieval sysiem without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : ‘Technical Publications Pune” #1, Amit Residency, 412, Shanowar Peth, Pune - 411 030, Indie. Printers = Vikram Printers 34, Parvati Industial Estate: Road, Pune - 411009,Table of Contents 1.1 Microwave Spectrum and Bands .... 1.1.1 Microwave Frequencies... 1.1.2 Electromagnetic Field 2.00. cesses seca e es eee sees eee ese tenes ee eee eeene 4.1.3 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves ..........eesceeeecveeceeeceeseeveveneesd 5 1.2 Applications of Microwave .. 1.3 Rectangular Waveguides 1.3.1 Modes of Propagation . 13.2Non-existence of TEMMode 1.3.3 Solutions of Wave Equations in Rectangular Co-ordinates 1.3.4 Field Equations for TE Mode ..................+ 1.355 Field Pattemin Waveguide... .-..-+essseseee 1.3.6 Waveguide Parameters... . . 41.3.7 Comparison of TE and TM Modes... . . 1.3.8 Boundary Conditions for TE Mode............2..02...ssssesseesseeee 1.3.9 Boundary Conditions for TM Mode... ... 1.4 Power Transmitted in Waveguide 1.5 Power Loss in Waveguide .. 1.5.1 Power Loss in Dielectric Filling. . 1.5.2 Power Loss in Waveguide Walls ..... 1.5.3 Misaligned Waveguide Sections 1.6 Waveguide Excitation .. 1.7 Comparison of Waveguide and Co-axial Cable. 1.8 Advantages of Waveguide Over Co-axial Cable Solved Examples ..Review Questions... 2.1 Propagation of TE Wave in Circular Waveguide. 2.4.1 Boundary Conditions / Characteristic Equations .......... 2.1.2 Dominant and Degenerate Modes... 0 sseereeerereesreeee 2.1.3 Impossibility of TEM Mode ................ 2.2 Planer Transariasion Li 2. 2214 Strip Lines. 2 Bod 2244 Higher Order Modes in Stip Lines. ee . 2-6 2.2.1.2 LossesinStiplines . 2-6 2.2.1.3 Excitation of Strip Lines . os . 2-6 2.22 MicrostripLines........... 0 2-7 2224 Eflective Dielectric Constant 2.2.2.2 Characteristiclmpedanca(Z,)...........-.-.- 2223 LossesinMirostiplings 0. 2224 QHactorofMicosip. 2.2.2.5 Limitations of Microstrip... . ss. 1 ss es vee 2.2.2.8 Comparison of Stipline and Microstip . ss. 223 Slot Lines. 2.24 Coplanar Lines . 225 Advantages of Pana Transmission Lins coe 2.2.6 Disadvantages of Planar Transmission Lines.................-- 2.3 Cavity Resonators... 2.3.1 Rectangular Cavity Resonator... 2.3.2 Q Factor of Cavity Resonator... 2.33 Applications of Cavity Resonator. 2.3.4 Re-entrant Cavity... 2.3.5 Excitation of Cavity Resonator Solved Examples ... PointstoRemember Review Questions 2a PP3.4.1 Seattering Parameters... cee cee e eee ces see eeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeesees $2 3.1.2 Scattering Matrix... a cou 23-5 34a Scttring Matix Represeraon fo Malo Netwok er sense 36 3.14 Losses in Network. 3-6 3.1.5 Properties of S-Parameters.......... cee 38 3.1.7 Comparison between nS {Z],and mM Matrices. 3.1.8 Relations of Z, Y and ABCD with SParameters 3.2 Waveguide Tees. 3.2.3 Magic Tee. 3.3_ Waveguide Couplings 3.3.1 Goupling Lops . . cece cose 9.4 Microwave Attenuators 0. ssessssssceesessssssnsesssssasssssssssssneer S25 3.4.4 Fixed Attenuator 8-25 9.4.2 Variable Attenuator 8 3.5 Waveguide Comers, Bends and Twists. 3.6 Waveguide Transitions 3.6.1 Rectangular to Circular Waveguide Transition 316.2 Circular to Rectangular Waveguide Transition 3.6.3 Transition between Co-axial Cable and Rectangular Waveguide 3.7 Tuning Screws. 3.8 Directional Couplers..... 3.8.1 Directional Coupler Parameters 3.8.2 Two Hole Directional Coupler. ........... 3.8.3 Multihole Directional Coupler... 38.4 Bathe Hole Directional Coupler. 3.9 Waveguide Flanges .. 3.10 Matched Terminations .. 3.40.4 Standard Missmatches 2... oe eeee tees eens : =. 3-403.11 Waveguides Irisis. 3.11.4 Inductive lis 3.11.2 Capacitive li 3.11.3 Resonant iris... 3.12 Tunable Detector 3.13 Slotted Line....... . 3-45 3.14 Co-axial Cables and Adaptors .. woe 3 = 46 3.14.4 Type-N Connector... .. 3-46 3.14.2 SMA Connector. . cee seve : cee 3-47 3.14.3 APC COMMECHON... 2... eee ee eee ee cee cece cee ec ee cette ee cree ene ree es O48 Solved Examples... we 3 = 4B Points to Remember .. 3-57 Review Questions... 4.1 Ferrite Devices 4-4 4.4.1 Faraday Rotalion Principle... 0... bed 4.2 Circulator......... 4-2 A2( Four Pon Cirulator 0 4.2.2 Four Port Circulator using Magic Tees... sees ee eee eee 3 4.23 Thee PontCincwlator 0 gg 4.2.4 Applications of Circulator... dae eee bed 4.3 Isolator 4-4 4.4 Gyrato! 4.5 Microwave Hybrid Couplers 4.5.1 Hybrid Ring Circuit /Rat Race CircuitSolved Examples... Points to Remember Review Questions . 5.3.1.2 Equation of Velocity Modulation... ee 5.3.1.3 Expression of Bunchingin Two Cavity Kystans.. 5-13 53.14BeamFocusing. 2.2.2.2... 1 53.1.5 KlystonBandwidh. ©. 5.3.1.6 Two Cavity Kiystron Oscillator... 5.3.1.7 Characteristics of Two Cavity Kystron_ 5.3.1.8 Applications of Klystron - §,3.2 Multicavty Kiystion Amplifier... ‘5.3.2.1 Applications of Broadband Klystron Amplifier... . 5.3.3 Klystron Oscillators. ee 5.3.4 Reflex Kiystton..... 5.3.4.4 Electronic Admittance of Reflex Klystrons. . . . =. cs G97 5.3.4.5 Characteristics of ReflexKlyston . 6. 1. ss ce 588 5.3.4.8 Applications of Reflex Klystron Solved Examples ... i Points to Remember | Review Questions .. 2 MEChapter: 6.1 Travelling Wave Tube (TWT) .. 6.1.4 Helix TWT. 6.1.2 Slow Wave Structure. 6.1.5 Applications in TWTs- + 6-6 6.1.5.1 Gainin WTS, bees 6-5 6.1.5.2 Gain and Power Characteristics ©. ee ee » 6-5 6.1.6 Mathematical Analysis of TWT. . 666 6.1.6.1 Amplification Process: - 6-6 6.1.6.2 Convection Current of Axial Field . 6-8 6.1.6.3 Axial Electric Field cee 6-9 6-14 6.1.6.5 Nature of Four Propagation Constants: : wae 6-12 6.1.7 Performance Characteristiosof TWO Ba 6.4.8 Applications Of WT... so. .sss sec seee sees sees esse ees et esee essere seeeties 6.1.9 Comparison of TWT and Klystron - 6.1.10 Important Expressions of TWT. 6.2 M-type Tubes. 6.2.4 Principle of Operation. ......cssersceesseeeereee 6.2.2 Backward Wave Oscillator 6.2.24 Construction 6.2.2.2 Operation. . . 6 6.2.2.3 Dispersion Curve 6 6.2.2.4 Working of BWO at Low Frequency ©... 6-18 6.2.2.5 General Characterisics 6-19 6.2.2.6 Performance Characteristics ofBWO. ee BHD 6.2.2.7 Applications of BWO 6-19 6.2.3 Magnetrons . cevteeeees cecteeeecerees G19 6.21 Consiucton of Magneton. =... : cee eee es 620 6.2.3.2 Types of Magnetron Feces . 6-24 6.2.3.3 Modes of Operation bee Sees 6-22 6.2.3.4 Working of Magnetron . . : 6-226.2.3.5 Magnetron Anode Structure . 6.2.36 Need of Strapping in Magnetrons_... 6.2.3.7 Frequency Pushing and Pulling... 6.2.38 Magnetron inn-Mode 6.2.39 Phase Focusing Effect... . 6.23.10 Cutoff Magnetic Field Density (Bx). . 6.2.3.11 Cyclotron Angular Frequency. 6.2.3.12 Efficiency of Magnetron. 6.2.3.13 Characteristics of Magnetron. 6.2.3.14 Applications of Magnetron. Solved Examples... Points to Remember: Review Questions 7.1 Limitations of Conventional Transistors at Microwave Frequency. 7.1.1 HF Limitations of Bipolar Transistors... o . 7.2 Power-Frequency Limitations of Transistors... 7.3 Metal Semiconductor Field Effect Transistors (MESFET) .. 7.3.1 Construction and Working 7.3.2 Small Signal Equivalent Circuit... 2... 7.4 High Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMT), 7.4. Advantages of HEMT over MESFET . 7.4.2 Structure of HEMT . 7.4.4 D.C. Characteristics 7.5 MASER oss seesesee 7.5.4 Principle of Operaton.. 7.7.1 Ridely.Watkins-Hitsum (RWH) 1 Two-Valley Model Theory............2+ccecceeeeees T#107.7.3 Criteria for Classifying Modes .......ccccsscsesecessaveeesseeccerssevevaueeee PH¥2 7.7.4 Gunn Diode Applications eevee vey vee vee veeeceeeeereerseenee 749 8 Avalanche Transit Time Devices wo ID 7.8.1 IMPATT Diodes 1-13 7.8.2 TRAPATT Dindes 716 LBSBARITT Diodes Pe L9 Tunnel Diode. 7-20 1.9.1 Tunnel Diode |-V Characteristic 7-2 1.9.2 Tunnel Diode Construction... . 7+? 7.9.3 Tunnel Diode Equivalent Circuit. 7.9.4 Tunnel Diode Applications 7.10 Varactor Diode 7.10.1 Principle of Operation. 7.10.2 Equivalent Circuit. 7.10.3 Varactor Diode Biasing 7.10.4 Applications of Varactor Diode... .. 7.14.4 Structure and Working... 7.11.2 Applications of PIN Diode. 7.12 Crystal Diode .. 7.13 Parametric Amplifier... 7.13.1 Manlay-Rowe Relations . 7.13.2 Advantages of Parametric Amplifier. - 7.13.3 Limitations of Parametric Amplifier... .00.s0:ssectescsessseseestseseeserees 7.43.4 Applications of Parametric Amplifier. Solved Examples Chapter-8 | Microwave'N 8.1 Introduction... _ 8.2 Microwave Test Equipments 8.2.1 Slotted Line Carriage... 8.2.2 Tunable Detector .........B23 Power Meters... ec eee cece ects teeeneees 8.2.4 Spectrum Analyzer 8.2.5 VSWR Meter... 2... 8.3 Power Measurements... 8.3.1 Measurement of Very Low Power (¢1 mW) ........ 8.3.2 Measurement of Low Power (<1 mWW)........... 8.3.3 High-Power Measurement ( > 10 mW). 8.3.4 Errors in Microwave Power Measurement... e se Bo 8.5.1 Slotted Line Technique. ... 20... cece ec cee cee ects ee ee cee see eee neeee nee 8.5.2 Double Minimum Method... . 8.6 Impedance Measurement..... 8.6.1 Slotted Line Method of Impedance Measurement .. . 8.6.2 Reflectometer Method of Impedance Measurement . 8.7 Measurement of Insertion Loss... 8.8 Frequency Measurement 8.8.1 Mechanical Technique . 8.8.2 Electronic Technique . . 8.9 Microwave Bridges.. Solved Examples .. Points to Remember ..... Review Questions ... 9.1 Microwave Applications 9.1.1 Microwave Heating. . 9.1.2 Microwave Oven, . 9.1.3 Thickness Measurement of Metal Sheet .... 94.4 Thickness Measurement of Dielectric Sheet 9.1.5 Doppler Motion Sensor. ............... 9.4.6 Biological Hazards .........1ssessseeePoints to Remember... see Review Questions. 7 wn 908Microwave Transmission Lines 1.1 Microwave Spectrum and Bands ¢ James Clark Maxwell discovered that light is electromagnetic in nature. It was the starting point for the evolution of the concept of an electromagnetic spectrum that extends from d-c to r-rays. Since a large number of electronic communication systems utilize the space propagation path, and since a certain bandwidth is required for each transmission, the frequency spectrum of interest to communication engineers has become an international resource. * According to the International Radio Consultative Committee (CCIR), the frequency ranges are as designated in Table 1.1. For convenience, the frequencies are also designated in terms of bands as shown in Table 1.1. Frequency (f) | Wavelength (a) Designation < 30 kHz 710 km LF (Very Low Frequency) LF (Low Frequency) [_os—smrz | 1—okm [wr (medium Frequency) [3-20 mee | 100-10 m HF (High Frequency) 30 — 300 MHz 10-im VHF (Very High Frequency) UHF (Ultra High Frequency) SSW (Super Short Wave}| 30-300 GHz | 10-1 mm ESW (Extreme Short Waves) Microwaves Table 1.1.1 Designation of frequency ranges a4)Microwave Engineering 1-2 Microwave Transmission Lines * Microwave is a region in the electromagnetic wave spectrum in the freugency range from 300 MHz to 300 GHz. This corresponds to a range of wavelength from 100 cm to 1 mm in free space. The free space is characterized by the electrical medium parameters - permittivity 6, = 10° / 36 x farad/m. Permeability p, = 4m x 10°? henry/m and conductivity o, = 10°" mho/m. Because of very short wavelengths microwaves ate capable of almost freely propagating through the ionized layers in atmosphere. This facilitates radio astronomic research of space and communication between the ground stations and space vehicles. * Because of the short wavelengths, wave engineering has a difference from conventional electronics engineering. Conventional low frequency circuit analysis based on Kirchhoff's laws and voltage current concepts of the distributed transmission line theory no longer apply because the propagation time of electrical effects from one point in a circuit to another point at microwave frequencies is comparable with the period of oscillation of currents and charges. * Conventional circuits or lines radiate out the microwave energy as electromagnetic waves resulting in high laws in signal transmission. Thus microwave transmission involves propagation of EM waves consisting of changing electric and magnetic fields in a medium. These specific properties of microwaves steered engineers to develop techniques for microwaveMicrowave Engineering 4-3 Microwave Transmission Lines guided structures such as waveguides, coaxial lines, strip lines, microstrip lines, slot lines and microwave sources like Klystrons, magnetrons, travelling wave tubes, backward wave oscillators, microwave solid state d and other microwave circuit components like attenuators, phase shifters, isolators, circulators, directional couplers, detectors and mixers etc. vie 1.1.1 Microwave Frequencies Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves with frequencies of 300 MHz to 300 GHz and wavelengths between 100 to 1 mm. Microwave signals can propagate at a velocity of 3x10® m/sec in free space. Polarization of electromagnetic is defined as the direction of electric field vector. The magnetic field is always orthogonal to (90° from) the electric field vector. Transmission lines can be used at frequencies from d.c. to about 50 or 60GHz, although above about 5 GHz only short runs are practical because attenuation increases dramatically as frequency increases. There are three '.pes of losses in conventional transmission lines, ohmic, dielectric and radiation. Ohmic losses are caused by the current flowing in the resistance of the conductors making up the transmission lines. Because of the skin effect, which increases resistance at higher frequencies these losses tend to increase in the microwave region. Dielectric losses are caused by the electric field acting on the molecules of the insulator and thereby causing heating through molecular agitation. Radiation losses represent loss of energy as an electromagnetic wave propagates away from the surface of the transmission line conductor. Losses on Jong runs of coaxial transmission give designers cause for concern even in as low as the 04 to 5 GHz region. Also because of the increased losses, power handling capability decreases at higher frequencies. Therefore at higher microwave frequencies or where long runs make coax attenuation losses unacceptable or where high power levels would overheat the coax waveguides are used in lieu of transmission lines. The conventional open wire transmission lines are not suitable for microwave transmission because of high radiation losses. Two popularly used guided media for microwave transmission are 1. Multiconductor guided media - e.g. Co-axial lines, strip lines, microstrip lines, slot-lines and co-planar lines. 2. Single conductor guided media - e.g. Rectangular waveguide and circular waveguide.Microwave Engineering 464 Microwave Transmission Lines Waveguides are used for transmitting electromagnetic fields in UHF and microwave frequency region. A waveguide is a hollow metallic tube of rectangular or circular cross-section. Generally waveguides are constructed of brass, copper or aluminium. In the microwave region the transmission lines / co-axial cables become inefficient due to skin effect and dielectric losses, waveguides are used to obtain larger bandwidth and lower signal attenuation. The transmission lines are capable of guiding energy from point to point in TEM mode, whereas transmission of energy in TE and TM modes can be achieved by use of waveguide. Frequencies above & /2 operating frequency of a waveguide will be propagated and all lower frequencies will be attenuated. Thus, waveguides acts as high-pass filters with a nominal surge impedance of 50 9. The wave is propagated by reflections from the inner walls of the waveguide hence the inner walls of waveguides are smooth, moisture-free and often silver coated. 1.1.2 Electromagnetic Field Radio signals are electromagnetic (EM) waves exactly like light, infrared, and ultra violet, except for frequency. The EM wave consists of two mutually perpendicular oscillating fields travelling together. One field is an electric field while the other is a magnetic field. Both the fields are oscillating 90 degrees out of phase with each other and arranged orthogonally to each other as shown in following figure. Fig. 1.1.1 Electromagnetic wave propagationMicrowave Engineering 1-5 Microwave Transmission Lines 1.1.3 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves © The electric field and magnetic field components are mutually perpendicular to the direction of propagation as shown in the figure. 1. Transverse Electromagnetic Wave (TEM) * In TEM mode both electric and magnetic fields are purely transverse to the direction of propagation and consequently have no components in Fig. 1.1.2 Electric and magnetic field z direction components y ie. E,=H,=0 2. Transverse Electric Wave (TE) * In TE wave only the clectric field is purely transverse to the direction of propagation and the magnetic field is not purely transverse. ie, E,=0 & H+ 0 3. Transverse Magnetic Wave (TM) * In TM wave, the magnetic field is transverse to the direction of propagation and the electric field is not purely transverse. ie E,#0&H,=0 © When a wave is travelling along positive z-direction, then the wave equation for TM and TE mode can be written as - V?E, = -w*pneE, For TM wave (H, = 0) V?H, = -wpsH, For TE wave (E, = 0) Since all field vectors are varying with time 't,, in sinusoidal as manner. Then E, = Eye? where, = Propagation constant E,, = Maximum electric field in z-direction Y y = a+jp « = Attenuation constantMicrowave Engineering 1-6 Microwave Transmission Lines ® = Phase constant 1.1.4 Characteristics of Microwave 6. Microwave possesses certain useful characteristics : Microwave wavelengths are very small. Microwave pulses are very short so that they can be used for distance or time measurement. High frequency of microwaves means very large bandwidth is available for communication. Microwave radiation penetrates fog and clouds, travels in straight lines, and gives reflections hence can be used for. distance and direction measurements {tadar systems). . Microwaves are necessary for communications through satellite because they can pass through the ionosphere which reflects lower frequency radio waves. Microwave power is absorbed by water or any other material containing water so that microwaves can be used for heating and drying. 1.2 Applications of Microwave Because of certain useful properties that microwave posesses, it is becoming more and more widely used, Some applications are discussed here - 1. Broadcasting : Usually radio broadcasting and TV used frequencies below the microwave range. However, increasing congestion of the radio spectrum made reception difficult for some listeners : There are no frequencies available for increase in broadcasting at radio frequencies. Any further entry of broadcasting will be in the microwave region. Now 12 GHz frequency is being used local or satellite TV broadcasting with special microwave receivers. 2. Communication : Increased bandwidth for communication channels requires higher carrier frequencies. A microwave link is point-to-point link using the propagation of electromagnetic waves at microwave frequencies through free space. In satellite communication microwave frequencies are to be used since the ionosphere is opaque to lower frequencies.Microwave Engineering 1-7 Microwave Transmission Lines 3. Radar : * Radar is the traditional use of microwaves. The name Radar is derived from the initial letters of Radio Detection and Ranging, * The simplest form of radar is the pulse radar which gives a plan position indication (ppi). It measures the time for an echo to return. «The CW (carrier wave) or doppler radar gives a velocity indication which is used in military applications. The doppler radar also has many industrial and consumer uses, it is used in industrial controls for flow or velocity measurement. It is also used for motion detection. 4, Microwave heating : © The rate of microwave power absorption in most materials is proportional to its water content. This property is used for microwave heating. Because the microwave signal, penetrates most mon-conductors, microwave power provides a most efficient means of applying heat uniformly throughout a body. Microwave heating is used in many process industries for heating, drying and sterilizing. 5. Moisture measurement = * Microwave absorption by water also means that moisture content measurement by microwaves is possible. The attenuated microwave signal passed through the specimen is measured. 1.3 Rectangular Waveguides * A rectangular waveguide is characterized by its wide dimension (a) and narrow dimension (b). Fig. 1.3.1 shows a rectangular waveguide structure. Conducting walls. Fig. 1.3.1 Rectangular waveguideMicrowave Engin ing 1-8 Microwave Transmission Li The conducting walls are made of usually brass or aluminium and the dielectric medium is usually air. The electromagnetic wave to be transmitted travel longitudinally down the length of the waveguide i.e. z-direction. The conducting walls of the waveguide keeps within limit the electromagnetic field and guide the wave. The wave is reflected between the walls, because of multiple reflections a number of distinct field configurations can exist in waveguides, Each of these field configuration is called a MODE. The waveguide structure is a single conductor, therefore a de voltage can not be applied in the usual manner across two terminals. The whole waveguide can be held at a voltage with respect to ground but the voltage does not appear across the waveguide, rather than it appear across whatever separates the waveguide from ground. The basic property of a rectangular waveguide is its ability to carry high frequency signals but not low frequencies. The field polarizations are commonly used to analyze this waveguide. The field polarization can have five field components. These are transverse electric with fields = (Ex, Ey, Hx, Hy, Hz} and transverse magnetic with fields {E,, Ej, H,, Hy}. Cartesian co-ordinates naturally fit the rectangular waveguide, and the fields in the waveguide can vary along any of the x, y or z directions. The time and z dependence of alll of the fields take the usual form eit! A component of e' er electric field or magnetic field is in the direction of propagation of wave. Hence a rectangular waveguide does not support a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave. An uniform plane wave reflected in a rectangular waveguide is shown in Fig. 13.2. Fig. 1.3.2 Wave reflection in waveguideMicrowave Engineering 1-9 Microwave Transmission Lines + Wavelength A is in the direction of propagation. Let @ be the angle of incidence for the wave, then the wavelength 4. can have two components. A. in the direction normal to the reflecting plane and 2.p in the direction parallel to the reflecting plane he = cos0 =. Pp © sind 1.3.1 Modes of Propagation + There are two types of modes the waveguide can support : i) TM mode (Transverse Magnetic) ii) TE mode (Transverse Electric) * In TM mode, magnetic lines are entirely transverse to the direction of propagation of electromagnetic wave. The electric field has a component in that direction. © In TE mode, the electric field lines are entirely transverse to the direction of the propagation whereas magnetic field has a component along the direction of propagation. * The propagation modes for both TM and TE are designated by two subscripts. The first subscript indicate the number of half wave variations of the electric field in the wide dimension (a) of the waveguide whereas second subscript indicates the number of half wave variations of the electric field along the narrow dimension of the waveguide. Depending on the values of m and n, any mode is denoted by TE, OF TMyn mode, Modes of TE Wave in Rectangular Waveguide 1) TE) mode : For m = 0 and n = 0, ic. the number of half wave variations on wide dimension and narrow dimensions are zero, therefore all the field components vanish inside the waveguide, therefore this mode cannot exist. 2) TE,, mode : For m = 1 and n = 0, there is only one-half wave variation of electric field along the wide dimension and there is no electric field variation along the narrow dimension. Therefore TE, mode can exist and it is the simplest mode.Transmission Lines Microwave Engineering 3) TE), mode : For m= 0 and n= 1 E, = 0, H, = 0, B, and H, exist Therefore this mode exists. 4) TM,, Mode : For m = 1 andn=1. TE,, mode exists Modes of TM Wave in Rectangular Waveguide 1) TMy Mode : For m = 0 and n= 0 All the elecric and magnetic field components E, E,, H,, H, vanishes hence ‘TM,y mode can not exits. 2) TM,, Mode : For m = O and n= 1. All field components vanishes hence it does not exists. 3) TM,, Mode : m = 1 and n=0 Again all field components vanishes so this mode also not valid. 4) TM,, Mode: m= 1 n=1 In this mode all field component exists in wavegide, it is said that TM, is a valid mode. this mode has lowest cut-off frequency hence called as dominant mode. 1.3.2 Non-existence of TEM Mode * ‘The transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave will not propagate in a waveguide because certain boundary conditions apply. While the wave in the waveguide propagates through the air or inert gas dielectric in a manner similar to free space propagation, the phenomenon is bounded by the walls of the waveguide which implies that certain conditions must be met. © The boundary conditions for waveguides are as follows, 1) The electric field must be orthogonal to the conductor in order to exist at the surface of that conductor. 2) The magnetic field must not be orthogonal to the surface of the waveguide. * In order to satisfy these boundary conditions, the waveguide gives rise to two types of propagation modes, transverse electric mode (TE mode) and transverse magnetic mode (TM-mode). The TEM mode voltages the boundary conditions because the magneitc field is not parallel to surface and does not occur in waveguidesMicrowave Engineering 1-11 Microwave Transmission Lines: 1.3.3 Solutions of Wave Equations in Rectangular Co-ordinates * For evaluating the wave equations there can be two ways i.e. time domain solution and frequency domain solution. Here frequency domain solution is used. Consider rectangular co-ordinate system as shown in Fig. 13.3. LOTT A 3 3 RESSEEY Fig. 1.3.3 * The electric and magnetic wave equations in frequency domain is given by - VE = y2E w @3.1) and VE = yH e. (13.2) Where, y is vector wave equation (y = a +B) The E and H components satisfies the Helmholtz. equation given as - viy = yy --- (133) The Helmholtz equation in rectangular co-ordinates is given as - Py Ow ew Fy ey 2 Ox “ay? Oz? =v oo1.3.4) The simple form of solution may be written as - ¥ = Xe Yyy Ze ++ 135) Solving the equation will give the Helmholtz equation in rectangular co-ordinates y = [A sin (k, x) + B cos (k,x)] [e sin (k, y) + D cos (ky y)] IE sin (k, z) + F cos (k, z)] == (13.6)Microwave Engin ing 1-12 Derivation for propagation constant (y) * Waveguide propagation constant (y,) differs from intrinsic propagation constant y of dielectric, yi yitki+k 8 y= Pek + (13.7) Where, k, is cut-off wave number (ke = fk + K3) Also for lossless dielectric 7? = 0? pe. Then propagation constant y, can be solved from equation ( % ve = ot perk? Y,_ = tyo7 perk? vee (1.3.8) Now there can be three conditions for propagation constant 7... Condition 1: uty c= kz «When o? pe = k? then yg = 0 and there will be no wave propagation. This is known as critical condition for cut-off propagation. * The cut-off frequency (f, can be calculated as Koos (ke + kg kis ki+ ke owe = ke+k} (Qmh)? pe = ke +k? , eK «ade 1 L = ak ve 13.9. © aye VTS “®Microwave Engineering 1-13 Microwave Transmission Lines Condition 2 : op e> ke y, = t¥o?we-Ke 1, = tio me ( Ye = tj Bg * It indicates that operating frequency f must be above cutoff frequency (F,) for a wave to propagate in waveguide. Gondition 3: w?y ¢ < kz te = tne (s)3 . (13.11) Y,g = ta, © It indicates that if operating frequency f is below cutoff frequency f,, the wave will attenuate (decay exponentially) and no propagation of wave is possible, J va. (13:10) 1.3.4 Field Equations for TE Mode * Field components of Transverse Electric (TE) waves are shown in Fig. 13.4. H, & H, ‘~— Transverse A Component Longitudinal component & Fig. 1.3.4 «© For TE,,, mode: E, =0 and H, #0 Helmhotz equation : V2 H, = 7? HeMicrowave Engineering 1-14 Microwave Transmission Lines Where, telson temo eft om Maxwell's Curl equation; Vx E =-jopH VeH = joeE + TE mode field equations for rectangular waveguides as ~jou oH, BE, = Jobo .. (1.3.12) ke Oy _ jon oH, 5 a ve (13.13) E, = 0 ve (13.14) _ vis OH, He SESS . (13.15) — Be @H, Ge oy .-. (1.3.16) The magnetic field in positive z-direction is given by H, = Ho cof 52) coo Eee # .. (13.17) Where, Hy, is amplitude constant. Substituting H, in equations (1.3.12) through (1.3.16) gives E, = Eo coef BEX) sin BEY) 2 wa. (13:18) a b . af RX) oof DRY ) on itg z E, = Evy sin{ BX )Jeoe( "EE Je ves (1.3.19) E, = 0 ves (1.3.20) H, = He sinf BE) coal Jems 2 w+ (13.21) Hy = Hy co 22%) cos "EE Je“ wa. (13.22)Microwave Transmission Lines 1-15 Microwave Engineering 1.3.5 Field Pattern in Waveguide Field pattern for TE,, mode in rectangular waveguide is shown in the Fig. 1.3.5. Soul) Po}ONIP PIEMU| ‘S9u| payDeuip PiEMINO o- seu} ———— souy 3 Fig. 1.3.5 Field pattern for TE1o modeMicrowave Engineering 1-16 Microwave Transmission Lines Field Pattern for Higher TE Modes + Field pattern for higher TE modes is shown in Fig, 1.3.6. = TE), mods de = 20 TEqg mode deze TESEEE o o o is i i ts 4 i H » RS ee (ee — E lines © Outward directed lines -- >> Hines © Inward directed lines Fig. 1.3.6 Field patterns for some higher-order TE modes in rectangular waveguideMicrowave Engineering 1-17 Microwave Transmission Lines 1.3.6 Waveguide Parameters. A) Cut-off Wavelength * The mode in a waveguide is a function of waveguide dimensions and the frequency of the propagating signal. © Cut-off wavelength is the wavelength of the signal below which the propagation of wave occurs and above which there is attenuation or no propagation. The cut-off wavelength is denoted by A. «© The cutoff wavelength for rectangular waveguides for both TE,,, and TMi, is given by where a = Wide dimension of waveguide b = Narrow dimension of waveguide * Therefore the operating frequency must be above the cut-off frequency in order to propagate the wave in waveguide. * The frequency associated with cut-off wavelength is called cut-off frequency (f). B) Dominant Mode * The mode for both TE and TM which offers highest cut-off wavelength (i) or lowest cut-off frequency (fq) in a particular waveguide is called as dominant mode. * For TEyq, mode, TE, is the dominant mode and for TM,,, mode, TM,, is the dominant mode. * Dominant mode is almost a low loss, distortionless transmission while other modes contains harmonic distortion and losses. Therefore TE, and TM), modes are used for all practical electromagnetic transmission.Microwave Engineering 1-18 Microwave Transmission Lines For TM,, mode : m=Ln=1 Rey For TE,, mode : m=1n=0 Ae = 2a C) Guide Wavelength + Ina waveguide, the distance measured along the axis of the waveguide for a phase shift of 2x radians is known as guide wavelength or the propagating wavelength inside the guide is called the guide wavelength. Guide wavelength is denoted by },. + The guide wavelength (,), the free space wavelength (iq) and the cutoff wavelength (ic) are related by - Tay This expression is valid for any waveguide mode. D) Group Velocity * When a modulated carrier travels through a waveguide, the modulation envelope travels with a velocity much less than that of carrier. The velocity of modulation envelope is called group velocity (v,). In an air filled or hollow waveguide, », = 2. eo © Putting the value of 2, and solving for v,Microwave Engineering 1-19 Microwave Transmission Lines E) Phase Velocity + For a wave travelling through the waveguide the speed with which a particular phase of the wave travels in the propagation direction is defined as phase velocity (0,). or F) Wave Impedance * Wave impedance is defined as the ratio of transverse electric field to transverse magnetic field at any point in the waveguide. Wave impedance is also known as characteristic impedance. Wave impedance for TE wave in rectangular waveguide = oH eG eH oe = Gado oF a on yi-@. / a)? Ze =Microwave Engineering 1-20 Microwave Transmission Lines where 11 = Intrinsic impedance for free space tori fi 120 x Wave impedance for TE wave is always greater than free space. 4.3.7 Comparison of TE and TM Modes. TE Mode T™ Mode Transverse electric mode. Transverse magnetic mode Electric field component in 2 direction is zero. ie E,=0 Magnetic field component in z direction Is zero. ieH,=0. Electromagnetic energy is transmitted by E, component. Electromagnetic energy is transmitted by H, component. TEo) and TEy modes exist TMo1 and TMi modes does not exists Cut-off frequency of dominant made is 2a. Cue frequency of dominant mode is eat 1.3.8 Boundary Conditions for TE Mode . The entire surface of reactangular waveguide acts as a shorting circuit for electric field E, = 0, for all along the boundary walls of the waveguide. Four boundary conditions exists for four different waveguide walls. 1" Boundary condition : Bottom wall Ex=0 at y=O0¥x70toa 2" Boundary condition ; Top wall E,=0 at bY¥x>0toa 3" Boundary condition : Left side wall E,=0 at x=O0Vy—+O0tob 4" Boundary condition : Right side wall Ey =0 at x=0Vy+0tobMicrowave Engineering 1-21 Microwave Transmission Lines 1.3.9 Boundary Conditions for TM Mode 1 Boundary condition : Bottom wall E,=0 at y=0Vx>0toa 2"! Boundary condition : Left side wall 220 at x=0Vy>0tob. 3 Boundary condition : Top wall E,=0 at y=bVx0toa 4 Boundary condition ; Right side wall E,=0 at x=aVy>0tob, 1.4 Power Transmitted in Waveguide * The power transmitted (flowing) in a waveguide operating at a frequency above cut-off frequency can be calculated by means of the complex Poynting theorem. Assumption 1, The waveguide is infinitely long compared to the wavelength. 2. Waveguide is terminated such that there is no reflection from the receiving end. * Then the power transmitted through the waveguide of dimensions a x b from the sending end is given by complex Poynting theorem as P, = fP-ds where: P = ExH* Py = f(ExH*) ds * This theorems gives the complex power transmitted across the surface enclosed by the volume. Then the real average power transmitted is given by 1 - : P= 5f(€xH")ds -- (41) where real value of H’ is taken. From the definition of wave impedance Z,Microwave Engineering 1+22 Microwave Transmission Lines 1.5 Power Loss in Waveguide + As the electromagnetic wave propagates through a waveguide, the wave intensity gets attenuated because of losses in the waveguides. There are three types of losses in the waveguide which causes attenuation of transmitted signal. 1. Power loss in dielectric filling. 2. Power loss in waveguide walls. 3. Misaligned waveguide sections. 1.5.1 Power Loss in Dielectric Filling « When the guide is completely filled with a low loss dielectric (6<< 1s), the attenuation constant a in the guide due to dielectric loss is - Intrinsic impedance But inan unbounded | = it dielectric Therefore for free space The attenuation in waveguide a, for TE, and TM,,, mode is given by For TE,,, mode For TMy, modeMicrowave Engineering 1-23 Microwave Transmission Lines. 1.5.2 Power Loss in Waveguide Walls «In waveguide the wave is propagated by reflections from walls. The tangential component of electric field and normal component magnetic field develops losses in the walls. Due to this the average power in the waveguide is dissipated. The attenuation in waveguide a is given by PL a, te where P, = Power loss per unit length P, = Power transmitted through the waveguide 1.5.3 Misaligned Waveguide Sections * When the waveguide sections are joined and if the joint is not proper or misaligned, there will be some loss due to reflection. 1.6 Waveguide Excitation + Energy can be incident into the waveguide by a radiating element (Short antenna). This radiating element may be a probe or loop inserted into a waveguide. Desired mode of transmission can be setup by placing the probe correctly, this process is called as waveguide excitation. + In order to produce field intensities of desired mode in the waveguide a probe or loop-coupling device is commonly used. The waveguides are excited from microwave signal source through a co-axial cable. The inner conductor of the co-axial cable is projected inside the waveguide. This inner conductor acts as an electric dipole. The dipole is oriented so as to excite the electric field intensity of the mode, and the coupling loop so as to generate Antenna, Fig. 1.6.4 TE;q mode excitationMicrowave Engineering 1-24 Microwave Transmission Lines the magnetic field intensity of the desired mode. The TE, mode with the probe at the centre is shown in Fig. 1.6.1. « If the desired mode excitation is to be used with two or more probes. A proper phase relationship of antenna currents is to be maintained. Fig. 1.6.2 shows TE, mode excitation by two probes. Fig. 1.6.2 TE2) mode excitation + Similarly depending on the field configuration of the mode, excitation for TM,; mode is shown in Fig. 1.6.3. Co-axial line Fig. 1.6.3 TE}; mode excitation «Impedance matching can be achieved by varying the position and depth of the antenna in the waveguide.Microwave Engineering 1-25 Microwave Transmission Lines. 41.7 Comparison of Waveguide and Co-axial Cable Waveguide Co-axial Cable 1 | Waveguide can transmit frequencies All frequencies can be transmitted above cut-off frequency. through co-axial cable. 2 | Waveguide is a one conductor Co-axial cable is two conductor transmission system transmission system. 3 | tn waveguides no power is lost through | Power loss because of radiation takes radiation as electric and magnetic fields | place as the signal travel along the are confined to the space within guides. | cable. 4 | The electromagnetic wave travelling TEM waves are propagated. through the guide is either TE or TM. 5 | In waveguide several modes of wave There is no such modes for the propagation is possible. propagation of waves. 6 | Power handling capacity of waveguide is | Co-axial cables are suitable for small more. transmitting power. 1.8 Advantages of Waveguide Over Co-axial Cable 1, Waveguides are easier to manufacture since inner conductor is missing and their properties are uniform and easier to calculate. 2. Power handling capacity of waveguide is superior to the co-axial cables. 3. In waveguide the propagation is by reflection from the walls, the power losses in waveguides are lower than,co-axial cables and transmission lines. 4. The maximum operating frequency of waveguide is 325 GHz as compared to 18 GHz for co-axial cable, it is because of different methods of propagation. 5. Waveguides have larger bandwidth than co-axial cables transmission lines. Key Equations = 1 he =Microwave Engin 1-26 Microwave Transmission Lines 4 oq. ate 1-(%o Xe Hobe 5 - a eoer 6 a, = —<% 7. f= 8. B= 9. f= Solved Examples ‘ump Example 4.1: A rectangular waveguide is filled by dielectric material of == 9 and has internal dimensions of 7 cm x 3.5 em for dominant TE, mode. Then (a) Determine the cut-off frequency. (b) Find the phase velocity in the guide at frequency of 2 GHz (c) Find the guided wavelength 2, at 2 GHz Solution : For dominant mode m = 1 and n= 0, a=7on=7x107m b =3.5 cm =3.5x 107 m &,=9 {a) Cut-off frequency (f,) Cut-off frequency is given byMicrowave Engineering 1-27 Microwave Transmission Lines © = €9-e, where ey = Permittivity of free space £9 = 8.85410? F/m & = (8.854% 10" x 9) and Ho = Permeability of free space = 4x 107 H/m 1 1 fe =e “2 Gro0°7 x 8.854 x10" x9) le f= 0.7137 GHz = 713.799 MHz ws ARS. (b) Phase velocity (v,) : {, = 0.7137 GHz Re = £231 042 m fe 0.737 x10° Given operating frequency is f = 2 GHz _ ¢_3x108 0 = FP Sa0 =0.15 m 3x108 ° 015)" /-(8) = 3.21 x 10" meters / sec ~. Ans. (c) Guided wavelength (.,) 4, = 0.16 meters a ANS,Microwave Engineering 1+28 Microwave Transmission Lines. wm Example 1.2: Calculate the cutoff wavelength for the dominant mode in a rectangular waveguide of dimensions 4 cm x 2 cm. Solution : For dominant mode TE,,,m = landn=0 a = dem=4x107 m b = 2cm=2x102 m Cutoff wavelength a, = Bem .. Ans. a mb Example 1.3; Design a rectangular waveguide to propagate 10 GHz signal under dominant mode. Solution: f = 10 GHz = 10x10? Hz ¢ = 3x108 m = 3x10 cm Dominant TE, mode : m 0. Wavelength in free space _ 3x10 ~ 10%10° dy = Bem Typically dy > a> he 3em > a>15cm Let a = 2cm For a standard rectangular waveguide the aspect ratio is 2 : 1. ie. a=1-29 Microwave Transmi: Therefore the dimensions of waveguide is 2 cm x 1 cm. vs Ans. im> Example 1.4: A wave is propagated in a rectangular waveguide at 6 GHz. Caleulate i) The cut-off wavelength for dominant mode. i) Wavelength in guide for dominant mode. iti) Group velocity and phase velocity. Given a = 3 em , Solution : Dominant mode is TE, mode. ie. m = landn=0 i) Cut-off wavelength - .. Ans. ii) Wavelength Wavelength in free space Ay 3 > The wavelength in guide : ». Ans.Microwave Engineering 1 ili) Group velocity _ 8 3x10* ra V, = 166.67 x 10° m/s -- Ans, iv) Phase velocity .. Ans. a mm Example 4.5: A rectangular waveguide has a = 3 cm and carries dominant mode of a signal of 7.63 GHz. Find the characteristic wave impedance. Solution : Dominant mode is TE, mode. Cutoff wavelength he = 6em w- Ans. Wavelength in free space Ao ho =F 3x108 7.63109 ho = 3.93 cm o Ans. Characteristic wave impedance for TE mode ho =Microwave Engineering Microwave Transmission Lines Ze ore ore . Ans. . wm Example 1.6: For an air-filled rectangular waveguide of 2 cm x 1 em calculate the cut-off wavelength de for TE) and TMy, modes. Also calculate guide wavelength at 10 GHz. Solution ; a= 2cm belem Cut-off wavelength 4.< is given by i) For TE) mode a= 2 IS +0 S he = .. Ans. ii) For TM,, mode he =Microwave Engineering 1-32 Microwave Transmission Lines ili) Guide wavelength f = 10 GHz = 10x 10°Hz = 10" Hz 3 he = a (3) he = 45cm .. Ans. 5 om Example 1.7: A section of X-band waveguide with dimensions a = 2.286 cm and b= 1.016 cm has perfectly conducting walls and is filled with a lossy dielectric whose conductivity is 367.5 ps/m and permittivity is 2.1 and permeability is 1.0. Find the attenuation factor of this waveguide in dB/m. For the dominant mode of propagation at a frequency of 9 GHz. Solution: Given a = 2.286 cam b = 1.016 cm o = 3675 ps/m ef, = 21 = 1.0 f = 9GHz ‘ a=? For dominant TEy mode f £ 2a ¢ = —_3x108 © 2x 2,286x10 6.5 GHzMicrowave Engineering 4-33 Microwave Transmission Lines (4 rx107 «1) "> V@85x10 x2.1) n= 260 Attenuation caused by low-loss dielectric in a rectangular waveguide for TE, mode is given by, 367.5x260 65) a(S) Gg = 96.7 -dBim a, = wm> Example 1.8: A rectangular waveguide with dimensions 4 cm x 2.5 cm is excited by a amicrowave source propagating in the dominant made. Following were the observations with a slotted line having the same dimensions of the above waveguide. Distance between two consecutive maxima is 1.618 em. Calculate the frequency of operation. Solution : Given a = 3cm b = 4em d = 5em me=l n=0 Cut-off wavelength 2 “Ra a B 2 ? 3 tMicrowave Engineering 1-34 Microwave Transmission Lines Guided wavelength But 2g = 1.618 measured by slotted line. do = (1.618) - 2-518) (8 Ao = 1.58 cm - Ans, Operating frequency Again Ao = ; 108 158x102 = 221" 3x108 f= _oxl0”_ = 189GH 158x107 * Therefore operating frequency = 18.9 GHz LiMicrowave Engineering 1-35 Microwave Transmission Lines mmm Example 1.9: An air filled rectangular waveguide has dimensions of 6 cm x dem. It propagates a signal at 3 GHz. Compute the following for TEy, mode i) Cut-off frequency ii) Guide wavelength iii) Phase constant iv) Phase velocity ») Group velocity vi) Wave impedance Solution : Given a = 6 cm = 6x10? m b = 4ems 4x10? m f = 3.GHz = 3x10? Hz For TE, mode =m = 1 n=0 ’) Cut-off frequency For an air-filled waveguide operating at dominant mode. Cut-off frequency (f,) is given as, Bla 3x108 2x6x107 f, = 2.5x109 = 25 GHz ; 4, = 0.12 m ji) Guide wavelength c ho =e °*F 3108 do = a0 “ Ao = O1mMicrowave Engineer! ing ag 1-36 iii) Phase constant = 0.18 m= 18 cm Phase constant B, is given by = 2-(§) iv) Phase velocity v) Group velocity By 2nx3x109 2. Bs = S508 1 Bp, = 34.74 nepers m = 5.4108 misec , = 1.67 x 10° nsec Microwave Transmission Lines .. Ans. .. Ans. .. Ans. Ans.Microwave Engineering 1-37 Microwave Transmission Lines vi) Wave impedance Zn = Zp = oe .. ANS. a imm> Example 1.10: An air filled rectangular waveguide of inside dimensions 7 x 3.5 cm operates in the dominant TE yy mode : i) Find the cut-off frequency if) Determine phase velocity of wave in the guide at 3.5 GHz. iti) Determine the guided wavelength at the same frequency. Solution: = a=7x107 m b=35x102 m For dominant mode : m = 1,n=0 i) Cut-off frequency For an air-filled waveguide ii) Phase velocity v, = 3.78x10 m/s vs Ans.Microwave Engineering 1+38 Microwave Transmission Lines iii) Guided wavelength ho eae he = 3x108 / (3.5x10°) he : yi-(2.14/35) dg = 10.8 em im Example 1.11: A rectangular waveguides has a cross-section af 1.5 cm x 0.8 cm, o = 0, H= Hy and c=4e9. The magnetic field component is given as - H, =2sin (2 oo) si (xx 1014 —pb2) Afme Determine : i) Mode of operation ii) Cut-off frequency iii) Phase constant iv) Propagation constant v) Wave impedance Solution ; i) Mode of operation A common factor of H, component in TE and TM mode wave is sin( 2 Ex cool y) a B Comparing with the given expression H, = 2 sn( %ooo{ 2) singre toe Bz) it is observed that, m = 1 and n = 3 Therefore the mode of operation is TM,, or TE,s. ii) Cut-off frequencyMicrowave, Engineering 1-39 Microwave Transmission Lines but f = 28.58 GHz --Ans. From given expression 2nf = nx 10"! iii) Phase constant Bs 50 GHz ax104 Bs = Bs = 3508 By = 859.25 nepers m o-Ans, iv) Propagation constant Propagation constant under critical condition is given by : V, = +) By Bz = 2 859.25 v) Wave Impedance 2m But es (Given)Microwave Engineering 1-40 Microwave Transmission Lines n= Zim For free space = 120 # 1205, ri Zm = ——[V0.7382}" ATM Tt t I Zm = 219370 Points to Remember 1. Microwaves are those electromagnetic waves with frequencies of 900 MHz to 300 GHz with wavelengths of 33 cm to 1 mm. nv . Electromagnetic waves propagate at a velocity of 300,000,000 meters per second (3x 10° m/s) or about 186,200 miles per second. 3. Microwave signals are electromagnetic (EM) waves that propagate at a velocity of 3108 m/s in free space. Polarization of an EM wave is defined as the direction of the electric field vector. The magnetic field vector is always orthogonal to (90° from) the electric field vector. 4. EM waves exhibit four major propagation paths, surface wave, space wave, tropospheric wave and ionospheric wave. The space wave has two components, direct and reflected. 5. Applications of microwave - a) Broadcasting b) Communication c) Radar d) Microwave heating _ e) Moisture measurement 6. A waveguide is a hollow metallic tube of rectangular or circular cross section used for transmitting microwave frequencies. 7. The electromagnetic wave inside a waveguide can have an infinite number of patterns, those are called as modes. 8. There are two types of modes, which waveguide can support i) TM mode ii) TE mode, TEM mode does not exist. 9. Wave guide parameters are i) Cut-off wavelength ()..) ii) Dominant mode(1-42)Circular Wavequides Introduction + A circular waveguide is a metallic cylindrical or tubular structure with inner radius p = a and length L. Following figure 2.1 shows circular waveguide. Fig. 2.1 Circular waveguide + Here 4 is varying from 0 to 2n, p is varying from o to a and length / varies along z-axis. * The Helmhotz equation for TE and TM wave travelling in Z direction of a waveguide are . VtH, = 0 VE, = 0 2.1 Propagation of TE Wave In Circular Waveguide + For TE wave to propagate H, #0 (2-1)Microwave Engineering 2-2 Circular Waveguides Maxwell's Equation V?H, = - o's H, Using cylindrical co-ordinate for V2H, 2H, 1 0H, 1 87H, | 0H, p ap pt a az -o? pe H, 3 oz @H, ,1 dH, . += op? pap But y+ope = hr eH, oe +h HL =0 ‘The above equation is a partial differential equation, and can be solved by separation of variable method. The solution of H, for sinusoidal variation along z is given by - H, = Co In(ph)cosng e-* where, Jn is n® order Basse! function Co = CnCn: and Cn is a constant. 2.1.1 Boundary Conditions / Characteristic Equations * Along the surface of the waveguide is at p = a and Ey = 0 for all values between 0 to 2n Ipaa + By using Maxwell's curl equation various field components are given asMicrowave Engineering 2-4 Circular Waveguides * TEM does not exist in circular waveguide since all field components vanish for E, =H, = 0. 2.2 Planar Transmission Lines © Now a days planar type transmission lines are becoming popular because of its simplicity and light weight. The planar transmission lines have geometry which allows to control the characteristic impedance (Zo) of line by controlling its dimension. The complete transmission line can be fabricated in one step by thin film technology and photolithography techniques. * Several configurations of planar transmission lines are possible. Some commonly used configurations are 1. Strip lines 2. Microstrip lines 3. Slot lines 4. Coplanar strip lines 2.2.1 Strip Lines © Strip line is a three conductor transmission line. Fig. 2.21 shows cross-sectional view of strip line structure. Genter conductor Lower loss dielgctic (eq) Metal ground ites tecw tec Fig. 2.2.4 Gross sectional view of strip line transmission line The strip line consists of a central conductor called strip and two ground plates. The width of the strip is w and thickness is t. The two ground plates are separated by homogeneous low loss dielectric (ex) medium, the strip is embedded in this dielectric medium.Microwave Engineering 2-5 Circular Waveguides * The voltage is applied between the center strip and the pair of ground planes, current flows down the center strip and returns via the ground planes. The structure is open at the sides but it is a non-radiating transmission line. * The dominant mode of propagation in strip line is a pure transverse electromagnetic (TEM) ic. the electric field and magnetic field components are transverse to the direction of propagation. The field lines are confined within the transmission line with no radiation losses. The field lines are concentrated near the strip E Lines and decay —_ exponentially H Lines towards ground planes which are at zero potential. Fig. 2.2.2 Fig. 2.2.2 TEM field pattern of strip line shows TEM field pattern (electric field and magnetic field distribution) of strip line. * Strip line is constructed using a pair of printed circuit boards. The dimensions are chosen to operate in TEM mode with minimum losses, thickness t is typically few thousandths of an inch, while b ranges from 74 to ; of an inch. Higher order modes are not allowed to propagate, this can be ensured by keeping distance between ground planes less than 24 / 2, where ha is wavelength in dielectric medium. The commonly used dielectrics are Teflon and Polystyrene. The practical values of characteristic impedance (Zo) is ranging from 10 to 100 ohms for most dielectrics. The strip lines are used over the frequency range from 100 MHz to 100 GHz. + The impedance of strip line is inversely proportional to the ratio of the width ‘w’ of the inner conductor to the distance 'b’ between the ground planes. Characteristic impedance of a strip line in low impedance region is given by 1 _ 94.15 [wek , Ce me [ D + ohms (221)Microwave Engineering 2-6 ular Waveguides where k Cy = Fringing capacitance due to fringing electric field at the edges of strip (pF/m). 2.2.4.4 Higher Order Modes in Strip Lines + The strip line is capable of propagating electromagnetic energy in other modes also. The operating bandwidth of a strip line is considerably large for TEM mode of propagation. The upper operating frequency limit is decided by TEy and TM,; modes. The cut-off wavelengths for these modes are given by For TM,, mode A = 2b Je, For TE mode Ae = (2 + 5) der where, b = Separation between ground planes w = Width of center conductor cy = Relative permittivity (dielectric constant) 2.21.2 Losses in Strip Lines © Losses in strip lines exists because of attenuation associated with dielectric loss and conductor loss. R, tw /b4+ln(4b/-xt) Zb In2+nw /2b ac = Np/length wer tan3 Np/length Ro Total attenuation is sum of ac and ag a = a.+ag 2.2.1.3 Excitation of Strip Lines ¢ The strip lines are excited by a coaxial line, a special connector or launcher is used to interface coaxial line and strip line. The connector interfaces center conductor and two ground planes also. Fig, 2.2.3 shows strip line connector.Microwave Engineering 2-7 Circular Waveguides Ground planes Fig. 2.2.3 Strip line connector 2.2.2 Microstrip Lines © Microstrip line has very simple geometry. Microstrip line consists of a thin conductor and a ground plane separated by a low loss dielectric material. Microstrip is an unsymmetrical stripline. The upper ground plane is not present in microstrip, hence it is also called as open strip line. Fig. 22.4 shows microstrip line. Conductor strip Dielectric substrate Ground plane Cross section t>w Fig. 2.2.4 Microstrip line © Microstrip line construction has following comparative advantages i) Better interconnection features because it provides free accessible surface on which solid state devices can be placed. ii) Easier fabrication; the entire pattern can be deposited on single dielectric substrate. :Microwave Engineering 2-8 Circular Waveguides © Microstrip circuits are fabricated using printed circuit techniques. Three commonly uséd dielectric materials are alumina, quartz and Duroid. When semiconductor devices are to be fabricated on microstrip structure, silica (cr = 11.8) is often used as dielectric, The use of high c, materials reduces the amount of fringing fields in the air region above the conductor. * Since the upper plane is not existing the electric field lines remain partially in the air and partially in dielectric substrate. Hence microstrip line does not support pure TEM mode for propagation but a quasi TEM as shown in Fig. 2.2.5. Most of the electric field lines are concentrated in the region below the strip in the dielectric hence most of the energy is concentrated. Therefore pure TEM mode can not propagate in a microstrip. xo o™ _ fT LLL LLL CLL ZLELLLEL (b) Magnetic field LLL Fig. 2.2.5 Quasi TEM mode of microstrip line * Because of open structure the microstrip line radiates electromagnetic energy. The losses due to radiation are proportional to the square of the frequency.Microwave Engineering 2-9 Circular Waveguides 2.2.2.4 Effective Dielectric Constant © The propagation field lines in microstrip lie partially in air and in dielectric substrate. The propagation delay time is decided by an effective dielectric constant (cei). The quasi TEM mode is controlled by cur. un fet (1 eh) w where, e, is relative permittivity. _ ere fap = yl 22.22 Characteristic Impedance (Zo) © The characteristic impedance (Zp) of microstrip line is a function of the strip line width (w), thickness (t) and ground plane separation (h). 60 8h w + W = oh we Me Zo ee ¥] ohms if ¥ <1 + The guide wavelength for propagating quasi TEM mode is given as _ ho dg = eff 2.2.2.3 Losses in Microstrip Lines © There are three basic types of losses taking place in microstrip. i) Dielectric losses ii) Ohmic losses i) Radiation losses i) Dielectric losses * All dielectric materials have some conductivity but it is very small. When the conductivity is considerable it cannot be neglected and the electric and magnetic fields in the dielectric will not be in time phase. Dielectric attenuation constant, a, is given as where, o = Conductivity of dielectric Therefore a low-loss dielectric substrate is used commonly. Commonly used dielectric materials are alumina, quartz.Microwave Engineering 2-10 Circular Waveguides ii) Ohmic losses © Ohmic losses are due to the non-perfect conductors. The current density in the conductors of a microstrip line is concentrated at skin depth thick inside the conductor. The conducting attenuation constant is given as - a, = BOR. © * aw where, R, = Surface skin resistance Zp = Characteristic impedance w = Width of microstrip iii) Radiation losses + Radiation losses depend on the substrate thickness (geometry) and dielectric constant. Radiated power loss is given as h) FE = afb). Pig = 240 # (; } ZB 0 where, h = Distance between ground plane and microstrip F = Radiation factor Zy = Characteristic impedance ' 3g = Free space wavelength 2.2.2.4 Q-factor of Microstrip * Quality factor (Q) of a microstrip is very high. The value of Q of a microstrip is limited by the radiation losses of the substrate and dielectric ‘constant. The Q-factor of a microstrip is given as - Q = 063 h fof where, h = Distance between ground plane and microstrip @ = Conductivity of dielectric = Operating frequencyMicrowave Engineering 2-41 Circular Waveguides 2.2.2.5 Limitations of Microstrip i) Relative dielectric constant changes due to temperature variation resulting in change of impedance. ii) At high frequency the required dimensions are very small causing fabrication problems, Open strip suffers radiation losses. 2.2.2.6 Comparison of Stripline and Microstrip Stripline Microstrip Dielectrics used are teflon, Alumina, quartz, silica polystyrene. 2. | Suitable for design of only Suitable for the design of passive circuits passive circuits and series mounting of active components across a gap in strip. 3. | Strip tine losses are mainly in| Microstrip losses are conductor. i) In dielectric ii) Ohmic loss in the strip and ground plane due to finite conductivity. 3 conductor transmission system| 2-Conductors ie. one ground i.e. two ground planes and a plane and a microstrip. stripline 5._| Propagation mode is pure TEM. | Propagation mode is quasi TEM. 2.2.3 Slot Lines * Slot lines are a useful alternative to the microstrip in fabricating microwave ICs. In slot lines the conductors are in one plane on a dielectric substrate as shown in Fig. 2.2.6. Conductors: Dielectric ‘substrate (¢,) Fig. 2.2.6 Slot linesMicrowave Engineering 2-12 Cireular Waveguides ‘The propagating fields in slot lines are concentrated in the dielectric regions at the gap between the two adjacent conductors. The magnetic fields has a strong component in the propagation direction. Therefore, the primary transmission mode is not TEM but TE. This characteristics is more when the system requires the incorporation of non-reciprocal ferrite components. Fig. 22.7 shows field patterns of slot line. Fig. 2.2.7 Field pattern of slot lines The magnetic field has both longitudinal and transverse components, the propagating mode is TE. The characteristic impedance Zo at slot lines are proportional to the width of the slot and frequency. Advantage of slot line over micrdstrip line is that the active and passive components can easily be shunt mounted to the line from the top while in microstrip series mounting is possible. 2.2.4 Coplanar Lines The coplanar lines consists of a thin metal strip with ground planes on either side. It combines some of the advantages of microstrip and slot lines. For example, series and shunt connections are easily achieved in coplanar line. Fig. 2.2.8 shows coplanar lines. Ground planes Center = Dielectric substrate (c,) Fig, 2.2.8 Coplanar linesMicrowave Engineering 2-13 Circular Waveguides + The propagating modes in coplanar lines are TE modes. As a significant magnetic field component is present, nonreciprocal ferrite components can be realized. 2.2.5 Advantages of Planar Transmission Lines * Major advantages of planar transmission lines are . Compact in size . Light in weight . Highly reliable |. Better reproducibility Low cost . Easy access to component mounting, (exception is strip line) 1 2. 3 4. 5. Longer life 6. 7. 8. Characteristic impedance can be controlled by adjusting dimension of strip. 2.2.6 Disadvantages of Planar Transmission Lines * There are few disadvantages of planar transmission lines. 1. As the size of strip is small, power handling capability is lower. 2. Because of open structure, radiation losses are more. 2.3 Cavity Resonators + A cavity resonator is a metallic enclosure formed by shorting two ends of a section of a waveguide. Cavity resonator confines the electromagnetic energy. The stored electric and magnetic field components inside the cavity determines the equivalent inductance and capacitance. Within the cavity, various TE,,.,, and TM,,,, modes are possible. A very high value of Q can be obtained with these resonator. «In microwave applications the commonly used cavity resonators are 1, Rectangular cavity resonator 2. Circular cavity resonator 3. Re-entrant cavity resonatorMicrowave Engineering 2-14 Circular Waveguides 2.3.1 Rectangular Cavity Resonator © In a rectangular waveguide section if the short circuit is placed at two ends, The resultant configuration is called a rectangular cavity resonator in which the signal bounces back and forth between the opposite walls. Fig. 2.3.1 shows rectangular cavity resonator. Fig. 2.3.1 Rectangular cavity resonator If m = number of half-wave periodicity in the x-direction n = number of half wave periodicity in the y-direction p = number of half wave periodicity in the z-direction Then for both modes i.e. TEpqp aNd TMyyyp the resonant frequency f, is expressed by Because for air : B= py and 8 = & (ya)? =e Therefore, 2.3.2 Q-Factor of Cavity Resonator © Qractor is the measure of the frequency selectivity of a circuit, Q is defined as Maximum energy stored during a cycle = 23 Q = 28 Average energy dissipated per cycleMicrowave Engineering 2-15 Circular Waveguide where ©, = Energy stored in cavity P, = Average power loss in cavity o, = 2 ret + The average power loss can be divided into three parts - i) Power loss in walls (Py,,) ii) Power loss in dielectric (P,s) iii) Power loss due to loading of coupled device (PL. coupling) 2 PL = Pu + Pua Pi coupling For loaded circuit a = 8 FF Ra taming — Pla, Poop Qu Or "Os Wy “Ws J2.t,l,1 a * aan": where Q, = Qfactor of wall Qy = Q-factor of dielectric Q. = Q-factor of coupling Q, is unloaded Q factor Since Qy >> Qwr wr a and e . ao = ok where K = Coupling coefficientMicrowave Engineering 2-16 Circular Waveguides * There can be three values of coupling coefficient. i) Critical coupling When resonator and generator are matched, then K = 1. Q for loaded cireuit is given by - a= & ii) Over coupling : K > 1 Here cavity terminals are at maximum voltage, and the impedance at maximum voltage is standing wave ratio (p) ie. K =p Under coupling : K <1 Here cavity terminals are of minimum voltage and the impedance is equal to reciprocal of SWR (3): ie. k=1 = a = 25a The relationship of coupling coefficient K and SWR is shown in the Fig. 23.2. 7 6 Under coupled 4 Critically SWR(p) coupled coupled H 4 2 3 4 Coupling coefficient (i) Fig. 2.3.2 Coupling coefficient Vs SWRMicrowave Engineering 2-17 Circular Waveguides 2.3.3 Applications of Cavity Resonator * In microwaves the cavity resonators are used in microwave measuring devices. Few of them are explained below. 4) Microwave filters = © In notch (narrow band) filters the use of cavity resonator is shown in Fig. 23.3. © In notch filter shown in the Fig. 2.3.3 the cavity dimensions are flexible ie. it can be changed by plunger screw Movable movement when — incoming Plurget signal frequency is equal to resonant frequency. Thus energy stored in the cavity can also be varied. Therefore it acts Fig. 2.3.3 Cavity resonator in notch filter as notch filter or band pass filter. 2) Wavemeter : Cavity Fig. 2.3.4 Cavity resonator in wavemeterMicrowave Engineering 2-20 Circular Waveguides Solved Examples im Example 2.4; A metal box is 3x4x5 cm in dimensions, filled with air. Calculate the resonant frequency of the cavity for TE 102. Solution : Given a = 3am = 3x107%m b = 4em=4x10?m d = Sem =5x10% m Resonant frequency for rectangular cavity is given by -$2)-0-@) im Example 2.2: Calculate the lowest resonant frequency of a rectangular cavity resonator with dimensions a= 2 em, b = 1 cm and d = 3m. Solution ; The dominant mode for rectangular waveguide is TE, mode and lowest frequency can be obtained when p = 1(Le. lowest value). Therefore the TE,,, mode will give the lowest resonant frequency i.e. m = 1, n= 0 and p = 1. Given : a = 2em, b = lem, d = 3em. Resonant frequency for rectangular cavity is given by, HOOMicrowave Engineering 2-21 Circular Waveguides f= f, = 9 GHz ~ Ans. imp Example 2.3 : A rectangular cavity resonator 10x 8x 6.cm. Compute the following: a) Resonant frequency 4) Resonant frequency of dominant mode for a dielectric filled cavity of e, = 3, For TEyy, mode. Solution : a = 10cm=010m b = 8cem=0.08m c = 6cem=0.06m m=1 n=1 p=l (a) Resonant frequency for rectangular cavity is given by, c frmy (ny (py «= 53) (5) (8) _ 3xi08® fi PY (1 yi t= 2 Caw) *(ate) *(ans) f, = 34 GHz w ANS. (©) Resonant frequency with filled dielectric is given by ge = 34x10 ‘ v3 ff = 2GHz o» Ans.Microwave Engineering 2-22 Circular Waveguides 1 Points to Remember Review Questions . Explain eavity resonator. . Briefly explain the applications of cavity resonator. The principal mode of propagation in coaxial line is TEM. Hence it does not have cut-off frequency. Strip line consists of a central conductor strip and two ground plates. The dominant mode in strip line is TEM. Microstrip line consists of a conductor strip and a ground plane. The electromagnetic wave propagates in quasi TEM mode. Three types of losses taking place in microstrip. i) Dielectric loss ii) Ohmic loss iii) Radiation loss Slot lines consists of two conducting planes separated by a slot. The electromagnetic waves propagates in TE mode. Coplanar lines consists of a thin metal strip with ground planes on either side. The propagating modes in coplanar lines are TE modes. A cavity resonator is a metallic enclosure formed by shorting two ends of a section of a waveguide. Explain the construction and field pattern of strip line, Write a note on higher order modes in strip lines: Briefly explain how the strip lines are excited, Deseribe the construction and field pattern for microstrip tine. Elaborate different losses taking place in microstrip line, What are the limitations of microstrip line 7 Compare strip line and microstrip line. Explain the construction and field pattern for slot lines. Write a note on coplanar lines. Give advantages and disadoantages of planar transmission line. Deduce Q factor for cavity resonator Qo00Wavequide Components and Applications - | 3.1 Microwave Network + A microwave network consists of microwave devices and components (sources, attenuators, resonators, filters, amplifiers etc.) are coupled by transmission lines or waveguides. The point of intersection of two or more signals is called as junction. * In electronic circuits operating at low frequency, a port is a pair of terminals while for a microwave frequency a port is a reference plane transverse to the length of the microwave transmission line or waveguide. * The variables at low frequencies are voltages and currents, The variables (voltages and currents) are related interms of ABCD parameters, Z-parameters, Y-parameters or h-parameters in matrix forms. * Consider a generalized two-port linear network as shown in Fig. 3.1.1 Fig. 3.1.1 Two port network The relationship between variables and parameters is given by following matrices. 1. ABCD parameters / chain matrix : Vi] _ fA -B][V2 nh} le -Diln (3-1)Microwave Engineering 3-2 Waveguide Components and Applications - | 2. Z-parameters / impedance parameters : Mi] _ fn Ze] fh V2 Zn Zn} \lo 3. Y-parameters / admittance parameters : I | - Yu Yao] [Ve In Yu Yn} [V2 4. h-parameters / hybrid parameters : Vi} fu he] fh Tn} > [ha hn} LV2 Limitations of ABCD, Z, Y and h-Parameters + Problems arise in the measurement of these parameters at microwave frequencies. These measurements involve terminating the networks in open and short circuits and subsequent measurement of voltages and currents. Firstly it is difficult to achieve good quality open and short circuits at frequencies above 1 GHz, and terminating active devices in this way, can damage the devices due to the total reflection of power back into the device. * Another problem arises in the measurement of voltages and currents at microwave frequencies and often they can only be derived from measurable quantities such as VSWR reflection coefficient, power etc. The easiest parameters to measure are incident and reflected power and the optimum test conditions are when the two port is terminated in matched loads. * For describing and analyzing a microwave network the input-output parameters are defined by scattering matrix. Scattering matrix is also known as S-matrix. Since at microwave frequencies measuring voltage, current and impedance is difficult instead of transmission coefficient, reflection coefficient, standing wave ratio can be measured accurately. Hence, the conventional methods of using Z, Y, h and ABCD parameters are not applicable at microwave. frequencies. Scattering matrix is widely used to analyze the microwave networks. Also scattering matrix can be applied to multiport networks which is common in microwave application. 3.1.1 Scattering Parameters * First consider a general transmission line as shown in Fig. 3.1.2. Here V, and V;, are the incident and reflected voltages at the load port. 2 Ma Incident power 7, = VéL 29Microwave Engineering 3-3 Waveguide Components and Applications -| ve Reflected power P, =! Zo Power delivered to the load _ MP -WeP PB Load reflection coefficient Fig, 3.1.2 Generalised transmission line _ Ve_Z-Zo Vio 2. +Zo Now replace the source and line by its Thevenin equivalent as shown in Fig. 3.1.3. If we now define variables a and b such that V+Z,1 V-Zj1 2\Re(Z,)"” © ZRe(Z.y)" Where * denotes complex conjugate and Re represents the real part, then we find that the power available from the source is P= Jal? and the power delivered to the load is R= laP-1bF Where |b [? is the power which is scattered or reflected by the load. a and b are termed the generalised incident and reflected scattering variables or power waves. They have dimensions of power. + The scattering parameters S of the load is defined as- b_V-Zit_Z-Z = a WeZ0 242,i Microwave Engineering 3-4 Waveguide Components and Applications -1 This is a very similar form to that of the generalised reflection coefficient. Note that S is defined interms of Z;. Fig. 3.1.3 Thevenin equivalent of Fig. 3.1.2 * Now consider the generalised two port circuit shown in the Fig. 3.14. The set of linear equations describing the behaviour of the circuit using the power waves as variables is : by = Sy ay+Syz az bz = Su ar+Se a2 or in matrix form fb] = [S] fa} where [S] is known as the scattering, matrix. where b= (| and by far [as and the scattering matrix is defined by, Sn Siz Su Sx _ bh ba Su = 2 and Su =22 and with a1 = 0 (Va =0) Sn = 22 and S.=Pt a2 az So Sj and Szz represents the generalised input and output reflection coefficients.3-5 Waveguide Components and Applications * It should be noted at this point that these generalised S-parameters are defined interms of the reference impedances at the ports and so a set of values is meaningless without knowledge of the reference impedances associated with each port. However, almost without exception, S-parameters are defined with reference to the characteristic impedance of the network or system in which they are considered. Fig. 3.1.4 Two port for power wave definition 3.1.2 Scattering Matrix ¢/ It is a matrix which shows a linear relationship between coefficients of the ports. © Scattering matrix is a useful analytical technique for studying multiport microwave networks. Its elements relate forward and reverse travelling waves at the various ports of the network. The elements of this matrix are called scattering coefficients or scattering parameters, in short it is abbreviated as S-parameters. These $-parameters are complex numbers For a two port network the equations of S-parameters are given as, by = Su ay +Siz a2 bz = Sq ay+Sz a2 ‘ Where, og - bi Reflection coefficient at port-1 when port-2 is NT abag eo terminated with matched load i.e. a2 = 0 by Attenuation of wave travelling from port-2 to Sa= tT, Al ay-0 port-1. Attenuation of wave travelling from port-1 to port-2Microwave Engineering 3-27 Waveguide components and Applications -1 knob can be calibrated suitably. The maximum attenuation will be offered when the pad extends all the way across the guide. Fig. 3.4.2 shows variable attenuator. 3.5 Waveguide Corners, Bends and Twists * Change of direction of guides are often required in microwave applications. For changing the direction through an angle, waveguide corners, bends and twists are used. Use of corner and bends will create discontinuities in the guide therefore standing wave ratio will be increased because of reflections. In order to minimize the reflections in the bend, its length (L) is made several wavelengths. Generally the length (L) of bends or comers is odd multiple of quarter wavelengths. + IfA, = Wavelength in waveguide, then length L=(2n+1) Where n = 0,1,2,3,.. Sharper the bend greater will be the reflections and losses. Fig. 3.5.1 shows various waveguide corners, bends and twists. E «plane comer H- plane comer Twist Fig. 3.5.1 Waveguide bends, comers and twistMicrowave Engineering 8-5 Microwave Measurements 8.2.3 Power Meters * Power meter is used to measure the amount of power in the microwave signals. It is used at RF and microwave frequencies. The block diagram of power meter is shown in Fig, 8.2.6. de voltage Measured ie : value Fig. 8.2.6 Block diagram of power meter © The transducer and voltmeter are the main parts of power meter. The signal power is applied to the transducer which converts it into equivalent de voltage. Then the de voltage applied to voltmeter which measures and displays the de value. Depending on the microwave applications the power meters must measure both continuous power and the power of pulsed signals. + The power range of the power meter is limited because a transducer can handle power signal from - 30 to + 20 dBm. For larger signals attenuators are used. 8.2.4 Spectrum Analyzer * A spectrum analyser is a broadband superheterodyne receiver which provides a plot of amplitude versus frequency of received signal. The block diagram of spectrum analyzer is shown in Fig, 8.2.7. + The local oscillator is connected between the two frequency limits ie. RF input frequency and sweep generator frequency. The sweep voltage waveform is sawtooth type to move the spot on the CRT horizontally in synchronism with the frequency sweep. So horizontal position is a function of frequency for local oscillator. The amplitude of the input RF signal is obtained from the vertical deflection of the plate.Microwave Engineering 8 28 Microwave Measurements * Accuracies obtained by this technique are limited to 1 %. Since 2, is dependent on guide dimensions. B} Cavity Wavemeter Technique or Resonant Cavity Technique * A typical wavemeter is a cylindrical cavity with a variable short circuit termination which changes the resonance frequency of the cavity by changing the cavity length. Wavemeter axis is placed perpendicular to the broad wall of the waveguide. Wavemeter axis coupled by a hole in the narrow wall as shown in Fig. 883. * A block of absorbing material placed at the back of the tuning plunger prevents gscillation on the top of it. Cavity resonates at different frequencies for different plunger positions. The tuning can be calibrated interms of frequencies by known input frequency signals. This type of wavemeter is called absorption type wavemeter because the power is absorbed in wavemeter at resonance and they attenuate the signal frequency to which they are tuned. Shorting plunger Polytron block C4 Coupling hole Wave guide a Circular cavity Fig. 8.8.3 Resonant cavity technique for measuring frequency * There is another type of wavemeter known as transmissive cavity wavemeter which pass the signal frequency to which they are tuned. The absorption type wavemeters are preferred for the laboratory frequency measurement. + The set-up for frequency measurement by absorption type cavity wavemeter is shown in Fig, 8.8.4. Fig. 8.8.4 Set-up for frequency measurementCee ee ee ay Pet eg ee Ue ae characteristics, Dominant and degenerate modes, Sketches of TE and TM mode fields in the cross-section, Mode characteristics - Phase and group velocities, Wavelengths and impedance relations; Power transmisston and power losses in rectangular guide, Related problems. © Circular Waveguides : Nature of fiekls, Characteristic equation, Dominant and degenerate modes, Impossibility of TEM mode. Microstrip lines- Introduction, Z0 relations, Effective dielecttic constant, Losses, Q factor, Cavity Resinators-Introduction, Rectangular and cylindrical eavities, Dominant modes and resonant frequencies, Q factor Beret ec Me eee Cre ee eee eg Cee ee ee ee ee eee ee a eee eter eat te eet ee cua cn eee cn ee eed and H plane tees, Magic tee, Hybrid ring ; Directional couplers ~ 2 Hole, Bethe hole types. DU een en re ead Posse atrial fen ea eee oeoe ee ee a ce Bonet ert es ee ae ae Related problems. Dene een eee Tae Re nee ee ee process and applegate diagram. Bunching process and small signal theary-— Expressions for a/p power and efficiency, Se een ee ee ee ee eee eee eee ara output, Efficiency, Electronic adimitiance: Oscillaing mades and olp characteristics, Electronic and mechanical tuning, eee ‘© Helix TWTk: Significance, Types and characteristics of ow wave structures; Structure of TWT and amplification Bae ee ce considerations Pea een eee LeU Magnetron — Hull cut-off and Hartree conditions, Modes of resonance and PI-Mode operation, Separation of Pl erence! Oe ee Mee eC eu ee ee era Ce ene i ee Pe em ee Nae ee ue Oe eee ee eer ee eet ee Ree Luce) Cees ec First Edition : 2009 Technical Publications Pune Pee ae ee gar Ue ee Bor eee net DAU et sae ent a Aare OAU ACL eet)