Professional Documents
Culture Documents
OD1643 7
MOS/SKILLLEVEL:441A
METALPROPERTIES,CHARACTERISTICS,
USES,ANDCODES
SUBCOURSENO.OD1643
USArmyCorrespondence
CourseProgram
6CreditHours
GENERAL
Thesubcourseprovidesdescriptionsoftheprocessesforidentifying
thephysicalandmechanicalproperties,categoriesofvariousmetals,
and the processes for using the hardness tester, chemical analysis,
benchgrinder,simpleshoptests,thenumericalindexsystem,andthe
colorcodeforidentifyingvariousmetals.
TASK1:Describetheprocessesforidentifyingthephysicaland
mechanicalpropertiesofvariousmetals.
i
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Section Page
TITLE......................................................... i
TABLEOFCONTENTS............................................. ii
Lesson1: THEPHYSICALANDMECHANICAL
PROPERTIESOFVARIOUSMETALS,AND
USEOFTHEHARDNESSTESTER,
CHEMICALANALYSIS,ANDBENCH
GRINDERTOIDENTIFYVARIOUS
METALS.............................................. 1
Task1:Describetheprocessesfor
identifyingthephysicalandmechanical
propertiesofvariousmetals............................. 1
Task2:Describetheprocessesforusing
thehardnesstester,chemicalanalysis,
andbenchgrindertoidentifyvarious
metals................................................... 24
PracticalExercise1..................................... 44
AnswerstoPracticalExercise1.......................... 46
REFERENCES.................................................... 48
ii
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
LESSON1
THEPHYSICALANDMECHANICAL
PROPERTIESOFVARIOUSMETALS,ANDUSEOF
THEHARDNESSTESTER,CHEMICALANALYSIS,AND
BENCHGRINDERTOIDENTIFYVARIOUSMETALS
CONDITIONS
Withinaselfstudyenvironmentandgiventhesubcoursetext,without
assistance.
STANDARDS
Withinthreehours
REFERENCES
Nosupplementaryreferencesareneededforthistask.
1. Introduction
Most of the metals and alloys used in Army materiel can be either
weldedormachined. Repairpartcomponents,suchasgears,shafts,
andwheelvehiclebodyandtankhullcomponents,canberepairedor
fabricated. Repair or fabrication involves the employment of the
various welding or machining processes available to intermediate
direct support (IDS) and intermediate general support (IGS)
maintenanceunitsinthefield.
Hardware items such as nuts, bolts, screws, pins, and fuel line
fittings can be machine fabricated, however, repair parts such as
these are not always readily available in a combat situation.
Further, such items as jigs and devices used in the repair of
materiel are not stocked in the supply system. To compensate for
thesesituations,IDSandIGSmaintenanceunitsinthefieldcarrya
supplystockofvariousmetalsfromwhichtofabricateand/or
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
Theresponsibilityofensuringthatthepersonnelaretrained,andof
providing them with the capability to identify the various metals
belongstotheshoptechnicianinchargeoftheservicesection.For
this purpose, the following paragraphs describe the processes for
identifyingthephysicalandmechanicalpropertiesofvariousmetals.
2. IdentificationofPhysicalandMechanicalPropertiesofVarious
Metals
Subsequentparagraphsdescribethephysicalandmechanicalproperties
ofmetals. Themechanicalpropertiesareofchiefconcernandwill
thereforereceivegreatercoverage.
b. DefinitionofMetalandAlloy.
(2) Analloyisametallicsubstance,butitisnotasinglechemical
element.Analloyisformedbytheunionormixtureoftwoormoremetals;in
2
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
c. PhysicalProperties.Thesepropertiesarerelatedtotheatomic
structureanddensityofthematerial,asdescribedinthefollowing
paragraphs.
(1) CoefficientofLinearExpansion.Thecoefficientoflinear
expansion is the increase in length of a body for a given rise in
temperature. The increase is the changed length of arod foreach
degreethatthetemperatureisincreased. Metalexpandswhenheated
andcontractswhencooled.Itincreasesnotonlyinlength,butalso
inbreathandthickness.Theincreaseinunitlengthwhenasolidis
heatedonedegreeiscalledthecoefficientoflinearexpansion.
(6) MeltingPoint.Themeltingpointisthetemperatureatwhich
asubstancepassesfromasolidstatetoaliquidstate.
d. MechanicalProperties.
substanceknownistungstenmolybdenum;titaniumandnickelfollowin
order of strength of commercially pure metals. Pure iron is much
weaker,but,whenalloyedwiththechemicalelementknownascarbon"
to make steel, it may then become stronger than any of the pure
metals except tungsten. Strength and plasticity (discussed in
paragraph 2d(6) on page 6) are considered the two most important
propertiesthatametalcanpossess.
FIGURE1.TENSILE,SHEAR,ANDCOMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH;MALLEABILITY;
ELASTICITY;ANDDUCTILITY.
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(c) Theyieldstrengthisthenumberofpoundspersquareinch
requiredtoproducedeformationtotheyieldpoint.
(3) ModulusofElasticity.Themodulusofelasticityistheratio
of the internal stress to the strain produced. It expresses the
stiffness of a material. For steel and most metals, this is a
constantpropertyandisaffectedverylittlebyheattreatment,hot
or cold working, or the actual ultimate strength of the metal.
AccordingtoHooke'sLaw:"Thedegreetowhichanelasticbodybends
or stretches out of shape is in direct proportion to the force
(stress) acting upon it." But, this law only applies within a
certainrange.
(7) Toughness.Toughnessisacombinationofhighstrengthand
mediumductility.Toughnessistheabilityofamaterialormetal
toresistfracture,plustheabilitytoresistfailureafter
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(10) AbrasionResistance.Abrasionresistanceistheresistanceto
wearingbyfriction.
7
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
3. CategoriesofMetals
8
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
b. CharacteristicsofSteelandCastIron.
(1) BasicSubstance.Thebasicsubstanceusedtomakebothsteel
andcastiron(grayandmalleable)isthemetal,ironintheformof
pigiron. Pigironisproducedfromironore,whichoccurschiefly
innatureasanoxide,thetwomostimportantoxidesbeinghematite
andmagnetite.
(2) IronOre.Ironoreisreducedtopigironinablastfurnace,
andtheimpuritiesareremovedintheformofslag(figure2onthe
followingpage).Rawmaterialschargedintothefurnaceincludeiron
ore, coke, and limestone. The pig iron produced is used to
manufacture steel or cast iron. To convert iron ore to iron, the
iron ore is smelted with coke and limestone in a blast furnace
(figure3onpage13)toremovefromittheoxygen(theprocessof
reduction) and earth foreign matter. Limestone is used to combine
withtheearthmattertoformaliquidslag;cokeisusedtosupply
the chemical element of carbon needed for the reduction and
carburization of the ore. The iron ore, limestone, and coke are
chargedintothetopofthefurnace.Rapidcombustion,withablast
of preheated air into the smelter, causes a chemical reaction in
whichtheoxygenisremovedfromtheiron. Theironmelts,andthe
moltenslag,consistingoflimestonefluxandashfromcoke,together
with compounds formed by the reaction of the flux with substances
presentintheore,floatsontheheavierironliquid.Eachmaterial
isthenseparatelydrawnoff.
FIGURE2.BLASTFURNACE.
(7) DifferencesBetweenCastIronsandSteels.
(a) Allthevariousformsofcastiron,steel,andwroughtiron
consist of chemical compounds and mixtures of iron, carbon, and
various other elements in small quantities. Whether the metal is
classifiedascastironorasoneofthesteelsdependsentirelyupon
the amount of carbon in it. The following table illustrates this
principle:
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(b) Castirondiffersfromsteelprincipallybecauseitsexcess
of carbon (exceeding 1.7 percent) is precipitated throughout the
matrix as flakes of graphite, which cause most of the remaining
carbon to also precipitate. These particles of graphite form the
pathsthroughwhichfailuresoccurandarethereasonwhycastiron
is brittle. By carefully controlling the silicon content and the
rateofcoolingofcastiron,itispossibletocauseanyspecified
amount of the carbon to precipitate as graphite or to remain
combined. Thus, we have white, gray, and malleable cast iron, all
producedfromsimilarbasemetals.
c. FerrousMetals.
(c) Limitations.Wroughtironhaslowhardnessandlowfatigue
strength.
(a) Uses.Castironisusedtomanufacturesuchitemsaswater
pipes, machine tool castings, transmission housings, engine blocks,
pistons,andstovecastings.
12
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
FIGURE3.CONVERTINGIRONORETOIRON.
13
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(c) Limitations.Castironmustbepreheatedpriortowelding;
itcannotbecoldworked.
(e) White Cast Iron. When gray cast iron is heated to the
moltenstate,thecarboncompletelydissolvesintheiron. Ifthis
molten metal is cooled quickly, the two elements remain in the
combined state, and white cast iron is formed. The carbon inthis
typeofironisgenerallyfrom2.5to4.5percentbyweightandis
referred to as combined carbon. White cast iron is very hard and
brittle, often impossible to machine, and has a silvery white
fracturesurface.
(f) M a l l e a b l e C a s t I r o n . M a l l e a b l e c a s t i r o n
ismadebyheatingwhitecastirontobetween
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(b) Capabilities.Steelcanbemachined,welded,andforgedto
avaryingdegreedependingonthetypeofsteel.
15
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
thenormalizedandannealedcondition.Duringwelding,theweldzone
will become hardened if cooled rapidly and must be stressrelieved
afterwelding.
(4) CastSteel.Generally,weldingisdifficultonsteelcastings
containingover0.23 percentcarbonand0.2percentsilicon. Alloy
steel castings containing nickel, molybdenum, or a combination of
thesemetals,arereadilyweldedifthecarboncontentislow.Those
containing chromium or vanadium are more difficult to weld
satisfactorily. Since manganesesteelisnearlyalwaysusedinthe
formofcastings,andisdifficulttoweld,itisalsomentionedin
thisparagraph.Itshighresistancetoabrasionisitsmostvaluable
property.
(5) SteelForgings.Steelforgingsmaybemadeofcarbonoralloy
steels. Alloy steel forgings are harder and more brittle than low
carbonsteels. Thesurfaceofsteelforgingsissmooth. Wherethe
surface of drop forgings has not been finished, there will be
evidenceofthefinthatresultsfrommetalsqueezedoutbetweentwo
forgingdies. Thisfinisordinarilyremovedbythetrimmingdies,
but enough of the sheared surface remains for identification. All
forgings are covered with reddishbrown or black scale, unless they
havebeenpurposelycleaned.
16
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(6) AlloySteels.Alloysteelsarefrequentlyrecognizedbytheir
use. There are many varieties of alloy steels used in the
manufacture of Army equipment. Each is best identified by
experience. They have greater strength and durability then other
carbon steels, and a given strength is secured with less material
weight. Their economicalusedependsuponproperheattreatmentto
avoidweakeningintheregionofaweld.Nickel,chromium,vanadium,
tungsten, molybdenum, and silicon are the most common elementsused
inalloysteels.Alistofthesetypesofsteelisprovidedbelow:
(a) Chromiumalloy.
(b) Nickelalloy.
(c) Highchromiumnickelalloy(stainlesssteel).
(d) Manganesealloy.
(e) Molybdenumalloy.
(f) Titaniumandcolumbium(niobium)alloy.
(g) Tungstenalloy.
(h) Vanadiumalloy.
(i) Siliconalloy.
(j) Highspeedtoolsteel.
(k) Highyieldstrength,lowalloystructuralsteel.
d. NonferrousMetals.
(1) Aluminum.ThechemicalsymbolforthiselementisAL,andthe
principal ore of aluminum is bauxite which is produced by the
weathering of aluminum silicate rocks. Aluminum is a lightweight,
soft,lowstrengthmetalwhichcaneasilybecast,forged,machined,
formed, and welded. It is suitable only in low temperature
applications,exceptwhenalloyedwithspecificelements.
(a) Uses.Aluminumisusedasadeoxidizerandalloyingagentinthe
manufactureofsteel.Castings,pistons,torqueconverterpumphousings,
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
aircraftstructures,railwaycars,electricaltransmissionlines,and
kitchenutensilsaremadeofaluminum.
(2) Chromium. The chemical symbol for chromium is Cr, and its
oresarechromiteandchromeochre.
(c) Limitations.Cobaltmustbemachinedwithcementedcarbide
cutters.
(4) C o p p e r . T h e c h e m i c a l s y m b o l f o r c o p p e r
isCu. Mostcopperproducedtodaycomesfrom
18
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(b) Capabilities.Coppercanbeforged,cast,andcoldworked.
Itcanalsobewelded,butitsmachinabilityisonlyfair.
(a) Uses.Magnesiumisusedasadeoxidizerforbrass,bronze,
nickel, and silver. It is used in commercial weight saving
applicationssuchas
19
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(a) Uses.Manganeseismainlyusedasanalloyingagentinthe
manufacture of steel to increase its tensile strength. It is also
added during the steelmaking process to remove sulfur as a slag.
Austenitic manganese steels are used for railroad trackwork, power
shovel buckets, and rock crushers. Mediumcarbon manganese steels
areusedinthemanufactureofcaraxlesandgears.
(b) Capabilities.Manganesecanbewelded,machined,andcold
worked.
(c) Limitations.Austeniticmanganesesteelsarebestmachined
withcementedcarbide,cobalt,andhighspeedcutters.
(8) Molybdenum.ThechemicalsymbolformolybdenumisMo,andits
chieforesaremolybdeniteandwulfenite.Puremolybdenumhasahigh
tensilestrengthandisveryresistanttoheat.
20
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(a) Uses.Mostnickelisusedintheproductionofferrousand
nonferrous alloys. Chemical and food processing equipment,
electrical resistance heating elements, ornamental trim, and parts
subjected to elevated temperatures are all produced from nickel
containingmetals. Itisusedasanalloyagentinthemanufacture
ofstainlesssteel.
(10) Tin. The chemical symbol for tin is Sn, and it is derived
fromtheoxidecassiterite. Itisaverysoft,malleable,somewhat
ductile, corrosion resistant metal, having low tensile strength and
highcrystallinestructure.
(c) Limitations.Tinisnotweldable.
(11) T i t a n i u m . T h e c h e m i c a l s y m b o l f o r t i t a n i u m
isTi.Itwasdiscoveredasthewhitemetallic
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
(b) Capabilities.Tungstencanbecoldandhotdrawn.
(a) Uses.Thelargestuseofzincisingalvanizingsuchitems
aspipe,tubing,sheetmetal,andwirenails.Itisalsousedasan
alloying element in producing alloys such as brass, bronze, and in
thosealloysthatarecomposedprimarilyofzincitself.
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 1
4. Conclusion
This task described the processes for identifying the physical and
mechanicalpropertiesofvariousmetals,andprovidedanexplanation
ofthevariouscategoriesofmetals. Italsoservedtoprovidethe
basis for the next task, which will describe the processes for
identifyingthephysicalandmechanicalpropertiesofvariousmetals,
andalsodescribetheuseofthehardnesstester,chemicalanalysis,
andbenchgrindertoidentifyvariousmetals.
23
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
LESSON1
THEPHYSICALANDMECHANICAL
PROPERTIESOFVARIOUSMETALS,ANDUSEOF
THEHARDNESSTESTER,CHEMICALANALYSIS,AND
BENCHGRINDERTOIDENTIFYVARIOUSMETALS
CONDITIONS
Withinaselfstudyenvironmentandgiventhesubcoursetext,without
assistance.
STANDARDS
Withintwohours
REFERENCES
Nosupplementaryreferencesareneededforthistask.
1. Introduction
24
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
untiltheyarelearned. Thesetestsaredescribedinthefollowing
paragraphs.
2. TestsUsedtoIdentifyMetals
a. General. Simpletestscanbeconductedintheshoptoidentify
the different metals. Since the ability to judge can be developed
only through personal experience, practice these tests with known
metals until you are familiar with the reactions of each metal to
each type of test. The tests are described in the following
subparagraphs.
d. Sparks.Whentheexacttypeofmaterialisunknown,asparktest
may be used to determine itsidentity. Thetest isconducted bya
studyofthesparksformedwhenthematerialisheldagainstahigh
speed grinding wheel. A grinding wheel may be used on the various
types of iron and steel because they produce sparks which vary in
length,shape,andcolorwhenheldlightlyagainstagrindingwheel.
Whenanyformofironorsteelisheldagainstagrindingwheel,small
particles,heatedtoaredoryellowheat,arereleasedfromthemetal
25
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
andthrownintotheair.Throughcontactwiththeoxygenintheair,
the particles oxidize, or burn. If an element such as carbon is
presentinvariousquantitiesrapidburningoccurs,resultinginthe
bursting of the carbon particles. Because of their varied carbon
content,thevariousformsofironandsteelproducesparksthatvary
in length, shape, and color. The grinding wheel should be of the
aluminum oxide type, hard enough to wear reasonably long, yet soft
enough to retain free cutting properties. The peripheral speed
should be approximately 4000 feet per minute in order to produce
good,shortbrightsparks.Thetestsshouldbeconductedindiffused
daylight against an ordinary background. In all cases, it is
advisabletogrindstandardsamplesofmetalsofknowncompositionso
that the sparks produced can be compared with those emitted by the
materialundertest.
3. AppearanceandChemicalAnalysisofVariousMetals
b. AppearanceofFerrousMetals.
26
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
(5) HighcarbonSteel.Highcarbonsteelmaybeidentifiedbyits
unfinishedsurface,whichisdarkgray. Thesesteelscanbeworked
toasmootherfinishthanthelesscostlylowcarbonsteels.
(7) SteelForgings.Steelforgingshaveasmoothsurface.Ifthe
forgingshavenot beenfinishedfins,causedbymetalsqueezingout
between the forging dies, will be evident. If it is a finished
forging, the area from which the fins have been removed will be
noticeable. Unless these forgings have been properly cleaned,they
willbecoveredwithareddishbrownorblackscale.
c. AppearanceofNonferrousMetals.
(1) Aluminum.Aluminumisidentifiedbyitslightgraytosilvercolor
andlightweight.Whenpolisheditisverybright,becomingdullwhenit
isoxidized.Rolledandsheetaluminummaterialsareusuallypuremetal.
Castingsarealloyofaluminumwithothermetal,usuallyzinc,copper,
27
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
(3) PolishedBrassesandBronzes.Thecolorsofpolishedbrasses
and bronzes will vary from an almost coppercolor red to yellow,
dependingonthecompositionofthemetal.Thesemetalswilloxidize
tovariousshadesofgreen,brown,andyellow.
(5) Lead. Lead is white in color when freshly cut and becomes
dullgraywhenexposedtotheair.Acoppersulfatesolutionisused
todistinguishsteelfromlead,asdiscussedinparagraph3b(8),page
27.
(8) White Metal. White metal castings are usually made with
alloysofaluminum,lead,magnesium,andtin.Withtheexceptionsof
thosemadewithleadortin,theyarelightweightandnotablywhite
in color. The surface is much smoother than that of castings
producedbytheuseofsand.
28
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
4. Fracture
Manymetalscanbeidentifiedbytheappearanceofthesurfaceofthe
broken part or by studying the chips produced with a hammer and
chisel,asdescribedinthefollowingparagraphs.
a. Gray Cast Iron. Nick a corner of the gray cast iron with a
chiselorhacksawandbreakoffbyasharpblowwithahammer. The
break will be short and the exposed surface will be dark gray in
color.Thiscoloriscausedbythefinespecksofcarbonpresentin
theformofgraphitedispersedthroughoutthemetal.Chipsraisedby
achiselbreakoffassoonasformed.
f. SteelForgings. Forgingsmaybeoflowcarbon,highcarbon,or
toolsteelandthecolorwillvaryfrombrightcrystallinetosilky
gray. Whenthespecimenisnicked,itishardertobreakthancast
steelandhasafinergrain.
h. SteelCastings.Thesurfaceofthefracturedareaisbrightcrystalline
gray.Steelcastingsaretoughanddonotbreakshort.Chipsmadewith
29
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
achiselcurlup,exceptmanganesesteelwhichcannotbecutwitha
chisel.
n. Magnesium.Thefracturedsurfaceisroughandfinelygranular.
5. SparkTest
b. DegreeofSparkStreamGlow.Thedegreeofglowobserved
in the formation of sparks in the spark stream is a function
of the grinding resistance and other conditions which affect
theinitialtemperatureofthemetalchipandthe
30
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
FIGURE4.SPARKTESTCHARACTERISTICSOFMETALS.
31
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
d. OperationofEquipment. Whenmakingagrindingtest,neitherthe
grindingwheelnorthemachineonwhichitismountedneedbeselected
to
FIGURE5.SPARKTESTCHARACTERISTICSOF
METALS(CONTINUED).
32
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
specifications.Thewheelshouldnotbedulledorinaloaded
condition. Useonlyhandpressure,holdingthemetalspecimen
lightly and constantly against the grinding wheel so that the
sparkstreammaybeseen,sothattheareaandlengthofthe
TABLE1.SPARKTESTCHARACTERISTICSOFMETALS(CONTINUED).
33
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
streamareafunctionofthemetalspecimenratherthanofgrinding
conditions. Use a portable grinder to spark test heavy pieces of
metal. Make sure that the full length of the spark stream can be
seentopermitadequateinspection.
e. SpecificMetals.Refertofigures4and5(onpages31and32)
during the discussion of the specific metals in the following
paragraphs.
(6) ManganeseSteel.Manganesesteelyieldsabrilliantstreamof
veryhightemperature. Thebrillianceisduetothefinechipsize
andeasyoxidation.
(11) StelliteandCementedCarbide.Stelliteandcementedcarbide,
in contrast to their brilliant performance as tools, provide very
littlesparkaction. Asseeninfigure5onpage32,thesparkof
thesetwometalsishardlynoticeable. Anyoxidationthatoccursin
theairdoesnotraisethesparktemperatureappreciably. Theline
of travel is plain and short. Temperature color from the carbide
materialisslightlyhigherthatfromthestelliteandthestreamis
veryshort.Thesedifferencesareattributedtogrindingsparksfrom
themoreresistantcementedcarbide.
35
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
However,closerobservationwillrevealawavymotionofsomeofthe
nickelstreakswhilethestellitestreaksareallstraight. Streaks
fromtheselastthreemetalstaperintoextinction.
f. IdentificationofSparks. Animportantaspectinsparktesting
isagoodsetofspecimensofknowncomposition.Thesecanserveas
astandardforlearningtoidentifythevarioustypesofsparksand
for comparison with metals of unknown composition. When a spark
streamisstudiedcarefully,itbecomesapparentthatitconsistsof
alargenumberofsparksofvariouslengthswhichlookalikeexcept
forsize. Asparkisunderstoodtomeannotonlythemainshaftor
carrierline,butalsoanyburstandotherdetailswhichmaydevelop
fromit. Thedetailsofasparkstreamcanoftenbeseenbetterby
reducingthegrindingpressuresotherearefeweroverlappingsparks.
The effects of alloying elements in the spark stream are important
because of their influence on the stream. These effects are
discussedinthefollowingsubparagraphs.
36
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
(7) CastIron.Castironsparksareofmediumlength;thecarrier
lines are dull red near the grinding wheel and they end in bright
curvedspearpointscomingoutofveryfinecarbonbursts.
(8) HighSpeed Steel with Tungsten. The spark streams are very
simple in appearance and are composed of a few long, dullred,
carrierlineshavingnocarbonburstsatall.
(9) HighSpeed Steel with Molybdenum. For this type steel, the
spark stream is shorter and denser than for highspeed steel with
tungsten. The sparks are definitely orange or straw in color with
smallamountsofrednearthegrindingwheel.Thecarrierlinesend
inspearpointsprecededbyatleastoccasionalcarbonbursts.
(1) Grindingconditionsandtheconditionofthesteelitself.
(2) Whetherthesteelisannealedorhardened.
(3) Whetherasmallwheelonaportablegrinder,asopposedtoa
largewheelonabenchgrinder,isused.
(4) Grindingpressure,specimensize,andtheshapeoftheregion
beingground.
(5) Thebestwaytoavoidpitfallsistoperformthesparktestby
directcomparisonwithastandardofknowncomposition.Onlyinthis
mannercanthemaximumbenefitsofsparktestingbeobtained.
37
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
6. TorchTest
b. GrayCastIron. Aheavytoughfilmformsonthesurfaceasit
melts.Thepuddleisquietandveryfluid.Whenthetorchflameis
raised, the depression in the surface of the puddle disappears
instantly. The molten puddle solidifies slowly and gives off no
sparks.
c. Malleable Iron. The molten metal boils under the torch flame
and,whentheflameiswithdrawn,thesurfacewillbefullofblow
holes. Themeltedpartwillcoolveryhardandbrittle;itis,in
fact, white cast iron or chilled iron produced by the melting and
comparatively rapid cooling. The outer steellike shell will give
offsparksunderthetorch,whilethecenterportionwillnot.
d. LowcarbonSteels. Thesteelgivesoffsparkswhenmeltedand,
whentheflameisremoved,solidifiesalmostinstantly.
38
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
j. AluminumBronzes. Thesurfaceisquicklycoveredwithaheavy
scum that tends to mix with the molten metal and is difficult to
remove.Weldingofthesebronzesisextremelydifficult.
k. BrassesandBronzes. Truebrasscontainszincwhichgivesoff
white fumes when melted, while bronzes contain tin that increases
fluidity. Somebronzescontainzincandwillfume,butnotasmuch
asbrass.
l. Copper. Becauseoftheheatconductingpropertiesofcopper,a
larger flame is required to produce fusion than for other metals.
Copper melts suddenly and solidifies instantly. Copper alloys,
containing small amounts of other metals, melt quicker and solidify
slower.
m. Lead.Leadmeltsataverylowtemperatureandthemoltenmetal
becomescoveredwithathin,dullslag.
n. Magnesium.Magnesiumoxidizesrapidlywhenheatedintheairto
itsmeltingpoint;becauseofthisandasasafetyprecaution,this
metal is melted in an atmosphere free from oxygen. When heatedin
the open air, it produces an oxide film which is highly refractory
andinsolubleintheliquidmetal.
p. White Metal Die Castings. The melting points are low and the
metalwillboilunderthetorch.
7. HardnessTesting
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
c. RockwellTester.Thistestisbaseduponthedifferencebetween
the depth to which a test point is driven into a metal by a light
loadandthedepthtowhichitisdrivenbyaheavyload.Thelight
load is applied first and then, without moving the piece being
tested, the heavy load is applied. The hardness number is
automaticallyindicatedonadial.Inthistest,a120diamondcone
for hard metals or a 1/16 inch steel ball for softer materials is
impressed into the surface to be tested by a deadweight acting
throughaseriesoflevers.Thehardnessisindicatedonadialgage
graduatedintheRockwell"B"and"C"scales.Theharderthepiece,
the higher the Rockwell number will be. For example, machinable
steelshouldnotshowareadingofmorethan30to35ontheRockwell
"C"scale,whileahardenedhighspeedcutterwouldshowareadingof
63to65.Whentestinghardsteel,thediamondpointshouldbeused
and should be read on the "C" scale. For nonferrous metals, the
steelballshouldbeusedandreadontheBscale.
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
8. OtherSystemsforIdentificationofMetals
assume that a shop drawing indicates the use of 2340 steel. The
firstdigitrepresentsthemajoralloyingelementortypeofsteelto
whichitbelongs;inthiscase,anickelalloy.Inthesimplealloy
steels, the second digit generally indicates the approximate
percentage of the predominant alloying element (3 percent nickel).
Thelasttwodigitsalwaysindicatethecarboncontentinpoints,or
hundredthsof1percent(i.e.,0.40hundredthsof1percentcarbon).
From this explanation, it can be seen that a 2340 designation
indicatesanickel steelofapproximately3percentnickeland0.40
hundredths of percent carbon. The basic numerals for the various
typesofSAEsteelareasfollows:
Carbonsteel 1XXX
Plaincarbon 10XX
Freecutting(screwstock) 11XX
Manganesesteels 13XX
Nickelsteels 2XXX
3.50%nickel 23XX
5.00%nickel 25XX
Nickelchromiumsteels 3XXX
1.25%nickel,0.60%chromium 31XX
1.75%nickel,1.00%chromium 32XX
3.50%nickel,1.50%chromium 33XX
Corrosionandheatresisting 30XX
Molybdenumsteels 4XXX
Carbonmolybdenum 40XX
Chromiummolybdenum 41XX
Chromiumnickelmolybdenum 43XX
Nickelmolybdenum 46XX&48XX
Chromiumsteels 5XXX
Lowchromium 51XX
Mediumchromium 52XX
Corrosionandheatresisting 51XX
Chromiumvanadiumsteels 6XXX
1%chromium 61XX
Siliconmanganesesteels 9XXX
2%silicon 92XX
b. ColorCode.TheBureauofStandards,UnitedStatesDepartmentof
Commerce,haspreparedacolorcodeformarkingsteelbars.Thework
ofpreparingthiscolorcodewasundertakeninitiallyattherequest
oftheNationalAssociationofPurchasingAgents.Thecolormarkings
providedinthecodemaybeappliedbypaintingtheendsofthesteel
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/TASK 2
bars.Solidcolorsusuallydesignatecarbonsteel,whiletwincolors
designatealloyandfreecuttingsteel.
9. Conclusion
This task described the processes for using the hardness tester,
chemicalanalysis,andbenchgrindertoidentifyvariousmetals. In
addition, the task described the numerical index system, the color
codeandthefourtypesofteststhatcanbeperformedintheshop
for identifying different metals. The next requirement is a
practical exercise consisting of several questions designed to
reinforcetheobjectivescoveredinthetwotasksofthislesson.
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/PE 1
PRACTICALEXERCISE1
1. Instructions
Read the scenario and respond to the requirements that follow the
scenario.
2. Scenario
Youareassignedtoanintermediategeneralsupport(IGS)maintenance
company stationed in, West Germany. The shop officer in this
organizationhasestablishedacrosstrainingprogramforthecompany
where each repair section of the company maintenance shops conducts
training in its pertinent technical area (of the IGS maintenance
mission), to personnel from the other shop sections. This program
was established to provide personnel with abetter appreciation for
the work conducted in the various sections of the shops, and to
permit better utilization of personnel among work sections
experiencingashortageofpersonneloraworkoverload.
Youaretherepairshoptechnicianinchargeoftheservicesection
consistingofthemachine,welding,metalbody,radiator,canvas,and
glass repair shops. In consonance with the established cross
training program, you developed atraining plan for identifyingthe
physicalandmechanicalpropertiesofvariousmetals,andfortheuse
ofthehardness tester,chemicalanalysis,andthebenchgrinderto
identify various metals. You also developed a group of questions
which will be administered upon completion of your block of
instructiontoensuretheaccomplishmentofthetrainingobjectives.
3. Requirement
Yourtaskistoprovidethecorrectanswertothequestionswhichyou
developedandwhichappearbelow. Youmayusethetextintasks1
and2ofthislessontoassistyouindevelopingthecorrectanswers.
a. Listtwoofthephysicalpropertiesofmetals.
b. Listthreeofthemechanicalpropertiesofmetals.
44
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/PE 1
e. Listtwoferrousmetals.
f. Listtwononferrousmetals.
g. List the four tests that can be conducted in the shop for
identifyingmetals.
h. Inwhattypemetalaretheunmachinedsurfacesverydullgrayin
colorandsomewhatroughenedbythesandmoldusedtocastthe
part?
j. Whatisthenameofthetestthatisconductedwiththeuseofa
grindingwheelforidentifyingtheexacttypeofametal?
n. Whattypeofhardnesstestusesthereboundofadiamondpointed
hammertodeterminethehardnessofametal?
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/PE 1
LESSON1.PRACTICALEXERCISEANSWERS
1. Requirement
a. (1) Coefficientoflinearexpansion
(2) Heatandelectricalconductivity
(3) Magneticsusceptibility
(4) Reflectivity
(5) Specificgravity
(6) Meltingpoint
b. (1) Strength
(2) Elasticity
(3) Modulusofelasticity
(4) Ductility
(5) Malleability
(6) Toughness
(7) Brittleness
(8) Corrosiveresistance
(9) Abrasionresistance
(10) Fatigue
(11) Corrosionfatigue
(12) Machinability
(13) Hardness
c. Itisusedasahardeningelement.
d. Ontheamountofcarboninthemetal.
e. (1) Wroughtiron
(2) Castiron
(3) Steel
(4) Caststeel
(5) Steelforgings
(6) Alloysteels
f. (1) Aluminum
(2) Chromium
(3) Cobalt
(4) Copper
(5) Lead
(6) Magnesium
(7) Manganese
(8) Molybdenum
(9) Nickel
(10) Tin
(11) Titanium
(12) Tungsten
(13) Zinc
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METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - LESSON 1/PE 1
g. (1) Appearance/Chemicalanalysis
(2) Fracture
(3) Spark
(4) Torch
h. Graycastiron
i. Caststeel
j. Sparktest
k. Carbontoolsteel
l. Coppersulfate
m. Silvernitrate
n. Scleroscopetest
47
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - REFERENCE
REFERENCES
48
METAL PROPERTIES, CHAR, USES, AND CODES - OD1643 - REFERENCE
REFERENCES
Thefollowingdocumentswereusedasresourcematerialsindeveloping
thissubcourse:
TM9237
TC9524
49
50 U.S.GOVERNMENTPRINTINGOFFICE:2000528075/20479