Environmental Pollution1 in the Context of Industrial Revolution

A. Definitions

Environmental pollution is the contamination of the physical and

biological components of the earth/atmosphere system to such an extent
that normal environmental processes are adversely affected. (Ref. 2)

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that

cause harm or discomfort to humans or other living organisms, or that
damage the environment which can come in the form of chemical
substances, or energy such as noise, heat or light. Pollutants can be
naturally occurring substances or energies, but are considered
contaminants when in excess of natural levels. (Ref. 3)

Pollution is the addition of any substance or form of energy (e.g., heat,

sound, radioactivity) to the environment at a rate faster than the
environment can accommodate it by dispersion, breakdown, recycling, or
storage in some harmless form. (Ref. 4)

B. Introduction to Environmental Pollution

Although pollution had been known to exist for a very long time (at least
since people started using fire thousands of years ago), it had seen
the growth of truly global proportions only since the onset of
the industrial revolution during the 19th century.

The industrial revolution brought with it technological progress such as

discovery of oil and its virtually universal use throughout different
industries.

Technological progress facilitated by super efficiency of capitalist business

practices (division of labour cheaper production costs overproduction
overconsumption over pollution) had probably become one of the main
causes of serious deterioration of natural resources.

At the same time, of course, development of natural sciences led to the

better understanding of negative effects produced by pollution on the
environment.

Environmental pollution is a problem both in developed and developing

countries. Factors such as population growth and urbanization invariably
place greater demands on the planet and stretch the use of natural
resources to the maximum.
It has been argued that the carrying capacity of Earth is significantly
smaller than the demands placed on it by large numbers of human
populations. And overuse of natural resources often results in natures
degradation.

Its interesting to note that natural resources had been stored virtually
untouched in the Earth for millions of years (example seedbank in the
Arctic Region).

But since the start of the industrial revolution vast amounts of these
resources had been exploited within a period of just a couple of hundred
of years at unimaginable rates, with all the waste from this exploitation
going straight in to the environment (air, water, land) and seriously
damaging its natural processes.

C. Environmental Pollutants: What are they and how Do They

Decompose?

Environmental pollutants are constituent parts of the pollution process.

They are the actual executing agents of environmental pollution.

They come in gaseous, solid or liquid form.

It is interesting to note that, as of 1990, there were

around 65,000 different chemicals in the marketplace, i.e. potential
environmental pollutants that were to be released into air, water and land
on a regular basis. (Ref. 8)

Renowned author Miguel A. Santos identifies at

least three general characteristics of environmental pollutants(Ref. 9):

Pollutants don't recognize boundaries, i.e. they are transboundary;

Many of them can't be degraded by living organisms and therefore

stay in the ecosphere for many years; and

They destroy biota and habitat.

These points emphasize that pollutants present a serious long-

term global problem that affects more or less every country and,
therefore, can only be solved by a coordinated set of
actions and unwavering commitment of nations to international
environmental agreements.
In order to develop and implement an effective international policy for
pollutants management, it is important, among other factors, to
understand their decomposition mechanisms.

We know that decomposition of pollutants can occur

either biologically or physico-chemically.

Biological Decomposition of Environmental Pollutants

Santos divides environmental pollutants into biodegradable and non-

biodegradable ones, and describes them as follows:

Biodegradable pollutants are the ones that can be broken

down and processed byliving organisms, including organic waste
products, phosphates, and inorganic salts.

For example, if a pollutant is organic, it can be used by a living organism to

obtain energy and other material from carbohydrates, proteins etc.

Therefore, biodegradable pollutants are only temporary nuisances that

can be neutralised and converted into harmless compounds.

However, it is important to remember that they can become serious

pollutants if released in large amounts in small areas, thus exceeding the
natural capacity of the environment to assimilate them.

Non-biodegradable pollutants are the ones

that cannot be decomposed by living organisms and therefore persist in
the ecosphere for extremely long periods of time.

They include plastics, metal, glass, some pesticides and herbicides, and
radioactive isotopes.

In addition to that, fat soluble (but not water soluble) non-biodegradable

pollutants, ex. mercury and some hydrocarbons, are not excreted with
urine but are accumulated in the fat of living organisms and cannot be
metabolised.
Non-Biological Decomposition of Environmental Pollutants (Ref.
12)

Non-biological decomposition of non-biodegradable pollutants requires a

combination of many factors, such as wind, water and climate to work
together to achieve neutralisation of pollutants.

Some of the most dangerous pollutants such as radioactive isotopes can

decompose by themselves but it will take thousands of years.

WATER POLLUTION

A. WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

Use of water in lakes, rivers, ponds and streams is influenced by the

quality of water found in them.

Water quality managers are concerned with controlling pollution from

human activity to ensure water is suitable for its intended uses.

Ensuing topics include the major types of water pollutants and their
sources; water quality management in rivers and lakes, placing the
emphasis on the categories of pollutants found in domestic
wastewaters.

The pollutants discharged to surface waters can be grouped into broad

classes:

1. POINT SOURCES

Domestic sewage and industrial wastes are called point sources

because they are generally collected by a network of pipes or
channels and conveyed to a single point of discharge into the
receiving water.

Point source pollution, in general, can be reduced or eliminated

through waste minimization and wastewater treatment prior to
discharge to a natural water body.

2. NONPOINT SOURCES
Urban and agricultural runoff are characterized by multiple discharge
points and are called non-point sources.

3. OXYGEN-DEMANDING MATERIAL

Anything that can be oxidized in the receiving water resulting in the

consumption of dissolved molecular oxygen is termed oxygen-
demanding material. This material is usually biodegradable organic
matter but also includes certain inorganic compounds.

The consumption of dissolved oxygen, DO, poses a threat to fish

and other and other forms of aquatic life that must have oxygen to
live.

Examples of oxygen-demanding materials are human wastes, food

residue, food processing and paper industries wastes, and other
naturally-occuring organic matter.

4. NUTRIENTS

Nitrogen and phosphorus, two nutrients of primary concern, are

considered pollutants when they become too much of a good thing.
All living things require these nutrients for growth. Thus they must be
present in rivers and lakes to support the natural food web.

Problems arise when nutrient levels become excessive and the food
web is disturbed, causing some organisms to proliferate at the
expense of others.

5. PATHOGENIC ORGANISMS

Pathogenic microorganisms found in waste water include bacteria,

viruses and protozoa excreted by diseased persons or animals.

When discharged into surface waters, they make the water unfit for
drinking. And may also be unsafe for fishing or swimming.

6. SUSPENDED SOLIDS

Organic and inorganic particles that are carried by wastewater into a

receiving water are termed suspended solids.
When the speed of water is reduced by a flow into a pool or lake,
many of these particles settle into the bottom and may exert an
oxygen demand.

7. SALTS

Although most people associate salty water with oceans and salt
lakes, all water contains some salt. These salts are often measured by
evaporation of a filtered water sample. The salts and other matter
that dont evaporate are called total dissolved solids (TDS)

A problem arises when the salt concentration in fresh water increases

to the point where the natural population of plants and animals is
threatened or water is no longer useful for public water supply or
irrigation.

8. TOXIC METALS AND TOXIC ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Agricultural runoff often contains pesticides and herbicides that have

been used on crops. Urban runoff is a major source of zinc (originating
from tire wear) in many water bodies. Many industrial wastewaters
contain either toxic metals or toxic organic substances. If discharged
in large quantities, many of these materials can render a body of
water nearly useless for a long time.

9. ENDOCRINE-DISRUPTING CHEMICALS (EDCs)

This class of chemicals, simply known as EDCs include the

polychlorinated biphenyls, atrazine and other triazine chemicals and
the phthalates, which can mimic estrogens, androgens or thyroid
hormones.

The chemicals can alter the normal physiological functions of the

endocrine system and can affect the synthesis of hormones in the
body

10. ARSENIC

Arsenic is a naturally occurring element as a result of minerals

dissolving naturally from weathered rocks and soils mainly from iron
oxides or sulfide minerals.

Arsenic poisoning from groundwater have negative health effects e.g.

circulatory disorders, gastrointestinal upset, diabetes, skin lesions,
etc.
11. HEAT

Although heat is not usually recognized as a pollutant , those in the

electric power industry and other related are aware of its threat.

Higher temperatures of water released into receiving waters increase

the rate of oxygen depletion in areas where oxygen-demanding
wastes are present.

WASTEWATER

11.1.1 Transport

Wastewater is discharged from homes, commercial establishments,

and industrial plants by means of sanitary sewers, usually large pipes
flowing partially full (not under pressure).

Sewers flow by gravity drainage downhill, and the system of sewers

has to be so designed that the collecting sewers, which collect the
wastewater from homes and industries, all converge to a central point
where the waste flows by trunk sewers to the wastewater treatment
plant.

Sometimes it is impossible or impractical to install all gravity sewers,

so the waste has to be pumped by pumping stations through force
mains, or pressurized pipes.

Design and operation of sewers is complicated by the inflow of storm

water, which is supposed to flow off in separate storm sewers in
newer communities but often seeps into the wastewater sewers
through loose manhole covers and broken lines.

An additional flow to the wastewater sewers is called inflow.

Further, sewers often have to be installed below the groundwater

table, so any breaks or cracks in the sewer can result in water seeping
into the sewers. This additional flow is known as infiltration.

Local communities often spend considerable time and expense in

rehabilitating sewerage systems to prevent such inflow and infiltration
(I/I) because every gallon that enters the sewerage system has to be
treated at the wastewater treatment plant.
 The wastewater, diluted by I/I, flows downhill and eventually to the
edge of the community that the sewerage system serves.

In years past, this wastewater simply entered a convenient natural

watercourse and was forgotten by the community. The growth of our
population and the awareness of public health problems created by
the raw sewage makes such a discharge untenable and illegal, and
wastewater treatment is required.

11.1.2 Components

Most common contaminants found in domestic wastewater that can

cause damage to natural watercourses or create human health
problems:

Organic materials, as measured by the demand for oxygen (BOD)

Nitrogen (N)

Phosphorus (P)

Suspended Solids (SS)

Pathogenic organisms (as estimated by coliforms)

Municipal wastewater treatment plants are designed to remove these

objectionable characteristics from the influent. The designs vary
considerably.

The typical wastewater treatment plant is divided into five main

areas:

preliminary treatment- removal of large solids to prevent damage

to the remainder of the unit operations

primary treatment- removal of suspended solids by settling

secondary treatment- removal of the demand for oxygen

tertiary (or advanced) treatment- a name applied to any number

of polishing or cleanup processes, one of which is the removal of
nutrients such as phosphorus

solids treatment and disposal the collection, stabilization, and

subsequent disposal of the solids removed by other processes.

Primary treatment systems are usually physical processes.

Secondary treatment processes are commonly biological.

Tertiary treatment systems can be physical (e.g., filtration to remove

solids), biological (e.g., constructed wetlands to remove BOD), or
chemical (e.g., precipitation to remove phosphorus).

A range of wastewater characteristics can be analyzed to provide

information pertinent to the design and operation of treatment plants.

Total suspended solids (TSS) impact the amount of sludge produced

and the potential for anaerobic conditions to develop. TSS affect the
aesthetic qualities of the effluent.

Biodegradable organics (as measured by BOD) require dissolved

oxygen for treatment when aerobic processes are used.

Of course, pathogens cause communicable diseases.

These three constituents drive the design of most wastewater treatment

systems.

Dissolved inorganic substances increase through repeated use of

water, and, therefore, have implications in the reuse of treated
wastewater.

Heavy metals (which are the cations with atomic weights above 23
and which are contributed from households as well as industry) can
upset biological treatment processes and can reduce sludge
management options if present in sufficient quantity.

Nutrients can cause oxygen depletion and eutrophication when

discharged to natural water bodies.

Priority organic pollutants are hazardous and often resist

conventional treatment methods.

Use of laboratory analyses in wastewater treatment plant design and

operation
 Preliminary and Primary Treatment

Preliminary Treatment

The most objectionable aspect of discharging raw sewage into

watercourses is the presence of floating material. It is only logical,
therefore, that screens were the first form of wastewater treatment used
by communities, and even today, screens are used as the first step in
treatment plants. Typical screens, shown in this figure consist of a series
of steel bars, which might be about 2.5 cm (1 in) apart.

The purpose of a screen in modern treatment plants is the removal of

larger materials that might damage equipment or hinder further
treatment. In some older treatment plants screens are cleaned by hand,
but mechanical cleaning equipment is used in almost all new plants. The
cleaning rakes are automatically activated when the screens become
sufficiently clogged to raise the water level in front of the bars.

In many plants the next treatment step is a communitor, a circular

grinder designed to grind the solids coming through the screen into
pieces about 0.3 cm or smaller. Many designs are in use; one common
design is shown in the figure.
 The third common preliminary treatment step involves the removal of
grit or sand (figure).
This is necessary because grit can wear out and damage equipment,
such as pumps and flow meters. The most common grit chamber is
simply a wide place in the channel where the flow is slowed sufficiently
to allow the heavy grit to settle. Sand is about 2.5 times as heavy as
most organic solids and thus, settles much faster than the light solids.
The objective of a grit chamber is to remove this organic grit without
removing the organic material. The latter must be further treated in the
plant, but the grit can be dumped as fill without undue odor or other
problems. One way of ensuring that the light biological solids do not
settle is to aerate the grit chamber, allowing the sand and the other
heavy particles to sink but keeping everything else afloat. Aeration has
the additional advantage of driving some oxygen into the swage, which
may have become devoid of oxygen in the sewage system.

The Pigeon River

The Pigeon River flows from the Great Smoky Mountains of North
Carolina into Tennessee, passing through Canton, North Carolina, which
boasted a large paper mill.

Upstream of Canton the Pigeon River was clear and clean, but below
the paper mill the river turned into a dark brown color and emitted a
sulfuric odor. The state of North Carolina for many years tried to get the
paper mill to clean up its discharges, but the importance of the mill to
the economically depressed area made firm legal action politically
impossible. Thus the Pigeon River remained an open industrial sewer
emptying into the State of Tennessee.

The water was polluted out of their jurisdiction, and setting high
stream standards on the Tennessee portion of the Pigeon River made no
sense because they had to be enforced in North Carolina. Finally, the
Tennessee water pollution agency pushed the USEPA to take steps. The
controversy escalated with the discovery of dioxin in the stream water,
and the State of Tennessee put up warning signs along the river
prohibiting the eating of fish caught from the river.

In 1992, the mill was sold to a consortium of the workers and was
renamed Blue Ridge Paper Products. With assistance from numerous
sources, the new company was able to fund extensive pollution control.
With this treatment, the dioxin levels dropped to below the toxic limit,
and the water color returned to normal in the Tennessee portion of the
Pigeon.

11.2.2 Primary Treatment

 Following the grit chamber most wastewater treatment plants have a
settling tank to settle as much of the solid matter as possible. These
tanks are different from settling tanks introduced in the previous chapter.
It is again desired to operate the tanks as plug-flow reactors, and
turbulence is, therefore, kept to a minimum. The solids settle to the
bottom and are removed through a pipe while the clarified liquid escapes
over a V-notch weir, a notched steel plate over which the water flows,
promoting equal distribution of the liquid discharge all the way around a
tank, settling tanks can be circular or rectangular.

Raw sludge is generally odoriferous, can contain pathogenic

organisms, and is full of water three characteristics that make its
disposal difficult. It must be stabilized, to reduce its possible public
health impact and to retard further decomposition, and dewatered for
ease of disposal. In addition to the solids from the primary clarifier, solids
from other processes must similarly be treated and disposed of. The
treatment and disposal of wastewater solids (sludge) is an important part
of waste water.

Primary treatment, in addition to removing about 60% of the solids,

removes about 30% of the demand for oxygen and perhaps 20% of the
phosphorus (both as a consequence of the removal of raw sludge). If this
removal is adequate and the dilution factor in the watercourse is such
that the adverse effects are acceptable, then a primary treatment plant
is sufficient wastewater treatment. Governmental regulations, however,
have forced all primary plants to add secondary treatment, whether
needed or not.

When primary treatment is judged to be inadequate, solids, BOD, and

phosphorus removal can be enhanced by the addition of chemicals, such
as aluminum sulfate (alum) or calcium hydroxide (lime), to the primary
clarifier influent. With such addition, the effluent BOD can be reduced to
about 50 mg/L, and this BOD level may be able to meet required effluent
standards. Chemical addition to primary treatment is especially
attractive for large coastal cities that can achieve high dilution in the
dispersion of the plant effluent.

In a more typical wastewater treatment plant, primary treatment

without chemical addition is followed by secondary treatment, which is
designed specially to remove the demand for oxygen.

PROBLEMS:
11.1 The following data were reported on the operation of a wastewater
treatment plant:

Constituent Influent (mg/L) Effluent (mg/L)

BOD5 200 20
SS 220 15
P 10 0.5

a. What percent removal was experienced for each of these

constituents?

b. What kind of treatment plant would produce such as effluent? Draw a

block diagram showing one configuration of the treatment steps that
would result in such a plant performance.

11.2 Describe the condition of a primary clarifier one day after the raw
sludge pumps broke down. What do you think would happen?

11.3 One operational problem with trickling filters is ponding, the

excessive growth of slime on the rocks and subsequent clogging of the
spaces so that the water no longer flows through the filter. Suggest some
cures for the ponding problem.

11.4 One problem with sanitary sewers is illegal connections from roof
drain. Suppose a family of four living in a home with a roof area of 21 m
x 10 m, connects the roof drain to the sewer. Assume that 3 cm of rain
falls over 1 day.

a. What percentage increase will there be in the flow from their house
over the dry weather flow (assumed at 200 L/capita-day)?

b. What is so wrong with connecting the roof drains to the sanitary

sewers? How would you explain this to someone who has just been fined
for such illegal connections? (Dont just say, Its the law. Explain why
there is such a law.) Use ethical reasoning to fashion reasoning to fashion
your argument.

SECONDARY TREATMENT

Water leaving the primary clarifier has lost much of the suspended
organic matter but still contains a high demand for oxygen due to the
dissolved biodegradable organics. This demand for oxygen must be
reduced (energy expended) if the discharge is to avoid creating
unacceptable conditions in the watercourse.

A secondary treatment is:

- a treatment which involves biological treatment called the

Activated Sludge Process

- where waste water is mixed with bacteria laden sludge and oxygen
which allow the bacteria to break down organic matter.

- the water is passed into a sedimentation tank where the active

sludge is collected and removed.

OBJECTIVE
The objective of secondary treatment is to remove BOD while, by
contrast, the objective of primary treatment is to remove solids. Except
in rare circumstances, almost all secondary treatment methods use
microbial action to reduce the energy level (BOD) of the waste (a process
advocated in the late 1800s by Dibdin and Dupre, as described in
Chapter 1). The basic differences among all these alternatives are how
the waste is brought into contact with the microorganisms.

I. FIXED FILM

Fixed film reactors are used to treat organic hazardous, non-hazardous,

and toxic wastes. Hazardous materials in untreated water can be
degraded to less dangerous compounds using biological agents such as
microorganisms or their products.

Because the microorganisms ("bugs") multiply every fifteen minutes or

so, they must be supplied with large amounts of nutrients and oxygen.
The hazardous materials serve as nutrients for the microorganisms.
(Copyright Aqua Tech Systems, Fayetteville, AR)

The schematic below is a diagram of a typical fixed film reactor.

Untreated water enters the tank from the inlet port. The water then flows
through three different compartments, each one containing numerous
bugs that consume hazardous material. An air diffuser network provides
the air the bugs require for growth.

(Copyright Brentwood Industries, Inc., Reading, PA)

When the water enters the third compartment it passes through a

clarifier that separates any bugs from the treated water. The bugs are
then recycled back to the first compartment, and the treated water exits
the reactor.
Shown below is a diagram of a fixed film biological reactor with the walls
cutout to show the media inside. The larger of the two tanks is known as
a Submerged Aerated Filter (SAF) which contains fully submerged media
in the presence of co-current aeration. The tank that follows the SAF is a
clarifier, described above.

(Copyright Process Wastewater Technologies LLC, Baltimore, MD)

USAGE EXAMPLES

Fixed film reactors see much use in water treatment. The fixed film
reactor is mounted on a trailer so it can be transported from site to site
with relative ease. The reactor on the right can be used for biological
phosphorus and nitrogen removal.
(Pictures copyright Process Wastewater Technologies LLC, Baltimore, MD)

A. TRICKLING FILTER

A trickling filter is a bed of solid media for bacteria to attach on its

surfaces. Wastewater is irrigated on the solid media (shown in the
figure). It is also called a biological filter to emphasize that the filtration
process is not mechanical straining of solids, but removal of organic
substances by use of bacterial action
Wastewater has to undergo primary treatment before trickling filtration,
otherwise solids will block the filter.

B. Rotating Disc Fixed-Film Biological Reactor

- Rotating biological contactors are fixed-film reactors similar to

biofilters in that organisms are attached to support media.

- In case of the rotating biological contactors, the support media are

slowly rotating discs that are partially submerged in flowing
wastewater in the reactor. Oxygen is supplied to the attached
biofilm from the air when the film is out of the water.

- Sloughed pieces of biobilm are removed in the same manner

described for bio filters.
 II. SUSPENDED GROWTH REACTORS

A typical batch reactor consists of a tank with an agitator and integral

heating/ cooling system. These vessels may vary in size from less than 1
litre to more than 15,000 litres. They are usually fabricated in steel,
stainless steel, glass lined steel, glass or exotic alloy Liquids and solids
are usually charged via connections in the top cover of the reactor.
Vapors and gases also discharge through connections in the top. Liquids
are usually discharged out of the bottom.

ADVANTAGES OF BATCH BIOREACTOR

1. Easy operation and absence of Mechanical pumps

2. Versatility; a single vessel can carry out a sequence of different

operations

DISADVANTAGES

1. Where mixing is a critical parameter, they are not the ideal solution

III. DESIGN OF ACTIVATED SLUDGE SYSTEMS USING BIOLOGICAL

PROCESS DYNAMICS

The objective of an activated sludge system is to degrade the organics in

the influent and oxidize them to CO2 and H2O recognizing that some of this
energy must also be used to build new microorganisms.

These influent organics provide the food for the microorganisms and in
biological process dynamics are known as substrate.
Substrate is usually indirectly as the BOD, with the decrease in oxygen
indicating microbial degradation of the substrate.

Although other methods, such as organic carbon, may be more accurate

measures of substrate concentration. BOD already has to be measured for
regulatory compliance.

In such a reactor it is possible to develop two types of material balancein

terms of solids(microorganisms) and BOD(substrate). There are also two
retention, or detention timesliquids and solids.

The solids retention time is analogous to the hydraulic retention time and
represents the average time solids stay in the system (which is longer than
the hydraulic retention time when the solids are recycled.)

The solids retention time is also known as the sludge age and the mean cell
residence (or detention) time (MCRT). All three names represent the same
parameter which can be calculated as

The removal of substrate is often expressed in terms of substrate removal

velocity (q), defined as
Mass substrateremoved /Time
q= Mass microorganisms under aeration

[Rate of ACCUMULATION]= [Rate IN]- [Rate OUT] + [Rate of substrate

PRODUCTION] [Rate of substrate CONSUMPTION]

The production term of course is zero. Their rate of consumption is the

substrate removal velocity multiplied by the solids concentration and the
reactor volume to obtain the correct units.
Substrate removal (reduction in BOD):

Concentration of microorganusms in the reactor (mixed liquor suspended

solids):

IV. GAS TRANSFER

Process of allowing any gas to dissolve in a fluid or the opposite, promoting

the release of a dissolved gas from a fluid.

One of the critical aspect of the activated sludge system is the supply of
oxygen to the suspension of microorganism in the aeration basin.

At any given pH and temperature, the quantity of a given gas dissolved in a

liquid is governed by HENRYS LAW
 S = KP

Where S = solubility of a gas (mg gas/liter water)

P = partial pressure of gas as measured in psi. kPa and atm

K = solubility constant

*K is different from solubility coefficient. The solubility constant defines the

equilibrium conditions for various species at a constant pressure

Henrys law states that the solubility is a direct function of the partial
pressure of the gas being considered.

Meaning: if the partial pressure P is doubled, the solubility of the gas S is

likewise doubled.

Partial Pressure

It is defined as the pressure exerted by the gas.

Daltons law the total pressure is always the sum of partial pressure of the
gases.

Henry's law

D=(S-C)

D- deficit

S- concentration of dissolved oxygen in water at equilibrium (saturated)

C- concentration of dissolved oxygen in water

V. SOLID SEPARATION

The success or failure of an activated sludge system often depends on the

performance of the final clarifier, the usual method of separating the solids
grown in the seration tank from the liquid.

If the final settling tank is not able to achieve the required return sludge
solids, the solid concentration returned to the aeration tank will be low, the
MLSS in the aeration tank will drop and of course, the treatment efficiency
will be reduced because there will be fewer microorganisms to do the work.
The MLSS concentration is a combination of the return solids diluted by the
influent:

Where a = recycle or recirculation, ratio =

Results from settling the sludge in a liter cylinder can be used to estimate
the return sludge concentration. After 30 mins of settling, the solids in the
cylinder are at a SS concentration that would be equal to the expected
return sludge solids or

Where:

Xr = the expected return suspended solids concentration , mg/L

X = mixed liquor suspended solids, mg/L

 H = height cylinder, m

Hs = height of settled sludge, m

When microorganisms in the system are very difficult to settle, the sludge is
said to be a bulking sludge.

The settleability of activated sludge is most often described by the sludge

volume index (SVI), which is determined by measuring the volume occupied
by a sludge after settling for 30 mins in a 1-L cylinder.

Problem:

A sample of mixed liquor was found to have SS = 4000 mg/L, and

after settling for 30 mins in a 1-L cylinder, it occupied 400 Ml. Calculate the
SVI.

SVI values below 100 are usually considered acceptable, but sludges with
SVI greater than 200 are badly bulking and will be difficult to settle in the
final clarifier. Sludges with SVI values between 100 and 200 may or may not
settle well.

VI. EFFLUENT

Effluent from secondary treatment often has a BOD of 5mg/L and a

suspended solid concentration of 20 mg/l

In addition, the effluent from wastewater treatment plants is often diluting

the stream
Chlorine is used for disinfection because it is fairly inexpensive.

Chlorination occurs in a simple holding basins designed to act as plugflow

reactor.

Excess chlorine, which is toxic to many aquatic organisms must be removed

through dechlorination.

A compromise is, of course to eliminate chlorination and to introduce other

methods of disinfection, such as ultraviolet radiation and ozone.

Tertiary Treatment

There are situations when secondary treatment is inadequate to

protect the watercourse from hard due to wastewater discharge. One
concern is that nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus, may still
cause a problem if the effluent is discharged into still water body.

A high degree of treatment is needed if the water downstream of the

discharge is used for recreational purposes.

When upgrading the secondary treatment is treated further to achieve

whatever quality is required. Such processes are collectively called
tertiary, or advanced, treatment.

Nutrient Removal

It is accomplished by first treating the waste thoroughly enough in

secondary treatment to oxidize all the nitrogen to nitrate. It takes longer
detention times in secondary treatment, during which bacteria, such as
Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas, convert ammonia nitrogen to NO3, a process
called Nitrification.

To remove the nutrient properties of nitrogen, the nitrate must be

converted to nitrogen gas. Once the ammonia has been converted to
nitrate, it can be reduced to nitrogen by a broad range of facultative and
anaerobic bacteria (i.e Pseudomonas).
Phosphorus Removal

In wastewater, phosphorus exists as orthophosphate, polyphosphate

and organically bound phosphorus. Calcium hydroxide and aluminum sulfate
are the most popular chemicals used for phosphorus removal.

The calcium ion at high pH will combine with phosphate to form white,
insoluble precipitate called calcium hydroxyapatite that is settled and
removed.

Further Solids and Organic Removal

Rapid sand filter can be used to remove residual suspended solids and
to polish the water. The sand filters are typically located between the
secondary clarifier and disinfection.

Oxidation ponds

Commonly used for BOD removal. The oxidation, or polishing pond

is essentially a hole in the ground, a large pond used to confined the
plant effluent before it is discharged into the natural watercourse.

Activated Carbon Adsorption

Is another method of BOD removal but this process has the added
advantage that inorganics as well as organics are removed.

The mechanism of adsorption on activated carbon is both chemical

and physical, with tiny crevices catching and holding colloidal and small
particles.

An activated carbon column is similar to an ion exchange column.

It is completely enclosed tube with dirty water pumped up from the
bottom and clear water exiting at the top

Removal is often continuous, with clean carbon being added at the

top of the column. The regeneration is usually done by heating the
carbon in the absence of oxygen, driving off the organic matter.

A slight loss in the efficiency is noted with regeneration, and some

virgin carbon must always be added to ensure effective performance.

The tertiary wastewater treatment process described are not only

complex, they are also expensive, so alternating strategies have been
sought.
Three major types of land treatment

Slow rate infiltration

Rapid infiltration

Overland flow

Irrigation is the most promising land treatment.

Wetlands

While existing wetlands have been used for wastewater treatment, the
used of constructed wetland is more common because they can be
controlled to perform more reliably and Clean water Act requirements for
discharges to US waterways are avoided,

Constructed wetlands are designed based on natural wetland

ecosystems and make use of physical, chemical and biological processes to
remove contaminants.

While all wastewater treatment systems rely to some extent on natural

processes, such as gravity and biodegradation, constructed wetlands rely
primarily on natural components to maintain major treatment operations
and use mechanical equipment sparingly.

Wetlands have lower operation and maintenance requirements and use

less energy than conventional systems.

Wetlands have been used to treat stormwater runoff, landfill leachate

and waste water from residences, small communities, businesses and rest
areas.

Two main categories of wetlands

Surface flow

Resembles natural wetlands

They are also known as free water surface wetlands and open
water wetlands. A low permeability material (i.e caly, bentonite
or synthetic liner) is used on the bottom to avoid groundwater
contamination.
 Subsurface flow

Also known as vegetated submerged bed, gravel bed, reed bed

and root zone wetlands

These systems are used to replace septic systems

The waste water is kept below the surface of the medium (which
ranges from coarse gravel to sand), these systems reduce
mosquito and odor problems.

There is also a hybrid system in which both subsurface and

surface flow can be used.

Constructed wetlands are considered attached- growth biological reactors.

The major components of constructed wetland systems

a. plants

b. soils

c. microorganism

The plant serve as support media for microorganisms, provide shade,

insulate water from heat loss, filter solids and pathogens, and provide
dissolved oxygen.

Plants most commonly used are

a. Cattails

b. Reeds

c. Rushes

d. Bulrushes

e. Arrowhead

f. Sedges

The depth of water will dictate which plants will grow well.

SLUDGE TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

Two types of sludge produced in conventional wastewater treatment plants

Raw Primary Sludge

 comes from the bottom of the primary clarifier

Biological or Secondary Sludge

either solids that have grown on the fixed film reactor surfaces
and sloughed off the media or waste activated sludge grown in
the activated sludge system
SLUDGE STABILIZATION

- to reduce the problems associated with two of the detrimental

characteristics, sludge odor and putrescence and the presence of
pathogenic organism

Three primary means

i. Lime Stabilization addition of lime (either as hydrated lime Ca(OH)2 or

as quicklime CaO) to the sludge

pH rises about 11 or above

Reduces odor

Helps with the destruction of pathogens

Temporary, the pH drops and the sludge become putrescent

ii. Aerobic Digestion logical extension of the activated sludge system

Waste activated sludge is placed in dedicated aeration tanks for a

very long time

Net reduction in total and volatile solids

More difficult dewater than anaerobic sludges

iii. Anaerobic Digestion

SLUDGE DEWATERING

In most wastewater plants dewatering is the final method of volume

reduction prior to ultimate disposal.

3 Dewatering Techniques

Sand beds

Sand beds have been use for a great many years and are still the
most cost-effective means of dewatering when land is available and
labor costs are not exorbitant.

Sand beds consist of tile drains in gravel covered by about 0.25m of

sand. The sludge to be dewatered is poured on the beds to about
15cm deep. Two mechanisms combine to separate the water from the
solids: seepage and evaporation.

Seepage into the sand and through the tile drains, although important
in the total volume of water extracted, lasts for only a few days. As
drainage into the sand ceases, evaporation takes over, and this
process is actually responsible for the conversion of liquid sludge to
solid.

Belt filters

If dewatering by sand beds is considered impractical, mechanical

dewatering techniques must be employed. One mechanical method of
dewatering is the bed filter, which separates as both a pressure filter
and a gravity filter.

As the sludge is introduced onto a moving belt, the free water

surrounding the sludge solid particles drips through the belt. The
solids are retained on the surface of the belt. The belt then moves into
a dewatering zone where the sludge is squeezed between two belts,
forcing the filtrate from the sludge solids. The dewatered solids, called
the cake, are then discharged when the belt separates.

Centrifuges

Another widely used mechanical method of dewatering is the

centrifuge. The most common centrifuge used is the solid bowl
decanter, which consists of a bullet-shaped body rotating around its
long axis. When the sludge is placed into the bowl, the solids settle
out under a centrifugal force that is about 500 to 1000 ties gravity.
 Hey are then scraped out of the bowl by screw conveyor. The solids
coming out of a centrifuge ae known as cake, as in filtration, but the
decanted liquid is known as centrate.

Objective of dewatering process

To produce a solids cake of high solids concentration

To make sure all the solids, and only the solids end up in thecake.

Example:

A wastewater sludge centrifuge operates with a feed of 40L/min and a

feed solids concentration of 1.2%. The cake solids concentration is 22%
solids, and the centrate solids concentration is 500mg/L. What is the
recovery of solids?

Solution: The solids concentrations must first be converted to similar units.

Recall that if the density of the solids is almost one (a good assumption for
wastewater solids), 1% solids = 10,000 mg/L.

Solids Concentration (mg/L)

Feed Solids 12,000

Cake Solids 220,000

Centrate Solids 500