6 Electricity Fundamentals PDF

00826-0100-0007, 07/09
Process Control Fundamentals
Module 6
Electricity Fundamentals
Emerson Process Management - Rosemount Measurment, 2009. All Rights Reserved. Printed in U.S.A.
While this information is presented in good faith and believed to be accurate, Emerson Process Management - Rosemount
Measurement does not guarantee satisfactory results from reliance upon such information. Nothing contained herein is to be
construed as a warranty or guarantee, expressed or implied, regarding the performance, merchantability, fitness or any other matter
with respect to the products, nor as a recommendation to use any product or process in conflict with any patent. Emerson Process
Management - Rosemount Measurement reserves the right, without notice, to alter or improve the designs or specifications of the
products described herein. The training material contained in this manual was developed by Emerson Process Management -
Rosemount Measurement for their exclusive use. This manual and the material contained herein may not be copied, reproduced,
sold, given or disclosed to third parties, or otherwise used in whole or in part without the prior written permission of the Director of
Emerson Process Management - Rosemount Measurment.
July 2009
Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................................... 1
Performance Objective ............................................................................................................................. 1
Electricity in Process Control ......................................................................................................................... 3

Learning Objectives.................................................................................................................................. 3
The Importance of Electricity .......................................................................................................................... 4
Electricity in Process Control .................................................................................................................. 4
Signals and Transmitters .......................................................................................................................... 4
Basic Electrical Forces ................................................................................................................................... 5

Learning Objectives.................................................................................................................................. 5
Basic Electrical Parameters ............................................................................................................................ 6
Energy....................................................................................................................................................... 7
Potential Energy................................................................................................................................ 7
Power........................................................................................................................................................ 7
Voltage/Potential Difference .................................................................................................................... 7
Current...................................................................................................................................................... 7
Resistance ................................................................................................................................................. 8
Ohms Law ....................................................................................................................................................... 9
How to Use Ohms Law............................................................................................................................ 9
Examples............................................................................................................................................ 9
Power Generated in a Resistor............................................................................................................... 10
Examples.......................................................................................................................................... 10
Prefix Shorthand..................................................................................................................................... 11
How Circuits Work ....................................................................................................................................... 13

Learning Objectives................................................................................................................................ 13
Circuit Components ....................................................................................................................................... 14
Resistors.................................................................................................................................................. 14
Capacitors .............................................................................................................................................. 14
Inductors ................................................................................................................................................. 15
DC and AC Electricity ................................................................................................................................... 16
Voltage Supplies ..................................................................................................................................... 16
Basic Circuit Definitions ............................................................................................................................... 18
Series Circuit .......................................................................................................................................... 18
Parallel Circuit....................................................................................................................................... 18
Series-Parallel Circuit............................................................................................................................ 19
Measuring Total Current................................................................................................................. 19
Measuring Equivalent Resistance ................................................................................................... 20
Electricity Fundamentals Page 3

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Table of Contents
Laws and Electrical Circuits ......................................................................................................................... 22
Kirchoffs Laws....................................................................................................................................... 22
Kirchoffs Current Law ................................................................................................................... 22
Kirchoffs Voltage Law.................................................................................................................... 22
Series Circuits and Kirchoffs Laws ....................................................................................................... 23
Rule 1Current............................................................................................................................... 23
Rule 2Resistance .......................................................................................................................... 23
Rule 3Voltage............................................................................................................................... 23
Parallel Circuits and Kirchoffs Laws.................................................................................................... 24
Rule 1Voltage............................................................................................................................... 24
Rule 2Total Current ..................................................................................................................... 24
Rule 3Equivalent Resistance........................................................................................................ 24
Series-Parallel Circuits and Kirchoffs Laws ........................................................................................ 25
Example 1 ........................................................................................................................................ 25
Example 2 ........................................................................................................................................ 26
Example 3 ........................................................................................................................................ 26
Series-Parallel Circuits & Kirchoffs Laws ........................................................................................... 26
Process Control Loops .................................................................................................................................. 27

Learning Objectives................................................................................................................................ 27
Measuring Voltage, Current, & Resistance................................................................................................... 28
Using a Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter............................................................................................................ 28
Safety ............................................................................................................................................... 29
Measuring Voltage in DC and AC Circuits............................................................................................ 30
To Measure DC Voltage.................................................................................................................. 30
To Measure AC Voltage .................................................................................................................. 31
Measuring Current in DC and AC Circuits............................................................................................ 32
To Measure DC and AC .................................................................................................................. 32
Test Circuit ............................................................................................................................................. 33
Measuring Resistance in DC and AC Circuits ....................................................................................... 34
To Measure DC and AC Resistance in Series ................................................................................. 35
Instrumental Field Wiring ............................................................................................................................. 37
24 V DC Power Supply ........................................................................................................................... 37
Instrument Loop...................................................................................................................................... 37
Typical Loop ........................................................................................................................................... 38
Grounding Practices...................................................................................................................................... 39
Electrical Requirements in Control Loops .................................................................................................... 40
Measurement Protocol............................................................................................................................ 41
Supply and Minimum Voltage................................................................................................................. 41
Load Consideration and Load Limit ...................................................................................................... 42
Ensure Adequate Current ................................................................................................................ 43
Examine Load Consideration .......................................................................................................... 43
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Table of Contents
Types of Control Loops.................................................................................................................................. 45
Individual-Powered Loops...................................................................................................................... 45
System-Powered LoopsAnalog Signal Output .................................................................................... 46
System-Powered LoopsDigital Signal Output..................................................................................... 47
Workbook Exercises....................................................................................................................................... 49
Workbook Answers ........................................................................................................................................ 68

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Introduction
Introduction
To accurately analyze and measure the electrical parameters of process control loops, you must first
understand the fundamentals of electricity, the configuration of circuits, and the laws and rules that
dictate how electrical parameters and circuits behave in different process control environments. Once
you analyze and measure the control loops, you can select the transmitter that will offer the best
solution for your unique process control environment. In this module, you will gain the baseline
knowledge necessary to make well-informed, sound decisions. This module organizes the baseline
information into four sections:
T Electricity in process control
T Basic electrical forces
T How circuits work
T Process control loops
PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVE
After completing this module, you will be able to discuss the electrical aspects of process control
instruments and the control loops used by customers.
Fundamentals of Electricity Page 1

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Electricity in Process Control

Process control instruments are an integral part of the success of organizations in many different
industries. Without accurate temperature, pressure, level, and flow readings, organizations in industries
such as food processing, water treatment, petroleum, and automotive manufacturing stand to lose
millions of dollars. Accurate readings depend heavily on reliable measurement techniques and the
fundamentals of electricity. Electricity is a more reliable and less expensive way of transmitting
process variable information to a central location. In this section, you will learn why electricity is
important in process control.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you have completed this section, you will be able to:
T Name ways in which electricity is used in process control
T Briefly describe how transmitters use electrical signals to convey process control information

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The Importance of Electricity

The measurement of process control variables such as Activities
temperature, level, and pressure is an integral part of process
control. Electricity is the foundation of process control
measurement in that electricity:
T Powers process control devices 1. Name two ways electricity is
T Forms the signals that measure and regulate process important in process control.
control loops
ELECTRICITY IN PROCESS CONTROL

Electricity powers the circuits inside process control
instruments and the process control loops themselves. Without
electrical parameters such as current, voltage, and resistance,
process control instruments and control loops could not
function at all.
Electricity also forms the analog and digital signals that hold
the information necessary to measure and regulate process
control variables within a control loop (e.g., measuring a
lower-than-ideal temperature value, forming a signal that will
increase the temperature value). At times, electricity even
forms the signals that instruct specific instruments to perform
certain tasks (e.g., forming one signal to measure a
dangerously high reading from a level sensor and another
signal to instruct the drain valve to open).
SIGNALS AND TRANSMITTERS

Transmitters connect to process control loops and use
electricity to transmit process control variables (e.g., rising and
falling liquid levels). Transmitters use analog and digital
signals to convey measurements and instructions to other
instruments in a control loop to maintain the highest level of
safety and efficiency.
The next three sections in this module discuss electricity,
circuits, transmitters, and signals in greater detail so you can variables.
understand the importance of electricity in process control. measure and regulate process control
devices and forms the signals that
Electricity powers process control 1.
COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 6.1 ON PAGE 49
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Basic Electrical Forces

To understand how process control instruments measure and regulate process control variables, you
must be familiar with the fundamentals of electricity. You must understand how electrons behave, how
basic electrical forces respond to varying process control environments, and how to manipulate and
measure electrical forces to perform important process control tasks. This section helps you understand
basic electrical forces and the fundamental laws of electricity.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After competing this section, you will be able to:
T Define the following electrical parameters:
Energy
Power
Voltage
Current
Resistance
T Name the symbol and unit of measure for the following electrical parameters:
Energy
Power
Voltage
Current
Resistance
T State Ohms Law
T Given two of the following values, calculate the remaining value:
Voltage
Current
Resistance

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Basic Electrical Parameters

This section addresses six basic electrical parameters: Activities
T Energy
T Power
T Voltage
T Current
T Resistance
Table 5.1 shows each parameter, its symbol, its unit of

measure, and the symbol used for each unit of measure. You
need to be familiar with the parameter and unit symbols when
analyzing and measuring the parameter values of electrical
circuits, discussed in the next section.
Parameter (Symbol) Unit of Measure (Symbol)

Energy (W) Joules (J)
Power (P) Watts (W)
Voltage (E) Volts (V)
Current (I) Amperes (A)
Resistance (R) Ohms ()
Table 5.1: Electrical Parameters, Symbols, and Units of

Measure

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ENERGY Activities
Energy is the ability to do work. Work is accomplished when a 1. What is the unit of measure for
force acting on a mass moves the mass a definite distance. The current and power respectively?
metric unit of measure for energy is a joule. The English unit of
measure for energy is a foot-pound.
Potential Energy
Potential energy is the stored energy a mass possesses because
of its relative position to a specified point. The movement of a
mass from one position to the next causes potential energy to
be stored in the mass. The amount of potential energy in a mass
is important when measuring voltage drop (refer to Voltage/
Potential Difference on this page).
POWER
Power (P) is the amount of work done in a given time. The unit
of measure for power is a watt (W).
VOLTAGE/POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Voltage (E), or potential difference, is the force that causes
current to flow through a conductor. Voltage is a measure of the
work done (in joules) per coulomb of charge when a charge
moves from one position to a specific point. The potential
energy of one joule per coulomb equals one volt (V). Voltage is
also known as voltage drop, voltage difference, or
electromotive force (EMF).
CURRENT
As defined earlier, current (I) is the flow of electrons. The
measure of the magnitude or intensity of current is an ampere
(A). Amperes measure the rate at which an electric charge
moves across a section of wire or other conductor. Amperes
move instantaneously through conductorsthat is, when one
electron enters a conductor, one electron exits the conductor.
An ampere and a watt 1.

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RESISTANCE Activities
For a fixed voltage value in a circuit, the amount of current 2. What is the symbol for
running through a conductor, such as a wire, depends on the: resistance?
T Type of conductor material (e.g., copper, gold)
T Physical dimensions of the conductor material (e.g.,
1 foot, 15 inches in diameter)
Resistance (R), measured in ohms (), is the amount of 3. How is resistance measured?
opposition a material offers a moving charge. Resistance
depends on the length, the cross-sectional area, and the
resistivity of the conductor material. A conductors resistivity
depends on the atomic structure and temperature of the
material.
4. The amount of current running
through a conductor material
depends on certain factors.
What are those factors?
conductor material
The type and physical dimensions of the 4.
Ohms, symbolized by 3.
R 2.
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Ohms Law
Activities
Ohms Law describes the relationship between voltage, 5. According to Ohms Law, if a
current, and resistance. The relationship is: voltage value is fixed and the
V=IxR current increases, what happens
to the resistance?
In other words, Voltage (volts) = Current (amps) x Resistance
(ohms).
6. State the mathematical equation
for calculating resistance.
Figure 6.1: Relationship Between Voltage,

Current, and Resistance
HOW TO USE OHMS LAW

Ohms Law can be used in a number of ways:
1. To find Voltage when you know Current and Resistance: 7. What is the mathematical
V=IxR equation for calculating
voltage?
2. To find Current when you know Voltage and Resistance:
I = V/R
3. To find Resistance when you know Voltage and Current:
R = V/I
Examples 8. What is the mathematical
1. If you have a current of 4 mA (0.004 amps) flowing equation for calculating
through a resistance of 250 ohms, what is the voltage current?
generated across the resistor?
0.004 amps x 250 ohms = 1 volt
2. If you have a voltage of 10 volts measured across a
resistance of 500 ohms, what is the current flowing
through the resistor?
10 volts / 500 ohms = 0.02 amps (20 mA)
E/R 8.
IR 7.
V/I 6.
Resistance decreases 5.

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Ohms Law
POWER GENERATED IN A RESISTOR Activities
When a current passes through a resistor, the power generated
in that resistor is defined as:
P (Power) = V (Voltage) x I (Current)
1. To find power (P) when you know voltage and current,

P = VI
2. To find power when you know current and resistance,
P = I2 R
3. T find power when you know voltage and resistance,
P = V2 / R
Examples
1. If you have a current of 10 mA (0.010 amps) flowing
through a resistance of 500 ohms, what is the power
dissipated by the resistor?
0.012 amps x 500 ohms = .05 watt (50 mW)
P = I2 R
2. If you have a voltage of 100 volts measured across a

resistance of 500 ohms, was is the power dissipated by the
resistor?
1002 volts / 500 ohms = 20 watts
Voltage, current, and resistance measurements in electrical
circuits are typically higher than a few volts, amps, or ohms. To
easily and accurately express voltage, current, and resistance
values, you use a shorthand of prefixes, expressed in integers.
Analog and digital measuring devices use prefix

shorthand symbols to convey circuit measurements.

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Ohms Law
PREFIX SHORTHAND Activities
Table 6.2 shows the prefixes, the prefix symbols, and the 9. Which prefix and mathematical
mathematical equivalents of the prefixes used to express the equivalent does the symbol n
answers to Ohms Law equations. denote?
Prefix Symbol Mathematical Equivalent

Mega M Millions (multiply by 106)
Kilo k Thousands (multiply by 103)
Milli m Thousandths (multiply by 10-3)
Micro Millionths (multiply by 10-6)
Nano n Thousandth of a million (multiply by 10-9)
Pico p Millionth of a million (multiply by 10-12)
Table 6.2: Prefix Shorthand
For example, 25,000,000 A is stated as twenty-five million 10. The symbol for _____________
amperes. Convert the number to an integer value, 25 106 is m.
ohms. Using prefix shorthand, rewrite the value as 25 M
(megaohms), because mega (M) means millions (multiply by
106).
To find the value of I, E, or R in a circuit when the electrical 11. Using prefix shorthand, how
parameters use prefix shorthand, convert the measurements to would you rewrite the value 16
values that do not contain integers or prefixes. For example, if x 10-6 A?
E = 20 mA x 500 , then rewrite the equations as E = 0.02 A x
500 to simplify the calculation and avoid careless mistakes.
11. 16
10. Milli
(multiply by 10-9)
equation is thousandth of a trillion
9. The prefix is nano and the mathematical

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How Circuits Work
How Circuits Work

In this section, you will learn about direct and alternating current; series, parallel, and series-parallel
circuits; and the behavior of basic electrical forces within the circuits. You will apply Ohms Law when
calculating the measurements of voltage, current, and resistance for different components in a circuit.
With this baseline knowledge, you can understand the electrical aspects of process control instruments,
manually perform basic circuit measurements, and recommend instruments based on the circuit
measurements.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
T Define:
Circuit
Polarity
Direct current (DC)
Alternating current (AC)
T Identify three common components in a circuit
T Define:
Resistance
Capacitance
Inductance
T List the key differences between AC and DC electricity
T Identify series, parallel, and series-parallel circuits
T Manually measure voltage, current, and resistance and compare the way the parameters behave in
series, parallel, and series-parallel circuits
T Briefly explain Kirchoffs Laws and how they relate to series, parallel, and series-parallel circuits

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How Circuits Work
Circuit Components
A circuit is a path or group of interconnecting paths capable of Activities
carrying current. Every circuit contains an amount of resistance
and a voltage source, or sources. The three most common 1. Define circuit.
components in a circuit are resistors, capacitors, and inductors.
These components ensure the efficient operation of a circuit,
regardless of the circuits application.
RESISTORS
Resistance is the characteristic of a material that opposes
current flow. A resistor (R) is a device that introduces
opposition, or resistance, into a circuit to restrict current.
Resistance must be present in a circuit for the circuit to operate.
CAPACITORS
Capacitance, measured in farads (F), is the capability of a 2. What is the unit of measure for
material to store electric charge. A capacitor (C) is a device capacitance?
that stores electric charge to oppose an instantaneous voltage
change in a circuit. Capacitors protect circuits from voltage
surges, act as current barriers, store memory in computer chips,
and tune radio circuits by charging and discharging.
A capacitor charges, or extracts current from the circuit and
stores electric charge, when the position of a switch on the
circuit maintains a connection with circuits voltage source.
When the circuit switch disconnects the voltage source, the
capacitor discharges, or releases current back into the circuit, to
maintain the operation of the circuit.
Figure 6.2: Current Leading Voltage
Farad 2.
carrying current
interconnecting paths capable of
A circuit is a path or group of 1.

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How Circuits Work
Circuit Components
INDUCTORS Activities
Inductance, measured in henries (h), is the tendency of a 3. Define inductance.
material to oppose an instantaneous current change in a circuit.
An inductor (L) is a device that introduces inductance into a
circuit. When the position of a circuit switch disconnects the
voltage source, the inductor generates a counter voltage drop to
temporarily prolong the current flow. Inductors can protect
circuits from current surges, stabilize direct current (DC), and
control alternating current (AC) to ensure efficient operation of
the circuit. Refer to DC and AC Electricity on page 16.
Figure 6.3: Voltage Leading Current
current change in a circuit

material to oppose an instantaneous
Inductance is is the tendency of a 3.

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How Circuits Work
DC and AC Electricity
Activities
VOLTAGE SUPPLIES
There are two types of voltages used in instrument loops:
T Direct current (DC voltage), with a typical range of 10.5
to 48 volts
T Alternating current (AC voltage), with a range of 90 to
220 volts
Most two-wire transmitters need to be powered by a DC power
source from either a separate power supply or a distributed
control system (DCS). Most four-wire devices need AC voltage
to power the instrument, and the DC power will be used for the
4-20 mA output signal of the device.
Figure 6.4: DC and AC Voltage
DC is the flow of electrons that can change in value but not 4. DC can change in value /
polarity. Polarity indicates the direction of flow of electrons as polarity, but not in value /
either positive or negative. DC flows in one direction from polarity.
negative to positive (electron current) or from positive to
negative (conventional current). AC is the flow of electrons that
can change both in value and in polarity. AC flows in one
direction for a period of time and then in the other direction for
a period of time (e.g., negative to positive, positive to negative).
Figure 6.5 shows an example of a DC circuit with electron
current flow.
5. Define the properties of AC.
+
E R
I
Figure 6.5: A DC Circuit with Electron Current direction for a period of time.
a period of time and then in the other
and it can also flow in one direction for
AC can change in value and polarity, 5.
Value; polarity 4.

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How Circuits Work
DC and AC Electricity
In Figure 6.5, the electron current flows from the negative Activities
connector of the battery (E), through the path, across the
resistor (R), and back to the positive connector of the battery in
one complete loop. The polarity does not change. Only the
currents value changes when the voltage or resistance values
increase or decrease.

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How Circuits Work
Basic Circuit Definitions

Ohms Law is the most important equation used in the analysis
Activities
of circuits because voltage, current, and resistance behave
differently in each type of circuit (i.e., series, parallel,
series-parallel).
SERIES CIRCUIT
A series circuit is a complete, closed loop in which the current 6. True or False? For a given
flows equally through each component. In a series circuit, DC series circuit with DC and
flows in one direction via electron or conventional current. electron current, the flow of
Figure 6.6 is an example of a series circuit with DC and current would be equal through
electron current. the circuit.
+
E R
I
Figure 6.6: Series Circuit with DC and Electron

Current
PARALLEL CIRCUIT
A parallel circuit is a type of circuit in which current does not 7. For a parallel circuit with DC
flow equally through each component, unless the resistors are and conventional current, with
all the same value. The current flows through different paths, all resistors having the same
called current branches, which meet at junctions. A parallel value, the flow of current would
circuit contains two or more complete circuit loops that can be equal / unequal through
carry either DC or AC. Figure 6.7 is an example of a parallel each of the resistors.
circuit with DC and conventional current.
+ I1 I2 I3
E R1 R2 R3

Figure 6.7: Parallel Circuit with DC and

Conventional Current
Equal 7.
True 6.

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How Circuits Work

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUIT Activities
A series-parallel circuit is a more complex type of circuit in 8. Describe the components of a
which there are series circuit components and parallel circuit series-parallel circuit.
branches. To determine the electrical parameters of
series-parallel circuits, examine the circuits carefully to group
the series and parallel characteristics into orderly, connected
components. A series-parallel circuit can carry both DC and
AC. Figure 6.8 is an example of a series-parallel circuit.
9. If I1 = 4, I2 = 3, and I3 = 8, what
is the value of IT?
Figure 6.8: Series-Parallel Circuit with DC
Figure 6.8 has three resistors (R1, R2, and R3), one voltage
source (E), and two current flows (I1 and I2). E1 and E2 denote
voltage drops in the circuit.
Measuring Total Current

To manually measure the total current (IT) in a series-parallel
or parallel circuit, add the individual current values. The
equation for the total current in Figure 6.8 is:
IT = I1 + I2
Figure 6.9 on page 20 shows how to calculate IT in a circuit.
15, because IT = total current 9.

circuit branches.
series circuit components and parallel
A series-parallel circuit contains both 8.

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How Circuits Work

Activities
+
E 8 6 2
4A 5.33 A 16 A
Figure 6.9: Measuring Total Current and

Equivalent Resistance
In Figure 6.9, IT = 25.33 A because 4 A + 5.33 A + 16 A =

25.33 A.
Measuring Equivalent Resistance

Equivalent resistance (Req) is the total resistance value of all
components in a circuit. The calculation method of Req
depends on the position and value of the resistors in the circuit.
Resistors in Series 10. If R1 = 8, R2 = 14, and R3 = 2,
To manually measure the Req in a series circuit where the what will the Req in a series
resistors are not parallel to each other, add the individual circuit be?
resistor values (R1 + R2 + R3, etc.).
Figure 6.10: Resistors in Series
value of all components in a circuit

10. 24 , because Req = the total resistance

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How Circuits Work

Different Resistors in Parallel Activities
In Figure 6.9, the resistors are parallel to each other but are not 11. If a circuit contains four
the same value. Follow these steps to measure resistance in this resistors, three of which equal
case: 5 and are parallel, while the
fourth resistor equals 7, what
1. Divide one by each resistor value (1 / R1, 1 / R2, 1 / R3).
is the Req?
2. Add the quotients together (1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + 1 / R3).
3. Divide one by that sum. Stated mathematically:
1
R eq = --------------------------------
-
1 1 1
------ + ------ + ------
R1 R2 R3
Note: If an additional resistor was not in parallel, you would

add that resistor value to the quotient.
Figure 6.11: Different Resistors in Parallel
Same Resistors in Parallel

If the resistors in Figure 6.9 on page 20 were all the same value
(e.g., 8 ), you would divide the value of one resistor by the
number of resistors in parallel to determine the total resistance
in the circuit (e.g., 8 divided by 3 [the number of same-value
resistors in parallel]).
Note: If an additional resistor was not in parallel, you would

add that resistor value to the quotient.
11. 8.67

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How Circuits Work
Laws and Electrical Circuits

To analyze DC and AC circuits in the field, you must measure Activities
voltage, current, and resistance. Two basic types of instruments
automatically measure all three parameters without relying on
manual equations: an analog meter with a needle indicator or
digital display meter, called a volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM),
and a digital meter with an LCD, called a digital multimeter
(DMM). You will use a volt-ohm-milliammeter most often to
measure the three parameters.
Occasionally, you may not be able to open a circuit to

attach a volt-ohm-milliammeter. In that case, you
must analyze and measure the circuit manually,
using your knowledge of electrical parameters and
the laws and rules of circuits discussed on the next
few pages.
KIRCHOFFS LAWS
In circuit analysis, two fundamental laws, collectively called 12. According to Kirchoffs Voltage
Kirchoffs Laws, provide a means with which to determine Law, what is the total applied
unknown parameter values in a circuit. When applied to voltage in a circuit equal to?
complex networks, these two laws enable a more
comprehensive understanding of voltage and current
distribution.
Kirchoffs Laws, when coupled with Ohms Law, give

you the tools to accurately analyze any circuit, no
matter how complex.
Kirchoffs Current Law 13. According to Kirchoffs Law,

the amount of current flowing
Kirchoffs Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of the
into a junction is less than /
currents at any junction or component in a circuit equals the
equal to / greater than the
total current. In other words, the amount of current going into
amount of current flowing out.
a junction or component is equal to the amount of current
going out. No amperes are lost or unaccounted for.
Kirchoffs Voltage Law

Kirchoffs Voltage Law (KVL) states that the total applied
voltage is equal to the sum of the voltage drops throughout a 13. Equal to
closed loop in a circuit. For example, if you started at a position loop in a circuit
in the closed loop, followed the path of the current while loop in a circuit throughout a closed
of the voltage drops throughout a closed
adding the individual voltage drops, and returned to the initial total applied voltage is equal to the sum
position, no volts would be lost or unaccounted for. 12. Kirchoffs Voltage Law states that the

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How Circuits Work

SERIES CIRCUITS AND KIRCHOFFS LAWS Activities
As you recall, a series circuit is a circuit in which the current 14. Describe the series circuit law
flows equally through all the components. The current follows for current.
one complete path. Three rules explain how current, resistance,
and voltage behave in a series circuit. The first rule follows
KCL, and the third rule follows KVL. The three rules of a
series circuit are:
Rule 1Current
Current has the same value at any point within a series circuit.
Rule 1 simply states that the amount of current going into any
component in a circuit is equal to the amount of current that
comes outthat is, exactly the same amount of current flows
through every component of a circuit.
Rule 2Resistance
The resistance values of individual components in a circuit add 15. If the voltage drops in a series
up to the Req. circuit are 3 V, 5 V, and 4 V,
what is the total applied voltage
Rule 2 applies to series circuits with several resistors. To the
according to the series circuit
power supply, the circuit appears to have one resistor, because
law?
the sum of the resistance values in each component is equal to
the value of the total circuit resistance. To find the current or
the voltage, first calculate the Req, then apply Ohms Law.
Rule 3Voltage 16. According to the series circuit
law for resistance, what do the
Voltage drops across the individual component resistance
individual resistance values in a
values add up to the total applied voltage.
series circuit add up to?
Rule 3 describes the behavior of voltage in a series circuit. In a
series circuit, no matter how many resistors are present, the
total voltage drops across all resistors are equal to the total
applied, or source, voltage. For example, the sum of the voltage
drops in a series circuit connected to a 9 V battery must equal 9
V.
16. Req
15. 12 V, the sum of all voltage drops
point within a series circuit
14. Current has the same value at every

2009 Rosemount Inc.
How Circuits Work

PARALLEL CIRCUITS AND KIRCHOFFS LAWS Activities
As you recall, a parallel circuit is a circuit in which the current 17. What mathematical equation
is not the same through all the components unless the resistors should be used to calculate the
are all the same value. In a parallel circuit, there are two or Req in a parallel circuit if IT and
more current branches, or paths, for current. Three rules V are known?
explain how current, resistance, and voltage behave in a
parallel circuit. The first rule follows KVL, and the second rule
follows KCL. The three rules of a parallel circuit are:
Rule 1Voltage
The same voltage is applied across each individual current
branch.
Rule 1 describes the behavior of voltage in a parallel circuit. In
a parallel circuit, the voltage in each current branch is equal.
Rule 2Total Current

The IT is equal to the sum of the individual branch currents.
Rule 2 simply states that the amount of current in each
individual current branch must equal the total current (I1 + I2 +
I3 = IT).
Rule 3Equivalent Resistance

Req is equal to the total applied voltage divided by the total
current, and this value is always less than the smallest
resistance value in any one current branch.
Rule 3 is simply an adaptation of Ohms Law. Use Ohms Law
(Req = E / IT) to calculate the equivalent resistance in a parallel
circuit. Refer to Measuring Equivalent Resistance on
page 20 to review how to find Req using individual resistor
values before using Req to analyze the entire circuit.
17. Req = E / IT

2009 Rosemount Inc.
How Circuits Work

SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS AND KIRCHOFFS Activities
LAWS
The rules for both series and parallel circuits apply to 18. What must you do before you
series-parallel circuits. Examine a series-parallel circuit analyze and measure a
carefully to determine the paths the current flows through to series-parallel circuit?
return to the source:
1. Isolate the series components and apply the series circuit
rules.
2. Isolate the parallel components and apply the parallel
circuit rules.
3. Calculate the Req, IT, and applied voltage values to analyze
the circuit.
Example 1
Figure 6.12: Series-Parallel Circuit, Example 1
a. Calculate the total resistance in the loop:

Req = 10 + 8 = 18 ohms
b. Calculate the total current in the loop:

LT = 24 / 18 = 1.33 A
c. Calculate the voltage across the 10 ohms resistor:

E = 1.3 x 10 = 13.3 V
parallel circuit rules

components and apply the series and
18. Isolate the series and parallel

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How Circuits Work

Example 2 Activities
a. Calculate the total resistance in the circuit:

Req = 1 / [(1/8) + (1/6) + (1/2)] = 1.26 ohms
b. Calculate the total current in the circuit:

IT = 24 / 1.26 = 19 A
c. Calculate I1, I2 and I3:

I1 = 24 / 8 = 3 A
I2 = 24 / 6 = 4 A
I3 + 24 / 2 = 12 A
Example 3
SERIES-PARALLEL CIRCUITS & KIRCHOFFS LAWS

a.Calculate the total resistance in the circuit:
Req = 1 / [(1/5) + (1/5) + (1/(10 + 5))]
= 2.14 ohms
b. Calculate the total current in the circuit:

I = 24 / 2.14 = 11.2 A
c. Calculate I1, I2 and I3.

I1 = 24 / 5 = 4.8 A
I2 = 24 / 5 = 4.8 A
I3 = 24 / 15 = 1.6 A

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Process Control Loops

To accurately analyze and measure a process control loop, you will use your knowledge of electrical
parameters, circuits, and the laws and rules that dictate how electrical parameters and circuits behave.
This section helps you understand process control measurements, how transmitters convey
measurements and use current to regulate process control, and the way in which electrical parameters
behave in a process control loop.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After completing this section, you will be able to:
T Use a volt-ohm-milliammeter to measure voltage, current, and resistance at a given point in a loop
T Define ground
T Briefly describe how to earth ground a typical loop
T Given a product data sheet, determine the electrical requirements for an instrument
T Briefly describe the 420 mA and 15 V measurement protocols
T Explain the relationship between supply voltage and minimum voltage
T Define current draw and explain its importance in a process control loop
T Define load limit and load consideration, and explain their importance in a process control loop
T Differentiate between system-powered and individual-powered loops
T Briefly describe how digital signals can be overlaid on a 420 mA loop

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Measuring Voltage, Current, & Resistance

Activities
USING A VOLT-OHM-MILLIAMMETER
As discussed in the previous section, a volt-ohm-milliammeter
measures three major electrical parameters in a circuit: current,
voltage, and resistance. You will use a volt-ohm-milliammeter
to measure these electrical parameters in control loops so you
can compare the measurements with specific electrical
requirements. All instruments have electrical requirements that
must be met by the control loop environment to ensure the
instruments function properly.
Most volt-ohm-milliammeters you use in the field have a
number of common components. Figure 6.15 on page 28 is an
example of a volt-ohm-milliammeter with each position on the
dial labeled. Notice that the dial position for measuring ohms is
shown as on the dial. Figure 6.16 is a closer view of a
volt-ohm-milliammeter with the connector components
labeled. Notice that the same connector is used to measure both
volts and ohms.
1. What does a volt-ohm-
milliammeter (VOM) measure?
Figure 6.15: Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM)

Dial Positions
Current, voltage, and resistance 1.

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Activities
Figure 6.16: Volt-Ohm-Milliammeter (VOM)

Connector Components
Safety 2. What position should the
volt-ohm-milliammeter be in to
Follow these guidelines when working with electrical
measure resistance in a circuit?
components:
T Do not exceed the voltage and current ratings of the
volt-ohm-milliammeter
T Be aware of all voltages, particularly those over 50 V DC
or ACeven a light shock can cause you to react and
touch a much more dangerous part of the circuitry
T Connect to voltages only when you have the
volt-ohm-milliammeter in a DC or AC measurement dial
position
T Circuits with capacitors or uninterruptable power supplies
may still carry a dangerous voltage, even when unplugged
T There may be voltage drops between equipment and
between equipment and grounding points (discussed later
in this section)
The (Ohms) position 2.

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MEASURING VOLTAGE IN DC AND AC CIRCUITS Activities
Figure 6.17 shows the dial positions and connectors used to
measure DC and AC voltage.
3. True or False? The COM

connector should always be
connected to the device with a
positive lead wire.
Figure 6.17: Measuring DC and AC Voltage
To Measure DC Voltage
Follow these steps to measure voltage in a DC circuit:
1. Set the volt-ohm-milliammeter to a DC voltage rate higher
than the approximate voltage. Do not attempt to measure a
voltage that exceeds the maximum range of the meter.
2. To use auto-ranging mode, be sure the auto-manual switch 4. What two connections do you
is in the auto position. To use manual mode, be sure the make with the red lead wire
auto-manual switch is in the manual position. when measuring DC voltage?
3. Connect the black lead wire (negative) to the COM
connector and to the negative side of the circuit
component.
4. Connect the red lead wire (positive) to the volts/ohms
connector and to the positive side of the circuit
component.
5. If you are in manual mode, adjust the meters voltage
rating to a range that permits accurate readings.
side of the curcuit component
The volts/ohm connector and positive 4.
False 3.

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To Measure AC Voltage Activities
Follow these steps to measure voltage for an AC circuit: 5. What are the two connections
for the black lead wire when
1. Set the volt-ohm-milliammeter to an AC voltage rate
measuring AC voltage?
higher than the approximate voltage. Do not attempt to
measure a voltage that exceeds the maximum range of the
meter.
2. Use either auto-ranging or manual mode.
connector and to the neutral, or ground, on the circuit.
4. Connect the red lead wire (positive) to the volts/ohms
connector and to the terminal, or point, on the circuit.
5. If you are in manual mode, adjust the meters voltage
rating to a range that permits accurate readings.
ground
The COM connector and the neutral or 5.

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MEASURING CURRENT IN DC AND AC CIRCUITS Activities
Volt-ohm-milliammeters measure a broad range of current 6. While measuring current, which
values in both DC and AC circuits, from mA and A to 20 A two connections are for the
and above. Safety precautions are particularly important when black lead wire?
measuring current. The higher the amperage, the greater the
danger of injurious shock. The lower the amperage, the higher
the sensitivity of the circuit. Figure 6.18 shows how to connect
a volt-ohm-milliammeter to a circuit to measure current.
R (750 )
mV
V mA
V A -
V (3V)
A m A COM V
+
Positive
lead
Negative I
lead
Figure 6.18: Measuring Current in DC and AC

Circuits
To Measure DC and AC
Follow these steps to measure current in either a DC or an AC
circuit:
1. Disconnect the power source to the circuit unless you have
test protection circuitry. Make sure the volt-ohm-
milliammeter matches the expected current level.
connector and to the negative side of the circuit point.
3. Connect the red lead wire (positive) to the current
connector on the volt-ohm-milliammeter according to the
current level in the circuit and to the positive side of the side of the circuit
circuit point. The COM connector and the negative 6.

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4. Apply power. If there is a reading error, turn off the power, Activities
select a higher current range, and then turn to a lower
range.
5. After measuring, turn the power off before removing the 7. After measuring current in a
wires. circuit, what should be done
before removing the lead wires?
Caution: Never connect a current meter directly
across a power source. To do so is dangerous and
will likely damage both the volt-ohm-milliammeter
and the circuit.
TEST CIRCUIT
The current meter circuit of the DVM must be of low
impedance (<10 ohms), otherwise the test diode may pass
some of the current as the transmitter output increases in value.
Normally the current flows from the positive terminal of the
power supply, through the electronics, then from the
electronics through the test diode, then back to the power
supply negative terminal.
Figure 6.19: Test Circuit (1)
Turn off the power 7.

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Activities
8. True or False? Resistance can

be measured in a series because
a volt-ohm-milliammeter has
its own power source.
Figure 6.20: Test Circuit (2)
When the milliammeter is connected across the test diode,

provided the milliammeter has an impedance of less than 10
ohms, the loop current will then flow through the milliammeter
and not through the test diode.
Many transmitters manufactured have a test circuit built into 9. When a circuit cannot be
their design. The test circuit enables a direct current opened, what electrical
measurement to be taken in parallel with the diode. The circuit parameters are measured to
of the DVM allows the current to pass through the meter, calculate resistance?
ensuring quick and accurate readings of the 4-20 mA
transmitter output. Effectively, the signal can be measured
without opening the loop.
MEASURING RESISTANCE IN DC AND AC CIRCUITS

A volt-ohm-milliammeter measures resistance by comparing
current and voltage drop across a resistor or other components
that have a recognized current and resistance value within the
range of the volt-ohm-milliammeter. The volt-ohm-
milliammeter provides its own power source, usually an
internal battery, to create a small voltage and current source
through the lead wires. The power source is operational only
when you use a specific dial position and certain connectors.
You can see the effect of the power source by shorting the lead
wires together, which causes the needle to deflect to zero in an
analog volt-ohm-milliammeter and gives a nearly zero reading
in a digital volt-ohm-milliammeter. The slight resistance
reading is a result of the resistance of the lead wires
themselves. You will usually adjust the calibration of the
volt-ohm-milliammeter to read precisely 0 .
Current and voltage 9.
True 8.

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For an accurate resistance measurement, it may be necessary to Activities
open the circuit and measure in series, or out of circuit.
Because the volt-ohm-milliammeter has its own power source,
you can open the circuit (which disconnects the circuits power
source) to measure resistance in series.
When opening a circuit is not an option, use the

volt-ohm-milliammeter to measure the voltage across
the load. With a known current, follow Ohms Law,
Kirchoffs Laws, and the circuit rules to determine
resistance.
Figure 6.21 shows how to measure resistance in series.

g
Measured in
R series (out of
250.00
3.00 V circuit)

mV W
V mA
V A R
A m A COM VW
3V E
I
Polarity does not matter when
measuring in series
Figure 6.21: Measuring Resistance in DC and

AC Circuits
To Measure DC and AC Resistance in Series 10. Which two connections are used
for the black lead wire when
Follow these steps to measure resistance in DC and AC
measuring resistance in series?
circuits:
1. Connect the black lead wire to the COM connector and the
red lead wire to the volts/ohms connector.
2. Disconnect the resistor and attach the lead wires to the
either side of the resistor. Since the resistor is not
connected to the circuit, polarity does not matter.
resistor
10. The COM connector and one side of the

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3. If the meter is set to manual mode, you need to select the Activities
correct range. When the meter is set on auto-ranging
mode, it selects its own resistance range.
4. After a few seconds, the volt-ohm-milliammeter stabilizes
and offers an accurate resistance reading.
5. Use your knowledge of prefix shorthand to read the range 11. What two connections do you
of the volt-ohm-milliammeter (e.g., k is 1,000 ohms, use for the red lead wire when
M is 1,000,000 ohms). measuring resistance in a
series?
of the resistor
11. The volts/ohms connector and one side

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Instrumental Field Wiring

Activities
24 V DC POWER SUPPLY
The 24 V DC power supply could come from other sources,
such as:
T An analog input card in a DCS
T A programmable logical control (PLC)
T A separate power supply
Figure 6.22: 24 V DC Power Supply
The loop resistance must come from either:

T 250 ohms added to the loop
T An instrument or device with an internal resistance of at
least 250 ohms
INSTRUMENT LOOP
The meter could be used to measure the voltage drop across the
250 ohms resistor. When the transmitter is putting out zero
percent or 4 mA, the volt meter will read 1 volt. Using Ohms
Law:
E = I x R, or V = 250 x 0.004
In a typical loop, the 250 ohm resistor could represent a voltage
indicator, and the DVM would be the analog or digital display
of an indicator. The indicator would typically be scaled to show
0-100%, or other units meaningful to the plant.

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Instrumental Field Wiring

Activities
Figure 6.23: Instrument Loop
TYPICAL LOOP
The example in Figure 6.24 depicts a typical 4-20 mA loop
installed in a plant. Both the chart recorder and the loop
controller add resistance to the loop. It is important to note that
the power supply used for this loop must have enough current
(power) to power all instruments in the loop.
Figure 6.24: Typical 4-20 mA Loop

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Grounding Practices
Activities
Control loops may or may not be earth grounded to help 12. At what point should the control
eliminate electrical interference, or noise. Ground is the loop be earthed or grounded?
common return path for current in a circuit, usually a wire
connected from the circuit to the earth. To eliminate noise,
earth ground a control loop at the same point as the power
supply, as in Figure 6.25. The loop should be grounded at one
point, preferably at the negative side of the power supply.
Figure 6.25: Grounding a Control Loop
Figure 6.25 shows the typical grounding practices in a control

loop. In this control loop example, there is a 24 V power supply
(from which the loop is grounded), a transmitter, and two chart
recorders. A transmitter is a process control instrument that
converts measurement values into electrical signals to help
regulate process variables. A chart recorder is another process
control instrument that measures voltage drops and can control
voltage within a loop.
supply
12. From the negative side of the power

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Electrical Requirements in Control Loops

Activities
To determine which process control instruments, namely 13. Why is it important to
transmitters, will have the greatest impact on the performance understand the transmitters
of process control loops, you need to understand the physical, electrical requirement?
functional, and performance specifications of each transmitter.
The manufacturer typically provides a product data sheet
(PDS) that lists these specifications for each transmitter it sells.
This section focuses on the electrical requirements of

transmitters. Refer to Module 5: Specifications for information
on the physical, functional, and performance specifications of
transmitters.
Essentially, a transmitter is a device that converts a
measurement value from a process control instrument (e.g., a
temperature sensor) into an electrical signal and sends the
signal to another instrument (e.g., a controller device), which
performs a certain task (e.g., turns on a heater coil) based on
the value of the transmitters signal.
control loop environment.

transmitter to recommend, based on a
transmitter help determine which
13. The electrical requirements of a

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MEASUREMENT PROTOCOL Activities
When a technician installs a transmitter, he or she sets a 14. True or False? The standard
specific value range for a customers measurement needs (e.g., measurement protocols for
40 C to 60 C, 10002000 gallons). Span is the difference transmitters are 0-20 mA and
between the lower range value (LRV) and upper range value 0-5 V.
(URV) of the transmitter. The transmitter measures a variable
within its span and converts the variable measurement to an
electrical signal. The transmitter uses a measurement protocol
when it sends a signal output.
Transmitters use the 420 mA and 15 V measurement 15. If the operating level range of a
protocols most often. The transmitters measurement protocol holding tank is 1000 to 2000
determines the type of electrical signal the transmitter outputs gallons, the signal output that a
(i.e., amperes or volts). The transmitters signal output 1-5 V transmitter would provide
typically instructs another process control instrument to at 1000 gallons would be ___ V
regulate the process variable. and at 2000 gallons would be
___ V.
The transmitter could be considered a current source. As the
output of the transmitter changes, the current in the loop also
changes, for example, from 4 mA to 20 mA.
SUPPLY AND MINIMUM VOLTAGE 16. What is the average minimum

voltage requirement for
Supply voltage is the voltage value of the power supply in a transmitters?
control loop. Minimum voltage is the amount of voltage a
transmitter requires to operate properly. On average,
transmitters require a 12 V DC minimum voltage, which must
always be present at the transmitter terminal block, measured
from the positive (+) and negative () signal connections. The
PDS for each transmitter model lists the minimum DC voltage
requirements for that model.
As you recall, Ohms Law dictates how electrical parameters 17. Define supply voltage.
behave in relation to each other (i.e., I = E / R). Thus, as a 420
mA transmitters output signal (current) increases, the voltage
available for the transmitter decreases, because the voltage
drops increase across all other resistive components in the loop.
For example, if a transmitter outputs 4 mA in a loop with a
250 resistor, the voltage drop across the resistor is 1 V
(4 mA, or 0.004 A, 250 = 1 V). If the supply voltage is 24 in a control loop
V, the transmitter has 23 V with which to operate. If the The voltage value of the power supply 17.
transmitters output increases to 20 mA, the voltage drop 12 V DC 16.
across the resistor is 5 V (20 mA, or 0.020 A, 250 = 5 V), 1 V; 5 V 15.
leaving 19 V for the transmitter. False 14.

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Assume the loop has 1000 of resistance. At 4 mA, the Activities
voltage drop is 4 V, leaving 20 V for the transmitter. If the
transmitter needs to increase its output to 20 mA, the voltage 18. Define minimum voltage.
drop is 20 V, leaving only 4 V for the transmitter. If the
minimum voltage requirement for the transmitter is 12 V, the
transmitter will not operate.
Before you select a specific transmitter model, you

must ensure that, under all conditions, there is
always enough voltage for the transmitter to operate.
The transmitter could be considered a current source. As the 19. Define load consideration.
output of the transmitter changes, the current in the loop
changes, for example, from 4 mA to 20 mA.
LOAD CONSIDERATION AND LOAD LIMIT

Load consideration is the amount of resistance of all
instruments present in a control loop. Several instruments and
components may be connected to a loop (e.g., chart recorders,
transmitter wires), all of which have resistance values that must
be taken into consideration to determine the load of the entire
loop.
Load limit is a transmitter specification that indicates the 20. Define load limit.
greatest amount of resistance that can be present in a loop
while still allowing the transmitter to function properly. To
calculate load limit:
1. Determine the transmitters multiplier, found on the
transmitters PDS
2. Multiply that value (supply voltage minimum voltage)
Refer to a transmitters PDS to find the minimum voltage for
that transmitter.
function properly
loop that still allows a resistor to
20. The greatest amount of resistance in a
components present in a control loop
19. The amount of resistance of all
control loop
requires to operate properly within a
18. The amount of voltage a transmitter

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Ensure Adequate Current Activities
Once you calculate the load limit, use Ohms Law (I = E / R) to
determine if there is enough current left in the loop for a
transmitter to function at its maximum draw.
For example, a loop with a 24 V power supply has a 420 mA
transmitter with a PDS multiplier of 32.5 and a 12 V minimum
requirement. The load limit is 390 (32.5 [24 12] = 390).
To determine whether the transmitter can function properly at
its maximum draw, use Ohms Law to find the current left in
the circuit (24 V / 390 = 0.062 A, or 62 mA). The transmitter
will function properly at its maximum draw (20 mA).
Examine Load Consideration

Be sure to also consider the resistance values of any other
instruments and components in the loop (e.g., wires, chart
recorders, resistors) to ensure their equivalent resistance is less
than the load limit.
If the same loop in the example above has a load consideration
of 40 (the sum of all the resistance values in the loop), then
the same transmitter would still function properly because
there is only 40 out of an allowable 390 used.

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Figure 6.26 shows an example of a load limit chart for a Activities
specific transmitter. A load limit chart appears on a
transmitters PDS and is a graphical representation of the load
limit equation. As shown in the example, if the transmitter
connects to a loop with a 250 load limit, the power supply
required for the loop is 16 V.
21. Referring toFigure 6.26, state
1500 the power supply requirement
for a transmitter connected to a
loop with a 500 ohm limit.
1000
Load (ohms)
500 Operating
region
250
0
10.8 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Power supply (volts)
Figure 6.26: Load Limit Chart
21. 22 V

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Types of Control Loops

There are two types of control loops that differ based on the Activities
number of transmitters operating from the power supply in the
loop:
T Individual-powered loops
T System-powered loops
Analog signal output

Digital signal output
INDIVIDUAL-POWERED LOOPS
In an individual-powered loop, each transmitter requires its 22. True or False? In an
own power supply. Figure 6.27 is an example of two different individual-powered loop, a
individual-powered loops. transmitter has one power
source.
The upper drawing in Figure 6.27 shows an
individual-powered loop with several process control
instruments using the same power supply. As you recall, to
determine if a transmitter will function in a specific loop, you
must take into consideration the supply voltage, minimum
voltage, load limit, and current draw in the loop.
The lower drawing in Figure 6.27 shows an
individual-powered loop with only a transmitter attached and
no other instruments using the transmitters power supply.
vidual Powered Loops/Analog
Z S
+ -
COMM TEST
FIELD
TERMINALS
Z S
+ -
COMM TEST
FIELD
TERMINALS
Figure 6.27: An Individual-Powered Loop 22. True

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SYSTEM-POWERED LOOPSANALOG SIGNAL Activities
OUTPUT
In a system-powered loop with an electrical, or analog, signal 23. Each transmitter in a
output, more than one transmitter operates from the same system-powered loop with an
power supply. Each transmitter in the loop has its own current analog signal output carries its
draw. The power supply in a system-powered loop must be able own __________________.
to handle all of the transmitter current draws at full capacity.
For example, in a system-powered loop with four transmitters
drawing 22 mA each, the power supply must handle a
minimum of 88 mA (22 mA 4 = 88 mA).
Figure 6.28 shows an example of a system-powered loop with 24. Would a power supply that
an analog signal output. In Figure 6.28, each interface card in handles a maximum of 90 mA
the distributed control system (DCS) draws on the power be able to support three
supply (PS) to provide electricity to each transmitter. Each 4-20 mA transmitters all
transmitter uses the electricity to send a measurement signal to operating at maximum draw?
its interface card, which in turn relays the signal to other Explain why or why not.
instruments in the control loop to effect a change.
stem Powered Loops/Analog

Z S
+
COMM
-
TEST
Interface FIC PS
cards
FIELD
TERMINALS
Z S
+
COMM
-
TEST FIC
FIELD
TERMINALS
Z S
+
COMM
-
TEST FIC
FIELD
TERMINALS
Z S
-
+
FIC
DCS
COMM TEST
FIELD
TERMINALS
Figure 6.28: A System-Powered Loop with an

Analog Signal Output
90 mA
the power supply handles a maximum of
24. Yes, because 20 mA x 3 = 60 mA, and
23. Current draw

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SYSTEM-POWERED LOOPSDIGITAL SIGNAL OUTPUT Activities
The transmitters in a system-powered loop with a digital signal
output operate differently than in any other loop. In a
system-powered loop with a digital signal output, the
transmitters analog signals are fixed at their lowest signal
value (4 mA), so none of the transmitters will actually raise or
lower the current in the loop. The transmitters use HART
communication, a digital signal language, to relay process
variable measurements. HART communication overlays digital
signals onto the transmitters standard 420 mA signal output
to communicate measurements.
Figure 6.29 shows an example of a system-powered loop with 25. A 4-20 mA transmitter signal in
a digital signal output. The smart card in the DCS in the figure a system-powered loop with a
uses the power supply (PS) to query each transmitter and digital signal output is fixed at a
determine its process variable measurement. When the value of ______ mA.
transmitter identifies the query as a valid HART message, the
transmitter replies with the process variable measurement.
Refer to Module 8: Communication Technologies for more
information about HART communication.
Z S
+ -
Smart
COMM TEST
PS
FIELD
FIC
TERMINALS
Smart card
Z S
+ -
COMM TEST
FIELD
TERMINALS
Z S
+ -
COMM TEST
FIELD
TERMINALS
Z S
+ -
DCS
COMM TEST
FIELD
TERMINALS
Figure 6.29: A System-Powered Loop with a 25. 4 mA

Digital Signal Output

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Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
Note: All exercise answers are located at the end of this module.
EXERCISE 6.1ELECTRICITY IN PROCESS CONTROL

1. What is the role of electricity in the following scenario? (Select all that apply.)
To create a popular beverage, it is essential to get the exact mix of ingredients at the processing
plant. This involves measuring exact levels of holding tanks and ingredient containers.
Concurrently, the process control loop should be developed and maintained to give precise control
and measurements.
a) Powers the process control instruments used to ensure seamless operation in the control loop.
b) Forms the signals that measure and regulate the ingredient flow and holding tank levels.
c) It is a medium commonly used to actuate a control valve or the final control element.
d) Ensures that there is no variance in the taste of the beverages flavor.

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 6.2BASIC ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS
1. Match each electrical parameter to its correct unit of measure.
___ Current a) Ohms

___ Resistance b) Watts
___ Voltage c) Volts
___ Power d) Amperes
2. Match each symbol or unit of measure to its description.
___ E a) Unit of measure for resistance

___ V b) Symbol for current
___ W c) Unit of measure for voltage
___ I d) Unit of measure for power
___ e) Symbol for voltage
3. What is the force that causes electrons to flow through a conductor called?
a) Resistance
b) Voltage
c) Power
4. Which of the following statements about resistance in a conductor is true?
a) The greater the mass of the conductor, the higher its resistance.
b) Resistance depends on the conductors length, area, and resisivity.
c) Resistance depends on the amount of time the current takes to flow through a conductor.
d) Resistance increases in proportion to the decrease in the conductors temperature.

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 6.3OHMS LAW
1. Ohms Law states that the current in a circuit is ________________ proportional to the voltage.
a) Directly
b) Indirectly
c) Inversely
2. Match each Ohms Law equation to the correct calculation statement.
___ I = E / R a) Calculate the ohms in a circuit with a 12-volt battery and 8 amperes.
___ E = I x R b) Calculate the amperes in a circuit with a 9-volt source and 5 ohms
___ R = E / I c) Calculate the volts in a circuit with 16 amperes and 3 ohms.
3. What is the current value for the circuit displayed below?
a) 0.358 A
b) 2.79 A
c) 35.8 A
d) 358 mA
e) 3580 mA

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
4. What are the resistance values for the circuit displayed below? (Select all that apply.)
a) 12,000
b) 30,000
c) 800 k
d) 30 k
e) 12 k
5. What is the voltage value for the circuit displayed below?
a) 34 V
b) 1.88 V
c) 0.53 V
d) 12.25 V

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 6.4CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
1. Match each circuit component to its function.
___ Resistor a) Stores energy and does not allow immediate voltage change
___ Capacitor b) Opposes current
___ Inductor c) Does not allow immediate current change
2. Which of the following functions are attributes of a capacitor? (Select all that apply.)
a) Protects circuits from voltage surges

b) Acts as a circuit breaker in the absence of a fuse
c) Acts as a current barrier
d) Tunes radio circuits
e) Stores memory in computer chips

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 6.5DC AND AC ELECTRICITY
1. If E1 = 100 V, E2 = 200 V, and I = 25 A, what is the value of R in the diagram below if the
switch (S) is in position A?
a) 12
b) 8
c) 4
d) 2
2. Referring again to the above diagram, if E1 = 250 V, E2 = 225 V, and R = 50 , what is the value of
I if the switch is in position B?
a) 5 A
b) 4.5 A
c) 9 A
d) 10 A

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 6.6BASIC CIRCUIT DEFINITIONS
1. If a parallel circuit has four branches, four unequal resistors, and one voltage source, the rate of
current in each of the branches is not the same.
a) True
b) False
2. Which of the following statements about the relationship between a series circuit and current is
true?
a) Current running through a resistor flows at the same rate as the current running through the
voltage source.
b) Current running through a resistor flows at a slightly slower rate than the current running
through the voltage source.
c) Current running through a resistor increases as it moves away from the voltage source.
d) Current running through a resistor decreases as it moves away from the voltage source.
3. In the diagram below, if R1 = 60 , R2 = 100 , and R3 = 100 , what is the equivalent resistance
(Req) in the circuit?
a) Req = 55
b) Req = 86.66
c) Req = 110
d) Req = 260

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
4. In the diagram below, if R1 = 6 , R2 = 40 , and R3 = 35 , what is the equivalent resistance (Req)
rounded to the nearest hundredth?
a) Req = 15.54
b) Req = 24.67
c) Req = 25.52
d) Req = 27.00
5. Again referencing the above diagram, If I1 = 30 A and 12 = 15 A, what is the (IT) in the circuit?
a) 15 A
b) 22.50 A
c) 45 A
d) 450 A

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 6.7LAWS AND ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
1. If 10 A enters a junction in a parallel circuit, then 10 A will exit the same junction. Which law
supports this statement?
a) Ohms Law
b) Kirchoffs Current Law
c) Newtons Law of Parallel Circuits
d) Kirchoffs Voltage Law
2. According to Kirchoffs Voltage Law, if E1 = 9 V, E2 = 6 V, and E3 = 12 V, what is the applied

voltage?
a) 9 V
b) 27 V
c) 30 V
d) 81 V
3. In a circuit with only two resistors where E1 = 2 V in a series circuit connected to a 9 V battery,
what is the voltage drop of V2?
a) 7 V
b) 9 V
c) 11 V
d) 18 V
4. What does the power source read for the resistance value in a series circuit if R1 = 16 , R2 = 10 ,
and R3 = 18 ?
a) 12
b) 14.66
c) 44
d) 132

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
5. What is the amount of voltage carried across I2 in a 9 V parallel circuit if I1 = 25 A?
a) 9 V
b) 17 V
c) 25 V
d) 34 V
6. What is the Req if a parallel circuit connected to a 12 V source has an IT of 2.5 A?
a) 4.8
b) 12
c) 14.5
d) 30
7. What is the Req if R1, R2, and R3 are parallel in a series-parallel circuit, all carry 15 , and R4 =
8.25 ?
a) 3.25
b) 12
c) 13.25
d) 53.25

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 6.8MEASURING CONTROL LOOPS
1. In the figure below, select the dial position and connectors used to measure thousandths of amperes
in a circuit.
a) ; and A with COM

b) MA and mAA with COM
c) A; and A with mAA
d) MV; and mAA with COM
2. What is the dial position and connectors used to measure voltage in an AC circuit in the figure
above?
a) ; and A with COM

b) A; and A with mAA
c) V; and v+ with COM
d) mV; and mAA with COM
3. What is the correct way to attach the COM connector to a DC circuit when measuring voltage?
a) Connect the negative wire from the COM connector to the positive side of the circuit
component.
b) Connect the negative wire from the COM connector to the v+.
c) Connect the positive wire from the COM connector to the v+.
d) Connect the negative wire from the COM connector to the negative side of the circuit
component.

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
4. When measuring voltage in AC circuits, always connect the black lead wire from the COM
connector to the ___________ on the circuit.
a) Positive
b) Negative
c) Ground
5. Match the correct VOM connector with the measurement values. (There may be more than one
value for a connector.)
___ COM connector and A connector a) 40 mA

___ COM connector and mA/A connector b) 1000
___ COM connector and Volts/ohms connector c) 16 V
d) 65 A
6. Disconnect the resistor from loop power and connect the volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) in series
with the resistor to accurately measure the resistance.
a) True
b) False
7. A volt-ohm-milliammeter (VOM) measures resistance by comparing which of the following

parameters across a resistor?
a) Current
b) Voltage
c) Current and voltage
8. How should the COM connector be attached when measuring resistance in a DC or AC circuit?
a) Connect the positive wire from the COM connector to either side of the resistor.
b) Connect the negative wire from the COM connector to either side of the resistor.
c) Connect the negative wire from the COM connector to the negative side of the resistor.
d) Connect the negative wire from the COM connector to the positive side of the resistor.

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
9. What is the resistance value of a parallel circuit if IT = 40 A, E1 = 6 V, E2 = 5 V, and E3 = 7.5 V,
assuming you are unable to measure resistance in series? (Select all that apply.)
a) 0.4615
b) 0.4625
c) 58.5 m
d) 462.5 m
e) 740 m
10. Which of the following must you avoid when measuring current in a circuit in order to protect the
circuit and the current meter or Ammeter?
a) Connect a current meter or Ammeter across the test terminals.

b) Connect a current meter or Ammeter across the power terminals.
c) Connect the current meter or Ammeter in series in the loop.

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 6.9ELECTRICAL REQUIREMENTS IN CONTROL LOOPS
1. A transmitter converts an electrical signal from a sensing element into a ___________ signal and
sends the signal to a controller to perform a ____________.
Answer 1 Answer 2
a) Binary a) Series measurement
b) Multiple b) Certain control action
c) Standard c) Physical actuation of a control valve
2. Which of the following set of symbols represents the units of measurement commonly used for the
standard measurement protocols?
a) mA and V
b) A and V
c) A and
d) m and V
3. If a technician calibrates a 420 mA transmitter to measure pressures between 100 psi and 200 psi,
the signal output that the transmitter provides at 150 psi is _________ and at 175 psi the signal
output is __________.
Answer 1 Answer 2
a) 4 mA a) 6 mA
b) 12 mA b) 9 mA
c) 24 mA c) 16 mA
4. Match each electrical requirement to its definition.
___ Supply voltage a) Amount of milliamperes a transmitter uses

___ Load consideration b) Greatest number of ohms in a loop that allows a
transmitter to operate properly
___ Minimum voltage c) Voltage value of the power supply in a loop
___ Load limit d) Number of volts that must be present at a transmitters
terminal block at no-load condition
___ Current draw e) Total resistance of all components present in a loop

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
5. According to Ohms Law, as a transmitters output signal increases, the voltage available for the
transmitter in the loop _____________.
a) Decreases
b) Is unaffected
c) Increases
6. A customer needs to measure the temperature of the liquid in a holding tank within a 50 C to
100 C range. The supply voltage in the customers control loop is 16 V. The loop has a 500 load
consideration. Why would you or would you not recommend a 420 mA transmitter with a 12 V
minimum voltage requirement to this customer?
a) Would not recommend, because at maximum draw the transmitter sends a 20 mA signal.
b) Would not recommend, because at 20 mA the voltage drop across the load is 10 V.
c) Would recommend because the supply voltage in the control loop is 16 V, which is well above
the transmitters 12 V minimum requirement.
d) Would not recommend, because the transmitter will fail to operateit has 6 V with which to
function and a 12 V minimum voltage requirement.
e) Would recommend, because at maximum draw the transmitter does send a 20 mA signal.
7. Use the Model 3051 CD0 product data sheet (PDS) on the following page to fill in the blanks
below.
The transmitter data that allows you to calculate the load limit in a control loop includes the
minimum voltage requirement that is given as __________ and the transmitter multiplier that read
as _______.
Answer 1 Answer 2
a) 1 V dc a) 10.5
b) 100 V dc b) 43.5
c) 10.5 V dc c) 55

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
8. A customers control loop has a 24 V power supply. What is the load limit if a Model 3051 CD0
transmitter with a transmitter multiplier value of 43.5 and a minimum voltage requirement of
10.5 V is connected to the loop? (The PDS is shown on the previous page)
a) 9
b) 78
c) 587
d) 1500

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
EXERCISE 6.10TYPES OF CONTROL LOOPS
1. What is the difference between an individual-powered loop and a system-powered loop with an
analog signal output in terms of transmitter power supply requirements? (Select all that apply.)
a) In an individual-powered loop, each transmitter has its own power supply.

b) In an individual-powered loop, the power supply from one transmitter is shared by other
transmitters.
c) In a system-powered loop with an analog signal output, each transmitter operates with its
independent power supply.
d) In a system-powered loop with an analog signal output, more than one transmitter operates from
the same power supply.
2. In a system-powered loop with an analog signal output, would a power supply carrying a
maximum of 75 mA be able to handle four 420 mA transmitters operating at maximum draw?
a) Yes, because 420 mA = 16 x 4 = 64 mA.

b) Yes, because 20 (4 x 4) = 4 mA.
c) No, because 4(20 mA) x 4 = 320 mA.
d) No, because 20 mA x 4 = 80 mA.
3. In a system-powered loop with a digital output signal, the transmitter signals are __________ in
the loop. The transmitters use _________ communication to relay process control measurements.
Answer 1 Answer 2
a) Fixed at 20 mA a) HART
b) Fixed at 4 mA b) MORSE
c) Floating between 420 mA c) GPRS

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Exercises
Workbook Exercises
4. HART communication _____________ each transmitter to determine its process variable
measurement. When the transmitter identifies the query as a valid HART message, the transmitter
sends the variable measurement to a ______________.
Answer 1 Answer 2
a) Queries a) Swipe card
b) Informs b) Smart card
c) Instructs c) Decoder

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Answers
Workbook Answers
Exercise 6.1Electricity in Process Control
1. a, b
Exercise 6.2Basic Electrical Parameters
1. Match each electrical parameter to its correct unit of measure.

d Current
___ a) Ohms
a Resistance
___ b) Watts
c Voltage
___ c) Volts
b
___ Power d) Amperes
2. Match each symbol or unit of measure to its description.
e E
___ a) Unit of measure for resistance
c V
___ b) Symbol for current
d W
___ c) Unit of measure for voltage
b I
___ d) Unit of measure for power
a
___ e) Symbol for voltage
3. b
4. b
Exercise 6.3Ohms Law

1. a
2. Match each Ohms Law equation to the correct calculation statement.
b I=E/R
___ a) Calculate the ohms in a circuit with a 12-volt battery and 8 amperes.
c E=IxR
___ b) Calculate the amperes in a circuit with a 9-volt source and 5 ohms
a R=E/I
___ c) Calculate the volts in a circuit with 16 amperes and 3 ohms.
3. a, d
4. b, d
5. a

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Answers
Workbook Answers
Exercise 6.4Circuit Components
1. Match each circuit component to its function.
b Resistor
___ a) Stores energy and does not allow immediate voltage change
a Capacitor
___ b) Opposes current
c Inductor
___ c) Does not allow immediate current change
2. a, c, d, e
Exercise 6.5DC and AC Electricity

1. c
2. b
Exercise 6.6Basic Circuit Definitions

1. a
2. a
3. c
4. b
5. c
Exercise 6.7Laws and Electrical Circuits

1. b
2. b
3. a
4. c
5. a
6. a
7. c

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Answers
Workbook Answers
Exercise 6.8Measuring Control Loops
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. b
5. Match the correct VOM connector with the measurement values. (There may be more than one
value for a connector.)
d COM connector and A connector

___ a) 40 mA
a COM connector and mA/A connector
___ b) 1000
b,
___c COM connector and Volts/ohms connector c) 16 V
d) 65 A
6. a
7. c
8. b
9. b, d
10. b
Exercise 6.9Electrical Requirements in Control Loops

1. c, b
2. a
3. b, c
4. Match each electrical requirement to its definition.
c Supply voltage
___ a) Amount of milliamperes a transmitter uses
e Load consideration
___ b) Greatest number of ohms in a loop that allows a
transmitter to operate properly
d Minimum voltage
___ c) Voltage value of the power supply in a loop
b Load limit
___ d) Number of volts that must be present at a transmitters
terminal block at no-load condition
a Current draw
___ e) Total resistance of all components present in a loop

2009 Rosemount Inc.
Workbook Answers
Workbook Answers
5. a
6. a, b, d
7. c, b
8. c
Exercise 6.10Types of Control Loops

1. a, d
2. d
3. b, a
4. a, b

2009 Rosemount Inc.
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00826-0100-0007, 07/09

Process Control Fundamentals

Electricity in Process Control ......................................................................................................................... 3

Basic Electrical Forces ................................................................................................................................... 5

How Circuits Work ....................................................................................................................................... 13

Electricity Fundamentals Page 3

Process Control Loops .................................................................................................................................. 27

Page 4 Electricity Fundamentals

Electricity Fundamentals Page 5

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 1

Electricity in Process Control

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 3

The Importance of Electricity

ELECTRICITY IN PROCESS CONTROL

SIGNALS AND TRANSMITTERS

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 6.1 ON PAGE 49

Page 4 Fundamentals of Electricity

Basic Electrical Forces

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 5

Basic Electrical Parameters

Table 5.1 shows each parameter, its symbol, its unit of

Parameter (Symbol) Unit of Measure (Symbol)

Table 5.1: Electrical Parameters, Symbols, and Units of

Page 6 Fundamentals of Electricity

Basic Electrical Parameters

An ampere and a watt 1.

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 7

Basic Electrical Parameters

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 6.2 ON PAGE 50

Page 8 Electricity Module

Figure 6.1: Relationship Between Voltage,

HOW TO USE OHMS LAW

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 9

P (Power) = V (Voltage) x I (Current)

1. To find power (P) when you know voltage and current,

2. If you have a voltage of 100 volts measured across a

Analog and digital measuring devices use prefix

Page 10 Electricity Module

Prefix Symbol Mathematical Equivalent

Table 6.2: Prefix Shorthand

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 6.3 ON PAGE 51

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 11

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 12

How Circuits Work

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 13

Figure 6.2: Current Leading Voltage

Page 14 Fundamentals of Electricity

Figure 6.3: Voltage Leading Current

current change in a circuit

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 6.4 ON PAGE 53

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 15

Figure 6.4: DC and AC Voltage

Page 16 Fundamentals of Electricity

COMPLETE WORKBOOK EXERCISE 6.5 ON PAGE 54

Fundamentals of Electricity Page 17

Basic Circuit Definitions

Figure 6.6: Series Circuit with DC and Electron

Figure 6.7: Parallel Circuit with DC and

Page 18 Fundamentals of Electricity

Basic Circuit Definitions

Figure 6.8: Series-Parallel Circuit with DC

Measuring Total Current

Figure 6.9 on page 20 shows how to calculate IT in a circuit.