WAT E R Q U A L I T Y

Color
Pure water should not possess any color.
Most water available to us is colored to some extent due to the presence of various impurities (i.e.,
iron and manganese in association with organic matter from decaying vegetation).
Impurities may be in the colloidal form in water or it may be in suspended state.
Color caused by dissolved and colloidal form of impurities is called true color and that caused by
suspended matter, in addition to dissolved and colloidal matters, is called apparent color.
Ground water may show color due to the presence of iron compound.
Color intensity generally increases with an increase in pH. For this reason recording pH along with
color is advised.

Unit
Color is usually expressed in platinum-cobalt units (Pt-Co Units) which is based on the intensity of
color produced by a solution of Platinum and Cobalt salts that approximate the yellow-brown color of
natural waters.
For easier comparison color discs are prepared to represent various units of color. The sample is
compared with the color discs and the color is determined.

Limit
According to Bangladesh Environment Preservation Act (1997), drinking water standard for color is
15 units.

Environmental Significance
Colored water is not always harmful to man, but in most cases it is.
Even if the water is not harmful, it is not preferred by people for aesthetic reasons.
Also, disinfection by chlorination of waters containing natural organics (which produces color)
results in the formation of chloroform, other trihalomethanes, and a range of other chlorinated
organics, leading to problems which is a major concern in water treatment.
So it is important to limit the color of water for domestic supplies.

pH

pH is a measure of the acid or alkaline condition of water.

It is a way of expressing the hydrogen ion concentration, or more preciously, the hydrogen ion
activity.
pH is defined as follows:

pH = -log [H+] (1)

Where, [H+] is the concentration (or activity) of hydrogen ion (or proton) in moles per liter (M).
Water dissociates to form hydrogen ion (H+) and hydroxyl ion (OH-) according to the following
equation:

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
 H2O=H+ + OH- (2)

At equilibrium, we can write,

= [H+][OH-]/ [H20] (3)

But, since concentration of water is extremely large (approximately 55.5 mol/L) and is diminished very
little by the slight degree of ionization, it may be considered as a constant and its activity is taken as 1.0.
Thus, Eq. 3 may be written as:

Kw = [H+][OH-] (4)
Where K w = Equilibrium Constant

For pure water at 25 C, 1Kw = 107 107 1014 . This is known as the ion product of water or
ionization constant for water. In other words, water (dc-ionized or distilled water) at 25 0C
dissociates to yield 10-7 mol/L of hydrogen ion (H+) and 10-7 mol/L of hydroxyl ion (OH -). Hence,
according to Eq. 1, pH of deionized water is equal to 7.0.
The pH is usually represented by a scale ranging from zero to 14 with 7 being neutral.
Most natural waters are slightly alkaline due to the presence of bicarbonate and less often carbonate.
Water with pH outside the desirable neutral range may exhibit sour tastes and accelerate the corrosion
of metallic plumbing fittings and hot water services.
Aeration removes carbon dioxide and hence causes a rise in pH value.

Limit
According to WHO & Bangladesh Environment Preservation Act (1997), drinking water standard for
pH is 6.5 - 8.5.

Environmental Significance
A controlled value of pH is desired in water supplies, sewage treatment and chemical process plants.
In water supply pH is important for coagulation, disinfection, water softening and corrosion control.
In biological treatment of waste pH is the most significant. Organisms involved in treatment plants
are operative within certain pH range.

Turbidity
Turbidity is defined by the International Standards Organization (ISO) as the reduction of
transparency of a liquid caused by the presence of undissolved matter.
Turbidity can be interpreted as a measure of the relative clarity of water and often indicates the
presence of dispersed, suspended solids; particles not in true solution such as silt, clay, algae and
other microorganisms; organic matter and other minute particles.
Turbidity is the phenomena where by a specific portion of a light beam passing through a liquid
medium is deflected from undissolved particles.
The diffusion of light caused by undissolved particles in the medium to a lesser or greater degree of
the deflection depends on:
the type of the particles (absorbance)

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
 the size of particles
the concentration (the number of particles)
the type and shape of particles
the wavelength of the light
the angle of measurement
Unit
Nephelometric Turbidity Unit
The propensity of particles to scatter a light beam focused on them is now considered a more
meaningful measure of turbidity in water. Turbidity measured this way uses an instrument called
a nephelometer with the detector set up to the side of the light beam. More light reaches the detector if
there are lots of small particles scattering the source beam than if there are few. The units of turbidity
from a calibrated nephelometer are called Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). To some extent, how
much light reflects for a given amount of particulates is dependent upon properties of the particles like
their shape, color, and reflectivity. For this reason (and the reason that heavier particles settle quickly
and do not contribute to a turbidity reading), a correlation between turbidity and total suspended
solids (TSS) is somewhat unique for each location or situation.

Jackson Turbidity Unit:

There are several practical ways of checking water quality, the most direct being some measure
of attenuation (that is, reduction in strength) of light as it passes through a sample column of water. The
alternatively used Jackson Candle method (units: Jackson Turbidity Unit or JTU) is essentially the
inverse measure of the length of a column of water needed to completely obscure a candle flame viewed
through it. The more water needed (the longer the water column), the clearer the water. Of course water
alone produces some attenuation, and any substances dissolved in the water that produce color can
attenuate some wavelengths. Modern instruments do not use candles, but this approach of attenuation of
a light beam through a column of water should be calibrated and reported in JTUs.
Limit
According to BDS:
According to WHO:

Environmental Significance

Excessive turbidity, or cloudiness, in potable water is aesthetically unappealing, and may also
represent a health concern.
Turbidity can provide food and shelter for pathogens. If not removed, turbidity can promote re
growth of pathogens in water distribution systems, leading to waterborne disease out-breaks, which
have caused signi cant cases of gastroenteritis throughout the world.
Suspended solids (the particles of turbidity) provide shelter" for microbes by reducing their exposure
to disinfectants.
Further, waters with high turbidity from organic sources may give rise to a substantial chlorine
demand.

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
 This could result in reductions in the free chlorine residual in distribution systems as protection
against possible recontamination.

Alkalinity

Alkalinity is a measure of the acid-neutralizing capacity of water.

It is an aggregate measure of the sum of all titratable bases in the sample.
Alkalinity in most natural waters is due to the presence of carbonate (CO32-), bicarbonate (HCO3),
and hydroxyl (OH-) anions.
However, borates, phosphates, silicates, and other bases also contribute to alkalinity if present.
This property is important when determining the suitability of water for irrigation and/or mixing
some pesticides and when interpreting and controlling wastewater treatment processes.
Alkalinity is usually reported as equivalents of calcium carbonate (CaCO3).

Hardness

Hardness is most commonly associated with the ability of water to precipitate soap.
As hardness increases, more soap is needed to achieve the same level of cleaning due to the
interactions of the hardness ions with the soap.
Chemically, hardness is often defined as the sum of polyvalent cation concentrations dissolved in the
water. The most common polyvalent cations in fresh water are calcium (Ca++) and magnesium
(Mg++).
Hardness is usually divided into two categories: carbonate hardness and noncarbonate hardness.
Carbonate hardness is usually due to the presence of bicarbonate [Ca(HCO3)2 and Mg(HCO3)2]
and carbonate (CaCO3 and MgCO3) salts.
Non-carbonate hardness is contributed by salts such as calcium chloride (CaCl2), magnesium
sulfate (MgSO4), and magnesium chloride (MgCl2).
Total hardness equals the sum of carbonate and non-carbonate hardness. In addition to Ca++ and
Mg++, iron (Fe++), strontium (Sr++), and manganese (Mn++) may also contribute to hardness (APHA
et al. 1998).

Table . Principal cations causing hardness and the major anions associated with them

Cations causing Anion

Hardness
Ca2+ HCO3-
Mg2+ SO42-
Sr2+ Cl-
Fe2+ NO3-
Mn2+ SiO32-

However, the contribution of these ions is usually negligible.

Hardness is usually reported as equivalents of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) and is generally classified
as soft, moderately hard, hard, and very hard.

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
 Table: Water hardness classifications (reported as CaCO3 equivalents) used by the U.S. EPA
(EPA 1986).

Soft <75
Moderately hard 75150
Hard 150300
Very hard >300

It is best to report results as the actual equivalents of CaCO3 since the inclusive limits for each
category may differ between users of the information.
Pseudo-Hardness
Sea, brackish, and other waters that contain appreciable amounts of Na+ interfere with the normal
behavior of soap because of the common ion effect. Sodium is not a hardness-causing cation, and so
this action which it exhibits when present in water in high concentration is termed pseudo-hardness.

Significance of Hardness

Hardness can also affect the utility of water for industrial purposes. Hard water is often the source of
scale formed in hot water heaters and industrial systems where water is heated. This scale results from
the precipitation of calcium carbonate, which becomes less water soluble as the temperature increases
(Snoeyink and Jenkins 1980). In these situations, water is usually softened by precipitating the CaCO 3 or
by using ion exchange softening methods.

Sources of Alkalinity and Hardness

Water alkalinity and hardness are primarily a function of

1) The geology of the area where the surface water is located; and

2) The dissolution of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.

The ions responsible for alkalinity and hardness originate from the dissolution of geological minerals
into rain and ground water.
Rainwater is naturally acidic, which tends to solubilize some minerals more easily.
Surface and ground water sources in areas with limestone formations are especially likely to have
high hardness and alkalinity due to the dissolution of bicarbonates and carbonates.

Chemical Action:

The interaction of CO2 with the dissolved minerals is described by the carbonate system.
The carbonate system describes a series of chemical equilibrium with CO2(g) in the atmosphere and
various bicarbonates and carbonates dissolved from surrounding mineral deposits. CO2(g) readily
dissolves in water (Eq. 1).
The dissolved CO2(aq)reacts with water molecules to form carbonic acid (H2CO3*), which is very
unstable and quickly dissociates, yielding H+ and a bicarbonate ion (HCO3-) (Eq. 2 and 3).

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
 At pH = 6.3, the amount of CO2 dissolved in water equals the amount of bicarbonate ion (HCO3-).
Dissolved CO2 is dominant when pH < 6.3.
At higher pH, the HCO3-dissociates to yield H+ and a carbonate ion (CO32-) (Eq. 4).

CO2(g)CO2(aq) Eq. 1

CO2(aq) + H2OH2CO3* Eq. 2

H2CO3*H+ + HCO3- pKa= 6.3 Eq. 3

HCO3-H++ CO3= pKa= 10.3 Eq. 4

At pH 10.3, the bicarbonate ion concentration equals the carbonate ion concentration.
CO32- is dominant at pH > 10.3, and HCO3- dominates between pH 6.3 and 10.3.
The pH of most natural waters falls in the 6 to 9 range because of the bicarbonate buffering.

Alkalinity and Hardness Relationship

Alkalinity and hardness are related through common ions formed in aquatic systems.
Specifically, the counter-ions associated with the bicarbonate and carbonate fraction of alkalinity are
the principal ions responsible for hardness (usually Ca++ and Mg++) (Eq. 3 and 4).
As a result, the carbonate fraction of hardness (expressed as CaCO3 equivalents) is chemically
equivalent to the bicarbonates of alkalinity present in water (Burton Jr. and Pitt 2002) in areas where
the water interacts with limestone (Timmons et al. 2002).
Any hardness greater than the alkalinity represents non-carbonate hardness.

Significance of Alkalinity
Calculating Calcium Hardness as CaCO3
The hardness (in mg/L as CaCO3) for any given metallic ion is calculated using following Equation:

Problem1.
A water sample has calcium content of 51 mg/L. What is this calcium hardness expressed as CaCO3?
Solution

Problem 2.
The calcium content of a water sample is 26 mg/L. What is this calcium hardness expressed as CaCO3?

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
Solution

CALCULATING MAGNESIUM HARDNESS AS CaCO3

Problem 3.
A sample of water contains 24 mg/L magnesium. Express this magnesium hardness as CaCO3.

Solution

CALCULATING TOTAL HARDNESS

Calcium and magnesium ions are the primary cause of hardness in water. To find total hardness, we
simply add the concentrations of calcium and magnesium ions, expressed in terms of calcium carbonate
(CaCO3)
Problem 4.
A sample of water has calcium content of 70 mg/L as CaCO3 and magnesium content of 90 mg/L as
CaCO3.

Solution

Total hardness (mg/L) = 70 mg/L + 90 mg/L

= 160 mg/L as CaCO3

Problem 5.
Determine the total hardness as CaCO3 of a sample of water that has calcium content of 28 mg/L and
magnesium content of 9 mg/L.

Solution
Express calcium and magnesium in terms of CaCO3:

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
CALCULATING CARBONATE AND NONCARBONATE HARDNESS

As mentioned, total hardness is comprised of calcium and magnesium hardness.

Once total hardness has been calculated, it is sometimes used to determine another expression
hardness carbonate and non-carbonate.
When hardness is numerically greater than the sum of bicarbonate and carbonate alkalinity, that
amount of hardness equivalent to the total alkalinity (both in units of mg CaCO3/L) is referred to as the
carbonate hardness; the amount of hardness in excess of this is the noncarbonated hardness.
When the hardness is numerically equal to or less than the sum of carbonate and non-carbonate
alkalinity, all hardness is carbonate hardness, and non-carbonate hardness is absent.

Again, the total hardness is comprised of carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness:
Total hardness = carbonate hardness + non-carbonate hardness
When the alkalinity (as CaCO3) is greater than the total hardness, all the hardness is carbonate
hardness:
Total hardness (mg/L) as CaCO3 = carbonate hardness (mg/L) as CaCO3
When the alkalinity (as CaCO3) is less than the total hardness, then the alkalinity represents
carbonate hardness and the balance of the hardness is non-carbonate hardness:

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
 When carbonate hardness is represented by the alkalinity:

Total Suspended Solids

Total Suspended Solids (TSS) are solids in water that can be trapped by a filter. TSS can include a wide
variety of material, such as silt, decaying plant and animal matter, industrial wastes, and sewage. High
concentrations of suspended solids can cause many problems for stream health and aquatic life.

High TSS can block light from reaching submerged vegetation. As the amount of light passing through
the water is reduced, photosynthesis slows down. Reduced rates of photosynthesis causes less dissolved
oxygen to be released into the water by plants. If light is completely blocked from bottom dwelling
plants, the plants will stop producing oxygen and will die. As the plants are decomposed, bacteria will
use up even more oxygen from the water. Low dissolved oxygen can lead to fish kills. High TSS can
also cause an increase in surface water temperature, because the suspended particles absorb heat from
sunlight. This can cause dissolved oxygen levels to fall even further (because warmer waters can hold
less DO), and can harm aquatic life in many other ways.

High TSS in a water body can often mean higher concentrations of bacteria, nutrients, pesticides, and
metals in the water. High TSS can cause problems for industrial use, because the solids may clog or
scour pipes and machinery.

The flow rate of the water body is a primary factor in TSS concentrations. Fast running water can carry
more particles and larger-sized sediment. Heavy rains can pick up sand, silt, clay, and organic particles
(such as leaves, soil, tire particles) from the land and carry it to surface water. A change in flow rate can
also affect TSS; if the speed or direction of the water current increases, particulate matter from bottom
sediments may be resuspended.

Total Dissolved Solids

Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are solids in water that can pass through a filter. TDS in a measure of the
amount of material dissolved in water. This material can include carbonate, bicarbonate, chloride,
sulfate, phosphate, nitrate, calcium, magnesium, sodium organic ions, and other ions. A certain level of
these ions in water is necessary for aquatic life. Changes in TDS concentrations can be harmful because
the density of the water determines the flow of water into and out of the organism's cell. However, if
TDS concentrations are too high or too low, the growth of many aquatic lives can be limited, and death
may occur.

Similar to TSS, high concentrations of TDS may also reduce water clarity, contribute to a decrease in
photosynthesis, combine with toxic compounds and heavy metals, and lead to an increase in water
temperature. TDS is used to estimate the quality of drinking water, because it represents the amount of
ions in thew ater. Water with high TDS often has a bad taste and/or high water hardness.

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
In general, the total dissolved solids concentration is the sum of the cations (positively charged) and
anions (negatively charged) ions in the water. Therefore, the TDS test provides a qualitative measure of
the amount of dissolved ions, but does not tell us the nature or ion relationships. In addition, the test
does not provide us insight into the specific water quality issues, such as elevated hardness, salty taste or
corrosiveness. Therefore, the TDS test is used as an indicator test to determine the general quality of the
water. The sources of total dissolved solids can include all of the dissolved cations and anions, but the
following table can be used as a generalization of the relationship of TDS to water quality problems.

Cations combined with Carbonates (CaCO3, Associated with hardness, scale

MgCO3, etc) formation, bitter taste
Salty or brackish taste, increase
Cations combined with Chloride (NaCl, KCl)
corrosivity

Some rock and soil release ions very easily when water flows over them; for example, if acidic water
flows over rocks containing calcite (CaCO3), such as calcareous shales, calcium (Ca2+) and carbonate
(CO32-) ions will dissolve into the water. Therefore, TDS will increase. However, some rocks, such as
quartz-rich granite, are very resistant to dissolution, and don't dissolve easily when water flows over
them. TDS of waters draining areas where the geology only consists of granite or other resistant rocks
will be low (unless other factors are involved.)

Factors Affecting TSS and TDS

Soil Erosion
Soil erosion is caused by disturbance of a land surface. Soil erosion can be caused by building and road
construction, forest fires, logging and mining. The eroded soil particles can be carried by storm water to
surface water. This will increase the TSS and TDS of the water body.
Urban Runoff
During storm events, soil particles and debris from streets and industrial, commercial, and residential
areas can be washed into streams. Because of the large amount of pavement in urban areas, infiltration is
decreased, velocity increases, and natural settling areas have been removed. Sediment is carried through
storm drains directly to creeks and rivers.
Decaying Plants and Animals
As plants and animals decay, suspended organic particles are released and can contribute to the TSS and
TDS concentration.
Wastewater and Septic System Effluent
The effluent from wastewater treatment plants can add suspended solids to a stream. The wastewater
from our houses contain food residue, human waste, and other solid material that we put down our
drains. Most of the solids are removed from the water at the treatment plant before being discharged to
the stream, but treatment plants only remove some of the TDS. Important components of the TDS load
from the treatment plants include phosphorus, nitrogen, and organic matter.

Measurement of TSS

To measure TSS, the water sample is filtered through a pre-weighed filter. The residue retained on the
filter is dried in an oven at 103 to 105C until the weight of the filter no longer changes. The increase in
weight of the filter represents the total suspended solids. TSS can also be measured by analyzing for

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
total solids and subtracting total dissolved solids. You will read more about this in the lab section of this
lesson.

Measurement of TDS

To measure TDS, the water sample is filtered, and then the filtrate (the water that passes through the
filter) is evaporated in a pre-weighed dish and dried in an oven at 180C, until the weight of the dish no
longer changes. The increase in weight of the dish represents the total dissolved solids, and is reported in
milligrams per liter (mg/L). You will read more about this in the lab section of this lesson.

Interpreting Test Results

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) establishes standards for drinking water which fall into
two categories - Primary Standards and Secondary Standards. Primary Standards are based on health
considerations and Secondary Standards are based on taste, odor, color, corrosivity, foaming, and
staining properties of water. There is no Primary drinking water standard for total dissolved solids, but
the Secondary standard for TDS is 500 mg/L.

The treatment options for an elevated total dissolved solid really depends on the nature of the cations
and anions. If the elevated total dissolved solids is due to cations like calcium, magnesium, and iron, it
may be possible to remove these ions using a water softener. This process may not reduce the TDS
concentration, but reduce the aesthetic problems with the water. If the problem is associated with an
elevated concentration of sodium, potassium, etc, the primary recommendations would include a reverse
osmosis system or distillation unit.

Potential Health Effects

An elevated total suspended solids (TSS) or total dissolved solids (TDS) concentration is not a health
hazard. The TDS concentration is a secondary drinking water standard and therefore is regulated
because it is more of an aesthetic rather than a health hazard. High total dissolved solids may affect the
aesthetic quality of water; interfere with washing clothes and corroding plumbing fixtures. An elevated
TDS indicates the following:

The concentration of the dissolved ions may cause the water to be corrosive, salty or brackish
taste, result in scale formation, and interfere and decrease efficiency of hot water heaters; and
Many contain elevated levels of ions that are above the Primary or Secondary Drinking Water
Standards, such as: an elevated level of nitrate, arsenic, aluminum, copper, lead, etc.

Calculations

Where:

A = weight of filter + aluminum dish, g

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
B = weight of filter + aluminum dish + residue, g

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
Fecal Coliform

Total coliform bacteria are a collection of relatively harmless microorganisms that live in large numbers
in the intestines of man and warm- and cold-blooded animals. They aid in the digestion of food. A
specific subgroup of this collection is the fecal coliform bacteria, the most common member being
Escherichia coli. These organisms may be separated from the total coliform group by their ability to
grow at elevated temperatures and are associated only with the fecal material of warm-blooded animals.

Environmental Impact:

The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in aquatic environments indicates that the water has been
contaminated with the fecal material of man or other animals. At the time this occurred, the source water
may have been contaminated by pathogens or disease producing bacteria or viruses which can also exist
in fecal material. Some waterborne pathogenic diseases include typhoid fever, viral and bacterial
gastroenteritis and hepatitis A. The presence of fecal contamination is an indicator that a potential health
risk exists for individuals exposed to this water. Fecal coliform bacteria may occur in ambient water as a
result of the overflow of domestic sewage or nonpoint sources of human and animal waste.

Indicator bacteria types and what they can tell you

The most commonly tested fecal bacteria indicators are total coliforms, fecal coliforms, Escherichia
coli, fecal streptococci, and enterococci. All but E. coli are composed of a number of species of bacteria
that share common characteristics such as shape, habitat, or behavior; E. coli is a single species in the
fecal coliform group.
Total coliforms are a group of bacteria that are widespread in nature. All members of the total coliform
group can occur in human feces, but some can also be present in animal manure, soil, and submerged
wood and in other places outside the human body. Thus, the usefulness of total coliforms as an indicator

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
of fecal contamination depends on the extent to which the bacteria species found are fecal and human in
origin. For recreational waters, total coliforms are no longer recommended as an indicator. For drinking
water, total coliforms are still the standard test because their presence indicates contamination of a water
supply by an outside source.
Fecal coliforms, a subset of total coliform bacteria, are more fecal-specific in origin. However, even this
group contains a genus, Klebsiella, with species that are not necessarily fecal in origin. Klebsiella are
commonly associated with textile and pulp and paper mill wastes. Therefore, if these sources discharge
to your stream, you might wish to consider monitoring more fecal and human-specific bacteria. For
recreational waters, this group was the primary bacteria indicator until relatively recently, when EPA
began recommending E. coli and enterococci as better indicators of health risk from water contact. Fecal
coliforms are still being used in many states as the indicator bacteria.
E. coli is a species of fecal coliform bacteria that is specific to fecal material from humans and other
warm-blooded animals. EPA recommends E. coli as the best indicator of health risk from water contact
in recreational waters; some states have changed their water quality standards and are monitoring
accordingly.
Fecal streptococci generally occur in the digestive systems of humans and other warm-blooded animals.
In the past, fecal streptococci were monitored together with fecal coliforms and a ratio of fecal coliforms
to streptococci was calculated. This ratio was used to determine whether the contamination was of
human or nonhuman origin. However, this is no longer recommended as a reliable test.
Enterococci are a subgroup within the fecal streptococcus group. Enterococci are distinguished by their
ability to survive in salt water, and in this respect they more closely mimic many pathogens than do the
other indicators. Enterococci are typically more human-specific than the larger fecal streptococcus
group. EPA recommends enterococci as the best indicator of health risk in salt water used for recreation
and as a useful indicator in fresh water as well.

Which Bacteria Should You Monitor?

Which bacteria you test for depends on what you want to know. Do you want to know whether
swimming in your stream poses a health risk? Do you want to know whether your stream is meeting
state water quality standards?
Studies conducted by EPA to determine the correlation between different bacterial indicators and the
occurrence of digestive system illness at swimming beaches suggest that the best indicators of health
risk from recreational water contact in fresh water are E. coli and enterococci. For salt water,
enterococci are the best. Interestingly, fecal coliforms as a group were determined to be a poor indicator
of the risk of digestive system illness. However, many states continue to use fecal coliforms as their
primary health risk indicator.
If your state is still using total or fecal coliforms as the indicator bacteria and you want to know whether
the water meets state water quality standards, you should monitor fecal coliforms. However, if you want
to know the health risk from recreational water contact, the results of EPA studies suggest that you
should consider switching to the E. coli or enterococci method for testing fresh water. In any case, it is
best to consult with the water quality division of your state's environmental agency, especially if you
expect them to use your data.
THE DISABILITY-ADJUSTED LIFE YEAR

In order to support public health priority setting, a common metric is required that can be applied
to all types of hazard and takes into account different health outcomes, including probabilities,
severities and duration of effects. The disability-adjusted life year (DALY) provides this metric.

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
 The basic principle of the DALY is to weight each health impact in terms of severity within the
range of 0 for good health to 1 for death. The weighting is then multiplied by duration of the effect and
the number of people affected. In the case of death, duration is regarded as the years lost in relation to
normal life expectancy. Using this approach, a mild diarrhoea with a severity weighting of 0.1 and
lasting for 7 days results in a DALY of 0.002, whereas death resulting in a loss of 30 years of life
equates to a DALY of 30.

Hence,

DALY = YLL (years of life lost) + YLD (years lived with a disability or illness).

In this context, Disability refers to a condition that detracts from good health. For example, infection
with rotavirus (in developed countries) causes: mild diarrhoea (severity rating of 0.1) lasting 7 days in
97.5% of cases;
diarrhoea (severity rating of 0.23) lasting 7 days in 2.5% of cases;
rare deaths of very young children in 0.015% of cases.

Simple Problem

The DALY per case can then be calculated as follows:

DALY = (0.1 7/365 0.975) + (0.23 7/365 0.025) + (1 70 0.000 15)

= 0.0019 + 0.0001 + 0.0105
= 0.0125

Arsenic
Arsenic exists in oxidation states of 3, 0, 3 and 5. It is widely distributed throughout Earths crust, most
often as arsenic sulfide or as metal arsenates and arsenides. In water, it is most likely to be present as
arsenate, with an oxidation state of 5, if the water is oxygenated. However, under reducing conditions
(<200 mV), it is more likely to be present as arsenite, with an oxidation state of 3 (IPCS, 2001).

Environmental fate
Arsenic is introduced into water through the dissolution of rocks, minerals and ores, from industrial
effluents, including mining wastes, and via atmospheric deposition (IPCS, 1981; Nadakavukaren et al.,

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
1984; Hindmarsh & McCurdy, 1986). In well oxygenated surface waters, arsenic(V) is generally the
most common arsenic species present (Irgolic, 1982; Cui & Liu, 1988); under reducing conditions, such
as those often found in deep lake sediments or groundwater, the predominant form is arsenic(III)
(Lemmo et al., 1983; Welch et al., 1988). An increase in pH may increase the concentration of dissolved
arsenic in water (Slooff et al., 1990).
The level of arsenic in natural waters, including open ocean seawater, generally ranges between 1 and 2
g/l (Hindmarsh & McCurdy, 1986; USNRC, 1999). Concentrations may be elevated, however, in areas
with volcanic rock and sulfide mineral deposits (Hindmarsh & McCurdy, 1986); in areas containing
natural sources, where levels as high as 12 mg/l have been reported (Grinspan & Biagini, 1985); near
anthropogenic sources, such as mining and agrochemical manufacture (USNRC, 1999); and in
geothermal waters (mean 500 g/l, maximum 25 mg/l) (USNRC, 1999). Mean arsenic concentrations in
sediment range from 5 to 3000 mg/kg; the higher levels occur in areas of contamination (USNRC, 1999)
but are generally unrelated to arsenic concentrations in water.

EFFECTS ON HUMANS
A number of studies have attempted to show that arsenic is an essential element, but a biological role
has not been demonstrated so far (USNRC, 1999, 2001). Arsenic has not been demonstrated to be
essential in humans (IPCS, 2001). The acute toxicity of arsenic compounds in humans is predominantly
a function of their rate of removal from the body. Arsine is considered to be the most toxic form,
followed by the arsenites (arsenic(III)), the arsenates (arsenic(V)) and organic arsenic compounds.
Lethal doses in humans range from 1.5 mg/kg of body weight (diarsenic trioxide) to 500 mg/kg of body
weight (DMA) (Buchet & Lauwerys, 1982). Acute arsenic intoxication associated with the ingestion of
well water containing 1.2 and 21.0 mg of arsenic per litre has been reported (Feinglass, 1973; Wagner et
al., 1979). MMA(III) and DMA(III) are more toxic than arsenate in vivo and in vitro. Early clinical
symptoms of acute intoxication include abdominal pain, vomiting, diarrhoea, muscular pain and
weakness, with flushing of the skin. These symptoms are often followed by numbness and tingling of
the extremities, muscular cramping and the appearance of a papular erythematous rash (Murphy et al.,
1981). Within a month, symptoms may include burning paraesthesias of the extremities, palmoplantar
hyperkeratosis, Mees lines on fingernails and progressive deterioration in motor and sensory responses
(Fennell & Stacy, 1981; Murphy et al., 1981; Wesbey & Kunis, 1981). Signs of chronic arsenicism,
including dermal lesions such as hyperpigmentation and hypopigmentation, peripheral neuropathy, skin
cancer, bladder and lung cancers and peripheral vascular disease, have been observed in populations
ingesting arseniccontaminated drinking-water (Tseng et al., 1968; Borgoo & Greiber, 1972; Hindmarsh
et al., 1977; Tseng, 1977; Zaldivar, 1980; Zaldivar & Ghai, 1980; Valentine et al., 1982; Cebrian et al.,
1983). Dermal lesions were the most commonly observed symptom, occurring after minimum exposure
periods of approximately 5 years. Effects on the cardiovascular system were observed in children
consuming arsenic-contaminated water (mean concentration 0.6 mg/l) for an average of 7 years
(Zaldivar, 1980; Zaldivar & Ghai, 1980).
In a large study conducted in Taiwan, China, a population of 40 421 was divided into three groups based
on the arsenic content of their well water (high, >0.60 mg/l; medium, 0.300.59 mg/l; and low, <0.29

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality
mg/l) (Tseng, 1977). There was a clear doseresponse relationship between exposure to arsenic and the
frequency of dermal lesions, blackfoot disease (a peripheral vascular disorder) and skin cancer.

However, several methodological weaknesses (e.g. investigators were not blinded) complicate the
interpretation of the results. In addition, the possibility of other causes of blackfoot disease (e.g. humic
acids in artesian well water) were not considered (Lu,1990).

In Taiwan, China, the prevalence and mortality rates of diabetes mellitus were higher among the
population of the blackfoot disease endemic area. There was also an exposureresponse relationship
between cumulative arsenic exposure and the prevalence of diabetes mellitus. A similar exposure
response pattern was observed in a study in Bangladesh, where prevalence of keratosis was used as a
surrogate for arsenic exposure (USNRC, 1999, 2001; IPCS, 2001).

There have been numerous epidemiological studies that have examined the risk of various cancers
associated with arsenic ingestion through drinking-water. Many of these studies are ecological-type
studies, and many suffer from methodological flaws, particularly in the measurement of exposure.
However, there is overwhelming evidence that consumption of elevated levels of arsenic through
drinking-water is causally related to the development of cancer at several sites, particularly skin, bladder
and lung. In several parts of the world, arsenic-induced disease, including cancer, is a significant public
health problem. The studies have been reviewed in detail (USNRC, 1999, 2001; ATSDR, 2000; IPCS,
2001). Because trivalent inorganic arsenic has greater reactivity and toxicity than pentavalent inorganic
arsenic, it is generally believed that the trivalent form is the carcinogen. However, there remain
considerable uncertainty and controversy over both the mechanism of carcinogenicity and the shape of
the doseresponse curve at low intakes. Recently, the trivalent methylated metabolites, MMA(III) and
DMA(III), have been found to be more genotoxic than inorganic arsenic. The role of these metabolites
with regard to arsenic carcinogenicity remains unknown.

IPCS (2001) concluded that:

Long-term exposure to arsenic in drinking-water is causally related to increased risks of cancer in the
skin, lungs, bladder and kidney, as well as other skin changes such as hyperkeratosis and pigmentation
changes. These effects have been demonstrated in many studies using different study designs.
Exposureresponse relationships and high risks have been observed for each of these end-points. The
effects have been most thoroughly studied in Taiwan but there is considerable evidence from studies on
populations in other countries as well. Increased risks of lung and bladder cancer and of arsenic-
associated skin lesions have been reported to be associated with ingestion of drinking-water at
concentrations 50 g arsenic/litre.

Priodeep Chowdhury; Lecturer; Dept. of CEE; Uttara University.// Water & Water Supply// Water Quality