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Rieman Zetta PDF
Rieman Zetta PDF
By
K. Chandrasekharan
By
K. Chandrasekharan
3 Schwarzs Lemma 17
4 Entire Functions 25
v
vi Contents
n
1 Z { f (z)}n dz
| f (zo )| =
2i z zo
C
lc M n
,
2
where lc = length of C, = distance of zo from C. As n
| f (z)| M.
1
2 1. The Maximum Principle
so that
lc M 1
| f (zo )| 0, as n
22 n
Hence
| f (zo )| = 0.
d2
{ f (z)}n = n(n 1){ f (z)}n2 { f (z)}2 + n{ f (z)}n1 f (z).
dz 2
At zo we have
d2
{ f (z)}n z=zo = n f n1 (Z0 ) f (z0 ),
dz 2
so that
2! Z { f (z)}n dz
|nM n1 f (z0 )| =
2i (z zo )3
C
2!lc n
M ,
23
and letting n , we see that f (zo ) = 0. By a similar reasoning
we prove that all derivatives of f vanish at z0 (an arbitrary point
of D). Thus f is a constant.
Remark. The above proof is due to Landau [12, p.105]. We shall now
show that the restrictions on the nature of the boundary C postulated in
the above theorem cab be dispensed with.
| f (z0 )| Mr ,
Hence
| f (zo )| Mr .
Further, if there is a point (such that) | zo | = r, and | f ()| <
Mr , then by continuity, there exists a neighbourhood of , on the circle
|z zo | = r, in which | f (z)| Mr , > 0 and we should have
| f (zo )| < Mr ; so that | f (zo )| = Mr implies | f (z)| = Mr everywhere on
|z zo | = r. That is | f (zo + rei )| = | f (zo )| for 0 2, or
Z2
1
1= cos d
2
0
Z2
1
f (z0 ) = ()d
2
0
Hence
Therefore
Z2 Z1 1 + Z2
Z 2 + Z2
Z
()d = + + + +
0 0 1 1 + 2 2 +
Z 1 Z2 Z2 Z
= + + ()d + [(1 + t) + (2 + t)] dt
0 1 + 2 + 0
Hence
Z2
| () d| Mr (2 2) + (2Mr ) = 2Mr
0
Z2
1
| ()d| < Mr
2
0
1. The Maximum Principle 5
Remarks. The above proof of Theorem 2 [7, Bd I, p.134] does not make
use of the principle of analytic continuation which will of course provide
an immediate alternative proof once the Lemma is established.
Theorem 3. If f is regular in a bounded domain D, and continuous
in D, then f attains its maximum at some point in Bd D, unless f is a
constant.
Since D is bounded, D is also bounded. And a continuous function
on a compact set attains its maximum, and by Theorem 2 this maximum 6
cannot be attained at an interior point of D. Note that the continuity of
| f | is used.
Theorem 4. If f is regular in a bounded domain D, is non-constant, and
if for every sequence {zn }, zn D, which converges to a point Bd D,
we have
lim sup | f (zn )| M,
n
then | f (z)| < M for all z D. [17, p.111]
6 1. The Maximum Principle
Define
max | f (z)| mn .
ZCn
lim| f (zn p )| M
i.e. lim mn p M
or mn < M for all n
i.e. | f (z)| < M. z D.
The Phragmen-Lindelof
principle
(ii) | f | M on x = and x =
(iii) f is bounded in x
Then, | f | M in < x < ; and | f | = M in < x < only if f is
a constant.
| f (zo )| M.
9
10 2. The Phragmen-Lindelof principle
| f (zo )| M.
Then
| f (xo + iyo )| M1L(xo ) M21L(xo )
for < xo < , |yo | < , where L(t) is a linear function of t which takes
the value 1 at and 0 at . If equality occurs, then
Proof. Consider
f (z)
f1 (z) =
M1L(z) M21L(z)
12 and apply Theorem 1 to f1 (z).
More generally we have [12, p.107]
2. The Phragmen-Lindelof principle 11
uniformly in D.
Then, | f | M in D; and | f | < M in D unless f is a constant.
Proof. Without loss of generality we can choose
= , = +/2, =0
2
Set
k k
e|z| eky cos e(y+/2) eky cos
2 2
, as y ,
|g| 0 uniformly as y ,
so that
|g| M, for y > y , < x < .
12 2. The Phragmen-Lindelof principle
|g(z)| M
for y = H, < x < , and we may also suppose that H > y0 = im(zo ).
Consider now the rectangle defined by < x < , y = 0, y = H.
Since | | 1 we have
lim |g| M
z
in D
14 Letting 0, we get
| f (zo )| < M.
Then
iz iz ) yix } y
|ee | = eRe(e = eRe{e = ee cos x
So
y
| f | = 1 on x = /2, and f = ee on x = 0.
then | f | M in D.
2. The Phragmen-Lindelof principle 13
Theorem 3. [12, p.108] Suppose that conditions (i) and (iii) of Theorem
2 hold. Suppose further that f is continuous in Bd D, and
lim | f | M on x = , x=
y
Then
lim | f | M uniformly in x .
y
where a , 0, b , 0, then
lim | f | e px+q ,
y
Schwarzs Lemma
17
18 3. Schwarzs Lemma
(ii) f (o) = 0
Then,
2
|f| , for |z| = < R.
R
Proof. Consider the function
f (z)
(z) = .
f (z) 2
We have Re{ f 2} < 0, so that is regular in |z| < R.
If f = u + iv, we get
s
u2 + v2
|| =
(2 u)2 + v2
so that
|| 1, since 2 u |u|.
But (o) = o, since f (o) = o. Hence by Theorem 1,
|z|
|(z)| , |z| < R.
R
2
But f = . Now take |z| = < R.
1
20 Then, we have,
3. Schwarzs Lemma 19
2 || 2
|f|
1 || R
2
N.B. If | f (zo )| = , for |zo | < R, then
R
2U cz
f (z) = , |c| = 1.
1 cz
More generally, we have
f (o) = ao = + i
Proof. We shall first prove that |a1 | < 1 , and then for general an .
an zn . Then Re f1 1 .
P
(i) Let f1 21
n=1
For |z| = < 1, we have, by Theorem 2,
2 1
| f1 |
1
f1 (z) 21
i.e.
z 1
20 3. Schwarzs Lemma
|a1 | 21
We have
k1
1X X
f1 (r z) = ank znk = g1 (zk ) g1 (), say.
k r=0 n=1
The series for g1 is convergent for |z| < 1, and so for || < 1. Hence
g1 is regular for || < 1. Since Re g1 1 , we have
22 | coefficient of | 21 by the first part of the proof i.e. |ak |
21 .
Corollary 1. Let f be regular in |z| < R, and Re{ f (z) f (o)} 1 . Then
2 1 R
| f (z)| , |z| = < R
(R )2
Proof. Suppose R = 1. Then
X X
| f (z)| n|an |n1 2 1 nn1
f = P(r, ) + Q(r, ).
Then
Z2
1
f (zo ) = P(r, )ei d.
r
o
By Cauchys theorem,
Z Z2
1 1 1
(ii) 0= 2 f (z)dz = (P + iQ)ei d
r 2i 2r
|zzo |=r 0
Z Z
1 1
|bn |n |Peni |d = Pd = 2 Re bo , (5.6)
|bn |Rn 2o 2 Re bo .
and if n 1,
(n)
X 20 rn
| (z)| r(r 1) . . . (r n + 1)
r=n
Rr
!n X r
d
= 20
d n=0
R
!n
d 2e R
=
d R
o R n!
=2 (5.8)
(R )n+1
(5.7) and (5.8) yield the required results on substituting = f and
0 = Re f (0).
Lecture 4
Entire Functions
The analogy holds for entire functions in general. Before we prove this,
we wish to observe that if G(z) is an entire function with no zeros it can
G (z)
be written in the form eg(z) where g is entire. For consider ; every
G(z)
(finite) point is an ordinary point for this function, and so it is entire
and equals g1 (z), say. Then we get
( ) Zz1
G(z)
log = g1 ()d = g(z) g(z0 ), say,
G(z0 )
z0
so that
G(z) = G(z0 )eg(z)g(z0 ) = eg(z)g(z0 )+log G(zo )
As a corollary we see that if G(z) is an entire function with n zeros,
distinct or not, then
G(z) = (z z1 ) . . . (z zn )eg(z)
25
26 4. Entire Functions
whose sole limit point is , there exists an entire function with zeros at
these points and these points only.
and choose
z z
Q (z) = + ... +
an a n
so that
! +1
z Q (z) azn 1 ...
1 e =e +1
an
1 + n (z), say.
28 is absolutely and uniformly convergent for |z| < R, however large R may
4. Entire Functions 27
be.
Choose an R > 1, and an such that 0 < < 1; then there exists a
q (+ ve integer) such that
R R
|aq | , |aq+1 | > .
Then the partial product
q !
Y z Q (Z)
1 e
1
an
for |z| R.
R z
We have, for n > q, |an | > or < < 1. Using this fact we
an
shall estimate each of the factors {1 + n (z)} in the product, for n > q.
+1
1 z
| n (z)| = e +1 an ... 1
1 z +1 ...
+1 a n
e
1
m2
Since |em 1| e|m| 1, for em 1 = m + + . . . or |em 1| 29
2!
|m2 |
|m| + . . . = e|m| 1.
2
+1
z 1+ azn +...
an
|Un (z)| e 1,
+1
z (1++2 + )
e an
1
+1
1 z
=e 1 an
1
28 4. Entire Functions
1 z +1 1
+1
1 z
e an
, since if x is
1 an
x2 x2
!
x
real, ex 1 xe x , for ex 1 = x 1+ + + x(1 + x + +
2! 3! 2!
) = xe x
Hence
1
e 1 z +1
|Un (z)|
1 an
30 Now arise two cases: (i) either there exists an integer p > 0 such
P 1
that p
< or (ii) there does not. In case (i) take = p 1, so
n=1 |an |
that
1
Rp e 1a
|Un (z)| , since |z| R;
|an | p 1
P
Q
and hence |Un (z)| < for |z| R, i.e. (1 + Un (z)) is absolutely and
q+1
uniformly convergent for |z| R.
In case (ii) take = n 1, so that
1
e 1 z n
|Un (z)| < ,n>q
1 an
z < 1
an
|z| R
|an |
P
Then by the root-test |Un (z)| < , and the same result follows
as before. Hence the product
!
Y z Q (z)
1 e
1
an
G(z)
Remark. If in addition z = 0 is also a zero of G(z) then has no
zmG(z)
zeros and equals eg(z) , say, so that
!
g(z) m
Y z Q (z)
G(z) = e z 1 e
n=1
an
while 32
r
M(r) > e for an infinity of values of r tending
to +
Taking logs. twice, we get
log log M(r)
<+
log r
and
log log M(r)
> for an infinity of values of r
log r
30 4. Entire Functions
Hence
log log M(r)
= lim
r log R
f (z)
g(z) =
z z
1 a1 ... 1 an
M M
|g(o)| , i.e. | f (o)|
2n 2n
or !
R1 M
nn log
3 log 2 f (o)
+
If, further, f is of order , then for r > r , we have M < er which
gives the required results.
N.B. The result is trivial if the number of zeros is finite.
4. Entire Functions 31
Corollary.
n(R) = O(R+ ).
For
R 1
R+ log | f (o)| ,
n
3 log 2
and log | f (0)| < R+ , say.
Then for R R R 2 +
n < R
3 log 2
and hence the result.
Theorem 3. If f (z) is of order < , has an infinity of zeros 34
X 1
a1 , a2 , . . . , f (o) , 0, > , then <
|an |
Proof. Arrange the zeros in a sequence:
|a1 | |a2 | . . .
Let
p = |a p |
Then in the circle |z| r = n , there are exactly n zeros. Hence
+
n < c n , for n N
or
1 1 1
>
n c + n
Let > + (i.e. choose 0 < < ). Then
1 1 1
> ,
n/+ c/+ n
or
1 1
< c/+ /+ for n N
n n
P 1
Hence < .
n
32 4. Entire Functions
1
z n
P 1
Remark. If > 1 , then <
|zn |
Also,
X 1
<
|zn | p+1
But X 1
=
|zn | p
Thus, if 1 is not an integer, p = [1 ], and if 1 is an integer, then either
P 1 P 1
< or = ; in the first case, p + 1 = 1 , which in the
|zn | 1 |zn |1
second case p = 1 . Hence,
But 1 . Thus
p 1
Also X 1
p 1 p + 1, since < .
|zn | p+1
Lecture 5
35
36 5. Entire Functions (Contd.)
f (z)
Z
1
I dz
f (z) z (z x)
R
taken along |z| = R/2, where |x| < . The only poles of the inte-
4
grand are: 0, x and those zn s which lie inside |z| = R/2. Calculating the
residues, we get
f (z)
Z
1 1 X 1
dz =
2i f (z) z (z x) z (zn x)
|Z |<R/2 n
|z|=R/2 n
f (x) 1
+
f (x) x
f (z)
!
1
1
1
+ D
( 1)! z=0 f (z) zx
I2,2 = O(1)
n=1
zn
P 1
where p + 1 is the smallest integer for which < , this integer
|zn | p+1
existing, since f is of finite order.
5. Entire Functions (Contd.) 39
Remark. This follows at once from Weierstrasss theorem but can also
be deduced from the infinite-product representation derived in the proof
of Hadamards theorem (without the use of Weierstrasss theorem). One
has only to notice that
z p+1
1
... 1 zzn
Y
e p+1 zn
q , 1 i.e. max(q, 1 )
If |u| 21 , then
p+1 p+2
up u u
|E(u)| = elog(1u)+u+...+ p = e p+1 p+2
p+1 (1+ 1 + 1 + )
e|u| 2 4
p+1 p+1
= e2|u| e|2u|
e|2u| , if p + 1
p (|u|1p ++1)
(1 + |u|)e|u|
p (2 p1 ++1)
(1 + |u|)e|u|
40 5. Entire Functions (Contd.)
p +log(1+|u|)
< e|2u|
+log(1+|u|)
e|2u| , if p , since |2u| > 1.
43
Hence, for all u, we have
+log(1+|u|)
|E(u)| e|2u| ,
if p p + 1.
It is possible to choose in such a way that
(i) p p + 1,
(ii) > 0,
P 1
(iii) < , (if there are an infinity of zn s) and
|zn |
(iv) 1 1 +
P 1
For, if < (if the series is infinite this would imply that
|zn |1
1 > 0), we have only to take = > 0. And in all other cases we must
P 1
have p 1 < p + 1, [for, if 1 = p + 1, then < ] and so we
|zn |1
P 1
choose such that 1 < < p + 1; this implies again that <
|zn |
and > 0. For such a we can write the above inequality as
|E(u)| ec1 |u| , c1 is a constant.
44 Hence
z
X
| f (z)| e|Q(z)|+c1 zn
n=1
X
c2 rq +c3 r
i.e. M(r) < e , |z| = r > 1, and c1 |1/zn | = c3 .
Hence
= O(rmax(q,) ), as r (2.1)
so that
max(q, )
Since is arbitrarily near 1 , we get
max(q, 1 ),
Hence
z
X
c1 zn
n=1
|G(z)| e
ec3 r , |z| = r.
M(r) < ec3 r
Hence
which implies 1 ; but 1 . Hence = 1
(i) 1 < q or
P 1
(ii) < (the series being infinite),
|zn |1
then
log M(r) = O(r ), for = max(1 , q).
Proof. (i) If 1 < q, then we take < q and from (2.1) we get
P 1
(ii) If < , then we may take = 1 > 0 and from (2.1) we
n=1 |zn |1
get
= max(1 , q)
46 (ii) If > 0, and if log M(r) = O(r ) does not hold, then 1 = , f (z)
has an infinity of zeros zn , and |zn | is divergent.
P
Remarks. (1) 1 is called the real order of f (z), and the apparent
order Max (q, p) is called the genus of f (z).
45
46 6. The Gamma Function
h i Z
(x) = t x1 et + (x 1) t x2 et dt
0
0
= (x 1)(x 1).
48 However,
Z
(1) = et dt = 1; hence
0
(n) = (n 1)!,
(v) We have
1
log (n) = (n ) log n n + c + O(1),
2
where c is a constant.
n1
X
log (n) = log(n 1)! = log r.
r=1
Z1/2
= log(t + r) + log(r t) dt
0
1. Elementary Properties 47
Z1/2"
t2
!#
2
= log r + log 1 2 dt
r
0
!
1
= log r + cr , where cr = O 2 .
r
Hence
r+ 12
n1
X Z
log t dt cr
log (n) =
r=1
r 12
1
n 2
Z n1
X
= log t dt cr
1 r=1
2
( ! ! )
1 1 1 1 1 1
= n log n log (n ) +
2 2 2 2 2 2
X
X
cr + Cr
r=1 n
1
= (n ) log n n + c + o(1), where c is a constant.
2
49
Hence, also
1
(n!) = a.en nn+ 2 eo(1) ,
where a is a constant such that c = log a
(vi) We have
Z
(x)(y) ty1
= dt, x > 0, y > 0.
(x + y) (1 + t) x+y
O
For
Z Z
x1 t
(x)(y) = t e dt sy1 es ds, x > o, y > 0
0 0
48 6. The Gamma Function
since
Z
xa1
dx = for 0 < a < 1, by contour
1+x sin a
0
2. Analytic continuation of (z) 49
integration. Hence
(x)(1 x) = , 0 < x < 1.
sin x
Z h i
= e+(z1)(log i) + e+(z1)(log +i) d
Z h i
= e+(z1) log e(z1)i e(z1)i d
Z
= 2i sin z e z1 d
52
The integral round the circle || = therefore gives
O( x ) = O(1), as 0, if x > 0.
1 2i
= 2i sin z =
sin z (z) (z)
or
1 I(1 z)
= .
(z) 2i
54 Now
Z1 Z
|z|
t x1
t x1
I(z) = O e e t dt + e t dt
0
1
Z
|z| t |z|
= O e 1 + e t dt
1
1+|z| Z
Z
= O e|z|
1 + +
1 1+|z|
h i
= O e|z| (|z| + 1)|z|+1
h 1+ i
= O e|z| , > 0.
1
Hence is of order 1. However, the exponent of convergence
(z)
of its zeros equals 1. Hence the order is = 1, and the genus of the
canonical product is also equal to 1.
Thus
1 az+b
Y z z
= z, e (1 + )e n
(z) n=1
n
1
by Hadamards theorem. However, we know that lim = 1 and
z0+ z(z)
(1) = 1. These substitutions give b = 0, and
!
1 1/n
1 = ea 1 + e
or,
" ! #
X 1 1
0=a+ log 1 +
1
n n
3. The Product Formula 53
m " ! #
X
1 1
= a lim log 1 +
n n
m
1
m m
X
X 1
= a + lim log(n + 1) log n
n
m
1 1
m
X 1
= a + lim log(m + 1)
m
1
n
= a , where is Eulers constant.
55
Hence
1 Y z
= ez z 1 + ez/n
(z) n=1
n
ez/1 ez/n
" #
z(log n1 12 ... n1 ) 1
(z) = lim e . . .
n z 1 + 1z 1+ z
" # n
1 1 2 n
= lim nz ...
n z z+1 z+2 z+n
nz n!
" #
= lim
n z(z + 1) . . . (z + n)
We shall denote
nz n!
n (z),
z(z + 1) . . . (z + n)
so that 56
(z) = lim n (z).
n
Thus
d2 X 1
[log (z)] = ;
dz2 n=0
(n + z) 2
Hence
d2
[log (z)] > 0 for real, positive z.
dz2
Lecture 7
55
56 7. The Gamma Function: Contd
x2 x x x1
f (x) f (x1 ) + f (x2 )
x2 x1 x2 x1
y f (x + y) f (x + y) + f (x)
(y) =
y2
y2
f (x) = f (u y) = f (u) y f (u) + f [u (1 )y], 0 1
2
which we substitute in the formula for (y) so as to obtain
1
(y) = f [x + y].
2
Thus if f (x) 0 for all x > 0, then (y) is monotone increasing and f
is convex. [The converse is also true].
Thus log (x) is a convex function; by the last formula of the previ-
ous section we may say that (x) is logarithmically convex for x > 0.
Further (x) > 0 for x > 0.
Theorem. (x) is the positive function uniquely defined for x > 0 by the
conditions:
(1.) (x + 1) = x(x)
(3.) (1) = 1.
4. The Bohr-Mollerup-Artin Theorem 57
Proof. Let f (x) > 0 be any function satisfying the above three condi-
tions satisfied by (x).
59 Choose an integer n > 2, and 0 < x 1.
Let
n 1 < n < n + x n + 1.
By logarithmic convexity, we get
log f (n 1) log f (n) log f (n + x) log f (n)
<
(n 1) n (n + x) n
log f (n + 1) log f (n)
(n + 1) n
Because of conditions 1 and 3, we get
f (n 1) = (n 2)!, f (n) = (n 1)!, f (n + 1) = n!
and
f (n + x) = x(x + 1) . . . (x + n 1) f (x).
Substituting these in the above inequalities we get
f (n + x)
log(n 1) x < log log n x ,
(n 1)!
which implies, since log is monotone,
f (n + x)
or (n 1) x < nx
(n 1)!
(n 1)!(n 1) x (n 1)!n x
< f (x)
x(x + 1) . . . (x + n 1) x(x + 1) . . . (x + n 1)
Replacing (n 1) by n in the first inequality, we get
x+n
n (x) < f (x) n (x) , n = 2, 3, . . .
n
where n is defined as in Gausss expression for .
Letting n , we get
f (x) = (x), 0 < x 1.
For values of x > 1, we uphold this relation by the functional equa-
tion.
58 7. The Gamma Function: Contd
f (x) = a p (x).
nk/p n!pn+1
!
k
n = ,
p k(k + p) . . . (k + np)
and multiply out and take the limit as n . We then get from (5.1),
p+1
n 2(n!) p pnp+p
a p = p. lim
n (np + p)!
However
" ! ! !#
1 2 p
(np + p)! = (np)!(np) p 1 + 1+ ... 1 +
np np np
Thus, for fixed p, as n , we get
(n!) p pnp
a p = p lim
n (np)!n(p1)/2
6. Stirlings Formula 59
Hence
ap = p a p1 .
Putting p = 2 and using (5.1) we get
!
1 1 1
a = , a2 = 2 (1) = 2 (5.2)
2 2 2
Hence
ap = p(2)(p1)/2 .
Thus
! !
xx x+ p1
p ... = p(2)(p1)/2 (x)
p p
For p = 2 and p = 3 we get:
x x + 1! x x + 1! x + 2!
2
= x1 (x); = 1
(x).
2 2 2 3 3 3 3 x 2
1 1
1+ + + log N = + 0(1), as N (6.2)
2 N1
60 7. The Gamma Function: Contd
and
z
log(N + z) = log N + log 1 +
N !
z 1
= log N + + O 2 , as N . (6.3)
N N
Z
[u] u + 12
!
1 1
du + log 2 z + z log z = log (z) (6.5)
u+z 2 2
0
Ru
If (u) = ([v] v + 12 )dv, then
0
(z)
!
1 1
(3) = log z + O 2 , |arg z| < [11, p.57]
(z) 2z |z|
This may be deduced from (1) by using
Z
1 f ()
f (z) = d,
2i ( z)2
C
where f (z) = log (z) z 21 log z + z 21 log 2 and C is a circle
with centre at = z and radius |z| sin /2.
Lecture 8
X 1
(s) = , s = + it, > 1. (1.1)
n=1
ns
We define x s , for x > 0, as e s log x , where log x has its real determination.
Then |n s | = n , and the series converges for > 1, and uniformly
in any finite region in which 1 + > 1. Hence (s) is regular
for 1 + > 1. Its derivatives may be calculated by termwise
differentiation of the series.
We could express (s) also as an infinite product called the Euler
Product: !1
Y 1
(s) = 1 s , > 1, (1.2)
p
p
63
64 8. The Zeta Function of Riemann
0, as P , if > 1.
Hence (1.2) has been established for > 1, on the basis of (1.1).
As an immediate consequence of (1.2) we observe that (s) has no zeros
for > 1, since a convergent infinite product of non-zero factors is
non-zero.
We shall now obtain a few formulae involving (s) which will be of
use in the sequel. We first have
!
X 1
log (s) = log 1 2 , > 1. (1.3)
p
p
1. Elementary Properties of (s) 65
P
If we write (x) = 1, then
px
!
X 1
log (s) = {(n) (n 1)} log 1 s
n=2
n
" ! !#
X 1 1
= (n) log 1 s log 1
n=2
n (n + 1) s
Zn+1
X s
= (n) dx
n=2
x(x s 1)
n
68
Hence
Z
(x)
log (s) = s dx, > 1. (1.4)
x(x s 1)
2
where p runs through all primes, and m through all positive integers.
Differentiating (1.3), we get
or
(s) X (n)
= s
, >1 , (1.5)
(s) n=1
n
66 8. The Zeta Function of Riemann
log p, if n is a + ve power of a prime p
where (n) = 69
0, otherwise.
Again
!
1 Y 1
= 1 s
(s) p
p
X (n)
= , >1 (1.6)
n=1
ns
More generally
k
X dk (n)
(s) = , >1 (1.7)
n=1
ns
so that
X 2 ()
(s) (s a) = (1.8)
=1
1. Elementary Properties of (s) 67
pa p2a
! !
Y 1 1
(a)(s a) = 1 + s + 2s + 1 + s + 2a +
p
p p p p
1 + pa 1 + pa + p2a
Y !
= 1+ + +
p
ps p2s
1 p2a 1
Y !
= 1+ +
p
1 pa p s
1 p(m
1
1 +1)a
1 pr(mr +1)a
2 (n) = . . . (1.9)
1 pa1 1 par
1
if n = pm1 m2 mr
1 , p2 . . . pr by comparison of the coefficients of n s . 71
More generally, we have
(s) (s a) (s b) (s a b) Y 1 p2s+a+b
=
(2s a b) p
(1 ps )(1 ps+a )(1 ps+b )
(1 ps+a+b )
1 pa+b z2
(1 z) (1 pa z) (1 pb z)(1 pa+b z)
pa pb pa+b
( )
1 1
= +
(1 pa )(1 pb ) 1 z 1 pa z 1 pb z 1 pa+b z
n
1 X
(m+1)a (m+1)b
o
(m+1)(a+b) m
= 1 p p + p z
(1 pa )(1 pb ) m=0
n
1 X
(m+1)a
on o
(m+1)b m
= 1 p 1 p z
(1 pa )(1 pb ) m=o
68 8. The Zeta Function of Riemann
Hence 72
(s) (s a)(s b) (s a h)
(2s a b)
YX 1 p(m+1)a 1 p(m+1)b 1
= ms
p m=0
1 pa 1 pb p
X
an en s , o 1 < 2 < . . .
n=1
P
Lemma. Let A(x) = an , where an may be real or complex. Then, if
n x
x 1 , and (x) has a continuous derivative in (0, ), we have
X Z
an (n ) = A(x) (x)dx + A()().
n 1
69
70 9. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd.)
If A()() 0 as , then
X Z
an (n ) = A(x) (x)dx,
n=1 1
Proof.
X
A()() an (n )
n
X
= an {() (n )}
n
XZ
= an (x)dx
n
n
Z
= A(x) (x)dx
1
74
an en s converges for s = s0 0 + ito , then it
P
Theorem 1. If
n=1
converges uniformly in the angular region defined by
Z
= A(x) exs sdx + A( )e s A( )e s
Z
=s {A(x) A( )}exs dx + [A( ) A( )]e s
P
We have assumed that an converges, therefore, given > 0, there 75
exists an n0 such that for x > n0 , we have
|A(x) A( )| <
Z
X
an en s |s| ex dx + e
+1
|s|
2 +
< 2 (sec + 1),
|s|
if , 0, since < sec , and this proves the theorem. As a conse-
quence of Theorem 1, we deduce
s
Theorem 2. If an en converges for s = s0 , then it converges for
P
Re s > o , and uniformly in any bounded closed domain contained in
the half-plane > o . We also have
76 If a Dirichlet series converges for some, but not all, values of s, and
if s1 is a point of convergence while s2 is a point of divergence, then,
on account of the above theorems, we have 1 > 2 . All points on the
real axis can then be divided into two classes L and U; U if the
series converges at , otherwise L. Then any point of U lies to the
right of any point of L, and this classification defines a number o such
that the series converges for every > o and diverges for < o ,
the cases = 0 begin undecided. Thus the region of convergence is a
half-plane. The line = 0 is called the line of convergence, and the
number o is called the abscissa of convergence. We have seen that 0
may be . On the basis of Theorem 2 we can establish
P (1)n
Ex.2. (log n)s converges for all s but never absolutely. In the 78
n
simple case n = log n, we have
Theorem 6. 0 1.
P |an |
For if an ns < , then |an | n = O(1), so that
P
<
n s+1+
for > 0
While we have observed that the sum-function of a Dirichlet series
is regular in the half-plane of convergence, there is no reason to assume
that the line of convergence contains at least one singularity of the func-
tion (see Ex 1. above!). In the special case where the coefficients are
positive, however we can assert the following
Theorem 7. If an 0, then the point s = 0 is a singularity of the
function f (s).
74 9. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd.)
+i
R +iT
R
where = lim .
T
1 iT
75
76 10. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
However
|eu(+iT ) | = eu
and |s| > T ; hence, letting T , we get
+i +i
eus ds eus
Z Z
= ds I, say.
s us2
i i
hence
+i
eus
Z
1
(1) ds = 0, if u < 0.
2i us2
i
so that
+i
eus
Z
1
(2) ds = 1, if u > 0.
2i us2
i
the dash denoting that if = n the last term should be halved. We wish
now to establish this on a rigorous basis.
We proceed to prove another lemma first.
78 10. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
If N n, then, trivially,
n
X
a e s = O(N).
1
2. (Contd). Elementary theory of Dirichlet series 79
in either case. 84
where the dash denotes the fact that if = n the last term is to be
halved.
+i
Z
1 g(s)
ds
2i s
i
+i
f (s)es
Z
1 X
= ds an
2i s
i n
iT 1 , + iT 2 , + iT 2 , iT 1 ,
80 10. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
85 for
+iT
iT +iT +iT
Z 2 Z 1 Z 2 Z 2
1 1
= + +
2i 2i
iT 1 iT 1 iT 1 +iT 2
= I1 + I2 + I3 , say.
Now, if we fix T 1 and T 2 and let , then we see that I2 0,
s
for g(s) is the sum-function of bn n , where bn = am+n , n = m+n ,
P
1
with 1 > 0, and hence g(s) = o(1) as s in the angle |ams| .
2
Thus
iT
Z 1 +iT
+iT
Z 2 Z 2
1 g(s) 1
ds =
2i s 2i
iT 1 iT 1 +iT 2
if the two integrals on the right converge.
Now if
h(s) g(s)e(m+1 )s = am+1 + am+2 e(m+2 m+1 )s +
then by lemma 2, we have
|h(s)| < T 2
for s = + iT 2 , 0 + , T 2 T 0 . Therefore for the second integral
86 on the right we have
+iT
Z 2 Z
g(s) T 2
ds < q e1 di < /1
s 2 2
+iT 2
+T 2
1 > 0. This proves not only that the integral converges for a finite T 2 ,
but also that as T 2 , the second integral tends to zero. Similarly for
the first integral on the right.
2. (Contd). Elementary theory of Dirichlet series 81
N.B. An estimate for g(s) alone (instead of h(s)) will not work!
an en s has 0 , as its abscissa of convergence,
P
Aliter. If f (s) =
1
and if a > 0, a > 0 , then for , n , we have
a+i
es
Z
X 1
an = f (s) ds
n <
2i s
ai
Proof. Define 87
m
X
fm (s) = an en s
1
X
and rm (s) = an .en s = f (s) fm (s)
m+1
Then
a+iT a+iT a+iT
es es es
Z Z Z
1 1 1
(A) f (s) ds = fm (s) ds + rm (s) ds
2i s 2i s 2i s
aiT aiT aiT
Here the integral on the left exists since f (s) is regular on = a > 0 .
By Lemma 1, as applied to the first integral on the right hand side, we
82 10. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
get
a+iT a+iT
es es
Z Z
1 X 1
(B) lim f (s) ds an = lim rm (s) ds
T 2i s T 2i s
aiT < n aiT
Z
rm (s) = (s ) {B(x) B(m )}ex(s ) dx,
m
2. (Contd). Elementary theory of Dirichlet series 83
or
|s | m ( )
|rm (s)| c e
Now consider
es
Z
1
rm (s) ds
2i s
L+CR
where L + CR is the contour indicated in the diagram.
Hence
Z s Z/2
1 rm (s)
e
ds
cr
e
e(m )r cos d
2i s 2(a )
CR /2
Z/2
cr
= e e(m )r sin d
(a )
0
84 10. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
2
However, sin for 0 /2; hence
a+iT
s Z/2
cre
Z
1 rm (s)
e
ds
2
e (m )r d
2i
aiT s (a )
0
cre
,
2(a )(m )r
for all T . Hence
a+iT
Z
es
c1
(C) lim rm (s) ds
T
aiT s (m )
90 for all m mo .
Now reverting to relation (A), we get
a+iT a+iT
1
Z
es 1
Z
es
(D) lim
f (s) ds fm (s) ds
T 2i s 2i s
aiT aiT
a+iT
1
Z
es
= lim rm (s) ds
T 2i s
aiT
independently of m. Hence1
1
We use the fact that if
lim | f (T ) g(T )| =
T
and lim g(T ) = , then
T
lim | f (T ) |
T
2. (Contd). Elementary theory of Dirichlet series 85
a+iT
1
Z
es X
lim
f (s) ds an left hand side in (D)
T 2i s n <
aiT
c1
for m > mo .
m
Letting m we get the result. 91
P
Remarks. (i) If = n the last term in the sum an has to be
n <
1
multiplied by .
2
(ii) If a < 0, (and a > 0 ) then in the contour-integration the residue
at the origin has to be taken, and this will contribute a term - f (0).
In the proof, the relation between |s| and r has to be modified.
Lecture 11
Z
X (s) X
= x s1 enx dx
n=1
ns n=1n=0
Z X
nx
e x s1 dx, if > 1.
=
0 n=1
since
Z Z
X s1 nx
X
1 nx
X ()
x e dx x e dx =
< ,
n
n=1 n=1 0 n=1
87
88 11. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
if > 1. Hence
Z Z
X (s) ex s1 x s1 dx
= x dx =
n=1
ns 1 ex ex 1
0 0
or
Z
x s1
(s)(s) = dx, > 1
ex 1
0
while
|ez 1| > A|z|;
Hence, for fixed s,
2 1 2|t|
Z
| | e 0 as 0, if > 1.
A
|z|=
(s) e2is1
I(s) = 2i. is
(1 s) e eis
(s)
= 2i eis ,
(1 s)
or
eis (1 s) z s1 dz
Z
(s) = , > 1.
2i ez 1
C
ez 1
taken along Cn as in the diagram.
2i, . . . , 2ni.
The residue at
2mi is (2me 2 i ) s1
while the residue at 2mi is (2me3/2i ) s1 ; taken together they amount
to
h i i i
(2m)ei(s1) e 2 (s 1) + e 2 (s1)
= (2m) s1 ei(s1) 2 cos (s 1)
2
s1 is
= 2(2m) e sin s
2
4. Functional Equation (First method) 91
96 Hence
n
z s1 dz
Z
sin s is X
I(s) = + 4i e (2m) s1
ez 1 2 m=1
Cn
|z s1 | = O(|z|1 ) = O(n1 ),
and
1
= O(1),
ez 1
for
Thus
s
(s) = (1 s)(1 s)2 s s1 sin ,
2
92 11. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
for < 0, and hence, by analytic continuation, for all values of s (each
side is regular except for poles!).
This is the functional equation.
Since x x + 1!
= x1 (x),
2 2 2
we get, on writing x = 1 s,
!
s 1s s
2 1 = (1 s);
2 2
also s s
1 =
2 2 sin s
2
Hence
1 s s 1
!
s
(1 s) = 2s {sin }1
2 2 2
Thus !
(1s) 1s
s/2 (s/2)(s) = 2 (1 s)
2
98 If
1
(s) s(s 1)s/2 (s/2)(s)
2
1
s(s 1)(s),
2
then (s) = (1 s) and (s) = (1 s). If (z) = ( 12 + iz), then
(z) (z).
ZX
s s x [x] 1 X [X]
= s dx + s1
s 1 (s 1)X s1 x s+1 X Xs
1
Since
1 = 1/X 1 , and X [X] 1/X ,
X s1 Xs
we deduce, on making X ,
Z
s x [x]
(s) = s dx, if > 1
s1 x s+1
1
or
Z 1
[x] x + 2 1 1
(s) = s dx + + , if > 1
x s+1 s1 2
1
1
5.1 Since [x] x + is bounded, the integral on the right hand side 99
2
converges for > 0, and uniformly in any finite region to the right of
= 0. Hence it represents an analytic function of s regular for > 0,
and so provides the continuation of (s) up to = 0, and s = 1 is clearly
a simple pole with residue 1.
For 0 < < 1, we have, however,
Z1 Z1
[x] x 1
dx = xs dx = ,
x s+1 s1
0 0
and
Z
s dx 1
= s+1
=
2 x 2
1
Hence
94 11. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
5.2
Z
[x] x
(s) = s dx, 0<<1
x s+1
0
We have seen that (5.1) gives the analytic continuation up to = 0.
By refining the argument dealing with the integral on the right-hand side
of (5.1) we can get the continuation all over the s-plane. For, if
Zx
1
f (x) [x] x + , f1 (x) f (y)dy,
2
1
n+1
R
then f1 (x) is also bounded, since f (y)dy = 0 for any integer n.
n
100 Hence
x2
Zx2 Zx2
f (x) f1 (x) f1 (x)
s+1
dx = s+1 + (s + 1) dx
x x x s+2
x1 x1 x1
0, as x1 , x2 ,
if > 1.
1
Now the function [x] x + 2 has the Fourier expansion
X sin 2nx
n=1
n
5. Functional Equation (Second Method) 95
Z
sX1 sin 2nx
(s) = dx
n=1 n x s+1
0
Z
s X (2n) s sin y
= dy
n=1
n y s+1
0
s s
(s) = (2) s {(1 s)} sin (1 s),
2
5.4 If termwise integration is permitted, for 1 < < 0. The right 101
hand side is, however, analytic for all values of s such that < 0. Hence
(5.4) provides the analytic continuation (not only for 1 < < 0) all
over the s-plane.
The term-wise integration preceding (5.4) is certainly justified over
any finite range since the concerned series is boundedly convergent. We
have therefore only to prove that
Z
X 1 sin 2nx
lim dx = 0, 1 < < 0
X
n=1
n x s+1
X
Now
Z " # Z
sin 2nx cos 2nx s+1 2nx
s+1
dx = s+1
dx
x 2nx X 2n x s+2
X X
! Z
1 1 dx
=O + O
nX +1 n x+2
X
!
1
=O
nX +1
96 11. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
and hence
Z
X 1 sin 2nx
lim dx = 0, if 1 < < 0
X
n=1
n x s+1
X
This completes the analytic continuation and the proof of the Func-
tional equation by the second method.
As a consequence of (5.1), we get
) Z
[x] x + 12
(
1 1
lim (s) = 2
dx +
s1 s1 x 2
1
Zn
[x] x
= lim dx + 1
n x2
1
n1 m+1
Z
dx
X
= lim m log n + 1
n
x 2
m=1 m
n1
X 1
= lim + 1 log n
m+1
n
m=1
=
102
Hence, near s = 1, we have
1
(s) = + + O(|s 1|)
s1
Lecture 12
We shall now use the formulae of 5 to estimate |(s)| for large t, where
s = + it.
Theorem.
Z
s x [x]
(s) = s dx, >0
s1 x s+1
1
97
98 12. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
X 1 ZX
[x] [X]
s
=s s+1
dx + s , if X 1, s , 1
nX
n x X
1
If > 0, t 1, X 1, we get
Z
X 1 x [x] 1 X [X]
(s) s
= s dx + +
nX
n x s+1 (s 1)X s1 Xs
X
Hence
X 1 Z
1 1 dx
|(s)| <
+ 1 + + |s|
nX
n tX X x+1
X
X 1 1 1 t 1
< + + + 1 + , since |s| < + t.
nX
n tx1 X X
104 If 1,
X1 1 1 1+t
|(s)| < + + +
nX
n t X X
t
(log X + 1) + 3 + , since t 1, X 1.
X
Taking X = t, we get the first result.
If , where 0 < < 1,
X 1 !
1 1 1
|(s)| < + + 2+
nX
n tX 1 x
Z[X]
dx X 1 3t
< + +
x t X
0
X 1 3t
+ X 1 +
1 X
7. Functional Equation (Third Method) 99
Taking X = t, we deduce
!
1 1 3
|(s)| < t +1+ , , t 1.
1
where
X 2
(x) = en x , Re x > 0
n=
Z ZT
2ix
() = f (x)e dx lim f (x)e2ix dx,
T
T
If we assume that
p
X
lim f (x + k) = g(x) (7.1)
p
p
100 12. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
P P
P
If we assume, however, that () < , then () = ()
(C,1)
Hence
p
X p
X
lim f (k) = lim ()
p p
p p
106 or
X
X
f (k) = () (7.2)
P
(iii) () converges,
then
X
X
f (k) = ()
2
The Theta Relation. If we take f (x) = ex t , t > 0, in the above
discussion, we obtain the required relation. However, we have to show
that for this function the conditions of Poissons formula are satisfied.
This is easily done. f (x) is obviously continuous in (, ). Secondly
2
e(x+k) t e|k|t for |k| k0 (t)
Z
2 t+2yi 1 2 /t
() ey dy = e
t1/2
For 107
Z
2
2
() = e t et y i dy, and
t
2
2 2 2 ) t(2 2 )
et Re(+i) = et( e t
Letting , we thus see that the integrals along the vertical lines
vanish. Hence we have, for all real ,
Z Z
t2 2
e d = et( t i) d
Thus
Z
2 /t 2
() = e et d
Z
2 /t 1 2
=e eu du
t
2 Z 2 Z
e /t 2 2 e /t 1 1
= e dv = ez z 2 dz
t t
0 0
2 2
e /t 1 1 e /t
= ( ) =
t 2 t
108 Hence we have the desired relation:
X
k2 t 1 X k2 /t
e = e , for t > 0, (7.3)
t
or, writing
X 2
(t) = ek t , we get
1
( ! )
1 1
2(t) + 1 = 2 +1 (7.4)
t t
Z
X 1 s/2 X 2
(s) = s
= en x x s/21 dx
1
n (s/2) n=1 0
Z X
s/2 n2 x
s/21
= e x dx
(s/2) 1
0
Z1 ( ! ) Z
s/21 1 1 1 1
= x + dx + (x)x s/21 dx
x x 2 x 2
0 1
Z1 ! Z
1 1 1
= + x s/23/2 dx +
s1 s x
0 1
Z
1 1
= + xs/2 2 + x s/21 (x)dx, (7.5)
s(s 1)
1
for > 1.
110 Now the integral on the right converges uniformly in a s b, for
if x 1, we have
s/21/2
x + x s/21 xb/21 + xa/21/2
while
X 1
(x) < enx = ,
1
ex 1
and hence the integral on the right hand side of (7.5) is an entire func-
tion. Hence (7.5) provides the analytic continuation to the left of = 1.
It also yields the functional equation directly. We have also deduced that
1
s/2 (s/2)(s)
s(s 1)
1 s/2 1 s/2
(s) = (s)
s(s 1) (s/2) s 1 2(s/2 + 1)
1/2 1
is an entire function. But = 1. Hence (s) is an
2(1/2 + 1) s1
entire function.
Lecture 13
(s) = (1 s);
105
106 13. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
s
s/2
(s) = + 1 (s 1)(s),
2
so that
1
(1) = 1/2 (3/2) 1 = ,
2
112 We shall next examine the location of the zeros of (s) and of (s).
Theorem 2. [11, p.48] (i) The zeros of (s) (if any !) are all situated in
the strip 0 1, and lie symmetrical about the lines t = 0 and = 21
(ii) The zeros of (s) are identical (in position and order of multi-
plicity) with those of (s), except that (s) has a simple zero at each of
the points s = 2, 4. 6, . . .
(iii) (s) has no zeros on the real axis.
s
Proof. (i) (s) = (s 1)s/2 2 + 1 (s)
h(s)(s), say.
The zeros, if any, are symmetrical about the real axis since ( ti)
are conjugates, and about the point s = 21 , since (s) = (1 s); they are
therefore also symmetrical about the line = 12 .
(ii) The zeros of (s) differ from those of (s) only in so far as h(s)
has zeros or poles. The only zero of h(s) is at s = 1. But this is not a
zero of (s) since (1) = 12 , nor of (s) for it is a pole of the latter.
The poles of h(s) are simple ones at s = 2, 4, 6, . . .. Since these
are points at which (s) is regular and not zero, they must be simple zeros 113
of (s). We have already seen this by a different argument on p.95.
(iii) Since (s) , 0 for < 0 and > 1, it is enough, in view of (ii),
to show that
() , 0, for 0 < < 1.
Now
To prove this we first notice that the relation is obvious for > 1,
and secondly each side is regular for > 0; the left side is obviously
regular for > 0 (in fact it is entire); and, as for the right side, we have
Z2n
1 1 dx
=
(2n 1) s (2n) s s s+1
x
2n1
108 13. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
|s|
+1
<
(2n 1) (2n 1)+1
if > and |s| < for any fixed and
But, if 0 < < 1, the above relation gives
1
log M(r) r log r, as r
2
Proof. For 2, we have
|(s)| (2),
so that
1
|(s)| < c2 |s|1/2 , for , |s| > 3.
2
Applying Stirlingls formula to (s/2), we get, for
1
, |s| = r > 3,
2
1 1
|(s)| < e| 2 s log 2 s|+c3 |s|
1
< e 2 r log r+c4 r ,
8. The zeros of (s) 109
s
since log = log |s| log 2 + i arg s, | arg s| < 2. From the equation
2
(s) = (1 s), we infer that
1
|(s)| < e 2 |1s| log |1s|+c4 |1s|
1
< e 2 r log r+c5 r
(iii) ( ! )
b0 +b1 s s s/
(s) = e 1 e ,
where b0 , b1 are constants;
(s)
!
P 1 1
(iv) = b1 + +
(s) s
(s) s
!
1 1
P 1 1
(v) =b +1 + + ,
(s) s1 2 2 s
110 13. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
where b = b1 + 21 log 2.
Proof. (0) = 12 , 0, and we apply the theory of entire functions as
developed in the earlier lectures. By Theorem 3, (s) is of order 1, and
the relation log M(r) = O(r) does not hold. Hence 1 = 1, (s) has
P 1
an infinity of zeros and diverges (by a previous theorem). This
||
proves (i), (ii) and (iii). (iv) follows by logarithmic differentiation. (v)
is obtained from (s) = (s 1)s/2 ( 2s + 1)(s).
We shall now show that (s) has no zeros on the line = 1.
116 First Proof. 2(1 + cos t)2 = 3 + 4 cos + cos 2 0 for real . Since
XX 1
log (s) = , for > 1,
m p
mpms
we have
X
log |(s)| = Re cn nti
n=2
X
= cn n cos(t log n),
n=2
1/m if n is the mth power of a prime
where cn =
0
otherwise.
Hence
log 3 () ( + ti)( + 2ti)
X
cn n 3 + 4 cos(t log n) + cos(2t log n)
=
0,
if > 1.
Now suppose 1 + ti(t 0) were a zero of (s); then, on letting
1 + 0, we see that the left hand side in the above inequality would
tend to a finite limit, viz. | (1 + ti)|4 |(1 + 2ti)|, while the right hand side 117
tends to . Hence (1 + it) , 0.
Second Proof. [11, p.89] We know from the 8th Lecture (1.12) that if
is real, and , 0, then
2 (s)(s i)(s + i) X |i (n)|2
f (s) = s
, > 1 (8.1)
(2s) n=1
n
while f ( 21 ) = 0. Thus (1 + i) , 0.
Remarks. (i) We shall show later on that this fact ((1 + it) , 0) is
equivalent to the Prime Number Theorem.
Let N(T ) denote the number of zeros (necessarily finite) of (s) in 0 118
1, 0 t T . Then, by what we have proved, N(T ) is the number
of zeros = + i of (s), or of (s), for which 0 < T
T T T
Theorem 1. N(T ) = log + O(log T ) as T .
2n 2 2
Proof. Suppose first that T is not equal to any . Also let T > 3. Con-
sider the rectangle R as indicated. (s) has 2N(T ) zeros inside it, and
none on the boundary. Hence, by the principle of the argument,
1
2N(T ) = [arg (s)]R ,
2
where [arg (s)]R denotes the increase in arg (s), as s describes the
boundary of R.
113
114 14. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
Now
1
[arg (s)]R = [arg s(s 1)]R + [arg (s)]R ,
2
where (s) = s/2 (s/2)(s). Here
1
[arg s(s 1)]R = 4,
2
119 and (s) has the properties: (s) = (1 s), and ( ti) are conjugates.
Hence
[arg (s)]R = 4[arg (s)]ABC
Hence
Now t T
[arg s/2 ]ABC = log = log . (9.2)
2 ABC 2
Next, since (z+) = (z+ 12 ) log zz+ 12 log 2+O(|z|1 ) as |z| ,
in any angle | arg z| < , we have
9. Riemann-Von Magoldt Formula 115
" !#
1
arg = im log (s/2) ABC
2 ABC
!
1 1
= im log + iT im log (1)
4 2
( ! ! )
1 1 1 1 1 1
= im + iT log iT iT + log 2 + O(T )
4 2 2 2 2
!
1 1 1 T
= T log T + O T 1 , as T (9.3)
2 2 8 2
Z
X 1 1 du 1
Re (2 + iT ) 1 2
> 1 2
2
= (9.6)
2
n 2 u 4
2
1
|g(s)| < c1 (|t + T |3/4 + |t T |3/4 )
2
< c1 (T + 2)3/4 ,
Thus
m < c2 log T, for T > T 0 .
Substituting this into (9.5) and (9.4) we get
N(T ) T log T + T c log T, T > T0,
3
2 2 2
provided that T , for any . The last restriction may be removed
by first taking T larger than T and distinct from the s and then letting
T T + 0.
Proof. If we write
t t t
f (t) = log ,
2 2 2
we get
f (t + h) f (t) = h f (t + h), 0 < < 1,
1 t
where f (t) = log . Now use the Theorem.
2 2
Corollary 2.
X 1 X 1 !
2 log T
S = O(log T ); S =O
0T
>T
2 T
(summed over all zeros whose imaginary parts satisfy the given con-
ditions).
Let 122
X1
sm = , m < m + 1, and
X 1
sm = , m < m + 1.
2
Then
[T ]
X
X
S sm , S sm
m=0 m=[T ]
Hence, as T ,
[T ]
X log m
S = O(1) + O = O(log2 T )
2
m
!
X log m log T
S = O = O
[T ]
m2 T
2n
|n | n , as n
log n
2N(n 1) (n 1) log(n 1)
n log n ,
Theorem. Let f (z) be regular in |z z0 | R and have n zeros (at least) 124
in |z z0 | r < R. Then, if f (z0 ) , 0.
R n M
,
r | f (z0 )|
where M = max | f (z)|
|zz0 |=R
so that
1
N= c arg f (z).
2
Lecture 15
121
122 15. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
If we write
(u) = (e4u )eu ,
126 we obtain
t Z
1
= (t2 + 1) (u) cos ut du
2 2
0
We wish now to get rid of the factor + 1) and the additive constant 12
(t2
so as to obtain (t/2) as a cosine transform of . This we can achieve
by two integrations (by parts). However, to get rid of the extra term
arising out of partial integration we need to know (0). We shall show
that (0) = 21 . For, by the functional equation of the theta-function,
" !#
1 1
1 + 2(x) = 1 + 2
x x
or
1 + 2(e4u ) = e2u [1 + 2(e4u )]
or
eu + 2eu (e4u ) = eu + 2eu (e4u )
or
eu + 2(u) = eu + 2(u)
d u
so that e + 2(u) u=0 = 0
du
1
i.e. (0) = .
2
We also know that (x) = O(ex ) as x . Hence
Z Z
1
t 2
(u) cos ut du = (u) cos ut du
2
0 0
10. Hardys Theorem 123
127 Hence
Z
(t/2) = [ (u) (u)] cos ut du (10.1)
0
Again if we write
1 1
(u) = eu (e4u ) + eu = (u) + eu
2 2
1 u 4u
= e (e ),
2
then by the theta relation, we have
Z
(t) = 2 f (u) cos ut du
0
and
1
g x (t) = f (x + t) + f (x t) f (x),
2
then
Z
2 sin Rt
S R (x) f (x) = g x (t) dt
t
0
Z Z
2
= + = I1 + I2 , say,
0
g x (t)
Theorem . [5, p.10] If is absolutely integrable in (0, ), then
t
lim S R (x) = f (x).
R
f (iu) = c0 + c1 u2 + c2 u4 +
Then
Z
(1)n f (2n) (0) 1
cn = = (t)t2n dt
(2n)! (2n)!
0
If (t) had only a finite number of zeros, then (t) would be of constant
sign for t > T . Let (t) > 0 for t > T . Then cn > 0 for n > 2n0 , since
Z T +2
Z ZT
2n 2n
(t)t dt > (t)t dt | (t)|t2n dt
0 T +1 0
T +2
Z ZT
2n 2n
> (T + 1) (t)dt T | (t)| dt
T +1 0
126 15. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
130
Hence f (n) (iu) increases steadily with u for n > 2n0 . However we
i
shall se that f (u), and all its derivatives, tend to zero as u along
4
the imaginary axis.
We know that
!
1/2 1 1 1 1
(x) = x + x 2
x 2 2
Further
X
X
2 (i+) 2
(i + ) = en = (1)n en
n=1 n=1
X
X
2 2
=2 e(2n) en
1 1
= 2(4) ()
! !
1 1 1 1 1
=
4 2
! !
1 1 1 1 1
i.e. + (i + ) =
2 4
1
Thus + (x) 0 as 0, and so do its derivatives (by a similar
2
i
argument). Hence 12 + (u) 0 as u along the imaginary axis,
4
i
and so do its derivatives. Thus f (u) and all its derivatives 0 as u .
4
Lecture 16
127
128 16. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
The series on the right converging absolutely for < < 0. Then
f (s) = a1 (s)(= g(s)).
1+i
Z
y 1
e = ys (s)ds, y>0 (1)
2i
1i
Z
a2 x bx
2 dx 2ab
e = e , a > 0, b 0. (2)
x a
0
132
The first formula is a classic example of Mellins inversion formula
which can be obtained as an instance of Fouriers inversion formula dis-
cussed in the last lecture. We have seen that if f (x) L1 (, ), then
its Fourier transform () is defined in < < , and if in a neigh-
bourhood of x0 , f (x) is differentiable, then
Z Z
1 ix0
f (x0 ) = e d f (y)eiy dy.
2
If we define
Z
F (s) = f (x)x s1 dx, (3)
0
Z
F (c + it) = f (ey )eyc eit y dy
Hence, provided that f (ey )eyc satisfies a suitable local condition, such
as differentiability in the neighbourhood of a point, we can invert this
16. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd) 129
134 so that
Z Z
cos x 2
12 (k2 y+ 4y )
dx = y e dy
x2 + k 2 2
0 0
= e||k , from (5).
2k
Setting k2 = a2 , 2 = 4b2 , we get
Z
a2 x bx
2 dx 2ab
e = e ,a > 0 b 0
x a
0
2, the function g(1 s) is regular and O(e|t| ). By (1.3), we see that
g(1 s) = O(1) on = 1 ; and, since f (s) = O(1) on = 2, while
(s/2)
= O(|t|3/2 ), on = 2,
( 1s
2 )
g(1 s) = O(|t|3/2 )
Hence
m
X m
X
R = xs /2 Q (log x) = Q(x), say, where
=1 =1
Q is a polynomial
1+i ! (1s)
(1 s) n2
Z 2
1 X bn
S2 = ds + Q(x)
x n=1 2i 2 x
1i
2 +1+i !s
n2
Z
2 X bn
= (s) ds + Q(x)
x n=1 2i x
2 +1i
2 X 2
= bn en /x + Q(x)
x n=1
2
Multiplying this by et x , t > 0, and integrating over (0, ) w.r.t. x, we
get
Z
X an X bn 2nt 2
2 2 + n2 )
=2 e + Q(x)et x dx
n=1
(t n=1
t
0
16. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd) 133
by (2).
The last integral is convergent. Since Re s 2 , = 1, 2, . . . m,
each term of Q(x) is O(x1+ 4 ) as x 0.
Now
Z Z m
t2 x 1 x X
Q(x)e dx = 2 Q ex dx = t s 2 H (log t),
t t2 1
0 0
The series on the left hand side is uniformly convergent in any finite
region of the t-plane which excludes t = ki, k = 1, 2, . . . ; It is a mero-
morphic function with poles of the first order at t = ki.
H(t) is regular and single-valued in the t-plane with the negative real 138
axis deleted and t , 0.
The right hand side is a periodic function of t with period i for
Re t > 0. Hence, by analytical continuation, so is the function on the
left. Hence the residues at ki, (k + 1)i are equal. So ak = ak+1
Lecture 17
135
136 17. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
141 Since
1 2
2u
log(1 u) u < , for 0 < u < 1,
1u
we have
X p2
log P(x) S (x) <
px
2(1 p1 )
12. The Prime Number Theorem 137
X 1 1
< =
n=2
2n(n 1) 2
Hence, by (1),
1
S (x) > log log x . (2)
2
(1) and (2) prove the theorem.
The Chebyschev Functions. Let
X X
(x) = log p, (x) = log p, x > 0.
px pm x
Grouping together terms of (x) for which m has the same value, we
get
(x) = (x) + (x1/2 ) + (x1/3 ) + , (3)
this series having only a finite number of non-zero terms, since (x) = 0
if x < 2.
Grouping together terms for which p has the same value ( x), we
obtain
X " log x #
(x) = log p, (4)
px
log p
since the number of values of m associated with a given p is equal to
" number
the # of positive integers m satisfying m log p x, and this is 142
log x
log p
Theorem 2. The functions
(x) (x) (x)
, ,
x/ log x x x
have the same limits of indetermination as x .
Proof. Let the upper limits (may be ) be L1 , L2 , L3 and the lower
limits be l1 , l2 , l3 , respectively. Then by (3) and (4),
X log x
(x) (x) log p = (x) log x.
px
log p
138 17. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
Hence
L2 L3 L1 . (5)
On the other hand, if 0 < < 1, x > 1, then
X
(x) log p {(x) (x )} log x
x <px
Also
Z
(s) (x)
=s dx, > 1.
(s) x s+1
1
12. The Prime Number Theorem 139
Proof. If > 1,
Z
1
= e(s1)u du
s1
0
Therefore
Z
1
g(s) f (s) = {A(u) eu }eus du
s1
0
Z
{B(u) 1}e(s1)u du,
0
where
B(u) A(u)eu
Take
s = 1 + + i.
Then
Z
g(1 + + i) g () = {B(u) 1}eu eiu du
0
Z2 !
1 || iy
g () 1 e d
2 2
2
Z2 ! Z
1 ||
= e iy
1 d {B(u) 1}euiu du.
2 2
2 0
Hence B(u) = O(e(/2)u ), which implies the first integral converges uni-
formly and absolutely.
Thus
Z2 !
1 iy ||
e 1 g ()d
2 2
2
Z2
Z !
1 i(yu) ||
= {B(u) 1}eu du
e 1 d
2 2
0 2
12. The Prime Number Theorem 141
Z
sin2 (y u)
= [B(u) 1]eu du
(y u)2
0
Now consider the limit as 0. The left hand side tends to 146
Z2 !
1 iy ||
e 1 g(1 + i)d
2 2
2
since g is analytic, or rather, since g () g(1 + i) uniformly. On the
right side, we have
Z 2 Z 2
u sin (y u) sin (y u)
e 2
du du.
(y u) (y u)2
0 0
Hence
Z
sin2 (y u)
lim eu B(u) du =
0 (y u)2
0
Z Z2
sin2 (y u)
!
iyt |t|
du + e 1 g(1 + it) dt
(y u)2 2
0 2
The integrand of the left hand side increases monotonically as 0; it
is positive. Hence by the monotone-convergence theorem,
Z Z
sin2 (y u) sin2 (y u)
B(u) du = du
(y u)2 (y u)2
0 0
Z2 !
iyt |t|
+ e 1 g(1 + it) dt
2
2
Now let y ; then the second term on the right-hand side tends to
zero by the Riemann-Lebesgue lemma, while the first term is
Zy Z
sin2 sin2 v
lim dv = dv =
y v2 v2
142 17. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
147 Hence
Zy
v sin2 v
lim B y dv = for every .
y v2
To prove that lim B(u) = 1.
u
Second Part.
(i) limB(u) 1.
For a fixed a such that 0 < a < y, we have
Za v sin2 v
lim B y dv
y v2
a
Zy Za Za Zy
v sin2 v
B y dv = + + ()
v2
a a
Zy
a
Z 2 Za
Z 2
sin v sin v
c dv + dv +
v2 v2
a a
Zy
a
Z 2 Za
Z 2
sin v sin v
c dv + dv +
v2 v2
a a
As before we get
a v
ey+a/ B y + eyv/ B y
or v a a+v a 2a/
B y B y+ e B y+ e
Therefore
Za Za
v sin2 v a 2a/ sin2 v
B y dv B y+ e dv
v2 v2
a a
Za
2a/
a sin2 v
e B y+ dv
v2
a
Zy
lim = lim =
y y
144 17. The Zeta Function of Riemann (Contd)
and
lim(c + (y)) c + lim(y),
that
a
Z Z 2 Za
sin v
c + 2 dv + lim
v
a a
Za
a 2a/ sin2 v
{ } + limB y + e dv
v2
a
Za
sin2 v
{ } + e2a/ limB(y) dv
v2
a
a
Let a , in such a way that 0.
Then
limB(y)
Thus
lim B(u) = lim A(u)eu = 1.
u u
or (x) x.
Now (s) is regular for > 0 except (possibly) for simple poles at the
zeros of (s). Now, if (x) = x + O(x), [which is a consequence of the
p.n. theorem], then, given > 0,
|(x) x| < x, for x x0 () > 1.
Hence, for > 1,
Zx0 Z
|(x) x|
|(s)| < dx + dx < K +
x2 x 1
1 x0
x n log n
or x y log y, y = (x) = n.
Hence
147
148 BIBLIOGRAPHY