High-

High-Strength Bolts: The Basics Role of the Structural

Fundamentals and Behavior
Specification Requirements (AISC)
Engineer
Engineer
Selection of suitable bolt
types and grades
Design of the fasteners
Responsibility for installation
Responsibility for inspection

ASTM A307 Bolts ASTM A325 Bolts

often a good choice when loads are Type 1 or Type 3 (weathering steel)
static
ASTM Spec. RCSC Spec.
strength level inferior to high-
high-
strength bolts (60
(60 ksi tensile ult.) Minimum tensile strength: 120 ksi
pretension indeterminate Pretension can be induced if desired

Comparison of Bolts: Direct Tension

ASTM A490 Bolts
7/8 in. dia. A490 bolt
80
Types 1 or Type 3 (weathering steel)
60 7/8 in. dia. A325 bolt
Minimum tensile strength: 150 ksi, bolt
tension
kips
(maximum 170 ksi) 40
7/8 in. dia. A307 bolt

ASTM Spec. RCSC Spec. 20

Pretension can be induced if desired

0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20

elongation (inches)
 Comments
Note: we quote the ultimate tensile
strength of the bolt
this is the benchmark for strength
statements (e.g. shear strength is some
fraction of ultimate tensile strength)
What about yield strength?
comments contd
Nuts: ASTM A563
Washers: if needed, ASTM F436
Bolt nut washer sets implied so
far, but other configurations
available

What is proof load

load

Loading of Bolts Shear Loading

Shear
load transfer by shear in bolt and
bearing in connected material OR
load transfer by friction (followed by
shear and bearing)
Tension
Combined Tension and Shear
Truss Joint

Bolts Loaded in Tension Bolts in Tension prying

Prying force Bolt force

bolts in tension

Applied force
these
bolts in
shear High-
High-strength bolts in tension can
be a source of problems!
 Bolts in combined tension and shear Consider a simple joint
bolts in
combined
bolts in shear shear and
P
tension
P

Finally...
P d
P
P{
and associated =
shear stress A
P/2 t
Free body P
of bolt P/2
P { a bearing force
note that this force is equal and
opposite to the bearing force shown
P previously

In the example, we identified

identified AISC Standard 2005
Parallel LRFD and ASD rules
force in the bolt (a shear force)
LRFD uses a resistance factor,
force that the bolt imposed on the plate (a ASD uses a safety factor,
bearing force)
Loads as appropriate:
force in the plate itself (a tensile force)
factored loads for LRFD
force transfer could also be by friction:
friction: non-factored loads for ASD
not included in this illustration
 Installation
AISC Standard contd
Snug-
Snug-tight only
LRFD: reqd strength LRFD R n
Pretensioned
ASD: reqd strength ASD R n / Calibrated wrench
Turn-
Turn-of-
of-nut
Other means:
9 Tension control bolts
9 Load-
Load-indicator washers

Behavior of a large joint (shear splice)

Bolts in Shear: Issues
Shear strength of bolt (single shear
average or double shear, threads in shear
bolt plane?)
shear
MPa
Bearing capacity of bolt (never
governs)
Bearing capacity of plate
Tensile (comp.) capacity of plate
deformation over , mm

Slip in bolted joints

joints
Can be as much as two hole
clearances
Some bolts will already be in bearing
at start of loading
Both laboratory tests and field
measurements indicate that slip is
more like 1/2 hole clearance
Bolts in shear-
shear-type connection:
Specifications distinguish between:
bearing type connections
slip-
slip-critical connections
Note: a slip-
slip-critical joint (service loads)
must also be checked as a bearing
joint (factored loads)
 Bearing-type connections: Bolts in bearing-
bearing-type connections
connections
Issues
bolt shear strength
Region of bearing-
bearing-
bearing capacity connected material

load
type behavior
member strength

Shear strength of bolts is not dependent

on presence or absence of pretension.
pretension
(How come?) deformation

Bolt Shear Strength Individual bolt in shear

Bolt shear strength 62% of bolt ultimate

tensile strength (theory
(theory + tests)
tests)
Design rule takes 80% of this value
Threads in shear plane?
Long joint effect: another discount
applied.

Physical test

Uneven loading
of bolts

(End four bolts of 13)

 Back to bolt in shear
Bolt Pretension v. Shear
The bolt pretension is attained as a result of small Shear strength
axial elongations introduced as nut is turned on
of single bolt
These small elongations are relieved as shear (tests)
deformations and shear yielding take place

Confirmed by both bolt tension measurements

and shear strength tests
= 0.62 u bolt
So, bolt shear strength NOT dependent on
pretension in the bolt.

Shear deformation

Bolts in Shear AISC

nominal shear strength
R n = Fv A b
= 0.75
R n = design shear strength Fv = 80% (0.62 Fu ) = 0.50 Fu

Fv = nominal shear strength, ksi

Thus
Thus Comments
The discount for length (use of 80%) is
A325 bolts : Fv = 0.50 120 ksi = 60 ksi conservative
A 490 bolts : Fv = 0.50 150 ksi = 75 ksi If joint length > 50 in., a further 20%
reduction
these are the values given in
The value used for this case (0.75) is
Table J3.2 of the Specification for
also conservative.
the thread excluded case. For
threads included,
included, the tabulated
values are 80% of the above.
Let
Lets return now to slip-
slip-critical
connections
connections Slip-Critical Connection
Clamping force from bolts (bolt pretension)

Load at which slip takes place

will be a function of ?

Slip-
Slip-critical joints specified when
when
Bolts in slip-
slip-critical connections
connections Load is repetitive and changes
from tension to compression
(fatigue by fretting could
occur.)
Change in geometry of
load

structure would affect its

performance.
region of slip-
slip-critical Certain other cases.
joint behavior
Comment:
Comment: for buildings, slip-
slip-
deformation critical joints should be the
exception, not the rule (but,
see also seismic rules)

Slip-critical criteria: Which one do we use?

Choice:
No slip at service loads: e.g. fatigue
a serviceability limit state (no slip under
loading
the service loads) OR

a strength limit state (no slip under the

No slip at factored loads: e.g. long-
long-
factored loads). Note: AISC 2005 differs span flat roof truss (ponding could
from 1999. result as factored loads attained)
First principles, slip resistance is Design slip resistance, AISC

R n = D u h sc Tb N s
P = ks n Ti
no. slip planes
ks = slip coefficient () clamping force
slip coefficient
n = number of slip planes (usually 1 or 2)
Ti = clamping force (i.e., bolt pretension) terms , hsc and Du need to be defined

and the modifiers Bolts in Tension

h sc = modifier re hole condition Capacity of a bolt in tension: product of
e.g., oversize hole, slotted hole etc. the ultimate tensile strength of the bolt
and the tensile stress area of the bolt
D u = 1.13, ratio of installed bolt (i.e. Fu Ast )

tension to specified minimum bolt tension Specifications directly reflect this

calculated capacity (
(to come)
= resistance factor Force in bolt must reflect any prying
action affect
= 1.0 no slip at service loads ( = 1.4)
= 0.85 no slip at factored loads ( = 1.5)

Bolts in Tension some comments Question

Preference: avoid joints that put bolts pretensioned bolt in a connection
into tension, especially if fatigue is an
issue apply external tension force to the
Use A325 bolts rather than A490 bolts connection

Minimize the prying action do the bolt pretension and the

external tension add?
Bolt tension + external tension
And the result is
1. Pretension the bolt tension in
the bolt, compression in the plates The bolt force does increase, but not
2. Add external tension force on by very much ( 7%)
connection This increase is accommodated
Bolt tension increases within the design rule.
Compression between plates decreases

Examine equilibrium and compatibility

compatibility

AISC rule, bolts in tension What is nominal tensile strength, Fnt ?

bolt area for nominal

R n = Fnt A b
diameter Pult = Fu A st = Fu (0.75A b )

nominal tensile strength or, Pult = 0.75 Fu A b Adjusted area

R n = design tensile strength

{
Call this Fnt

So, the AISC rule for bolts in tension

tension Returning to shear splice joints,
we still have to deal with the
R n = Fn t A b bearing capacity of the connected
material.
where Fnt = 0.75 Fu as tabulated d
in the Specification
As we now know, the 0.75 really P/2 t
has nothing to do with Fu P
P/2
 Bearing capacity (of Bearing stresses at bolt holes
holes
s Le
connected material)

Needed:
Shear-
Shear-out of a Lc 1. shear-
shear-out rule
block of material t1 2. yield rule
or yielding t2
(deformation)

Shear-
Shear-out rule
rule Plate bearing
b Le
from tests: =
Shear - out is 2 ( ult Lc t ) pl
u d

or, R n = 2 ( 0.75 u Lc t )
L
and, some arithmetic gives R n = b d t = upl e d t
d
and AISC rule is: R n = 1.5 Fu Lc t
valid for L e 3 d

Plate bearing Finally, the AISC rule for

plate bearing capacity is
Making the substitution and using
Fu pl
u R n = 1.5 Fu Lc t 3.0 d t Fu

R n = 3 d t Fu
(with a -value still to be inserted)
 Further note re bearing
bearing

When deformation a consideration,

use
Block shear
rupture
R n = 1.2 Fu L c t 2.4 d t Fu

Why this difference, and when do we

use the latter?

Failure (ult. load) is Basics

by tensile fracture at
location shown,
Tr + Vr = A nt Fu + 0 .60 A gv Fy
regardless of
geometric where A nt = net area in tension
proportions.
and A gv = gross area in shear
Shear yield along vertical
planes. tension fracture shear yield

Failure is controlled by
ductility not strength. There are some other requirements, including
specific case of coped beams.

Back to installation
An example of
shear + tension
failure in a
coped beam
beam
Bearing-
Bearing-Type Connections
Connections Installation
Installation of Bolts

Bolts can be installed to snug-

snug-tight
condition ordinary effort of worker using
a spud wrench. (Pretension unknown, but
usually small) bring parts together, continue turning nut,
bolt elongates, tension develops in bolt, and
clamped parts compress

Calibrated Wrench Installation Hydraulic calibrator

Reliable relationship between torque
and resultant bolt tension?
NO ! (and is forbidden by RCSC)
Establish relationship by calibration
of the installing wrench.

Calibrated wrench, contd Turn-of-Nut Installation

Adjust wrench to stall or cut out at Run nut down, bring parts into close
desired level of bolt pretension contact
Target value of pretension (RCSC) is Work from stiffer regions to edges
1.05 times specified min. value
Establish snug-
snug-tight
tight condition (first
Calibrate using at least three bolts impact of impact wrench or full effort of
worker using a spud wrench)
Calibration is unique to bolt lot,
length, diameter, grade of bolt Apply additional one-
one-half turn (or other
value, depending on bolt length)
Washers must be used
Does this 60 Bolt Tension by Turning the Nut

definition of bolt specified minimum

snug-
snug-tight tension 40
(kips)
tension

seem a little 20
vague?
0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
range of bolt bolt elongation (in.)
elongations
at snug

How influential is snug-tight? bolt elongation at one-half turn

Bolt Tension by Turning the Nut

60
Inspection of Installation
bolt specified minimum
tension 40 tension Principles:
(kips)
20 Determination of the bolt pretension
after installation is not practical

0.02 0.04
Understand the requirements e.g., are
bolt elongation (in.) pretensioned bolts required?
Monitor the installation on the site
Proper storage of bolts is required
bolt elongation at one-half turn

Inspection of Installation Inspection of installation:

Consider the following AISC cases
Is bolt tension required? if not, why
inspect for it ! 1. Bolts need be snug-
snug-tight only
Know what calibration process is required 2. Bolts are pretensioned (but not a slip-
slip-
and monitor it on the job site
critical joint)
Observe the work in progress on a regular
basis 3. Slip-
Slip-critical joint
 Inspection snug tight
Snug tight only.
Bolts, nuts, and washers (if any) must meet
Bearing-type connections the requirements of the specifications
Hole types (e.g., slotted, oversize) must
Bolts in tension (A325 only) meet specified requirements
only when no fatigue or vibration (bolt Contact surfaces are reasonably clean
could loosen)
Parts are in close contact after bolts
snugged
All material within bolt grip must be steel

Inspection: if pretensioned bolts required

required
Inspection: for slip-
slip-critical joints
All of requirements for snug-
snug-tight case
Observe the pre-
pre-installation verification process
All of the above, plus
turn of nut, or;
calibrated wrench, or; Condition of faying surfaces, holes, etc.
other (direct tension washers, tension-
tension-control In addition to observing the calibration
bolts) process, the inspection must ensure that
Calibration process done minimum once per day the same process is applied to the field
joints
Calibration process done any time conditions
change

An inspected joint (turn-

(turn-of-
of-nut) and some other comments
comments
Pretension values greater than
those specified are not cause
for rejection.
Rotation tests are useful for
short-grip bolts or coated
fasteners (requirement is in
ASTM A325 spec. and is for
galvanized bolts)
 Actual pretensions, contd
For A325 bolts, turn-of-nut:
Average tensile strength exceeds spec.
min. tensile by about 1.18
Average pretension force is 80% of
actual tensile
Result is that actual bolt tension is
about 35% greater than specified bolt
tension

Actual pretensions, contd Some other options for bolts

A325, turn-of-nut: 35% increase
A490, turn-of-nut: 26% increase
A325 and A490, calibrated wrench: 13%
increase
etc. for other cases

Note: these increased pretensions are

embodied in the specification rules

Tension Control Bolts Tension control bolts.

region of
constant torque
NOTE: evidence that tips have
sheared off is not in itself evidence
that desired pretension is present
Consider limits:
Friction conditions are very high
high
ASTM F1852, Friction conditions are very low
low
F2280 groove at which shear
will take place
Hence, calibration is essential!
 Tension-Control Bolts Direct tension indicators
Advantages
Installation is from one side
Electric wrench is used
Installation is quiet

Disadvantages
More expensive
Pre-installation calibration required

Direct Tension Indicators Reliability of these...

Protrusions formed in Calibration required
special washer Reliability same as calibrated wrench
Protrusions compress Tension-
Tension-control bolt is torque-
torque-dependent
as force in bolt is
developed Load-
Load-indicating washer is elongation-
elongation-
Use feeler gage to dependent
measure gap (or refusal) ASTM 959
User must verify the process
(like calibrated wrench)

Some additional topics Seismic design of connections

Analyze structure in order to
Details, other topics compute the forces
washers (but not today!) Use FEMA 350 and/or AISC Seismic
slotted or oversize holes (but not today!) Design Spec.
seismic design
With forces now known, design
connectors
Advisable to use pre-
pre-qualified
configurations
 Pre-
Pre-qualified bolted connections

All-
All-bolted connection

Note: some details not shown,

e.g., continuity plates

bolted joints, seismic design Seismic design, cont

All bolts pretensioned
Faying surfaces as per slip-critical
Use bearing values for bolts
moderate quakes: no slip
major quakes: slip will occur and bolts go into bearing
Normal holes or short slotted only (perpendicular)
No bolts + welds in same faying surface
contd
Non-ductile limit state in either member or
connection must not govern.
Calculate bolt shear strength as per
bearing type but use 2.4 d t Fu bearing rule
Must use expected yield and ultimate
strengths, not the specified values
e.g. A36 plate : use 1.3 y spec.

It all started with rivets. Design

example:
gusset plate
connection
 Determine ultimate load for this gusset Set out the issues
issues
plate (which is one that was tested)
14.76 Brace force in tension
tension
2 30 slip load of bolts (no slip at service load)
3@2.76=8.27
Fy = 39.9 ksi shear load of bolts
15.75

Fu = 69.0 ksi bearing capacity of plate

7/8 A325 bolts 2.68 block shear
7.22
(holes 15/16 in.) t = 0.26 in.

Pu test =164 kips

(compression) 19.69

Continuing
Continuing Slip load (calculate at factored load level)

R n = D u h sc Tm N s (per bolt )
Brace force in compression
slip capacity of bolts (already checked for load = 0.35 (clean mill scale) h sc = 1.0 (std. holes)
in tension)
shear capacity of bolts (already checked for
2 2
A b = d / 4 = 0.60 in. (7/8 in.dia.)
load in tension) Fu = 120 ksi (A325 bolts)
bearing capacity of plate (already checked) n = 8 bolts N s = 2 slip planes = 1.0
block shear (doesn
(doesnt apply)
capacity of gusset plate in compression (New) Tm = spec. min. bolt pretension = (0.75 A b )( Fu )70%
= 0.75 0.60 in.2 120 ksi 70% = 37.88 kips

Shear resistance of bolts

Slip load calculation cont
contd.
R n = Fv A b
R n = D u h sc Tm N s ( per bolt )
Use =1.0 so that we can compare this
= 0.35 1.13 1.0 37.88 kip 2 slip planes load with the test load, assume threads in
shear plane, no joint length effect
= 29.96 kips / bolt
Fv = 80% [0.62 120 ksi] = 60 ksi
or, for 8 bolts, 240 kips
R n = 1.0 60 ksi 0.60 in.2 = 36.0 kips ( per bolt )
Finally, R n = 1.0 240 kips = 240 kips
or, for 8 bolts, 2 shear planes, threads in shear plane
= (36.0 8 2)kips 0.80 = 461 kips
 Bearing resistance (use = 1.0)
Bearing resistance
resistance
R n = 1.5 Fu L c t 3.0 d t Fu
the governing value is 41.2 kips/bolt
and, for 8 bolts
3 d t Fu =
3 7 / 8 in. 0.26 in. 69.0 ksi = 47.1 k/bolt Bearing resistance is 330 kips

1.5 Lc t Fu =
1.5 1.53 in. 0.26 in. 69.0 ksi = 41.2 k

Block shear
Block shear, cont
contd
2.00
3@2.76=8.27 Tr = 0.45 in.2 69.0 ksi = 31.0 kips

Vr = 0.60 5.34 in.2 39.9 ksi = 127.8 kips

A nt = (0.26)( 2.68 15 / 16) = 0.45 in.2

2.68 and the total block shear resistance
A gv = (8.27 + 2.00)2 0.26 = 5.34 in.2 (unfactored) is 158.8 kips

Tr + Vr = A nt Fu + 0.60 A gv Fy

Brace force in compression: Checking the buckling

buckling
Whitmore method (checks yield)
Thornton method (checks buckling)
Modified Thornton method (checks
buckling)
issue is sway
buckling in
this region
 Whitmore
method
method. Thornton method
method
30

Use beam formulae to Use longest (or

check perceived average) of L1, L2, L3
critical sections to compute a
buckling load on a 30
Use 30o , as shown to
check yielding at unit width column, L1
location shown. then apply this to the
total width.
Does not predict
ultimate capacity very Use k = 0.65 in the L2
well, usually column formulae
conservative but
sometimes non-
non- L3
conservative

Thornton method, modified Yam & Cheng gusset plate tests

(U of A, 13 tests)
L1 45o
As per Thornton Pu Pu Pu
method but PW PT PT '
spread load out
at 45o L2 mean 1.33 1.67 1.06

std. dev. 0.26 0.12 0.08

L3
well use this method

Calculations for buckling capacity: Consider a 1 in. wide

strip that is 9.65 in. long
L1 Using scale dwg. width = 1
L2 = 9.65 in. length =9.65
t = 0.26
Width of the 45o
L2
base is 19.2 in.
1
I 1 0.263
r= = 12 = 0.0751 in.
L3 A 0.26 1

c Pn = c A g Fcr (use c = 1.0)

and then completing the calculations,
Fcr = (0.658
Fy / Fe
) Fy use k = 0.65 Pn = 6.91 kips (on a 1 in. wide strip)
And applying this to the total width
width
Summary of our calculations
Pu = (6.91 k/in.) (19.2 in.) = 132 kips

Brace slip bolt plate block buckling test

and the test ultimate load on this particular Force load shear bearing shear load
specimen was 164 kips

so, Pu / PT = 1.23 Tension 226 461 330 159

(The corresponding ratios for Whitmore Compress. 132 164

and Thornton for this specimen were 1.31
and 1.80)

Some references References, cont

Load and Resistance Factor Design
Specification for Structural Joints
Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts,
Research Council on Structural
Connections, 2004 (RCSC)
(free download available at
boltcouncil.org)
contd.
G.L. Kulak, J.W. Fisher, and J.A.H. Struik, Guide
Joints,
to Design Criteria for Bolted and Riveted Joints,
Second Edition, John Wiley, New York, 1987 (free
download at RCSC website)
Bickford, John H., "An Introduction to the Design
and Behavior of Bolted Joints," Second Edition,
Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 1990
G.L. Kulak, A Bolting Primer for Structural
Engineers, AISC Design Guide 17, Chicago, 2002
Engineers,