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Green and Emmerson also show how the solution of bending moment, but did not measure stresses at the
Kornecki may be obtained by the same basic method. An joints. Markl (11) tested gussetted bends welded on the
alternative derivation of the results of Green and Emmer- outside surface only, under alternating in-plane and out-
son, using the normal shell theory equations, is given in of-plane bending.
Appendix I. The only theoretical work on mitred bends
subjected to bending loads, known to the authors, is a
section in Green and Emmerson's paper. The results of THE EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
this section are not confirmed by experiment and are Details of models
briefly discussed at the end of the paper. The theory of Green and Emmerson (I) assumes that the
mitre angle is small, and also makes certain assumptions
Previous experimental work concerning the order of magnitude of the stress com-
Experimental work has been carried out by Lane and Rose ponents and displacements. In order to test the validity
(7) who tested separately 12-in diameter, +in thick 90" of these assumptions, and to assess the range of mitre
lobster-back, steel, welded bends with 223" and 15" mitre angle within which the theory applies, experiments were
angles, under internal pressure, in-plane bending and performed with models made of an epoxy casting resin,
out-of-plane bending in one case, measuring stresses at using the stress-freezing technique of photoelasticity. It
the joints and midway between the joints using wire was found possible to manufacture accurate, reasonably
resistance strain gauges 3 in long. Lane and Rose point small, models of an ideal joint, the mitred pipe lengths
out that, owing to the high strain gradient near to the being cemented together and the surplus adhesive being
joint, it is doubtful whether the true maximum strain was trimmed off to make a perfectly sharp joint. The variation
measured. Turner (4) quotes the results of an internal of pipe wall thickness around the pipe circumference,
pressure test on a single right-angled mitred bend made and the deviation from true circularity, of the pipe lengths
from 9-in diameter, &-in thick steel pipe reinforced at were negligible. Using this method a comprehensive
the intersection by a heavy elliptical plate. Good agree- picture of the stress distribution in the vicinity of the
ment with the theory of (2) is shown provided that a joint was obtained. It was then possible to assess the
suitable datum for the longitudinal measurement from the accuracy of the theory without having to take account of
joint is chosen. Macfarlane (8) tested a slightly wider range imperfections of manufacture such as out-of-circularity
of lobster-back bends under alternating in-plane and of pipe, variation of pipe-wall thickness, welding imper-
out-of-plane bending, and alternating internal pressure. fections, reinforcing effect of weld, etc.
Mackenzie and Beattie (9) tested an 80-in diameter, I n all, eight models were pressure tested (Fig. 2) with
li-in thick single 90" mitred joint under internal pressure a mean pipe diameter of 4 in, wall thicknesses of 0.1 in
using wire resistance strain gauges, and repeated their and 0.2 in, and bend angles (201) of 30", 60",75" and 90".
tests with a reinforcing ring at the intersection. Gross and The tube diameter was governed by consideration of
Ford (10) tested a lobster-back bend loaded by an in-plane oven space and the 0.1-in thickness was chosen as the
h, in I 0.1 1 0.2
a, degrees
L , in
45
12
I
1
45
10
I, 3 7 f / 309 '
10
15
7
minimum practicable for machining purposes. The solenoid valve. The air receiver was initially primed to
0.2 in thick models were tested to indicate the effect of the required pressure, after which electrodes were brought
wall thickness to pipe diameter ratio. An in-plane bending into positions in close proximity to the mercury meniscus
test was carried out on a model with a mean diameter of in each limb of the manometer. A rise in pressure, caused
4 in, wall thickness 0.1 in, and bend angle (2a) 30". by the initial heating of the specimen during the 'stress-
freezing' cycle, resulted in the mercury contacting the
Construction of models appropriate electrode which energized an electrical relay
bringing into operation the solenoid valve and thereby
The models were made of Araldite CT200, using 30
releasing air from the system. After a predetermined time
parts of hardener to 100 parts of resin. The models were
interval, the solenoid valve was closed by the action of a
cured at 110°C for 16 h, and then cooled to room tempera-
micro-switch operated by a motor-driven cam, unless the
ture at 13 degC/h. The moulds for casting the pipes were
mercury was still in contact with the electrode, in which
steel cylinders in which were inserted thin cylindrical,
case the operation was repeated. A fall in pressure, caused
slightly tapered cores made of cold-cure silicone rubber,
by air leakage or cooling of the specimen, brought the
reinforced with a wrapping of surgical bandage, the shape
pump into operation by a similar sequence of events. It
of the core during the curing process being maintained
was found possible to maintain the pressure constant to
by a split thin steel liner. The pipes were turned and bored
within a maximum tolerance of f0.01 in of mercury.
on a lathe and an accuracy of better than f l per cent
When testing, each specimen was placed in an oven
was achieved with pipes of a wall thickness of 0.1 in and
with the plane containing both axes of the pipes horizontal,
a mean diameter of 4 in. In order to minimize end effects,
so that the specimen could be supported along its whole
the ends of the pipes remote from the intersection were
length, to minimize the effects of self-weight, the under-
closed with hemispherical caps, the pressure connection
side of the specimen being coated with silicone grease to
being made to one of the caps.
permit movement under load (Fig. 3). Pressure was applied
The mitring and slicing was carried out on a bench
to the inside of the specimen through a flexible silicone
surface grinder fitted with an 8-in diameter, -&-in thick
rubber pipe and was maintained to an accuracy of f1 per
diamond-impregnated cutting wheel.
cent. The temperature of the oven was raised t o 135"C,
Some of the slices were further machined on a surface
maintained at this value for 2 h and then reduced at a rate
grinder using a fairly coarse grit wheel in order to pro-
of 2 degC/h to 16°C when the specimen was removed for
duce a better surface or a thinner slice. Neither of these
slicing.
machining operations was found to produce any measur-
I n the case of the specimen subjected to an in-plane
able stress in the slices.
bending moment, the load was applied by using a cali-
The pipes and end caps were cemented together with
brated opposed-piston device in conjunction with the
cold curing Araldite MY.753 using special vee-blocks.
pressure-compensating device described above. The axes
The cement was allowed to cure until it had attained a
of the opposed pistons were 2 in apart, thereby enabling
putty-like consistency after which the surplus cement was
a pure couple to be produced by the application of air
scraped from the inside and outside surfaces of the pipes
pressure to the pistons (Fig. 4). The opposed pistons had
to produce a sharp joint.
knife-edged ends which applied the bending moment to
the specimen through a circular rod which was free to
Method of testing rotate or translate in a special linear-motion ball-bearing
The dimensions of the eight bends tested are shown in
Fig. 2. The pipe lengths were reduced for the tests with
0.2 in wall thickness since results for the thinner pipes
showed that the stress distribution was sensibly uniform
at a distance of 2 in from the intersection. The internal
pressures used were estimated to give maximum stresses
of about 40 lb/in2, and varied from 0.5 lb/in2 to 2 lb/in2.
These pressures were kept as low as possible, consistent
with accurate measurement of fringe order, to reduce
distortion of the model. (A uniaxial stress of 40 lb/in2
produced a direct strain of 0.019 in Araldite CT.200 under
frozen-stress conditions.) T o avoid variations of pressure
over the interior of the model, air was used for applying
the internal pressure.
The air pressure was applied to the specimen from an
air receiver, which was connected to a low-pressure pump
and a solenoid-operated valve. The pressure was measured
using a mercury manometer, which was also used as a
mercury switch to control the operation of the pump and Fig. 3. Pressurized model in oven
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE Vo15 No 4 1963
-in f - in
u Hoop principal stress variation along axis of 0 = 0". b Hoop principal stress variation along axis of 0 = 180".
in Fig. 8b and c. The theoretical and experimental results Fig. 9a and b and are compared with those for h = 0.1 in,
for the distortion of the section of join are seen to be in a = 15", discussed in the previous section. The agreement
good agreement, as might have been expected in view of is less good for the bend with 0.2 in wall thickness, the
the close correspondence of theoretical and experimental maximum measured hoop principal stress at the section
stresses. For the distortion of the bend along the axis of of join (at 8 = 0 ') being 11-12 per cent less than the
B = go", no theoretical values can be obtained as the theoretical value. Curves for h = 0.2 in corresponding
analysis provides an edge solution from which the dis- to Figs 7 and 8 for h = 0.1in are not presented, since the
placements remote from the joint cannot be predicted. difference in degree of agreement between theory and
The experimental results show a slight opening out of the experiment for the two values of h is very small, and
joint. As stated previously, these measurements are of indicates that for these values of h the thickness effect is
low accuracy and should be regarded as qualitative only. not important.
Effect of wall thickness for the small angle bend Effect of increasing the mitre angle
Values of hoop and normal principal stresses at the The effect of increasing the mitre angle is now discussed
section of join for h = 0-2 in, a = 15", are shown in for the models for which h = 0.1 in. The most significant
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE VolS No 4 1963
e = 1800
PLANE
JOIN OF /T*\
PIPES AT SECTION OF
JOIN
9-00
g 10
tm
al
U
I 5
P
0
0 01 0 2 0 3 0 4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0 0 1
t - in I- in
+
F-5
&PLANE OF
.JOIN
C 0
-
SCALE OF DISPLACEMENTS
001 0.02
- in
a Inclination of mid-wall longitudinal principal stress (&, +,) b Distortion of section of j in.
along pipe. - - - - - - Theoretical d! placements.
o Measured inclinations. o Measured dis] acements.
c Distortion along ( 0 = 90') axis of pipes.
o Measured displacements.
a = 2 in, h = 0.1 in, a = 15", pressure loading.
Fig. 8
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE Vol5 No 4 1963
e - degrees 8 - degrees
a Hoop principal stress variation around section of join. b Normal principal stress variation around section of join.
a = 2 in, h = 0.2 in, u = 15', pressure loading.
Experimental Theoretical
A p = l p = l
r) p = O p = o
p=-l ______ p = -1
Fig. 9
variations can be seen in Figs 10-15*. Three main trends from the predictions of the theory as a is increased.
are observed. Large deflections develop in the region 0 = 60" to
(1) As the mitre angle increases the distribution of 0 = 75", forming a 'bulge' in the deflected shape. The
hoop principal stress in the plane of the joint through position of the bulge coincides with the region in which
the pipe wall (Fig. 10) becomes non-linear and the the large hoop bending stresses mentioned under trend
discrepancy between theoretical and experimental (1) above occur. The inclination + E of the hoop prin-
results increases. For values of a > 30" (Fig. 10b and c) cipal stress at the middle surface to the tangent to the
a hoop bending stress is observed in the vicinity of middle surface has its greatest values in the region
B = 60" to 0 = 75", which is not predicted by the 0 = 70" to 8 = 100" as shown by Fig. 15. The magni-
theory. At the same time, the hoop bending stress at tudes of + E in this region increase as a is increased,
0 = 0", which is the position of maximum stress, is The three trends described above are quite consistent.
reduced, and in fact changes sign for values of 01 The large deflections at 0 = 60" to 0 = 75", which are
greater than about 373". The variation of hoop prin- not predicted by the theory, relieve the hoop bending
cipal stress at 0 = 0, with a, is shown in Fig. lla. stress at 0 = 0" at the section of join and produce a large
(2) The variation of hoop principal stress along the hoop bending stress at 0 = 60" to 0 = 75". This redistri-
axes of 0 = 0" and 0 = 180" (Figs 12 and 13) continues bution of hoop bending stress entails the movement of
to show good agreement with the theory in respect of the position of the change-over as described in trend (2)
decay of amplitude, and wavelength of fluctuation. above.
Along the axis of 0 = 0", however, it is observed that It should be noted that the hoop stresses for a = 15"
for values of a up to about 37+", the position of the first are approximately asymmetrical about the ordinate
point at which the hoop bending stress changes sign, through 8 = 90" and the axis of zero stress. Theory
moves towards the section of join as CL is increased, and predicts that this asymmetry should persist for all values
for values of a greater than 373", this first change-over of a. It is seen (Fig. 10) that with the development of the
point vanishes. (Along the axis of 0 = 180", this effect bulge as a approaches 30", this asymmetry is lost and
is considerably less marked. The change-over point is the distributions of hoop stress for 90" < 0 < 180" are
less well defined, and the movement in its position is greatly dissimilar in form to those for 0 < B < 90". In
much smaller.) the discussion, interest centres on the region 0 < B < 90"
(3) The measured distortion of the middle surface of since it is in this range that the highest stresses are found.
the section of join (Fig. 14) shows increasing divergence Curves for the normal principal stress variation around
* In view of the large number of graphs, some of the curues for the section of join, and for the longitudinal principal stress
u = 374" have been omitred. variation along the axes 0 = 0 and 0 = 180" are not shown
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE V o l 5 No 4 1963
8-degrees 8-degrees
a Hoop principal stress variation around section of join (a = 30 ). b Hoop principal stress variation around section of join (a = 37t").
-3'0m
-
-4.0
5.0
0 15 30 45 60 75
e - degrees
90 105 120 135 150 165 180
Fig. 10
JOURNAL M E C H A N I C A L E N G I N E E R I N G S C I E N C E Vo15 No 4 1963
c z
c
HOOP PRINCIPAL STRESS, p a / h
R
ELASTIC STRESSES IN SINGLE MITRED BENDS 315
5 l5
9
w- 1.0
ln
W
K
I-
ln
-I
2 0
V
-z
K
a
8-1 0
0 p=-l p = -1
Fig. 13
for a = 30", 373", and 45" since they exhibit little signi- pipe when u is about 374", the position of the change-over
ficant difference in form from those for a = 15". being slightly different for the O.l-in and 0.2-in wall
As in the case of the small angle bend, the hoop principal thickness of pipe. The magnitude of the maximum stress
stress and the longitudinal principal stress attain the values falls increasingly below the theoretical value as u is in-
for a long thin-walled circular cylindrical pipe with closed creased, and for values of a between 30" and 45",is close
ends, within one-third of a pipe diameter of the section to the theoretical stress at the mid wall of the pipe (the
of join, for all the models tested. This is again contrary so-called 'membrane' stress).
to the predictions of the theory of van der Neut (5). The
curves giving the variation of inclination of longitudinal Effect of variations in the value of Poisson's ratio
principal stress at mid wall show little variation with a. Since the experimental results were obtained with a
The measurements of bend distortion, as in the case of material for which Poisson's ratio was constant at 0.5,the
the small angle bend, show a slight opening out of the effect of varying Poisson's ratio can only be assessed by
bend. The measured'values for a = 45" are shown in consideration of the theory. The largest stresses are the
Fig. 16, values for a = 30" and a = 373" being inter- circumferential stresses, uo, at the intrados at the section
mediate between these values and those for CL = 15". of join (5 = 0, 0 = 0) and are given by equation (40) in
Appendix I. For a = 15", a = 2 in, h = 0-1 in, the maxi-
Effect of wall thickness mum theoretical value of uo is at the outer surface and is
The correspondence between theory and experiment for 2*465p(a/h)for v = 0-5 and 2.09p(a/h) for v = 0.25, a
models with h = 0.2 in differs little from that shown by difference of some 15 per cent. For a = 45", a = 2 in,
results for the models of the same mitre angle with h = 0.1 in, experiment indicates that the bending stresses
h = 0.1 in, and as in the case of the small angle bend, the are small, and the calculated membrane stresses only are
conclusion reached is that for these values of h, the thick- compared. These have the values 3*74p(u/h)for Y = 0.5
ness effect is small, as is predicted by theory. and 3-91p(a/h) for Y = 0.25, a difference of 4.5 per cent.
It thus appears that in applying the experimental results
Variation of maximum stress with mitre angle to mitred bends made of a material with a value of
Poisson's ratio differing from 0.5, some allowance should
For all values of a, the maximum stress is a hoop principal be made for the difference.
stress in the section of join at 0 = 0".The theoretical and
experimental values of the hoop principal stress at this
station for h = 0.1 in and h = 0-2in are shown at the BENDING RESULTS
inside mid wall, and outside of the pipe, for various values Figures 17-19 show the experimental results.
of in Fig. 1la and b. Theory predicts that this maximum
C( Examination of these curves shows that the theory of
stress occurs at 0 = 0" on the outside of the pipe for all Green and Emmerson (I) is unsatisfactory for the mitred
values of CL.Experiment shows that the position of maxi- joint loaded by a bending moment. Fig. 18, giving the
mum stress, while remaining at 0 = O", changes from the variation of hoop and longitudinal stress along the length
outside surface of the pipe to the inside surface of the of the pipe, indicates that the experimental values contain
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE Vol5 No 4 1963
S C A L E O F MIDDLE SURFACE
=FULL SIZE
0 0.05 0.10
- in
- - - - - - Theoretical displacements.
0 Measured displacements.
a Distortion of section of join (a = 30").
b Distortion of section of join (a = 45").
Fig. 14
10
n
u s
$ 0
0
1-5
.-
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
P
- 10
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180
e-degrees B-degrees
a For a = 30". b For a = 45".
a = 2 in, h = 0.1 in, pressure loading; $E is defined in Fig. 8a.
0 Measured inclinations.
Fig. 15. Inclination of mid-wall hoop principal stress (43
around section of join
JOURNAL MECHANICAL E N G I N E E R I N G SCIENCE Vol5 No 4 1963
c
I-in
Hoop principal stress variation along axis of 0 = 180".
7IEkkH
5
9
-30
t in-
4.0 5.0 kO 6 5
Fig. 18
elements of an edge solution of short wavelength, which The distribution of hoop bending stress at the join is also
dies away to negligible values close to the join. The magni- similar to that obtained in the above situation. The per-
tudes of these stresses, however, are clearly very much less sistence of hoop and longitudinal bending moments in the
than those given by the theory. The distortion of the sec- tube wall at stations remote from the joint suggests that
tion of join in Fig. 19 is similar to that which occurs in the larger part of the deformation of Fig. 19a varies com-
curved thin-walled pipes subjected to bending moments. paratively slowly along the length of the pipe and that the
e = 90°
I
SCALE OF M I D D L E SURFACES S C A L E OF D I S P L A C E M E N T S - i n
= F U L L SIZE a
l
r l
ll l .l
lll
0 0.1 0.2
'5,
OF
15 15
*
a
*
&
a
10 ;
m
10
V
I P
0
D I
- 5 2 5
0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0 4 0.5 0.6 C 7
E-in c C-in
linear distribution of longitudinal bending stress given by loading. Distortions of the pipe occur which are similar
simple theory is not attained until a considerable distance to those occurring in curved thin-walled pipes subjected
from the section of join. Any solution which is to corres- to bending moments in the plane of curvature. It is possible
pond with the experimental distributions must clearly that a suitably modified form of the analysis of von
contain a distortion pattern of the type indicated above. Khrmhn (15) might approximate more closely to the
Inspection of Fig. 17b giving the variation of normal observed results.
principal stress around the section of join might suggest
that the experimental stresses could not conceivably have ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
a moment about the line 0 = 90"equal to that given by the The authors wish to express their gratitude to Professor
theoretical stresses, this moment being equal to the applied A. F. Burstall, Professor of Mechanical Engineering at
moment. It should be remembered, however, that the King's College, Newcastle upon Tyne (now the University
distribution of stress through the tube wall is not linear of Newcastle upon Tyne), and Director of the Stephenson
as assumed in the theory, and the values shown are there- Engineering Laboratories, who provided the facilities
fore not inconsistent with the applied loading. necessary for the experimental work to be carried out.
They are also grateful to Dr C . E. Turner of the Imperial
CONCLUSIONS College of Science and Technology, London, who first
Pressure loading directed their attention to the problem.
The experimental results indicate that the theory of (I)
satisfactorily predicts the stresses in a thin-walled mitred APPENDIX I
bend loaded by internal pressure, provided that the angle THEORETICAL A N A L Y S I S OF T H E STRESSES I N M I T R E D
of bend a is small, with the exception of certain local J O I N T S S U B J E C T E D TO A U N I F O R M I N T E R N A L P R E S S U R E
effects in the region of the intrados and extrados (6' = 0" The solution of the problem of stresses in circular cylindrical
and 6' = 180°), which modify the longitudinal stresses at pipes containing a mitred bend given by Green and E m e r s o n (I)
the joint. The maximum stress in the bend is the circum- was obtained by using the equations of three-dimensional elasticity
ferential stress in the plane of the intersection at the outer and applying an extension of the method of Johnson and Reissner
(6). This method is based on the selection of suitable non-dimen-
surface of the wall at 6' = 0". sional co-ordinates, stresses and displacements, suggested by
As OL is increased, measured stresses diverge from those consideration of known solutions for particular problems. In view
predicted by the theory. The maximum stress continues of the fact that this method of approach is of recent origin, it is
to be a circumferential stress at 6' = 0", the magnitudes considered of value to obtain the results of Green and E m e r s o n
by using the normal cylindrical shell equations such as are given
of the circumferential stresses at 6' = 0" being shown in in Timoshenko (16).
Fig. 11. The measured circumferential bending stresses, We consider two long straight pipes of circular section and
however, decrease as OL increases becoming zero when OL is constant wall thickness which are mitred and joined over the
approximately 37". In addition the distribution of stress entire mitred section of each pipe to form a mitred bend. The angle
through the tube wall becomes non-linear and large defor- of inclination of the plane of join to normal sections of either pipe
is a, (0 < a < s/2),(Fig. 20). It is assumed that the ratio of wall
mations occur at the joint in the region 0 = 60" to thickness h to mean radius of tube wall a is small, and that the
6' = 75". For OL = 45" the measured circumferential mitred bend is subjected to a symmetrical loading system due to
bending stresses are relatively small, but have reversed in the application of an internal pressure p. We apply the normal
sign, so that maximum stress occurs at the inside of the cylindrical shell equations to the problem of a long straight
pipe wall. circular cylindrical pipe which has a mitred end section, and by
applying suitable end conditions over this section we can solve
For all values of a, the mean circumferential stress in the problem of a pipe with a mitred bend to a first order approxima-
the pipe wall is close to the theoretical value and, for tion in 1 (hla).
values of a > 30", gives a fair approximation to the Choose co-ordinates z, 0, as shown in Fig. 20, and take u, v, w,
maximum stress in the bend. to be the displacements of the mid-wall surface of the pipe measured
in the axial, tangential and radial (inwards) directions respectively.
For all the bends tested the longitudinal stresses attain The basic shell equations to be satisfied are
the constant value +p(a/h) within a short distance of the
section of join. This is in accord with the theory of Green
and Emmerson (I) and is contrary to the predictions of
the theory of van der Neut ( 5 ) .
It is to be expected that the measure of agreement shown
between the theoretical predictions and the experimental
results will also apply in the case of steel bends provided
that due allowance is made for the different value of
Poisson's ratio. We seek a solution to equations (1) for the case in which the
mitred section is unstiffened. The boundary conditions to be
satisfied at the plane of join, z = a cos 0 tan a, are therefore:
Bending moment loading (1) The component of displacement at mid-wall measured
The experimental results for the one bend tested indicate normal to the plane of join is zero, i.e.
that the theory of (I) is unsatisfactory for this type of u cos a+(w cos O+v sin 0) sin a = 0
(2) Sections through the pipe wall in the plane of join undergo
no rotation in planes normal to the plane of join.
(3) Shearing stresses in the pipe wall in the plane of join are
zero.
We make a change of variable in terms of a non-dimensional
co-ordinate 6, measured in an axial direction from the plane of join.
Thus,
z = a(f+cos Btana) .
. . . (2)
Y
Bu
atsin 0 tan a-w-
-+r
@f
-h2
122
(1+sin2 0 tan2 a)2 -
at4
a4w
pu2( 1 -u 2 )
I
hE
Equations (1) are transformed in terms of by applying the
operators Integrating the first two of equations (5) with respect to and
a l a a a sin
. etan a+;iea solving for &/a[ and &/at in terms of w we have
-=--
az aat' G o = -a t
. . (3) au
- u-sin2 0 tan2 a
Indiscriminate application of the operators (3) to the basic shell a t = (1 +sin2 e tan2
equations (1) would result in an extremely complex set of differen- av sin 0 tan a(u+2+sin2 0 tan2 a)
tial equations. In order to simplify the resulting differential equa- (1 +sin2 e tan2 a)' J
tions to a form amenable to solution, it is necessary to assume the where A, and B1 are functions of 0 only.
form of the solution for the displacements u, v, w. The assumed Using equations (6) the third of equations (5)is simplified to give
form is based on that usually associated with this type of edge
solution when applied to a cylindrical shell problem. We are a4w
- 12a2
therefore led to put +
a f r 4ki"W = h2(1+sin2 6' tan2 a)2
= v euJ(oih): , e tan .-pa ( 1 - 2 )
= u eeJ(o/h)C = W euJ(olh)l
where U,V,W, p are functions of 0 only, and p may contain real
(4)
where
~ B , + A sin
7 1 (7)
and imaginary terms. By assuming displacements of this form, it
should be noted that differentiation of the displacements u, v , w 12u2(1-P)
4k14 =
with respect to 5 involves multiplication by a factor p d ( u / h ) .Thus h2(l+sin2 0 tan2 a)" ' * .
lower differentials with respect to 8 may be neglected in comparison Since A, and B , are functions of 0 and independent of 5 we
with higher differentials, when applying the operators (3) to the can integrate equation (7) in the form
basic shell equations (1).
(Differentiation with respect to 0 introduces a factor d ( u / h ) f = e - k . C (K1cosklf+L1sink,f)+ (1 +sin2 0 tan2 a)2
(l-u2)
(ap/ae) which, however, may be neglected since the solution we
require is effectively an edge solution and as such implies that 5
is small.)
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE Vol5 No 4 1963
+-at 7
a2w
a1
(u+sin2 0 tan2 a)
1 + u a2u
-- i + u a2u i-ua2w
a f 2 sin 0 tan a+- - 2 a f a e + T P
--aw
af sin 0 tan a-- aw = 0
ae
Using equations (6), (9) and (12), the boundary conditions
given by equations (10) and (ll), and applying the conditions that Inspection of the first two of equations (21) indicates that the
as 1 becomes large ue -+ pa/2h, utl -+ pu/h, rc0-+ 0, we find from relative orders of magnitude of w, u and w are 1, z/(h/u) and h/a
equations (14) that respectively. Therefore, to a first approximation in 1 (h/a) the
3-u+2(1 -v) sin” 0 tana a 7 first of equations (21) gives
= sin e tan a
(I +sin2 0 tan2 a)2 I
- pa2(1+v) 1 - v - 2 ~ sin2 0 tan2 a t (15)
1 -- I
2hE (1 +sin2 0 tan2 a)” where B, is a function of 0 (i,e. to this order approximation terms
and in w are neglected).
Substituting equation (22) in the third of equations (21) we
1- u02 tan2 a) [vB1+A1 sin 0 tan
(1 +sin2
22)1
(
obtain
--
- pa’ [2--v+(l -v) sin’ 0 tan2 a] (16)
2hE
Substituting equations (12) and (16) in equation (9) we have
w = -- Pa2 c [l-e-k,s(cos klf+sin klf)] . (17)
2hE Since B2 is a function of 0 and independent of f we can integrate
equation (23) in the form
where
v B ~ pa2
c = 2-u+(1-2u) sin2 0 tan2 a .
. (18) w = e-”Zc(K2 cos k,f+L, sin k2f)+---
1-2 h E (25)
Applying equations (6), (15), (17) and (18) to equations (14) we if we omit the positive real exponential which tends to infinity
see that the stresses in planes ( = constant are given by with 6.
JOURNAL MECHANICAL ENGINEERING SCIENCE Vo; 5 No 4 1963
The boundary condition ( 2 ) for this analysis is the same as that The shear loads per unit length are given by
given by equation ( 1 1 ) of the clamped solution. Thus using
equation ( 1 l ) , we find from equation (25) that
. . . . . (26) - 1
and
Kz=Lz --
2Q’ -
-
iie 2f
2Q sin 0 tan a+Ne-pa
at 1 (33)
w = K 2 e-k2e(cosk2t+sin k 2 . $ ) V + BL - - pa2
1-V’ hE . (27)
Substitution of equation (26) and (27) in equation (22) and where D is a function of 8.
integration with respect to 6 yield Choose co-ordinates x and y at the plane of join as shown in
Fig. 21, and consider a small triangular element in the pipe wall
at 0 bounded by the plane of join, and planes 0 = constant through
where C is a function of 8. point A and z = constant through point B. Then
T o a first approximation in z / ( h / a ) the second of equations (21)
is integrated with respect to t to give
sin 4 fi sin 0 tan a
cos 4 fi 1
1)
. . . . (34)
- =(2+v)wsinOtana---+j$df+A2
2v I+v& (29) The forces per unit length in AB in the x, y and z directions are
at i - v 2e given by
F, = Ne sin 4 cos e+N,, cos 4 cos 0
where A 2 is a function of 8.
Applying the operators ( 3 ) to equations (13) and neglecting
second order terms we have
-Qe sin 4 sin 0-Qe cos 4 sin 0
F, = NO sin 4 sin e+Nce sin 0 cos # (35)
1
+Qesin+sinO+QccosQcos 0
I
F, = Ntesin ++Necos 4 J
Using equations (32), (33), (34) and (35) and applying the
boundary condition ( 3 ) we have
F, = 0 = p a sin 0 cos 8 tan a+-
Eh
K 2 sin 0
1
ak9
Using equations (26), (27), (28) and (29) and applying the F , cos a-F, sin a = 0 = cos a Ipa sin2 0 tan a
condition that as 5 becomes large, a( + pa/2hy ae + pa/h, 7.y + 0,
~
ENLARGED V I E W IN DIRECTION
NORMAL TO PLANE O F A B C