Engineering and Material Science Faculty

German University in Cairo

Mechanical Design of Crude Oil and

Petroleum Products Pipelines
Bachelor Thesis

Author: Ahmed Essam Khedr

Supervisor: Dr. Hamdy Kandil
Submission Date: 12 July, 2007
This is to certify that:

(i) the thesis compromises only my original work towards the Bachelor Degree

(ii) due acknowledgement has been made in the text to all other material used

Ahmed Essam Khedr

12 July, 07

1
Table of Contents

Acknowledgement .................................................................... 6
Chapter 1: Introduction and Literature Review.................... 8
1.1. Introduction .............................................................................. 8
1.1.1. Motivation ................................................................................ 8
1.1.2. Aim of the project ................................................................... 10
1.1.2.1 Stress Analysis .................................................................................... 10
1.1.2.2. Material Selection .............................................................................. 11
1.2. Literature Review ................................................................... 12

Chapter 2: Stress Analysis..................................................... 15

2.1. Allowable Pipe Stress ............................................................. 15
2.2. Wall Thickness Calculation .................................................... 17
2.3. Internal Pressure ..................................................................... 18
2.4. Vertical Earth Load ................................................................ 20
2.5. Surface Live Loads ................................................................. 22
2.6. Ovality and Stress ................................................................... 25
2.8. Ring Buckling ........................................................................ 30
2.9. Fatigue .................................................................................... 31
2.10. Surface Impact Loads ............................................................. 32
2.10.1. Maximum Impact Load ....................................................................... 32
2.10.2. Penetration and PPV ........................................................................... 33
2.11. Buoyancy................................................................................ 35
2.11.1. Applied Load ...................................................................................... 35
2.11.2. Pipe Stress .......................................................................................... 36
2.12. Thermal Expansion ................................................................. 37
2.13. Earthquakes ............................................................................ 37
2.13.1. Seismic Wave Propagation.................................................................. 38
2.13.2. Permanent ground deformation ........................................................... 40

2
Chapter 3: Material Selection ............................................... 42
3.1. Metallic Materials ........................................................... 44
3.2. Material Properties of Piping Material .................................... 46
3.3. Chemical properties ................................................................ 48
3.4. Mechanical Properties ............................................................ 49
3.4.1. Strength .............................................................................................. 50
3.4.2. Hardness ............................................................................................. 53
3.4.3. Toughness ........................................................................................... 54
3.4.4. Fatigue Resistance. ............................................................................. 55
3.4.5 Elevated Temperature Tensile and Creep Strength. ............................. 56
3.5. Physical Properties of Metals .................................................. 58
3.5.1. Density ............................................................................................... 58
3.5.2. Thermal Conductivity ......................................................................... 58
3.5.3. Thermal Expansion. ............................................................................ 58
3.5.4. Specific Heat....................................................................................... 59
3.6. Microstructure ........................................................................ 60
3.7. Fabrication Of Steel Pipe ........................................................ 63
3.7.1. Pipe Size ............................................................................................. 63
3.7.2. Seamless Pipe ..................................................................................... 64
3.7.3. Seam Welded Pipe .............................................................................. 64

Chapter 4: Mechanical Design of SUMED Pipeline ............ 67

4.1. Background ............................................................................ 67
4.2. Stress Analysis ....................................................................... 71
4.3. Material Selection for SUMED Pipeline ................................. 90

Chapter 5: Mechanical Design of Arab Gas Pipeline .......... 91

5.1. Background ............................................................................ 91
5.2. Stress Analysis ....................................................................... 93
5.3. Material Selection for Arab Gas Pipeline .............................. 100

3
Chapter 6: Conclusion ......................................................... 101

References............................................................................. 102

4
List of Figures

Figure 2-1: Hoop stress and axial stress in a pipe..................................................... 19

Figure 2-2: Soil Prism above the pipe ...................................................................... 21
Figure 2-3: Surface Load and Transmitted Pressure................................................. 24
Figure 2-4: Ovality of Pipe Cross Section................................................................ 27
Figure 2-5: Through-Wall Bending Stress ............................................................... 28
Figure 2-6: Crushing of Side Wall .......................................................................... 29
Figure 2-7: Ring Buckling of Pipe Cross Section..................................................... 31
Figure 2-8: Fall of a Heavy Object on Ground Surface ............................................ 34
Figure 2-9: Resultant Buoyancy Load on Pipe ......................................................... 35
Figure 3-1: Pipe Materials Chart ............................................................................. 45
Figure 3-2: The three most common crystal structures in metals .............................. 46
Figure 3-3: Stress-Strain Curve. (1) Ultimate Strength. (2) Yield strength. (3)
Proportional Limit Stress. (4) Rupture. (5) Offset Strain (typically 0.002). ............... 51
Figure 3-4: An Engineering Stress-Strain for Carbon Steel ...................................... 53
Figure 3-5: Transition temperature range and transition temperature in Charpy impact
test ........................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 3-6: Creep time versus elongation curves at a given temperature. ................. 57
Figure 3-7: Growth of Atomic Lattice into Grains ................................................... 61
Figure 3-8: Simplified Phase Diagram of Carbon Steel............................................ 62
Figure 3-9: Atomic Structure of Carbon Steel.......................................................... 62
Figure 3-10: Overview of Seamless Pipe Fabrication .............................................. 65
Figure 3-11: Overview of Seam Welded Pipe Fabrication ....................................... 66
Figure 4-2: A Ship pumping its oil to the pipeline ................................................... 68
Figure 4-3: Pipeline System .................................................................................... 69
Figure 4-4: El Ain El Sukhna Pumping Station........................................................ 69
Figure 4-5: Dahshour Boosting Station.................................................................... 70
Figure 4-6: Tanks in Sidi Kreir ................................................................................ 70
Figure 4-7: Burial of SUMED Pipeline ................................................................... 71
Figure 5-1: Map showing the route of Arab Gas Pipeline ........................................ 92

5
Acknowledgement

It is a pleasure to thank the many people who made this thesis possible.

It is difficult to overstate my gratitude to my B.Sc. supervisor, Dr. Hamdy Kandil.

With his enthusiasm, his inspiration, and his great efforts to explain things clearly and
simply,. Throughout my thesis-writing period, he provided encouragement, sound
advice, good teaching, good company, and lots of good ideas. I would have been lost
without him.

I would like to thank the many people who have taught me a lot about pipelines:
SUMED Company Staff (especially Eng.Sherif Haddara). For their kind assistance
with writing letters, giving wise advice, helping with various applications, and so on, I
am indebted to my many student colleagues for providing a stimulating environment
in which to learn and grow.

Lastly, and most importantly, I wish to thank my parents. They raised me, supported
me, taught me, and loved me. To them I dedicate this thesis.

6
Abstract
This thesis is intended to study the stresses acting on the pipelines and choose the
most appropriate material for the pipelines so that they can withstand these stresses.
Since many pipelines fail against certain stresses due to choosing inappropriate
material, a stress analysis is made for 2 pipelines SUMED Pipeline and Arab Gas
Pipeline, then choosing materials for both pipelines. The results found that the
materials are safe to withstand the stress that the pipelines are subjected to.

7
Chapter 1
Introduction and Literature Review

1.1. Introduction

1.1.1.Motivation

Oil and gas collectively provide the world with 55% of its primary energy needs,
either by direct consumption (e.g. natural gas), or by using the fuels to generate
electricity. Consumption of these fossil fuels is staggering: there are over 1 million
tonnes of oil consumed every hour around the world, and 250 million cubic meters of
natural gas consumed every hour around the world [9]. At the end of 2005, world
proven crude oil reserves stood at 1,153,962 million barrels, of which 904,255 million
barrels, or 78.4 per cent, was in the organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) (Member Countries. According to the reference case of OPEC's World
Energy Model (OWEM), total world oil demand in 2000 is put at 76 million barrels
per day, as world economic growth continues, crude oil demand will also rise to
90.6m b/d in 2010 and 103.2m b/d by 2020, according to the OWEM. OPEC believes
that oil demand will continue to grow strongly and oil will remain the world's single
most important source of energy for the foreseeable future. The OWEM reference
case sees oil's share of the world fuel mix falling slightly from over 41 per cent today
to just over 39 per cent in 2020. However, oil will still be the world's single largest
source of energy. The reduction in oil's market share is largely due to the stronger
growth enjoyed by other forms of energy, particularly natural gas. Burning crude oil
itself is of limited use. To extract the maximum value from crude, it first needs to be
refined into petroleum products. The best-known of these is gasoline, or petrol.
However, there are many other products that can be obtained when a barrel of crude
oil is refined. These include liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), naphtha, kerosene, gasoil

8
and fuel oil. Other useful products which are not fuels can also be manufactured by
refining crude oil, such as lubricants and asphalt (used in paving roads) [10]. A range
of sub-items like perfumes and insecticides are also ultimately derived from crude oil.
Oil must be transported to meet the high demands of the needing countries, but how?

Crude oil is often transported between continents in large tankers, but oil and natural
gas is transported across continents by pipelines. These pipelines are very large
diameter (the Russian system has diameters up to 1422mm), and can be over 1000km
in length. Transmission pipelines are the main arteries of the oil and gas business;
working 24 hours per day, seven days a week, continuously supply our energy needs.
Crude oil can be transported by sea in huge tankers, but most countries in the
developed world have very large, long distance pipelines carrying (transmitting)
crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas around their lands. These pipelines are
usually located under the sea, or in remote rural locations; therefore, the general
public never see them. These transmission pipelines are sophisticated, expensive
energy transportation systems: pipelines are the core of the worlds oil and gas
transportation system. The UK has 40,000km of these transmission pipelines. Natural
gas, crude oil, and petroleum products such as gasoline, would not reach their millions
of consumers without these pipelines [9].

Oil and gas can be transported by various means: road tanker, rail, ship, or pipelines,
but pipeline are usually preferred because:

1. They are by far the more environmentally-friendly: most are buried under
ground, or undersea;
2. They are much safer than transportation by road, rail or sea; consequently,
there is more than 3,000,000 km of transmission pipelines around the world.
3. They are more economical than other means of transportation

Pipelines are important. If we did not have pipelines we would not be able to heat our
homes with natural gas, drive our car, or turn our television on. This is because most
natural gas and gasoline are delivered to consumers using pipelines; also, much of our
electricity is generated by burning oil and gas that is supplied to the power stations.
No pipelines? Then no cars, no heating, no power!

9
1.1.2.Aim of the project

The aim of this project is to study and calculate the stresses acting on SUMED
pipeline and to select the material that can withstand this stresses.

1.1.2.1 Stress Analysis

The piping system must be strong enough to withstand induced stresses, have
relatively smooth walls, have a tight joining system, and be somewhat chemically
inert with respect to soil and water. The piping systems must be designed to perform
for an extended period. The normal design life for such systems should be 50 years
minimum. However, 50 years is not long enough. Governments and private agencies
cannot afford to replace all the buried pipe infrastructures on a 50-year basis. A 100
year design life should be considered minimum. A pipeline system is subjected to
static and dynamic loads due to local environmental and operating conditions, and
provision must be made for the system to have flexibility and expansion capability to
prevent excessive stresses in the pipe or components, excessive bending or unusual
loads at joints, or undesirable forces or moments at points of connection to equipment.
The types of loadings which will affect the flexibility and expansion of the pipeline as
a system include:

Thermal expansion and contraction

Internal pressure
Bending (sag or uplift) due to Dead Loads, including weight of the pipe,
coatings, backfill, and unsupported pipe appurtenances.
Live Loads such as liquid transported, wind, snow, earthquake, waves, or
currents
Earthquakes
Buoyancy

10
In this section, these stresses will be studied and calculated to know if the pipe can
withstand these stresses or will fail. If the pipe cannot withstand these stresses,
another stronger material must be chosen to withstand these stresses and this will be
done in the next section (Section 1.2.2).

1.1.2.2. Material Selection

The selection of materials for piping applications is a process that requires

consideration of material characteristics appropriate for the required service. Material
selected must be suitable for the flow medium and the given operating conditions of
temperature and pressure safely during the intended design life of the product.
Mechanical strength must be appropriate for long-term service, and resist operational
variables such as thermal or mechanical cycling. Extremes in application temperature
can raise issues with material capabilities ranging from brittle fracture toughness at
low temperatures to adequacy of creep strength and oxidation resistance at the other
end of the temperature spectrum. In addition, the operating environment surrounding
the pipe or piping component must be considered. Degradation of material properties
or loss of effective load-carrying cross section can occur through corrosion, erosion,
or a combination of the two. The nature of the substances that are contained by the
piping is also an important factor. In the final count, what will matter is the
performance of the product: its compatibility with the fluid, the environment and the
service in one case; its compatibility with what customer want and like.

11
1.2. Literature Review

Many researches have been done in the past years concerning the effect of different
stresses on pipelines and how the pipelines are affected by these stresses. A Failure
analysis of a crude oil pipeline was done by Cesar R.F. Azevedo where the
transversal cracking of a seamed API 5L X46 steel tube belonging to a crude oil
pipeline was investigated. The main cracking nucleated in the internal surface of the
tube, at the boundary between the heat-affected zone (HAZ) and the weld metal,
propagating in a stable mode along the radial and longitudinal directions. Stress
raisers, such as welding defects and corrosion pits, were associated to the cracking
nucleation. The internal surface of the tube and the cracking surfaces presented a
deposit layer, which was rich in Fe, O and S. Diffractometry on the internal identified
the presence of a multi-layered corrosion deposit, formed by iron oxide (Fe2O3 and
Fe3O4) and iron sulphides, such as pyrrhotite, mackinawite and pyrite, indicating the
action of a H2S corrosion assisted mechanism. The crack propagation path did not
depend on the welding macrostructure, growing perpendicular to both the internal
surface and main tensile stresses. Crack propagation was, however, microstructure
sensitive, with a more intense branching occurring inside the base metal rather than
the HAZ region. Both regions presented cracking (blistering) of the sulphide/matrix
interface and microfractographic examination indicated the action of a ductile fracture
mechanism linking the H2 blisters, reinforcing the idea that atomic hydrogen
association rather than hydrogen embrittlement was the active mechanism during the
cracking of the pipeline. These observations indicated that failure of the pipeline
occurred by a stress-oriented hydrogen-induced cracking (SOHIC) mechanism [12].

Another analysis was done by S. de Luna, J Fernndez-Sez, J. L. Prez-

Castellanos and C. Navarro on the static and dynamic fracture behavior of a pipeline
steel. This Study deals with the dependence of fracture behavior on the strain rate of a
commercial pipeline steel. Low-blow impact tests, using a Charpy pendulum setup,
and conventional static fracture tests were carried out with this material. Experimental
results showed that the material fracture toughness increases slightly with strain rate.
Numerical analyses of all the experiments were also performed, using a
micromechanical damage model that explains the influence of the strain rate on the

12
fracture toughness. Particular attention was paid to the blunting process at the crack
tip under dynamic conditions [13].

Over the past years, greater research emphasis has been placed on the reliability of
offshore pipelines due to potential defects such as flaws in girth welds, damage due to
corrosion, etc. In several situations, pipes can be subjected to very large plastic strains
up to the order of 3%. The extreme loading conditions (high internal pressure
combined with bending/tension) further make the fracture assessment of pipelines a
formidable challenge. Todays design practice for offshore pipelines is commonly
dictated by the local buckling/collapse limit state. Recent research has pushed the
allowable strain limits on the compression side to quite large values, up to the order of
3%. On the other hand, the permissible strain based on fracture on the tension side is
still very restricted.
Current codes and standards (for example, BS 7910: 2000) for fracture assessment are
generally formulated for load-controlled situations. However, there are several
situations, where the pipeline is subjected to displacement controlled loading well into
the plastic regime. In load based approaches it is usually difficult to justify the
utilization of material well above yield. Hence, for fracture assessment of pipelines, a
strain-based approach is advocated. However, these procedures are still based on the
existing crack-driving force equations which are limited to small plastic strains, and
hence, application in structures subjected to large plastic deformation is doubtful.
Hence, an accurate and simple strain-based fracture assessment procedure for offshore
pipelines with the objective of possible further enhancement in deformation capacity
on the tension side is highly desirable [14].

A study was done by Sheng-Hui Wang and Weixing Chen on the pre-cyclic-load-
induced burst of creep deformation of a steel pipeline under subsequent static load
where the room temperature creep of X-52 pipeline as studied under various loading
conditions. Due to cyclic hardening, the steel exhibits cyclic creep retardation, which
is less pronounced at lower stress -ratio and under cyclic load with periodical hold at
peak stress. Pre-cyclic loading has significant effect on subsequent static creep. Up to
40 cycles, pre-cyclic load results in a smaller cumulative creep than that of pure static
creep deformation. This is attributed to the high rate of cyclic hardening during the
initial few cycles, which limits further creep deformation in the subsequent static

13
loading. With increasing number of cycles, pre-cyclic loading causes a burst of creep
deformation under subsequent static loading, which results in significantly larger
cumulative creep strain than that of pure static creep. The burst in creep deformation
requires an incubation period that increases with the number of prior load cycles. The
burst strain is dependent on the number of cycles of prior cyclic loading in a more
complicated manner [15].

Earthquakes have been a major concern when designing pipelines and many
researches were done to know the effect of earthquakes on pipelines. In order to
realistically assess the seismic risk of a pipeline system, the accurate estimate of the
pipe strains which depend upon structural details, pipe material, properties of the
surrounding soil, the nature of the propagating wave, etc. is critical. Emphasis in a
study by Yasuo Ogawa and Takeshi Koike has been placed on the analysis of a
structural strain for several types of piping elements unique to the buried pipeline and
also the provision of a simplified design formula which can be used practically. The
purpose of this study is (a) to define the slippage factor in order to estimate the
decrease in pipe strain resulting from the slippage effect, (b) to propose a simplified
method to evaluate the plastic deformation of the pipeline for severe earthquakes, and
(c) to derive a practical design formula for the structural strains of bent pipes [16].
Another Study was on the Seismic response of natural gas and water pipelines in the
Ji-Ji earthquake done by Walter W. Chena, Ban-jwu Shih, Yi-Chih Chen, Jui-
Huang Hung, and Howard H. Hwang where a GIS database and analysis
procedures were established to study the damage patterns of natural gas and water
pipelines in the Ji-Ji earthquake. Repair statistics was obtained from major natural gas
companies and the Taiwan Water Supply Corporation (TWSC), and entered into the
system. Then, repair rates (RR) were calculated. Previously, damage was analyzed
without considering the corresponding pipeline material and diameters. In this study,
new attempts were made to collect more data including those related to the
composition of pipelines to provide a more detailed analysis of the relationship
between earthquake forces and the resulting damage. Statistical analysis was also
conducted to understand the correlation between RR and seismic parameters such as
the peak ground acceleration, peak ground velocity, and spectrum intensity [17].

14
Chapter 2

Stress Analysis
A pipeline system is subjected to static and dynamic loads due to local environmental
and operating conditions, and provision must be made for the system to have
flexibility and expansion capability to prevent excessive stresses in the pipe or
components, excessive bending or unusual loads at joints, or undesirable forces or
moments at points of connection to equipment. The types of loadings which will
affect the flexibility and expansion of the pipeline as a system include:

1. Internal Pressure
2. Vertical Earth Load
3. Surface Live Loads
4. Ovality and Stress
5. Crushing of side walls
6. Ring Buckling
7. Fatigue
8. Surface Impact Loads
9. Buoyancy
10. Thermal Expansion
11. Earthquakes

2.1. Allowable Pipe Stress

Paragraph 402.3.1 of the ASME B31.4 code establishes the allowable stress value, S
in psi (MPa), to be used in the temperature range (-20 o F to 250 o F) (-30 o C to 120 o C)
for design calculations [8]:

15
S = 0.72 E SMYS (Equation 2.1)

Where

0.72 = design factor

E = joint weld factor

SMYS = specific minimum yield strength, psi (MPa)

There are two equally plausible versions of the origin of 0.72 SMYS. The first
explanation is that 0.72 SMYS goes back to the early days of fabrication of steel line
pipe. In the mill, the pipe was tested to a hydrostatic pressure causing a hoop stress
PD/(2t) of 90% SMYS. In service, the pressure was limited to 80% of the mill
hydrotest pressure, or 80% x 90% SMYS = 72% SMYS. The second explanation is
that the 90% SMYS hydrostatic test was reduced by 12.5% for fabrication tolerance
on underthickness, then further divided by 1.1 to compensate for the 110%
overpressure transient allowance (as was the common practice for water pipelines),
which leads to 90% SMYS x 0.875 /1.1= 0.72 SMYS [4].

The weld quality or joint efficiency factor E is a factor introduced to account for the
quality of the longitudinal or spiral seam in a pipe. It is a function of the reliability
and quality of fabrication and the extent of inspections performed in the pipe mill. An
electric resistant welded pipe is judged to have a superior seam quality, and its weld
joint efficiency factor is assigned the maximum value 1.0. On the other hand, the
seam weld of a furnace butt-welded pipe was judged to have a seam weld factor of
only 0.6 [4].

For oil and gas pipelines, the thickness of the pipe wall is obtained by assuming that
the hoop stress, which is the largest stress in the pipe, must be limited to a certain
allowable stress S. Using the thin wall approximation, this condition corresponds to

16
PD
pS
2t (Equation 2.2) [4]

Where

P = internal design pressure, psi (MPa)

D = pipe outer diameter, in (m)

t = pipe wall thickness, in (m)

S = allowable stress, psi, (MPa)

2.2. Wall Thickness Calculation

Minimum wall thickness, t, is a function of the internal pressure, P, nominal

diameter, D, and the allowable stress, S, as specified by Sec. 404.1.2 of the ASME
B31.4 code

PD
t=
2S (Equation 2.3)

Nominal wall thickness, tn, includes an allowance for manufacturing tolerance [3].

t n = t + allowances
(Equation 2.4)

The allowances are usually about 12.5% of the calculated thickness and these
allowances are corrosion and tolerance allowances. The actual wall thickness used in
17
the system will be equal to or greater than this calculated value according to the
nearest value in the API 5L [7].

In the next part, different stresses and pipe loading will be presented in detail.

2.3. Internal Pressure

To transport a fluid through a pipeline, the fluid must be under sufficient pressure so
that the pressure loss due to friction and the pressure required for any elevation
changes can be accommodated. The longer the pipeline and the higher the flow rate,
the higher the friction drop will be, requiring a corresponding increase in the fluid
pressure at the beginning of the pipeline.

The allowable operating pressure in a pipeline is defined as the maximum safe

continuous pressure that the pipeline can be operated at. At this internal pressure the
pipe material is stressed to some safe value below the yield strength of the pipe
material. The stress in the pipe material consists of circumferential (or hoop) stress
and longitudinal (or axial) stress. This is shown in Figure 2.1. It can be proven that the
axial stress is one-half the value of the hoop stress. The hoop stress therefore controls
the amount of internal pressure the pipeline can withstand. For pipelines transporting
liquids, the hoop stress may be allowed to reach 72% of the pipe yield strength. If
pipe material has 60,000 psi (414 MPa) yield strength, the safe internal operating
pressure cannot exceed a value that results in a hoop stress of

0.7260,000=43,200 psi (297.85 MPa)

To ensure that the pipeline can be safely operated at a particular maximum allowable
operating pressure (MAOP) we must test the pipeline using water, at a higher pressure
and is called the hydrostatic test.

18
The hydrostatic test pressure is a pressure higher than the allowable operating
pressure. It is the pressure at which the pipeline is tested for a specified period of
time, such as 4 hr (for aboveground piping) or 8 hr (for buried pipeline) as required
by the pipeline design code API 5L [7].

Generally, for liquid pipelines the hydrostatic test pressure is 25% higher than the
MAOP. Thus, if the MAOP is 1000 psig, the pipeline will be hydrostatically tested at
1250 psig.

Calculation of internal design pressure in a pipeline is based on Barlows equation for

internal pressure in thin-walled cylindrical pipes [5].

Figure 2-1: Hoop stress and axial stress in a pipe

Barlows Equation for Internal Pressure

The hoop stress or circumferential stress, h , in a thin-walled cylindrical pipe due to

an internal pressure is calculated using the formula

PD
h = (Equation 2.5)
2t

19
Where

h = hoop stress, psi (MPa)

P = internal pressure, psi (MPa)

D= pipe diameter, in (m)

t= pipe wall thickness, in (m)

The Longitudinal stress is half the hoop stress and is calculated using this formula

PD
l = (Equation 2.6)
4t

2.4. Vertical Earth Load

The subject of soil structure interaction has been of engineering interest since the
early 1900s. One major problem existed, however. There was no rational method of
determining the earth load these on buried pipelines. As a result, there were many
failures of pipelines. The loads imposed on buried pipelines depend upon the stiffness
properties of both the pipe structure and the surrounding soil. This results in a
statically indeterminate problem in which the pressure of the soil on the structure
produces deflections that, in turn, determine the soil pressure.

When calculating the earth loads on a buried pipe, a steel pipe is considered flexible
and design procedures for flexible pipes apply. For flexible pipes placed in trench and
covered with backfill, the earth's dead load applied to the pipe is the weight of the
prism of soil with a width equal to that of the pipe and a height equal to the depth of
the fill above the pipe as shown in Figure 2.2 [2].

20
When the pipe is above the water table the earth dead load can be obtained from this
equation:

Pv = C
(Equation 2.7)

Where

Pv = earth dead load pressure on the pipe , psi

= unit weight of backfill , lb / in 3 (From Table 2.1)

C = height of fill above the pipe , in

Figure 2-2: Soil Prism above the pipe

21
But if the pipe is under the water table, the effect of the soil grain buoyancy will be
included in the earth dead load [2], In this case the earth dead load is calculated using
the following equation:

Pv = w hw + Rw d C
(Equation 2.8)

Table 2.1 Approximate Values of Soil Unit Weight, Ratio of Lateral to Vertical Earth
Pressure, and Coefficient of Friction against Sides of Trench

2.5. Surface Live Loads

Buried pipelines are subjected to concentrated or distributed live loads but we are
concerned about large concentrated loads such as truck-wheel roads, railways and

22
aircraft loads at airports. As soil cover decreases, live load pressure on a buried pipe
increases. There is a minimum safe height of soil cover. If the soil cover is less than
the minimum, the surface live load may damage the pipe.

The Live Load effect may be determined based on the Association of State Highway
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) HS-20 truck loads, E-80 Cooper railroad
loads, or a 180 kip airplane gear assembly as in Table 2.2 [2]. The values of the live
load pressure P p are given in psi and include an impact factor of 1.5 to account for

bumps and irregularities in the travel surface [2].

Table 2.2 Live Loads

For live-loads other than the AASHTO truck, the Cooper rail and the 180 kips aircraft
gear assembly loads, the pressure Pp applied to the buried pipe by a concentrated
surface load Ps, without impact, as shown in Figure 2.3, can be calculated using
Boussinesqs equation [2]:

23
 3Ps
Pp = 2.5
d 2
2 C 1 +
2

C (Equation 2.9)

Where:

P p= pressure transmitted to the pipe

P s= concentrated load at the surface, above pipe

C= depth of soil cover above pipe

d= offset distance from the pipe to the line of application of surface load

Figure 2-3: Surface Load and Transmitted Pressure

The pressure P p must be multiplied by a factor called impact factor, Table 2.3, due to

fluctuating nature of the surface line loads

24
 Table 2.3 Impact Factor (F) versus Height of Cover [2].

2.6. Ovality and Stress

A flexible pipe derives its soil load carrying capacity from its flexibility. Under soil
load, the pipe tends to deflect (reduction of pipe diameter in the vertical direction),
thereby developing passive soil support at the sides of the pipe. At the same time, the
ring deflection relieves the pipe of the major portion of the vertical soil load, which is
then carried by the surrounding soil through the mechanism of an arching action over
the pipe. Allowable limits of deflection have been set by both ASTM (7.5%) and
AWWA (5%).The Earth and live loads can ovalize the pipe, Figure 2.3, and this
ovality can be measured by the modified Iowa deflection equation [2]:

y D l KP
=
D ( EI )eq
+ 0.061E '
R3
(Equation 2.10)

25
Where:

D = pipe outside diameter, in (m)

y = vertical deflection of pipe, in (m)

Dl = deflection lag factor (~1.0 1.5)

K = bedding constant (~0.1)

P = pressure on the pipe due to soil load Pv plus live load Pp, psi (MPa)

R = pipe radius, in (m)

(EI)eq = equivalent pipe wall stiffness per inch of pipe length, in/ lb

E' = modulus of soil reaction, psi (MPa)

The bedding constant K accommodates the response of the buried flexible pipe to the
opposite and equal reaction to the load force derived from the bedding under the pipe.
The bedding constant varies with the width and angle of the bedding achieved in the
installation. Table 2.4 contains a list of bedding factors K dependent upon the bedding
angle. These were determined theoretically by Spangler and published in 1941. As a
general rule, a value of K = 0.1 is assumed [1].

Table 2.4 Values of bedding constant K

26
Another parameter that is needed to calculate deflections in the Iowa formula is the
deflection lag factor, DL. Spangler recognized that in soil-pipe systems, as with all
engineering systems involving soil, the soil consolidation at the sides of the pipe
continues with time after installation of the pipe. His experience had shown that
deflections could increase by as much as 30 percent over a period of 40 years. For this
reason, If the prism load is used for design, a design deflection lag factor DL = 1.0
should be used as a conservative design procedure.

The soil modulus of reaction (E), Table 2.5, is a measure of the embedment material
and surrounding soils ability to support the loads transferred by the deflection of
flexible pipe. A composite E value is used. The composite E value includes several
factors that consider the pipe and trench geometry, the E value of the native soil and
the E value of the embedment material [1].

The deflection of the pipe will cause stress on it and is called the Through wall
bending stress, Figure 2.4, due to earth and surface loads can be calculated using [2]:

y t
bw = 4E ( )( )
D D (Equation 2.11)

Figure 2-4: Ovality of Pipe Cross Section

27
 Figure 2-5: Through-Wall Bending Stress

Table 2.5 Average Values of Modulus of Soil Reaction

28
2.7. Crushing of side walls

Wall crushing is the term used to describe the condition of localized yielding for a
ductile material or cracking failure for brittle materials. This performance limit is
reached when the in-wall stress reaches the yield stress or the ultimate stress of the
pipe material.

The ring compression stress is the primary contributor to this performance limit.
Figure 2.5, However, wall crushing can also be influenced by the bending stress. Wall
crushing is the primary performance limit or design basis for most "rigid" or brittle
pipe products. This performance limit may also be reached for stiffer flexible pipes
installed in highly compacted backfill and subjected to very deep cover. A quick
check for this performance limit can be made by comparing the ring compression
stress with yield and/or ultimate strengths.

D
For Buried pressure-steel pipelines with 100 and a yield stress larger than 30,000
t
psi, crushing of side walls is very unlikely [2].

Figure 2-6Crushing of Side Wall

29
2.8. Ring Buckling

Buckling is not a strength performance limit, but can occur because of insufficient
stiffness. The buckling phenomenon may govern design of flexible pipes subjected to
internal vacuum, external hydrostatic pressure, or high soil pressures in compacted
soil, Figure 2.6.

The more flexible the conduit, the more unstable the wall structure will be in resisting
buckling. For a circular ring in plane stress subjected to a uniform external pressure,
the critical buckling pressure is [2]:

1 (EI )eq
32RW B ' E ' (Equation 2.12)
FS D3

(Equation 2.13)

30
 Figure 2-7: Ring Buckling of Pipe Cross Section

2.9. Fatigue

This happens when the pipeline is subjected to cyclic surface loads as when the
pipeline is under a railway or highway. Local regulations usually specify a minimum
burial depth which varies from 1 to 6 feet depending on the standard codes [2].

The fatigue performance limit may be a necessary consideration in both gravity flow
and pressure applications. However, normal operating systems will function in such a
manner as not to warrant consideration of fatigue as a performance limit, although
some fatigue failures have been reported in forced sewer mains. Pipe materials will
fail at a lower stress if a large number of cyclic stresses are present. Pressure surges
due to faulty operating equipment and resulting water hammer may produce cyclic
stress and fatigue. Cyclic stresses from traffic loading are usually not a problem
except in shallow depths or burial. The design engineer should consult the
manufacturer for applications where cyclic stresses are the norm [1].

If the pipeline is buried under less than 2 feet of cover, the continual flexing of the
pipe may cause breakage of the road surface [2].

31
2.10. Surface Impact Loads

2.10.1.Maximum Impact Load

Another form of dynamic surface loading that has received increasing attention in
recent past is the impact due to falling of heavy objects on the ground surface in the
vicinity of a buried pipeline. Large surface impact can result from dropping of
structural members and equipment during retrofitting or replacement projects. Impact
stresses are also induced during dynamic compaction at a site. An impact at the
ground surface causes a stress wave to travel through the soil. Ground vibration after
an impact can be represented by a single pulse in the time domain which results in
impulsive loading on the buried pipelines. It is evident that the effect of such
vibrations reduces with increasing depth of burial for the pipeline and with increasing
distance from the area of impact. However, instances can be found where existing
pipelines with moderate to large diameter pipes have been laid at very shallow depths.
It appears that observations from blasts and pipe driving may provide good insight as
all these loadings are expected to produce similar effects in a buried pipeline. The
damage in the pipeline from a traveling wave can be expressed in terms of soil strains
which are related to peak particle velocity [6].

The surface impact load due to the weight W of the falling body is given by

32 WH f Gro
Pmax =
2 (1 v ) (Equation 2.14)

32
2.10.2.Penetration and PPV

For impact near the pipe location, Figure 2.8, the pressure transmitted to the pipe is
the surface load which considers the ovality and through wall bending and side wall
crushing and ring buckling. Also, the burial depth should be enough to prevent ground
penetration by falling objects. The penetration depth can be calculated from the
following equation [2]:

V2
x p = kPa 1 +
215, 000 (Equation 2.15)

Where:

33
For impacts at large distances from the pipe location, the wave propagation causes
deformation in the pipe. The Peak Particle Velocity PPV can be calculated using the
following equation [2]:

1.7
WH f
PPV = 8
d (Equation 2.16)

Where:

PPV = peak particle velocity, inches per second

W = weight of the falling object, tons

Hf = drop height, feet

d = shortest distance from point of impact to centerline of the pipe, feet

Figure 2-8: Fall of a Heavy Object on Ground Surface

34
2.11. Buoyancy

2.11.1.Applied Load

A net upward force is created when the buoyancy force created by the pipe below the
water table exceeds the weight of the pipe and soil combined, Figure 2.9.

Figure 2-9: Resultant Buoyancy Load on Pipe

The upward force on the pipe is calculated using [2]:

Fb =Ww W p +Wc + D ( Pv w hw ) (Equation 2.17)

35
Where:

D= pipe outer diameter, in

Fb = upward force due to buoyancy per unit length of pipe, lb

Pv = earth pressure, psi

Ww= weight of water displaced by pipe per unit length of pipe, lb

Wp = weight of pipe per unit length of pipe, lb

Wc =weight of pipe contents per unit length of pipe, lb

2.11.2.Pipe Stress

The buoyancy force causes longitudinal (beam bending) stress which is approximated
by [2]:

Fb L2
bf = (Equation 2.18)
10Z

Where:

bf = stress caused by buoyancy forces, psi

Z = Section modulus of the pipe cross section

L = length of pipe span in the buoyancy zone, in

To make resistance against Buoyancy, Ballets such as concrete coating, concrete

weights or gravel filled blankets can be used or we can use screw anchors may be
used to anchor the pipe.

36
2.12. Thermal Expansion

Buried pipelines are often operated at temperatures that do not significantly differ
from the surrounding soil temperature. In these cases, there will be little or no
differential expansion and contraction between the pipe and soil, and a thermal design
analysis is not required. In cases where the fluid is hot or cold, stresses are generated
as the pipe expansion is constrained by the surrounding soil. For long sections of
straight pipelines, the resulting longitudinal stress is calculated from the following
equation [3]:

(Equation 2.19)

2.13. Earthquakes

In certain critical zones, large ground movement associated with an earthquake may
be devastating to a pipeline. Most buried flexible pipelines can survive an earthquake.
A more flexible piping material with a flexible joint will allow the pipe to conform to
the ground movement without failure. The effects of permanent ground displacement
37
produced by an earthquake are best evaluated using finite element analysis
techniques.

2.13.1.Seismic Wave Propagation

Wave propagation provisions are presented in terms of longitudinal axial strain, that
is, strain parallel to the pipe axis induced by ground strain. Flexural strains due to
ground curvature are neglected since they are small for typical pipeline diameters.

The axial strain, _a, induced in a buried pipe by wave propagation can be
approximated using the following equation [2]:

Vg
a = (Equation 2.20)
C s

where:

Vg = peak ground velocity generated by ground shaking

Cs = apparent propagation velocity for seismic waves (conservatively assumed

to be 2 kilometers per second

= 2.0 for Cs associated with shear waves, 1.0 otherwise

The axial strains can be assumed to be transferred to the pipeline but need not be
taken as larger than the axial strain induced by friction at the soil pipe interface [2]:

Tu
a
4AE
(Equation 2.21)

38
Where:

Tu = peak friction force per unit length at soil-pipe interface

= apparent wavelength of seismic waves at ground surface, sometimes

assumed to be 1.0 kilometers without further information, ft

A = pipe cross-sectional area, in2

E = modulus of elasticity of steel, psi

The peak friction force per unit length at soil-pipe interface is given by the following
equation [2]:

Tu = DH (1 + K o ) tan (Equation 2.22)
2

Where:

D = pipe diameter, ft

H = height of cover + D/2, ft

Ko= coefficient of pressure at rest (~1.0)

= interface angle of friction for pipe and soil

39
 Table 2.6 Peak Ground Velocity

2.13.2.Permanent ground deformation

Ground deformation from earthquakes includes lateral spread of sloped surfaces,

liquefaction, and differential soil movement at fault lines. Ideally, the routing of a
buried pipe is selected to avoid these seismic hazards. The first step is to establish the
seismic hazard, or design basis earthquake, and predict the corresponding ground
movement. The second step is to establish the performance requirement for the buried
pipe. For example:

1. The pipe may need to remain serviceable and allow, for example, the passage of pig
inspection tools.

2. The pipe may need to remain operational, with valves opening on demand to
deliver flow or closing to isolate a hazardous material.

40
3. The pipe may only need to retain its contents, without being operational following
the earthquake.

Based on the performance requirement, an allowable stress or strain limit is

established. The third step is to analyze the pipe response to the postulated movement,
and the resulting tensile, bending, and compressive loads applied to the buried pipe.
This may be done by hand calculations if that the deformations are small. For large
deformations, preferably the calculations should be done by finite element analysis of
the soil-pipe interaction. Finally, the computed stresses or strains are compared to
allowable limits established earlier based on the required performance of the pipe
following the earthquake.

41
Chapter 3
Material Selection

The selection of materials for piping applications is a process that requires

consideration of material characteristics appropriate for the required service. Material
selected must be suitable for the flow medium and the given operating conditions of
temperature and pressure safely during the planned design life of the product.
Mechanical strength must be appropriate for long-term service, and resist operational
variables such as thermal or mechanical cycling. Extremes in application temperature
can raise issues with material capabilities ranging from brittle fracture toughness at
low temperatures to adequacy of creep strength and oxidation resistance at the other
end of the temperature spectrum.

In addition, the operating environment surrounding the pipe or piping component

must be considered. Degradation of material properties or loss of effective load-
carrying cross section can occur through corrosion, erosion, or a combination both.
The nature of the substances that the pipelines contain is also an important factor.

The fabricability characteristics of the materials being considered must also be taken
into account. The ability to be bent or formed, suitability for welding or other methods
of joining, ease of heat treatment, and uniformity and stability of the resultant
microstructure and properties all of a given piping material contribute toward or
detract from its attractiveness and economy. The selection process should lead to the
most economical material that meets the requirements of the service conditions and
codes and standards that apply [3].

There are many factors to consider in choosing piping materials. They include such
parameters as availability, type of service, and type of the fluid.

Materials used in piping systems can be classified in two large categories: metallic
and non-metallic. Metallic pipe and fitting materials can in turn be classified as
ferrous (iron based) or non-ferrous (such as copper, nickel or aluminum based).

42
This chapter identifies the important metallurgical characteristics of piping materials
and how they can affect or be affected by the operation of all of the other materials
available to the engineer. Carbon and low-alloy steels come closest to being the ideal
construction material. Due to the fact that the majority of piping applications employ
iron-based metals.

There are numerous standards, many of which are interrelated, and they must be
referred and adhered to by design engineers and manufacturers in the process
industry. These standards cover the following:

Material: chemical composition, mechanical requirements, heat treatment,

etc.
Dimensions: general dimensions and tolerances.
Fabrication codes: welding, threading.

Standards covering the preceding were drawn up by the following major engineering
bodies:

American Petroleum Institute (API).

American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM).
American Water Works Association (AWWA).
American Welding Society (AWS).
Manufacturers Standardization Society (MSS).
National Association of Corrosion Engineers (NACE).

Periodically, these standards are updated to bring them in line with the latest industry
practices. Most of the standards have been in circulation for a number of years, and
the changes are rarely dramatic; however, such changes must be incorporated into the
design. It is essential that the latest revision is the final reference point. Other
countries publish comprehensive standards containing data on material, dimensions of
components, and construction procedures.

43
American standards are not superior to other national standards, but they are the ones
most commonly used in the process industry. They are based on a long track record
with a very low failure rate, so there is a high degree of confidence in these
publications. Always refer to the latest edition of the relevant standards, and if
necessary, make sure your companys library holds the most current version.

3.1. Metallic Materials

Metals are divided into two types: ferrous, which includes iron and iron-base alloys;
and nonferrous, covering other metals and alloys. Metallurgy deals with the extraction
of metals from ores and also with the combining, treating, and processing of metals
into useful engineering materials. This section presents the fundamental metallurgical
concepts and practices associated with the most common engineering metals, and
outlines metallurgical considerations appropriate in the selection process of metals for
piping system construction.

44
Figure 3-1: Pipe Materials Chart

45
3.2. Material Properties of Piping Material

The behavior of piping material can be understood and predicted by studying a

number of properties of the material. Metals are crystalline in structure, composed of
atoms in precise locations within a space lattice. The smallest component of the
crystalline structure is called a unit cell, the smallest repeating building block of the
material. For example, iron and iron-based alloys exist in two unit cell forms, the
body-centered cubic (BCC) and the face-centered cubic (FCC) structure; they are
differentiated in the way the atoms are arranged in repeating patterns. The body
centered cubic structure is represented by a cube with atoms at all eight corners, and
one atom in the center of the cube. The face-centered lattice is represented by atoms at
the eight corners of the cube, plus one atom located at the center of each of the cubes
six faces.

Figure 3-2: The three most common crystal structures in metals

and alloys. (a) Face-centered cubic (FCC); (b) body-centered

cubic (BCC); (c) hexagonal close-packed (HCP).

The crystal structure naturally assumed by a material dictates some of the

fundamental properties of the material. For example, FCC materials are generally

46
more ductile than BCC materials. This is basically because FCC crystals are the most
tightly packed of metallic structures and, as such, allow for more planes of atoms to
slide across one another with the least amount of resistance (the fundamental atomic
motion involved in what is called plasticity).

Metallic materials consist of these and other ordered crystal structures. Some metals,
most notably iron, change their crystal structure as temperature varies. Structure may
also change as certain other elements are added in the form of alloying additions.
These changes are used to advantage by metallurgists and are the basis for developing
and manipulating important material behavior, such as the heat treatability of carbon
and low alloy steels.

Engineering materials have four essential characteristics that are closely interrelated
and they are:

1. Chemistry: the primary element (iron in the case of ferrous metals), alloying
elements (nickel, chromium, etc. with ferrous metals), incidental elements
(small amount of unintended elements), and impurities (sulfur, phosphorous,
etc.).

2. Mechanical Properties: strength (yield, ultimate, elongation at rupture) and

toughness (Charpy, nil ductility transition temperature, fracture toughness,
ductile vs. brittle appearance of fracture surface).
3. Physical properties: density, modulus of elasticity, coefficient of thermal
expansion, electrical and heat conduction, etc.

4. Microstructure: atomic structure, metallurgical phase, type and size of grains.

47
3.3. Chemical properties

Chemical properties are defined as those material characteristics that are dictated by
the elemental constituency of the solid. This is usually measured by the relative
atomic weight percent of the various elements (metals or nonmetals) or compounds
within the material. Metals are not usually used in their pure form. Rather, secondary
elements are purposely added to improve or modify their behavior. This addition of
secondary elements is called alloying, and the elements added fall into two categories,
based on the relative size of the atoms. Atoms significantly smaller than those of the
parent metal matrix fit into spaces between the atoms in the lattices interstices and
are called interstitial alloying elements. Carbon added to iron, creating steel, is the
most common example. Larger-sized atoms will substitute for parent metal atoms in
their matrix locations, thus the name substitutional alloying elements. Examples of
this include zinc substituting for copper atoms in copper, creating brass; and tin
substituting for copper atoms, creating bronze alloys. Pure metals possess relatively
low strength. Adding an alloying element will increase the strength of a metals
atomic matrix because the atomic lattice is strained locally by the foreign atom,
creating a larger impediment for the sliding of planes of atoms across one another
during plastic flow. This is true whether the alloying element is interstitial or
substitutional; however, the former generally serve as better lattice strengtheners.
Strength properties are often improved to the detriment of ductility. Proper alloying,
combined with appropriate metal processing and heat treatment, results in
optimization of material properties. Elements are also added to metals to improve or
modify their corrosion or oxidation characteristics, or to improve manufacturability
(e.g., machineability) and/or electrical properties, among other effects. However, it is
important to note that alloying done to optimize one material property may act to the
detriment of others.

Carbon steels, the most common of the construction materials, always contain the
elements carbon, manganese, phosphorous, sulfur, and silicon in varying amounts.
Small amounts of other elements may be found either entering as gases during the
steel-making process (hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen), or introduced through the ores or

48
metal scrap used to make the steel (nickel, copper, molybdenum, chromium, tin,
antimony, etc.). Addition of significant quantities of the interstitial element carbon
will result in high strength and hardnessbut to the detriment of formability and
weldability. A great amount of research has gone into the development of the
principal metals used in piping design and construction; thus the specification limits
must be vigorously adhered to in order to assure reliability, predictability, and
repeatability of material behavior.

The number of elements alloyed with a parent metal, and the acceptable range of
content of each, are identified in the material specification (e.g., ASTM, API, and
ASME). Tests appropriate for determining the elemental constituency of an alloy have
been standardized and are also described in ASTM specifications. The material
specifications also stipulate whether the chemical analysis of an alloy may be reported
by analyzing a sample of the molten metal, or taken from a specimen removed from
the final product. The former is commonly referred to as a ladle analysis, and the
latter as a product or check analysis. This chemistry of a construction material is
reported on a material test report which may be supplied by the material manufacturer
upon request.

3.4. Mechanical Properties

Mechanical properties are critically important to the design process. They are defined
as the characteristic response of a material to applied force. The standardized test
methods for measuring these properties are described in ASTM specifications.

Properties fall into two general categories, strength and ductility. Some properties,
such as material toughness, are dependent on both strength and ductility.

49
3.4.1. Strength

Yield stress, ultimate strength and elongation at rupture are the fundamental of the
mechanical properties of pipe and fitting materials. They reflect the ability of the
material to be fabricated and to resist applied loads in service. All three properties are
essential for piping systems.

3.4.1.1. Yield Strength.

It is defined in engineering and materials science as the stress at which a material

begins to plastically deform. Prior to the yield point the material will deform
elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed.
Once the yield point is passed some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and
non-reversible.

.Most materials do not abruptly transform from purely elastic to purely plastic
behavior. Rather, a gradual transition occurs as represented by a curve, or knee, in the
stress-strain curve. Lacking an abrupt and easily definable point representing
transition from elastic to plastic behavior, several standardized methods have been
defined by ASTM to determine the yield strength used as the engineering property.
The most common is termed the 0.2 percent offset method. In this approach a line is
drawn parallel to the elastic portion of the curve anchored to a point displaced 0.2
percent along the strain axis.

50
 Figure 3-3: Stress-Strain Curve. (1) Ultimate Strength. (2) Yield strength. (3) Proportional
Limit Stress. (4) Rupture. (5) Offset Strain (typically 0.002).

The yield strength corresponds to the calculated value of the load indicated at the
intersection point of the drawn line, divided by the original cross-sectional area in the
gauge length of the tensile specimen. By convention, this test is performed at a
constant rate of strain, and is reported as newtons per square meter, or as pounds per
square inch of cross section in English units.

Youngs Modulus is a measure of the elasticity of a material. It varies with

temperature, the higher the temperature the softer the material and the lower its
Young's modulus, as shown in Table 3-1.

Table 3-1 Youngs Modulus E (106) for various Metals at different temperatures

51
 3.4.1.2. Ultimate Tensile Strength

Upon further increase of applied load under constant strain rate, the specimen will
continue to stretch until the loss of load-carrying cross section caused by specimen
thinning during the test (due to Poissons ratio) cannot withstand further load
increase, Figure 3-3. The ultimate tensile strength constitutes the maximum applied
load divided by the original specimen cross-sectional area.

3.4.1.3. Elongation and Reduction of Area

The ductility of the test specimen can be established by measuring its length and
minimum diameter before and after testing. Stretch of the specimen is represented as a
percent elongation in a given length (usually 2 or 8 in) and is calculated in the
following manner:

(Equation 3-1)

52
 Figure 3-4: An Engineering Stress-Strain for Carbon Steel

3.4.2. Hardness

This is a measure of the materials ability to resist deformation, usually determined

by a standardized test where the surface resistance to indentation is measured. The
most common hardness tests are defined by the indentor type and size, and the
amount of load applied. The hardness numbers constitute a non dimensioned,
arbitrary scale, with increasing numbers representing harder surfaces. The two most
common hardness test methods are Brinell hardness and Rockwell Hardness, with
each representing a standardized test machine with its own unique hardness scales.
Hardness loosely correlates with ultimate tensile strength in metals. Approximate
hardness conversion numbers for a variety of material types, including steels, can be
found in ASTM Specification E140 (Standard Hardness Conversion Tables For
Metals Relationship Among Brinell Hardness, Vickers Hardness, Rockwell Hardness,
Superficial Hardness, Knoop Hardness, and Scleroscope Hardness).

53
3.4.3. Toughness

Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb impact energy prior to rupture. It is

also defined as the material's ability to absorb plastic energy, dynamic or Static. It is a
function of the material, its temperature and, what somewhat complicates things, its
thickness. The thicker the part, the more constrained is the material at its center, and
the lower its toughness. The part is too thick and stiff to deform through the thickness,
it is in a condition called plane strain. On the contrary, a thinner section of the same
material is able to strain outward and the stress is practically constant through-wall, a
condition called plane stress. Under internal pressure, a thicker pipe has more strength
owing to its wall thickness but a thinner pipe of the same material will exhibit larger
plastic deformation before rupture. This decrease of toughness with wall thickness
explains why the ASME code specifies minimum operating temperatures as a
function of wall thickness. The thicker the material, the more prone it is to brittle
fracture and the higher its minimum operating temperature. For example, the
minimum operating temperature permitted in ASME B31.3 (Process Piping Design)
for API 5L(Specification for Line Pipe) X42 is +15F for t < 0.394" and +70F for t =
1". For ASTM A 106 Grade B it is -20F for t < 0.5" and +30F for t = 1". For ASTM
A 312 type 304 stainless steel it is -425F regardless of thickness.

The two most common methods used to measure metal toughness are the Charpy
Impact test, defined in ASTM specification E 23(Standard Test Methods for Notched
Bar Impact Testing of Metallic Materials), and the Drop-Weight test, defined in
ASTM E 208 (Nil-Ductility Testing). The Charpy test employs a small machined
specimen with a machined notch that is struck by a pendulum weight. The energy loss
to the pendulum as it passes through and breaks the specimen, measured in kilojoules
or ft / lb of force, is a measure of the toughness of the specimen. Typical impact
behavior versus test temperature is shown in Figure 3-5.

The Drop-Weight test is similar in principle but employs a larger specimen with a
brittle, notched weld bead used as the crack starter. A weight is dropped from a height
onto the specimen, which had been cooled or heated to the desired test temperature.
The test determines the nil-ductility transition temperature (NDTT), defined as the

54
specimen temperature when, upon striking, the crack propagates across the entire
specimen width.

3.4.4. Fatigue Resistance.

The ability of a metal to resist crack initiation and further propagation under repeated
cyclic loading is a measure of its fatigue resistance. Several standardized test methods
have been developed to test metals, machined to particular geometries, where
applying a repeating load range. Loads are generally applied through bending,
cantilevered, or push-pull load application in suitably outfitted testing machines.
Either constant applied stress or strain ranges can be employed to determine material
response. The most common representation of fatigue test data is an S-N curve,
relating stress (S) required to cause specimen failure in a given number of cycles (N)
[3].

Figure 3-5: Transition temperature range and transition temperature in Charpy

impact test

These tests are generally performed on smooth specimens, but they can also be run
with stress-concentrating mechanisms such as notches machined into the specimen

55
surface. The effect of stress concentrations on fatigue life cycles can also be estimated
from the smooth specimen S-N curve by calculating the intensified stress due to the
particular geometry, and intersecting the curve at that point on the stress axis. As the
applied load range decreases, ferritic steels exhibit a point at which an infinite number
of cycles can be absorbed without causing failure. This level of stress is called the
endurance limit. Many of the other metals do not exhibit this behavior, but rather
exhibit an increasing, but finite, number of cycles to failure with decreasing cyclic
load. When considering metal fatigue in design, a further safety margin is often also
applied against the cycles-to-failure at a given stress amplitude. For example, if a
component is continuously cycled over the same stress range, a design limit on
allowable cycles may correspond to the cycle life multiplied by a factor such as
0.8.This is a common safety margin employed in vessel and piping design. As is
normally the case, components may experience a wide variety of cyclic stress ranges,
at various temperatures, over their life. The effect of this array of cyclic parameters on
fatigue life can be estimated by an approach referred to as life fraction summation. In
this design practice, the percentage of life used up in cycling at a certain stress range
is calculated, corresponding to the ratio of the number of actual service duty cycles to
the total number of cycles to failure at that stress range. This calculation is performed
for all of the various stress ranges/duty cycles anticipated. The fractions thereby
calculated are summed and compared to the design limit (1.0 with no safety margin,
or 0.8 or some other value depending on the design safety factor that applies) [3].

3.4.5. Elevated Temperature Tensile and Creep Strength.

Tensile tests are performed at elevated temperatures to characterize the materials

yield and ultimate tensile properties at potential use temperatures above room
temperature. A heating chamber is combined with a conventional tensile testing
machine, and special strain measuring extensometers are used that are capable of
withstanding the test temperatures. Generally, as temperature increases, yield and
ultimate strengths decrease, and ductility increases.

Creep is defined as the time-dependent deformation of a material that occurs under

load at elevated temperatures. The test is performed by holding a specimen, similar in

56
configuration to a tensile specimen, at a uniform temperature and a constant load
(usually using a dead weight) and allowing the specimen to gradually elongate to
ultimate failure. The practice is defined in ASTM Specification E 139.

The simplest test method records only the applied stress (based on original test
specimen cross section), time to failure, and total elongation at failure. This is called a
stress rupture test. If periodic measurements of strain accumulation versus test
duration are also taken, the test is referred to as a creep-rupture test. A representation
of typical creep strain-versus-time data is shown in Figure 3-6

Figure 3-6: Creep time versus elongation curves at a given temperature.

Three stages of creep behavior are exhibited. Upon initial loading, instantaneous
straining occurs. Almost immediately, the rate of creep strain accumulation (creep
rate) is high but continuously decreasing. The test then progresses into a phase where
the strain rate slows and becomes fairly constant for a long period of time. Finally,
with decreasing load-bearing cross section of the specimen due to specimen stretching
and necking, applied stress begins to increase steadily, as does the creep rate, until
failure occurs. These three regions are termed the primary, secondary, and tertiary

57
stages of creep. The intent of safe design practice is to avoid the third stage, where
strain accumulations are rapid and material behavior less predictable.

3.5. Physical Properties of Metals

Physical properties are those, other than mechanical properties, that pertain to the
physics of a material. Physical properties of importance to the materials and design
engineer are material density, thermal conductivity, thermal expansion, and specific
heat.

3.5.1. Density
Density is the ratio of the mass of a material to its volume. In vessel and piping
design, the density of a construction material versus its strength per unit area of cross
section is often an important consideration.

3.5.2. Thermal Conductivity

This is the characteristic ability of a material to transmit energy in the form of heat
from a high-temperature source to a point of lower temperature. The ability to
transmit heat is usually expressed as a coefficient of thermal conductivity (k) whose
units are a quantity of heat transmitted through a unit thickness per unit time per unit
area per unit difference in temperature.

3.5.3. Thermal Expansion.

Expressed as the coefficient of linear expansion, thermal expansion is a ratio of the

change in length per degree of temperature, to a length at a given standard
temperature (such as room temperature, or the freezing point of water). The units of

58
the coefficient are length of growth per unit length per degree of temperature. The
value of the coefficient varies with temperature. The coefficient of thermal expansion
is not a property specified in ASTM material specifications, but it can be obtained for
different groups of materials, as a function of temperature from the ASME Boiler &
Pressure Vessel Code [ASME II]. The coefficient is critical in the flexibility analysis
of piping systems and is used to calculate the change in length of a material where:

L = L T

L = change of length ,in

= coefficient of thermanl exp ansion of the material ,1/ F
L = int ial length of the material , in
T = change in temprature , F

Table 3-2 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion of Some Metals (10-6 1/oF)

3.5.4. Specific Heat.

This is a measure of the quantity of heat required to raise a unit weight of a material
one degree in temperature.

59
3.6. Microstructure

The microstructure of a metal is the structure of its crystals and grains, which is
determined by microscopic examination of a sample of metal. To understand a
material's microstructure, consider first what takes place as steel cools down from a
molten, liquid state. The liquid metal starts to solidify at a number of points
distributed throughout its volume, first at the surface (which is colder) and then
towards the center of the ingot or piece. Around these scattered nuclei of solid metal,
the atoms of iron and alloying elements take their place in a well-structured matrix as
they solidify.

As the temperature continues to drop and more metal solidifies, these well structured
atomic lattices grow into crystals and grains, Figure 3-7, until all the metal has
solidified and the grains have grown to the point where they touch each other,
constituting grain boundaries. The atomic structure within a grain and the grain size
will depend on several factors, including the chemical composition of the material and
its heat treatment.

The equilibrium phase diagram for carbon steel is shown in Figure 3-8. To represent,
for example, an ASTM A 106 Grade B pipe material with 0.2% carbon, we place a
point on the bottom horizontal line (which corresponds to the ambient temperature) at
0.2% carbon (a point to the extreme left of the %C axis in Figure 3-8. If the pipe is
now heated to the melting point, for example during welding, we move vertically up
on the phase diagram at 0.2% carbon up to the liquid zone, at approximately 2800F.
As the pipe cools down it will solidify to white metal, which is represented on the
phase diagram by moving vertically down from the liquid zone, down the same
vertical line at 0.2% carbon. As we reach about 2600F, we have entered the zone
noted "austenite". At this temperature, the hot white metal is solid and atoms of iron
in each grain have placed themselves in a face centered cubic arrangement (fcc), as
illustrated in the bottom sketch of Figure 3-6, with an atom at each corner of a cube
(A) and one at the center of each face (C). The carbon atoms locate themselves
between the iron atoms. As the temperature continues to drop, we continue to slide
vertically down on the phase diagram at 0.2% carbon.

60
 Figure 3-7: Growth of Atomic Lattice into Grains

Below approximately 1600F, part of the austenite atomic structure (FCC) evolves
into ferrite which is body-centered-cubic (BCC), shown as top sketch of Figure 3-9,
with an atom at each corner of a cube (A) and one at the center of each cube (B). The
space between iron atoms is now smaller and some carbon atoms are no longer
accommodated in the crystalline matrix. They combine with iron to form iron carbide
(cementite Fe3C). Steel at room temperature is therefore made of ferrite grains and a
mixture of ferrite and cementite called pearlite.

Below 1333F, and if the cooling process is sufficiently slow (cooling in still air or in
furnace) all the austenite has been converted to ferrite (FCC) and cementite. If this
cooling process is too rapid, the orderly change of atomic structure will not have time
to take place, and a distorted atomic structure, martensite, that is neither BCC nor
FCC, will form. Martensite is hard (in the order of Rockwell C 55 and ultimate
strength as high as 300 ksi) but it is also brittle, prone to cracking. When welding in-
service, the fluid flowing in the line tends to accelerate the cooling process in the weld
bead and heat affected zone, forming martensite, which is prone to brittle cracking,
particularly in the presence of hydrogen.

61
 Figure 3-8: Simplified Phase Diagram of Carbon Steel

Figure 3-9: Atomic Structure of Carbon Steel

The temperature at which the metal is heated and the speed at which it is cooled down
(form very slow if cooled in furnace, to very quick if dropped in water) will affect its
atomic structure and grain size and, as a result, its weldability, and its mechanical,
metallurgical and corrosion resistant properties. A small grain size results in a more

62
ductile material, with better toughness. Another way to affect grain size is by addition
of grain refining elements such as aluminum, columbium (niobium), titanium or
vanadium [ASTM A 941 Standard Terminology Relating to Steel, Stainless Steel,
Related Alloys, and Ferroalloys]. This steel making practice is called "fine grain
practice". Grain size is measured and assigned a grain size number in accordance with
ASTM E 112 (Standard Test Methods for Determining Average Grain Size). The
study of the metal's microstructure, metallography is performed by optical or electron
microscopy. Metallography unveils the metal's microstructure, its grain morphology
as well as its flaws, such as cracks, voids or inclusions. Grain size can be viewed at
magnifications of around 100x and classified according to reference comparison
standards [ASTM E 112] or by computerized imaging techniques.

3.7. Fabrication Of Steel Pipe

3.7.1. Pipe Size

Commercial steel pipe is fabricated either by piercing and extruding a hot billet
(seamless pipe) or by bending then welding steel plates or skelp (longitudinal or spiral
seam welded pipe). In either case, the fabricator produces a pipe with dimensions
(diameter and thickness) that comply with a standard, such as ASME B36.10 for
carbon steel pipe, ASME B36.19 for stainless steel pipe, API 5L for line pipe. Pipe
mills also produce custom sizes, typically in the very large diameters. A standard
schedule pipe up to 12" has an inner diameter close to its nominal pipe size (NFS).
Pipe 14" and larger has an outer diameter equal to its NFS. Pipes are specified by
.their nominal size and schedule. Unlike pipes, tubes (or tubing) can have round or
square cross section. Cylindrical tubing generally has an outer diameter equal to its
nominal size, but not in all cases. Pipe schedules were introduced in the 1930's in an
effort to standardize and replace the designations of Standard (STD), Extra Strong
(XS), and Double Extra Strong (XXS), in use since the late 1800's. The schedule
number of stainless steel pipe (ASME B36.19) is followed by the letter S, and
includes lower schedules with thinner walls than carbon steel pipe (such as schedule
5S and 10S) for low-pressure corrosive service.

63
3.7.2. Seamless Pipe
Seamless pipe is fabricated by piercing a hot cylindrical billet and forming a seamless
tube. The "seamless" fabrication process follows several steps, depending on the
applicable material specification. These steps typically include the following
operations: (a) a forging is heated to white metal temperature, (b) the white-hot ingot
is forged and elongated into cylindrical bars, (c) the white-hot bars are pierced and
sized to the right diameter and thickness, (d) the pipe is hydrotested, (e) mechanical
properties are verified against the material and procurement specifications, (f) the
ends are beveled or threaded, and (g) the pipe is cleaned, marked and readied for
shipment. Alloys such as stainless steel would also be passivated (pickling, descaling)
by immersion into a warm acid bath, followed by water rinse and drying in air
(passivation), the pipe is then measured, weighed and marked.

3.7.3. Seam Welded Pipe

Seam welded pipe is made from skelp (the name given to plate used in pipe
fabrication) deformed in an O-shape or spiral shape, then welded along a longitudinal
or spiral seam. There are several types of seam welded steel pipe: Electric resistance
welded pipe, furnace butt welded pipe, arc welded pipe, electric flash welded pipe,
and double submerged arc welded pipe. Electric resistance welded pipe (ERW) is
made from plate, longitudinally butt welded by heat from electric current, without
filler metal. Furnace butt-welded pipe is made from a heated plate drawn through a
welding bell and butt welded by compression of the plate edges in the hot furnace.
Arc welded pipe is made from plate butt welded by manual or automatic arc, with
single or multiple passes on the outside diameter (OD) and inside diameter (ID), with
or without filler. Electric flash welded pipe is made from plate, longitudinally butt
welded by heat from electric resistance. Double submerged arc welded pipe is made
by the submerged arc welding process, typically with passes on the ID and OD. The
fabrication process of seam welded pipe follows the steps illustrated in Figure 3-3: (a)
steel plates (skelp) are welded end-to-end and rolled into coils, the outer edges are
beveled, (b) plates are bent progressively on a pipe mill into a U then O shape, (c) the
seam is welded and heat treated (typically by induction or gas furnace annealing), (d)

64
the weld is inspected (depending on the material specification, seam inspection may
be as little as visual or as much as 100% radiography), (e) the pipe is hydrotested, (f)
mechanical properties are verified for weld and base material, including tensile
properties (yield stress, ultimate strength and elongation at rupture) and ductility by
ring crush, (g) the ends are beveled or threaded, and (h) the pipe is cleaned (pickling
for stainless steel), measured, weighed and marked. Note that for 6" and larger pipe, a
seam welded pipe with 100% radiography can be a cost-effective alternative to a
seamless pipe.

From the 1920's to as late as the 1980's in some pipe mills, line pipe (API 5L) was
seam welded using low frequency ac current (360 Hz) or dc current. Under these
conditions, there must be a very close contact between the electrode and the skelp to
achieve continuous fusion. That is why some pipes fabricated during that period
exhibit lack of fusion along the seam, referred to as cold welds or stitched welds
[Kiefner]. This condition is practically inexistent in modern seam welded pipe using
high frequency ac current (in the order of 450 kHz).

Figure 3-10: Overview of Seamless Pipe Fabrication

65
Figure 3-11: Overview of Seam Welded Pipe Fabrication

66
Chapter 4

Mechanical Design of SUMED Pipeline

4.1. Background

The Sumed pipeline (also known as Suez-Mediterranean pipeline) is a 320 km long

oil pipeline in Egypt, which runs from Ain Sukhna terminal on the Gulf of Suez to
Sidi Kreir on the Mediterranean. It provides an alternative to the Suez Canal for
transporting oil from the Persian Gulf region to the Mediterranean. Sumed consists of
two parallel lines with the 42-inches diameter having a flow rate of around 2.5 million
barrel per day (Fig 4-1).

SUMED
Pipeline Location Map

Figure 4-1:SUMED Twin Pipeline route

The pipeline is owned by Arab Petroleum Pipeline Company, a joint venture of EGPC
(50%, Egypt), Saudi Aramco (15%, Saudi Arabia), ADNOC (15% the United Arab
Emirates), three Kuwaiti companies (each of 5%), and QGPC (5%, Qatar).

67
The pipeline was constructed to transport oil instead of Suez Canal because it was
closed during 1973 war in Egypt. The construction began 1974 and was completed
December 1976 and the first oil moved through the pipeline and shipped was in
January 1977.

The pipeline transport more than 40 types of crude oils from Saudi Arabia, Iran,
Egypt, Kuwait, UAE, Iraq, Qatar, Oman, Yemen and Russia.

There are four terminals at El Ain El Sukhna where the oil ships can put in their oil
and there are other 6 terminals at Sidi Kerir where the oil ships can receive the
transported oil and this is shown in Figure 4-2

Figure 4-2: A Ship pumping its oil to the pipeline

68
 Natural GasSupply
20.000CU.M/ HR 3Tanks
shoreline
Deballasting
plant shoreline
Relief tank
FromQarun
3+3Gas
500 320 Turbine 285
Relief tank relief
48 pumps tank
constant speed
52
42 48
42
M
150
42
GULFOFSUEZ
M M M M M
M M M

42 42 M

42
M M M M

42
M

M
150
150 48 M M M

MEDITERRANE
M

variablespeed Nile river 15tanks

Meters
M
42
Mainlines M

320 48
2*42inch320KM M
150
SPMSIZEIN,000DWT M
48
4tanks
15tanks Throughput 117MTA M
285

fromSUeztoMed.
350
SPMSIZEIN,000DWT

S-35
ToMidtap100.000Bpd Meters S-36

Figure 4-3: Pipeline System

There is a main pumping station in El Ain El Sukhna as shown in Figure 4-3 and there
is a boosting station in Dahshour as shown in Figure 4-5 which is located at 140 km
from El Ain El Sukhna to allow the flow of the crude oil till Sidi Kreir by giving it a
boost.

Figure 4-4: El Ain El Sukhna Pumping Station

69
 Figure 4-5: Dahshour Boosting Station

There are 22 tanks in Sidi Kreir to store the oil till the ships receive it, the tanks are
shown in Figure 4-6. In El Ain El Sukhna there are 15 tanks.

Figure 4-6: Tanks in Sidi Kreir

The pipeline is buried under one meter of soil to protect it and this is shown in Figure
4-7

70
 Figure 4-7: Burial of SUMED Pipeline

The stresses acting on SUMED pipeline in different regions will be calculated and see
whether it is safe or not. The material of the pipeline is steel API 5L X60 and has a
yield strength of 60,000 psi (413.7 MPa) and the pipe diameter is 42 inches (1.07 m)
with an internal maximum allowable pressure of 1334.35 psi (9.2 MPa). The pipeline
is buried 3 ft under the soil and has a modulus of elasticity of 29 106 psi (GPa )

The Pipeline will pass in 3 different regions across Egypt. The 1st region is in the
eastern desert, then the pipeline will cross the Nile river which is the 2nd region. The
3rd region is when the pipeline passes through the Delta (agricultural area).

4.2. Stress Analysis

For calculating the allowable pipe stress, a design factor of 0.72 will be used for new
seamless pipes with a joint weld factor of 1.0, the allowable pipe stress is calculated
from the following equation (Equation 2.1):

71
 S = design factor SMYS jo int weld factor
= 0.72 60000 1
= 43200 psi
= 297.85 MPa

When calculating the minimum wall thickness of SUMED pipeline, the internal
pressure, the diameter and the pipe allowable stress must be known and the thickness
is calculated using the following equation (Equation 2.3)

PD 1334.3472*42
t= = = 0.649 in = 16.48 mm
2S 2* 43200

But corrosion allowance and fabrication tolerance allowance must be added (12.5%)
[2], so the total allowances are calculated from Equation 2.4:

allowances = 0.125 0.649 = 0.081 in

t n = t + allowances = 0.649 + 0.081 = 0.73 in = 18.54 mm

But when using the API 5L Table 6C page 61, the nearest thickness is 0.750 in (19.05
mm). So this thickness will be used.

Moment of Inertia:

The moment of inertia of the pipe is calculated using the following equation:

t 3 0.753
Moment of Inertia I = = = 0.0352
12 12

72
Internal Pressure:

The internal pressure acts in both the axial and longitudinal directions. The hoop
stress which is in the axial direction is calculated using Equation 2.5:

PD 1334.35* 42
h = = = 37361.8 psi = 257.6 MPa
2t 2*0.75

While the longitudinal stress is calculated using Equation 2.6:

PD 1334.35*42
l = = = 18680.9 psi = 128.8 MPa
4t 4*0.75

This is half the hoop stress

The internal pressure is the same in all the 3 regions.

Since the hoop stress is less than the pipe allowable stress then the pipe is safe for this
stress which is the largest among all other stresses acting on the pipeline

SUMED Pipelines passes in 3 regions as shown in Figure 4-1, so the stress analysis
will be done in each region separately

Regions:

1st Region

When the pipeline passes in the desert, then there will be no live loads, the modulus of
soil reaction E for moderate coarse grained soil is 2000 psi, from Table 2.5. The
specific weight of sand is sand = 100lb / ft 3 , from Table 2.1.

73
Dead Load

The Sand Pressure on the pipe (Vertical Earth Load) which is buried under 3 ft of
sand is calculated using Equation 2.7:

Pv sand = 100 3
= 300 psf
= 2.08 psi
= 1.43 10 2 MPa

Ovality and stress

The pipe ovality due to the earths dead load is calculated using Equation 2.10:

y 1*0.1* 2.08
= 6
= 0.000896
D 29*10 *0.0352
+ 0.061(2000)
213

The through wall bending stress is calculated using Equation 2.11:

0.75
bw = 4(29*106 ) (0.000896)( ) = 1856 psi = 12.8 MPa
42

Ring Buckling Pressure

The critical ring buckling pressure is calculated using Equation 2.12 and Equation
2.13:

74
 1
B'= 36
= 0.209
( 0.065 )
1 + 4e 42

(29 106 0.0352)

Pc = 32(1)(0.209)(2000) = 429.3 psi = 2.96 MPa
423

Surface Impact Load

An assumption that a load of 420 tons (840,000 lb) fall from a height of 15 ft (4.57 m)
causing an impact area of 6 ft (1.82)in diameter is made. To calculate the maximum
impact load, The mass density which is = / g must be known, The soils Poisson
ratio is 0.37, the shear wave velocity of near surface soils is Vs = 10,000 inches per
second [2].

g = 9.81*100*2.5 = 2452.5 in / sec2

sand = 100lb / ft 3 = 0.05787lb / in 3 (from table 2.1)

0.05787
= = 0.0000236 lb .sec 2 / in 4
2452.5

0.0000236 (10000)2
G= = 236 psi
10

The surface impact load due to the weight of the falling body using equation 2.14 is

75
 32(840, 000)(180)(236)(36)
Pmax =
2 (1 0.33)

= 2493278.9 lb

= 11090657.09 N

Where the coefficient of penetration, k, is 0.0367 for sandy soil [2]

W 840, 000
Pa = = = 206 psi = 29664 psf
( r0 ) ( 362 )
2

Now we have to determine the impact velocity

V = (2 gH f )0.5 = ( 2 32.2 15 ) = 31 ft / sec

0.5

The penetration depth using equation 2.15 is

312
x p = (0.0367)(29709) log(1 + ) = 2.1 ft = 0.64 m
215000

Which is safe as the pipe is buried under 3 ft (0.91 m) in soil

Buoyancy

Since the pipeline is in the desert there is no water in the 3 ft where the pipeline is
buried so there is buoyancy stress on the pipeline

Thermal Stress

An assumption is made that the maximum operating temperature is 86 F (30o C) and

the installation temperature is 59 F (15o C) which gives a maximum compressive
thermal stress that is calculated using Equation 2.19:

76
 c = (29 106 )(6.345 10 6 )(86 59) 0.3(37361.8) = 6240.41 psi = 43.03 MPa

The negative sign means that this stress is compressive stress

Earthquakes

The moment magnitude Mw is taken as 6.5, a source to site distance as 20 km and the
sediment type as soft soil. The ratio of Peak Ground Velocity (cm/sec) to Peak
Ground Acceleration (g) will be 140 according to Table 2.6

Vs = PGV = 140 cm / sec.g (0.74g ) = 103.6cm / sec

The induced axial strain using equation 2.20 then becomes:

1.036
a = = 0.000518
2000

Tu
But a must be
4AE

The peak friction force per unit length at soil-pipe interface is calculated using
Equation 2.22

Tu = DH (1 + K o ) tan
2
3.5
= (3.5)(3 + )(100)(1 + 1) tan 26.4o
2 2
= 2592.7 lb / ft

77
With Tu = 2592.7 lb/ft, = 1.0 km = 3278 ft, E = 29 106 psi, and A = (42) (0.75) =
98.96 in2, the axial strain induced by friction at the soil pipe interface is 0.00074

Tu
Since a , then the pipeline is safe against this earthquake
4AE

Conclusion

Total Longitudinal Stresses

(128.8) + (0.0143) + (12.8 ) + ( 2.96 ) + ( 43.03) = 101.5 MPa

Total Hoop Stresses

257.6 MPa

Total Stress acting on the pipe

( 257.6 ) + (101.5) 2 = 276.87 MPa

2

Since the total stress acting on the pipe is less than the allowable pipe stress then the
pipe is SAFE

2nd Region

When the pipeline passes under the Nile River (7.28 m), then there will be neither live
loads nor surface impact loads, the modulus of soil reaction E for moderate fine
grained soil (less than 25% coarse grained particles) is 400 psi, Table 2.5. Since the
pipe is under the Nile River, the height of water in the soil above the pipe is 3 ft (36
in). The specific weight of sand is sand = 100lb / ft 3 , Table 2.1.

78
Modulus of Soil Reaction E' 400 psi (2.76 MPa)

Height of water above the pipe hw 36 in (0.91 m)

Water buoyancy factor Rw Rw = 1 0.33(36 / 36) = 0.67

Modulus of pipe elasticity E 29 106 psi (200GPa )

Dead Load

The Sand Pressure on the pipe (Vertical Earth Load) which is buried under 3 ft of
sand is calculated using Equation 2.8

Pv soil = (62.4*3) + (0.67*120*3)

= 428.4 psf
= 2.975 psi
= 2.05 102 MPa

Ovality and stress

The pipe ovality is calculated using Equation 2.10

y 1*0.1*(2.975)
= 6
= 0.0022
D 29*10 *0.0352
+ 0.061(400)
213

79
The through wall bending stress is calculated using Equation 2.11

0.75
bw = 4(29*106 ) (0.0022)( ) = 4557.14 psi = 31.42 MPa
42

Ring Buckling Pressure

The critical ring buckling pressure is calculated using Equation 2.13

1
B'= 36
= 0.209
( 0.065 )
1 + 4e 42

(29 106 0.0352)

Pc = 32(0.67)(0.209)(400) = 157.15 psi = 1.08 MPa
423

Buoyancy

The weight of water displaced by the pipe

3.52
Ww = 62.4* * = 600.358 lb / ft = 8760.1 N / m
4

80
The weight of the pipe

W p = 330.72 lb / ft = 4826.5 N / m

The effective weight of soil above the pipe

Ws = D (Pv w hw ) = 3.5(428.4 62.4 3) = 844.2 lb / ft = 12320.2 N / m

Since the sum of the pipe weight and the effective weight of the soil above the pipe is
greater than the weight of the water displaced by the pipe, then there is no net
buoyancy force acting on the pipe.

Thermal Stress

An assumption is made that the maximum operating temperature is 59 F (15o C) and

the installation temperature is 50 F (10o C) which gives a maximum compressive
thermal stress that is calculated using Equation 2.19:

c = (29 106 )(6.345 10 6 )(86 59) 0.3(37361.8) = 6240.41 psi = 43.03 MPa

The negative sign means that this stress is compressive stress

81
Earthquakes

By taking the moment magnitude Mw as 6.5, a source to site distance as 60 km and a

sediment type as soft soil. The ratio of Peak Ground Velocity (cm/sec) to Peak
Ground Acceleration (g) will be 142 according to Table 2.6

Vs = PGV = 142 cm / sec.g (0.74g ) = 105.08cm / sec

The induced axial strain then becomes:

1.0508
a = = 0.0005254
2000

Tu
But a must be
4AE

The peak friction force per unit length at soil-pipe interface is calculated using
Equation 2.22:

Tu = DH (1 + K o ) tan
2
3.5
= (3.5)(3 + )(100)(1 + 1) tan 26.4o
2 2
= 2592.7 lb / ft

With Tu = 2592.7 lb/ft, = 1.0 km = 3278 ft, E = 29 106 psi, and A = (42) (0.75) =
98.96 in2, the axial strain induced by friction at the soil pipe interface is 0.00074

Tu
Since a , then the pipeline is safe against this earthquake
4AE

82
Conclusion

Total Longitudinal Stresses

(128.8) + (0.0205) + ( 31.42 ) + (1.08 ) + ( 43.03) = 118.3MPa

Total Hoop Stress

257.6 MPa

Total Stress acting on the pipe

( 257.6 ) + (118.3)2 = 283.47 MPa

2

Since the total stress acting on the pipe is less than the allowable pipe stress then the
pipe is SAFE

3rd Region

When the pipeline passes in an agricultural area and under a highway, there will be
earth and surface loads, the modulus of soil reaction E for moderate fine grained soil
is 1000 psi, from Table 2.5. I assume that the height of water in the soil above the
pipe is 2 ft (24 in). The specific weight of sand is soil = 120lb / ft 3 , from Table 2.1.

Modulus of Soil Reaction E' 1000 psi

Height of water above the pipe hw 12 in (0.305 m)

Water buoyancy factor Rw Rw = 1 0.33(12 / 36) = 0.89

83
Dead Load

The Sand Pressure on the pipe (Vertical Earth Load) which is buried under 3 ft of
sand is calculated using Equation 2.8

Pv soil = (62.4*1) + (0.89*120*3)

= 382.8 psf
= 2.658 psi
= 1.83 102 MPa

Surface Live Load

The surface load due to the highway is 4.17 psi (0.0288 MPa) from table 2.2

Ovality and stress

The pipe ovality is calculated using Equation 2.10

y 1*0.1*(2.658)
= 6
= 0.00155
D 29*10 *0.0352
+ 0.061(1000)
213

84
The through wall bending stress is calculated using Equation 2.11

0.75
bw = 4(29*106 ) (0.00155)( ) = 3210.7 psi = 22.14 MPa
42

Ring Buckling Pressure

The critical ring buckling pressure is calculated using Equation 2.13

1
B'= 36
= 0.209
( 0.065 )
1 + 4e 42

(29 106 0.0352)

Pc = 32(0.89)(0.209)(1000) = 286.4 psi = 1.97 MPa
423

Surface Impact Load

An assumption that a load of 367.5 tons (700,000 lb) will fall from a height of 10 ft
(3.05 m) causing an impact area of 6 ft (1.83 m) in diameter is made. To calculate the
maximum impact load, the mass density which is = / g must be known, the soils
Poisson ratio which is 0.37, the shear wave velocity of near surface soils which is Vs
= 10,000 inches per second [2].

g = 9.81*100*2.5 = 2452.5 in / sec2

85
 soil = 120lb / ft 3 = 0.06944lb / in 3 (from table 2.1)

0.06944
= = 0.0000283 lb .sec 2 / in 4
2452.5

0.0000283 (10000) 2
G= = 283 psi
10

The surface impact load due to the weight of the falling body using equation 2.14 is

32(700, 000)(120)(283)(36)
Pmax =
2 (1 0.37)

= 2098644.9 lb

= 9335237.6 N

The coefficient of penetration, k, is 0.0482 for soil with vegetation

W 700, 000
Pa = = = 171.93 psi = 24757.44 psf
( r0 ) ( 362 )
2

Now we have to determine the impact velocity

V = (2 gH f )0.5 = ( 2 32.2 10 ) = 25.38 ft / sec

0.5

The penetration depth is calculated using equation 2.15

25.382
x p = (0.0482)(24757.44) log(1 + ) = 1.55 ft = 0.47 m
215000

86
Which is safe as the pipe is buried under 3 ft (0.91 m) in soil

Buoyancy

The weight of water displaced by the pipe

3.52
Ww = 62.4* * = 600.358 lb / ft = 8760.1 N / m
4

The weight of the pipe

W p = 330.72 lb / ft = 4826.5 N / m

The effective weight of soil above the pipe

Ws = D (Pv w hw ) = 3.5(405.6 62.4 1) = 1201.2 lb / ft = 17530.2 N / m

Since the sum of the pipe weight and the effective weight of the soil above the pipe is
greater than the weight of the water displaced by the pipe, then there is no net
buoyancy force acting on the pipe.

87
Thermal Stress

An assumption is made that the maximum operating temperature is 86 F (30o C) and

the installation temperature is 59 F (15o C) which gives a maximum compressive
thermal stress that is calculated using Equation 2.19:

c = (29 106 )(6.345 10 6 )(86 59) 0.3(37361.8) = 6240.41 psi = 43.03 MPa

The negative sign means that this stress is compressive stress

Earthquakes

By taking the moment magnitude Mw as 6.5, a source to site distance as 40 km and

the sediment type as stiff soil. The ratio of Peak Ground Velocity (cm/sec) to Peak
Ground Acceleration (g) will be 102 according to Table 2.6

Vs = PGV = 102 cm / sec.g (0.74 g ) = 75.48cm / sec

The induced axial strain then becomes:

0.7548
a = = 0.0003774
2000

Tu
But a must be
4AE

88
The peak friction force per unit length at soil-pipe interface is calculated using
Equation 2.22:

Tu = DH (1 + K o ) tan
2
3.5
= (3.5)(3 + )(120)(1 + 1) tan 26.4o
2 2
= 3111.2 lb / ft

With Tu = 2592.7 lb/ft, = 1.0 km = 3278 ft, E = 29 106 psi, and A = (42) (0.75) =

98.96 in2, the axial strain induced by friction at the soil pipe interface is 0.000888

Tu
Since a , then the pipeline is safe against this earthquake
4AE

Conclusion

Total Longitudinal Stresses

(128.8) + (0.0183) + ( 0.0288 ) + ( 22.14 ) + (1.97 ) + ( 43.03) = 109.93MPa

Total Hoop Stresses

257.6 MPa

Total Stress acting on the pipe

( 257.6 ) + (109.93)2 = 280.08 MPa

2

Since the total stress acting on the pipe is less than the allowable pipe stress then the
pipe is SAFE.

89
4.3. Material Selection for SUMED Pipeline
In the selection of the suitable material for SUMED pipeline, API 5L will be used.
Since the total stress calculated on the pipe is 281.74 MPa, then a material is needed
must have a yield strength more than 281.74 But there must be a safety factor
(assuming a safety factor of 1.4). So the total stresses including the safety factor is
394.4 MPa, when looking in the API 5L we find that the material grades that can be
used are steel grades of X60, X65, and X70.

Economically X60 is the best material and it is safe as it has minimum yield strength
of 414 MPa and ultimate yield strength of 517 MPa. So the material that will be used
in SUMED Pipeline is Steel API 5L grade X60

90
Chapter 5
Mechanical Design of Arab Gas Pipeline

5.1. Background
The Arab gas pipeline is a pipeline that exports Egyptian natural gas to the Middle
East and, once it has been extended, even to Europe. The first pipeline section runs
from Al Arish in Egypt to Aqaba in Jordan. This section was completed in July 2003,
costing $220 million. The annual capacity of this section is 1.1 bcm. The second
section extended
the pipeline from Aqaba to El Rehab in Jordan (24 km from the Syrian border). This
pipeline, which cost $250 million, is 393 km long with a diameter of 36 inches. The
second section was commissioned in 2005.The Egyptian consortium that developed
this section included EGAS, ENPPI, PETROGET and GASCO.

The third section has a total length of 324 kilometers from Jordan to the Deir Ali
power station in Syria. From there it would extend to the town of Rayan, Syria. In
March 2006, Egypt, Syria, Jordan, Turkey, Lebanon and Romania reached an
agreement to build the pipeline's extension through Syria to the Turkish border. From
there, the pipeline will be connected to the planned Nabucco Pipeline, a proposed
natural gas pipeline that is planned to transport natural gas from Turkey to Austria, for
the delivery of gas to Europe. Turkey expects to buy 2-4 bcm of gas annually by the
Arab Gas Pipeline. The pipeline route is shown in Figure 5-1, and includes all the 3
phases.

91
 Figure 5-1: Map showing the route of Arab Gas Pipeline

In the following section, a mechanical design will be made for the second phase of the
Arab Gas Pipeline which is from El Aqaba to El Rehab in Jordan (24 km from the
Syrian border).

92
5.2. Stress Analysis

For calculating the allowable pipe stress, a design factor of 0.72 will be used for new
seamless pipes with a joint weld factor of 1.0, the allowable pipe stress is calculated
from the following equation (Equation 2.1):

S = design factor SMYS jo int weld factor

= 0.72 65000 1
= 46800 psi
= 322.7 MPa

When calculating the minimum wall thickness of Arab Gas pipeline, the internal
pressure (100 bar), the diameter (0.914 m) and the pipe allowable stress must be
known and the thickness is calculated using the following equation (Equation 2.3)

PD 1450*36
t= = = 0.5577 in = 14.17 mm
2S 2*46800

But corrosion allowance and fabrication tolerance allowance must be added (12.5%)
[2], so the total allowances are calculated from Equation 2.4:

allowances = 0.125 0.5577 = 0.0697 in

t n = t + allowances = 0.5577 + 0.0697 = 0.627 in = 15.85 mm

But when using the API 5L Table 6C page 61, the nearest thickness is 0.625 in
(15.875 mm). So this thickness will be used.

93
Moment of Inertia:

The moment of inertia of the pipe is calculated using the following equation:

t 3 0.6253
Moment of Inertia I = = = 0.0203
12 12

Internal Pressure:

The internal pressure acts in both the axial and longitudinal directions

The hoop stress which is in the axial direction is calculated using Equation 2.5:

PD 1450*36
h = = = 41760 psi = 287.9 MPa
2t 2*0.625

While the longitudinal stress is calculated using Equation 2.6:

PD 1450*36
l = = = 20880 psi = 143.95 MPa
4t 4*0.625

This is half the hoop stress

Since the hoop stress is less than the pipe allowable stress then the pipe is safe for this
stress which is the largest among all other stresses acting on the pipeline

94
When the pipeline passes in the desert, then there will be no live loads, the modulus of
soil reaction E for moderate coarse grained soil is 2000 psi, from Table 2.5. The
specific weight of sand is sand = 100lb / ft 3 , from Table 2.1.

Dead Load

The Sand Pressure on the pipe (Vertical Earth Load) which is buried under 3 ft of
sand is calculated using Equation 2.7:

Pv sand = 100 3
= 300 psf
= 2.08 psi
= 1.43 10 2 MPa

Ovality and stress

The pipe ovality due to the earths dead load is calculated using Equation 2.10:

y 1*0.1*2.08
= 6
= 0.00112
D 29*10 *0.0203
+ 0.061(2000)
213

The through wall bending stress is calculated using Equation 2.11:

0.625
bw = 4(29*106 ) (0.00112)( ) = 2255.6 psi = 15.6 MPa
36

95
Ring Buckling Pressure

The critical ring buckling pressure is calculated using Equation 2.12 and Equation
2.13:

1
B'= 36
= 0.211
( 0.065 )
1 + 4e 36

(29 106 0.0203)

Pc = 32(1)(0.211)(2000) = 412.8 psi = 2.85 MPa
363

Surface Impact Load

An assumption that a load of 420 tons (840,000 lb) fall from a height of 15 ft (4.57 m)
causing an impact area of 6 ft (1.82)in diameter is made. To calculate the maximum
impact load, The mass density which is = / g must be known, The soils Poisson
ratio is 0.37, the shear wave velocity of near surface soils is Vs = 10,000 inches per
second [2].

g = 9.81*100*2.5 = 2452.5 in / sec2

96
 sand = 100lb / ft 3 = 0.05787lb / in 3 (from table 2.1)

0.05787
= = 0.0000236 lb .sec 2 / in 4
2452.5

0.0000236 (10000)2
G= = 236 psi
10

The surface impact load due to the weight of the falling body using equation 2.14 is

32(840, 000)(180)(236)(36)
Pmax =
2 (1 0.33)

= 2493278.9 lb

= 11090657.09 N

Where the coefficient of penetration, k, is 0.0367 for sandy soil [2]

W 840, 000
Pa = = = 206 psi = 29664 psf
( r02 ) ( 362 )
Now we have to determine the impact velocity

V = (2 gH f )0.5 = ( 2 32.2 15 ) = 31 ft / sec

0.5

The penetration depth using equation 2.15 is

312
x p = (0.0367)(29709) log(1 + ) = 2.1 ft = 0.64 m
215000

Which is safe as the pipe is buried under 3 ft (0.91 m) in soil

97
Buoyancy

Since the pipeline is in the desert there is no water in the 3 ft where the pipeline is
buried so there is buoyancy stress on the pipeline

Thermal Stress

An assumption is made that the maximum operating temperature is 86 F (30o C) and

the installation temperature is 59 F (15o C) which gives a maximum compressive
thermal stress that is calculated using Equation 2.19:

c = (29 106 )(6.345 10 6 )(86 59) 0.3(37361.8) = 6240.41 psi = 43.03 MPa

The negative sign means that this stress is compressive stress

Earthquakes

The moment magnitude Mw is taken as 6.5, a source to site distance as 20 km and the
sediment type as soft soil. The ratio of Peak Ground Velocity (cm/sec) to Peak
Ground Acceleration (g) will be 140 according to Table 2.6

Vs = PGV = 140 cm / sec.g (0.74g ) = 103.6cm / sec

98
The induced axial strain using Equation 2.20 then becomes:

1.036
a = = 0.000518
2000

Tu
But a must be
4AE

The peak friction force per unit length at soil-pipe interface is calculated using Equation 2.22:

Tu = DH (1 + K o ) tan
2
3
= (3)(3 + )(100)(1 + 1) tan 26.4o
2 2
= 2105.3 lb / ft

With Tu = 2105.3 lb/ft, = 1.0 km = 3278 ft, E = 29 106 psi, and A = (36) (0.625)
= 70.7 in2, the axial strain induced by friction at the soil pipe interface is 0.000842

Tu
Since a , then the pipeline is safe against this earthquake
4AE

Conclusion

Total Longitudinal Stresses

(143.95) + (0.0143) + (15.6 ) + ( 2.85) + ( 43.03) = 119.4 MPa

Total Hoop Stresses

287.9 MPa

99
Total Stress acting on the pipe

( 287.9 ) + (119.4) 2 = 311.7 MPa

2

Since the total stress acting on the pipe is less than the allowable pipe stress then the
pipe is SAFE.

5.3. Material Selection for Arab Gas Pipeline

In the selection of the suitable material for Arab Gas Pipeline, the API 5L
(Specification for Line Pipe) will be used. Since the total stress calculated on the pipe
is 311.7 MPa, then a material is needed must have a yield strength more than 311.7
But there must be a safety factor (assuming a safety factor of 1.4).So the total stresses
including the safety factor is 436.4 MPa, when looking in the API 5L we find that the
material grades that can be used are steel grades of X65, and X70.

Economically X65 is the best material and it is safe as it has minimum yield strength
of 448 MPa and ultimate yield strength of 531 MPa. So the material that will be used
in Arab Gas Pipeline is Steel API 5L grade X65

100
Chapter 6
Conclusion

This project was about studying and calculating the different stresses acting on the
pipelines and selecting the best material that can withstand these stresses. This Project
has 2 cases studies. The first was SUMED pipeline and after performing stress
analysis on the pipeline, a material was chosen from the standard API 5L which was
API 5L X60 and this material can withstand the different stresses acting on SUMED
pipeline. The second case study was Arab Gas pipeline (Second Phase) where a stress
analysis was done and according to that analysis a material was chosen form the
standard API 5L and this material was API 5L X65.

The materials for both pipelines can withstand the different stresses that act on both
pipelines so the mechanical design is safe.

101
References

[1] Moser, A. P. Buried Pipe Design, 2nd Edition.

[2] Alliance, A. L. (2001). Guidelines for the Design of Buried Steel Pipe.

[3] Nayyar, M. L. Piping Handbook (7th Edition). McGraw-Hill.

[4] Antaki, G. A. (2003). Piping and Pipeline Engineering. Dekker.

[5] Menon, E. (2004). Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics. Dekker.

[6] Abhinav Gupta, M. Response of Buried Pipelines to Surface Impact Loads. Department of
Civil Engineering, NC State University.

[7] Institute, A. P. (2000). API 5L (Specification for Line Pipe)(42nd Edition).

[8] Engineers, T. A. (2002). ASME B31.4 (Pipeline Transportation Systems For Liquid
Hydrocarbons and other Liquids).

[9] http://www.ncl.ac.uk/marine/pipelineeng/whypipelines.htm. Retrieved from Centre for

Pipeline Engineering.

[10] OPEC. Retrieved from http://www.opec.org/library/FAQs/PetrolIndustry/q6.htm.

[11] Retrieved from http://www.aopl.org/go/doc/888/57662/&printerfriendly=1.

[12] Azevedo, C. R. (2006). Failure analysis of a crude oil. Engineering Failure Analysis ,
978-994.

[13] S. de Luna, J. F.-S.-C. (2000). An analysis of the static and dynamic fracture behaviour
of a pipeline steel. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping , 691-696.

[14] Erling stbya, K. J. (2005). Fracture response of pipelines subject to large plastic
deformation under bending. International Journal of Pressure Vessels and Piping , 201-215.

[15] Chen, S.-H. W. (2002). A study on the pre-cyclic-load-induced burst of creep

deformation of a pipeline under subsequent static load. Material Science and Engineering ,
144-151.

[16] Yasuo Ogawaa, T. K. (2001). Structural design of buried pipelines for severe
earthquakes. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering , 199-209.

[17] Walter W. Chena, B.-j. S.-C.-H. (1209-1214). Seismic response of natural gas and water
pipelines in the Ji-Ji earthquake. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering , 2002.

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103