ch5 PDF

5
Functions and
Graphs
TERMINOLOGY
Arc of a curve: Part or a section of a curve between two Even function: An even function has line symmetry
points (reflection) about the y-axis, and f ] - x g = - f ] x g
Asymptote: A line towards which a curve approaches but Function: For each value of the independent variable x,
never touches there is exactly one value of y, the dependent variable.
A vertical line test can be used to determine if a
Cartesian coordinates: Named after Descartes. A system of
relationship is a function
locating points (x, y) on a number plane. Point (x, y) has
Cartesian coordinates x and y Independent variable: A variable is independent if it may
be chosen freely within the domain of the function
Curve: Another word for arc. When a function consists
of all values of x on an interval, the graph of y = f ] x g is Odd function: An odd function has rotational symmetry
called a curve y = f ] x g about the origin (0, 0) and where f ] - x g = - f ] x g
Dependent variable: A variable is a symbol that can Ordered pair: A pair of variables, one independent and
represent any value in a set of values. A dependent one dependent, that together make up a single point in
variable is a variable whose value depends on the value the number plane, usually written in the form (x, y)
chosen for the independent variable
Ordinates: The vertical or y coordinates of a point are
Direct relationship: Occurs when one variable varies called ordinates
directly with another i.e. as one variable increases, so
Range: The set of real numbers that the dependent
does the other or as one variable decreases so does
variable y can take over the domain (sometimes called
the other
the image of the function)
Discrete: Separate values of a variable rather than a
Vertical line test: A vertical line will only cut the graph of
continuum. The values are distinct and unrelated
a function in at most one point. If the vertical line cuts
Domain: The set of possible values of x in a given domain the graph in more than one point, it is not a function
for which a function is defined
Chapter 5 Functions and Graphs 205
INTRODUCTION
FUNCTIONS AND THEIR GRAPHS are used in many areas, such as mathematics,
science and economics. In this chapter you will study functions, function
notation and how to sketch graphs. Some of these graphs will be studied in
more detail in later chapters.
DID YOU KNOW?
The number plane is called the Cartesian plane after Rene

Descartes (15961650). He was known as one of the rst
modern mathematicians along with Pierre de Fermat
(16011665). Descartes used the number plane to develop
analytical geometry. He discovered that any equation
with two unknown variables can be represented by a line.
The points in the number plane can be called Cartesian
coordinates.
Descartes used letters at the beginning of the
alphabet to stand for numbers that are known, and letters
near the end of the alphabet for unknown numbers. This is
why we still use x and y so often!
Do a search on Descartes to nd out more details of
his life and work.
Descartes
Functions
Denition of a function
Many examples of functions exist both in mathematics and in real life. These
occur when we compare two different quantities. These quantities are called
variables since they vary or take on different values according to some pattern.
We put these two variables into a grouping called an ordered pair.
206 Maths In Focus Mathematics Extension 1 Preliminary Course
EXAMPLES
1. Eye colour
Name Anne Jacquie Donna Hien Marco Russell Trang

Colour Blue Brown Grey Brown Green Brown Brown
Ordered pairs are (Anne, Blue), (Jacquie, Brown), (Donna, Grey), (Hien,
Brown), (Marco, Green), (Russell, Brown) and (Trang, Brown).
2. y = x + 1
x 1 2 3 4
y 2 3 4 5
The ordered pairs are (1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 4) and (4, 5).
3.
A 1
B
2
C
3
D
4
E
The ordered pairs are (A, 1), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3) and (E, 2).
Notice that in all the examples, there was only one ordered pair for each
variable. For example, it would not make sense for Anne to have both blue
and brown eyes! (Although in rare cases some people have one eye thats a
different colour from the other.)
A relation is a set of ordered points (x, y) where the variables x and y are
related according to some rule.
A function is a special type of relation. It is like a machine where for
every INPUT there is only one OUTPUT.
INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT
The first variable (INPUT) is called the independent variable and the
second (OUTPUT) the dependent variable. The process is a rule or pattern.
For example, in y = x + 1, we can use any number for x (the independent

variable), say x = 3.
When x = 3
y=3+1
=4
As this value of y depends on the number we choose for x, y is called the
dependent variable. While we often call the
independent variable
x and the dependent
variable y, there are other
A function is a relationship between two variables where for
pronumerals we could
every independent variable, there is only one dependent variable. use. You will meet some
of these in this course.
This means that for every x value, there is only one y value.
Investigation
When we graph functions in mathematics, the independent variable

(usually the x-value) is on the horizontal axis while the dependent
variable (usually the y-value) is on the vertical axis.
In other areas, the dependent variable goes on the horizontal axis. Find
out in which subjects this happens at school by surveying teachers or
students in different subjects. Research different types of graphs on the
Internet to find some examples.
Here is an example of a relationship that is NOT a function. Can you see the
difference between this example and the previous ones?
A 1
B
2
C
3
D
4
E
In this example the ordered pairs are (A, 1), (A, 2), (B, 1), (C, 4), (D, 3)
and (E, 2).
Notice that A has two dependent variables, 1 and 2. This means that it is
NOT a function.
Here are two examples of graphs on a number plane.
1. y
2. y
There is a very simple test to see if these graphs are functions. Notice that
in the first example, there are two values of y when x = 0. The y-axis passes
through both these points.
y
x
There are also other x values that give two y values around the curve. If
we drew a vertical line anywhere along the curve, it would cross the curve in
two places everywhere except one point. Can you see where this is?
In the second graph, a vertical line would only ever cross the curve in one
place.
So when a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place, it shows that
it is not a function.
If a vertical line cuts a graph only once anywhere along the graph, the
graph is a function.
y
If a vertical line cuts a graph in more than one place anywhere along the
graph, the graph is not a function.
y
x
EXAMPLES
1. Is this graph a function?
Solution
You will learn how to sketch these

graphs later in this chapter.
A vertical line only cuts the graph once. So the graph is a function.
2. Is this circle a function?
Solution
A vertical line can cut the curve in more than one place. So the circle is
not a function.
3. Does this set of ordered pairs represent a function?

^ - 2 , 3 h , ^ - 1, 4 h , ^ 0 , 5 h , ^ 1 , 3 h , ^ 2 , 4 h
Solution
For each x value there is only one y value, so this set of ordered pairs is a
function.
4. Is this a function?
y
x
3
Solution
x
3
Although it looks like this is not a function, the open circle at x = 3 on

the top line means that x = 3 is not included, while the closed circle on
the bottom line means that x = 3 is included on this line.
So a vertical line only touches the graph once at x = 3. The graph is
a function.
5.1 Exercises
Which of these curves are functions?

1. 6.
2. 7.
3. 8.
4. 9. ^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 3, 3 h, ^ 4, 0 h
10. ^ 1, 3 h, ^ 2, -1 h, ^ 2, 7 h, ^ 4, 0 h
11.
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
5.
12.
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
13.
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
14. Name Ben Paul Pierre Hamish Jacob Lee Pierre Lien
Sport Tennis Football Tennis Football Football Badminton Football Badminton
15. A 3
B 4
C 7
D 3
E 5
F 7
G 4
Function notation
If y depends on what value we give x in a function, then we can say that y is a

function of x. We can write this as y = f ] x g.
EXAMPLES
1. Find the value of y when x = 3 in the equation y = x + 1.
Solution
When x = 3:
y = x +1
= 3+1
=4
2. If f ] x g = x + 1, evaluate f (3).
Solution
f ]x g = x + 1
f ]3 g = 3 + 1
=4
Notice that these two examples are asking for the same value and f (3) is
the value of the function when x = 3.
If y = f ] x g then f (a) is the value of y at the point on the function where x = a

EXAMPLES
1. If f ] x g = x 2 + 3x + 1, find f ] - 2 g .
Solution
f ( - 2) = ] - 2 g 2 + 3 (- 2) + 1
This is the same as finding y
when x = - 2. =4-6+1
= -1
2. If f ] x g = x 3 - x 2, find the value of f ] - 1 g .
Solution
f (x) = x 3 - x 2
f (- 1) = ] - 1 g 3 - ] - 1 g 2
= -1 - 1
= -2
3. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0, given that f ] x g = x 2 + 3x - 10.
Solution
f (x) = 0
2
Putting f (x) = 0 is different i.e. x + 3x - 10 = 0
from finding f (0) . Follow
this example carefully.
( x + 5 ) ( x - 2) = 0
x + 5 = 0, x-2=0
x = -5 x=2
4. Find f ] 3 g, f ] 2 g, f ] 0 g and f ] - 4 g if f ] x g is defined as

3x + 4 when x $ 2
f ]x g = )
- 2x when x 1 2.
Use f (x) = 3x + 4 when

Solution
x is 2 or more, and use
f (3 ) = 3 ( 3) + 4 since 3$2
f (x) = - 2x when x is less
than 2. = 13
f (2 ) = 3 ( 2) + 4 since 2$2
= 10
f (0) = - 2 (0) since 012
=0
f (- 4) = - 2 ( - 4) since -4 1 2
=8
5. Find the value of g ] 1 g + g ] - 2 g - g ] 3 g if

x2 when x 2 2
g ] x g = * 2x - 1 when - 1 # x # 2
5 when x 1 - 1
Solution
g (1 ) = 2 ( 1) - 1 since -1 # 1 # 2
=1
g (- 2) = 5 since - 2 1 - 1
2
g (3) = 3 since 3 2 2
=9
So g (1) + g (- 2) - g (3) = 1 + 5 - 9
= -3
DID YOU KNOW?
Leonhard Euler (170783), from Switzerland, studied functions and invented the term
f (x) for function notation. He studied theology, astronomy, medicine, physics and oriental
languages as well as mathematics, and wrote more than 500 books and articles on
mathematics. He found time between books to marry and have 13 children, and even when
he went blind he kept on having books published.
5.2 Exercises
1. Given f ] x g = x + 3, find f ] 1 g and 10. If f ] x g = 2x - 9, find f ^ p h and

f ]-3 g. f ]x + h g.
2. If h ] x g = x 2 - 2, find h ] 0 g, h ] 2 g 11. Find g ] x - 1 g when We can use pronumerals
and h ] - 4 g . g ] x g = x 2 + 2x + 3. other than f for functions.
3. If f ] x g = - x 2, find f ] 5 g, f ] - 1 g, f ] 3 g 12. If f ] x g = x 3 - 1, find f ] k g as a

and f ] - 2 g . product of factors.
4. Find the value of f ] 0 g + f ] - 2 g if 13. Given f ] t g = t 2 + 2t + 1, find

f ] x g = x 4 - x 2 + 1. t when f ] t g = 0. Also find any
values of t for which f ] t g = 9.
5. Find f ] - 3 g if f ] x g = 2x 3 - 5x + 4.
14. Given f ] t g = t 4 + t 2 - 5, find the
6. If f ] x g = 2x - 5, find x when
value of f ] b g - f ] - b g .
f ] x g = 13.
x3 for x 2 1
7. Given f ] x g = x + 3, find any
2 15. f ] x g = )
x for x # 1
values of x for which f ] x g = 28.
Find f ] 5 g, f ] 1 g and ] - 1 g .
8. If f ] x g = 3 x, find x when Z 2x - 4 if x $ 1
1 ]
f ]x g = .
27 16. f ] x g = [x + 3 if -1 1 x 1 1
] 2
9. Find values of z for which x if x # -1
\
f ] z g = 5 given f ] z g = 2z + 3 . Find the values of
f ] 2 g - f ] - 2 g + f ] -1 g .
17. Find g ] 3 g + g ] 0 g + g ] - 2 g if 21. If f ] x g = x 2 5x + 4, find

x+1 when x $ 0 f ] x + h g - f ] x g in its simplest
g ]x g = )
- 2x + 1 when x 1 0 form.
f ]x + h g - f ]x g
18. Find the value of 22. Simplify where
f ] 3 g - f ] 2 g + 2f ] - 3 g when h
] g
f x = 2x + x
2
x for x 2 2
23. If f ] x g = 5x - 4, find f ] x g - f ] c g
f ] x g = * x2 for -2 # x # 2
in its simplest form.
4 for x 1 -2
24. Find the value of f ^ k 2 h if
19. Find the value of f ] - 1 g - f ] 3 g
3x + 5 for x $ 0
x3 - 1 for x $ 2 f ]x g = * 2
if f (x) = * x for x 1 0
2x 2 + 3x - 1 for x 1 2
Z 3
x 2 - 2x - 3 25. If ]x when x $ 3
20. If f ] x g = f ] x g = [5
x-3 when 0 1 x 1 3
] 2
(a) evaluate f (2) x - x + 2 when x # 0
\
(b) explain why the function evaluate
does not exist for x = 3 (a) f (0)
(c) by taking several x values (b) f ] 2 g - f ] 1 g
close to 3, find the value of y that (c) f ^ - n 2 h
the function is moving towards
as x moves towards 3.
Graphing Techniques
You may have previously learned how to draw graphs by completing a table
of values and then plotting points. In this course, you will learn some other
techniques that will allow you to sketch graphs by showing their important
features.
Intercepts
One of the most useful techniques is to find the x- and y-intercepts.
Everywhere on the x-axis, For x-intercept, y = 0

y = 0 and everywhere on For y-intercept, x = 0
the y-axis x = 0 .
EXAMPLE
Find the x- and y-intercepts of the function f ] x g = x 2 + 7x - 8.
Solution This is the same as

y = x 2 + 7x - 8.
For x-intercept: y = 0
0 = x 2 + 7x - 8
= ]x + 8g]x - 1g
x + 8 = 0, x- 1=0
x = - 8, x=1
For y-intercept: x = 0 You will use the intercepts
to draw graphs in the next
y = ] 0 g2 + 7 ] 0 g - 8 section in this chapter.
= -8
Domain and range
You have already seen that the x-coordinate is called the independent variable
and the y-coordinate is the dependent variable.
The set of all real numbers x for which a function is defined is called the
domain.
The set of real values for y or f (x) as x varies is called the range (or
image) of f.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x 2 .
Solution
You can see the domain and range from the graph, which is the parabola y = x 2 .
y
CONTINUED
Notice that the parabola curves outwards gradually, and will take on any
real value for x. However, it is always on or above the x-axis.
Domain: {all real x}
Range: {y: y $ 0}
You can also find the domain and range from the equation y = x 2. Notice
that you can substitute any value for x and you will find a value of y.
However, all the y-values are positive or zero since squaring any number
will give a positive answer (except zero).
Odd and even functions
When you draw a graph, it can help to know some of its properties, for
example, whether it is increasing or decreasing on an interval or arc of the
curve (part of the curve lying between two points).
If a curve is increasing, as x increases, so does y, and the curve is moving
upwards, looking from left to right.
If a curve is decreasing, then as x increases, y decreases and the curve

moves downwards from left to right.
EXAMPLES
1. State the domain over which each curve is increasing and decreasing.
y
x
x1 x2 x3
The curve isnt increasing or

decreasing at x2. We say that it is
stationary at that point. You will
Solution study stationary points and further
curve sketching in the HSC Course.
The left-hand side of the parabola is decreasing and the right side is
increasing.
So the curve is increasing for x 2 x2 and the curve is decreasing when
x 1 x2.
2.
y
x
x1 x2 x3
Solution Notice that the curve is

stationary at x = 0 and x = x 3 .
The left-hand side of the curve is increasing until it reaches the y-axis
(where x = 0). It then turns around and decreases until x3 and then
increases again.
So the curve is increasing for x 1 0, x 2 x 3 and the curve is
decreasing for 0 1 x 1 x 3 .
As well as looking at where the curve is increasing and decreasing, we can

see if the curve is symmetrical in some way. You have already seen that the
parabola is symmetrical in earlier stages of mathematics and you have learned
how to find the axis of symmetry. Other types of graphs can also be symmetrical.
Functions are even if they are symmetrical about the y-axis. They have
line symmetry (reflection) about the y-axis.
This is an even function:
For even functions, f ] x g = f ] - x g for all values of x.
Functions are odd if they have point symmetry about the origin. A graph
rotated 180 about the origin gives the original graph.
This is an odd function:
For odd functions, f ] - x g = - f ] x g for all values of x in the domain.

EXAMPLES
1. Show that f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g2 + 3
= x2 + 3
= f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function
2. Show that f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function.
Solution
f ] - x g = ] - x g3 - ] - x g
= -x3 + x
= - ^ x3 - x h
= -f ]x g
` f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function
Investigation
Explore the family of graphs of f ] x g = x n.

k is called a parameter.
For what values of n is the function even? Some graphics calculators
and computer programs use
For what values of n is the function odd? parameters to show how
changing values of k change the
shape of graphs.
Which families of functions are still even or odd given k? Let k take on
different values, both positive and negative.
1. f ] x g = kx n
2. f ] x g = x n + k
3. f ] x g = ] x + k gn
5.3 Exercises
1. Find the x- and y-intercept of (d) f ] x g = x 2 + 3x

each function. (e) f ] x g = x2 - 4
(a) y = 3x - 2 (f) p ] x g = x 2 + 5x + 6
(b) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0 (g) y = x 2 - 8x + 15
(c) x + 3y - 12 = 0 (h) p ] x g = x3 + 5
x+3 12. For the functions below, state

(i) y = ]x ! 0 g
x (i) the domain over which the
(j) g ] x g = 9 - x 2
graph is increasing
(ii) the domain over which
2. Show that f ] x g = f ] - x g where
the graph is decreasing
f ] x g = x 2 - 2. What type of
(iii) whether the graph is odd,
function is it?
even or neither.
3. If f ] x g = x 3 + 1, find (a) y
(a) f ^ x 2 h
(b) 6 f (x) @ 2
(c) f ] - x g
(d) Is it an even or odd function?
4. Show that g ] x g = x 8 + 3x 4 - 2x 2 is x
an even function.
5. Show that f (x) is odd, where

f ] x g = x.
6. Show that f ] x g = x 2 - 1 is an even

function. (b) y
7. Show that f ] x g = 4x - x 3 is an
odd function.
8. Prove that f ] x g = x 4 + x 2 is an
even function and hence find
x
f ]x g - f ]-x g. 4
9. Are these functions even, odd or

neither?
x3
(a) y = 4
x - x2 y
1 (c)
(b) y = 3
x -1
3
(c) f ] x g = 2
x -4
x-3
(d) y =
x+3 x
-2 2
x3
(e) f ] x g = 5
x - x2
10. If n is a positive integer, for

what values of n is the function
f ] x g = xn
(a) even?
(b) odd?
11. Can the function f ] x g = x n + x

ever be
(a) even?
(b) odd?
(d) y (e) y
x x
-2 -1 1 2
-2
-4
Investigation
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with graphing software to sketch

graphs and explore what effect different constants have on each type of
graph.
If your calculator or computer does not have the ability to use parameters
(this may be called dynamic graphing), simply draw different graphs by
choosing several values for k. Make sure you include positive and negative
numbers and fractions for k.
Alternatively, you may sketch these by hand.
1. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.

(a) y = kx
(b) y = kx 2
(c) y = kx 3
(d) y = kx 4
k
(e) y = x
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs? Could you give a
general comment about y = k f ] x g?

(a) y = ] x + k g 2
(b) y = x 2 + k
(c) y = x 3 + k
(d) y = x 4 + k
1
(e) y = x + k
general comment about y = f ] x g + k?
CONTINUED

(a) y = x + k
(b) y = ] x + k g2
(c) y = ] x + k g3
(d) y = ] x + k g4
1
(e) y =
x+k
general comment about y = f ] x + k g?
For the family of functions y = k f ] x g, as k varies, the function changes

its slope or steepness.
For the family of functions y = f ] x g + k, as k varies, the graph moves up
When k 2 0 , the graph or down (vertical translation).
moves to the left and when
k 1 0 , the graph moves to For the family of functions y = f ] x + k g, as k varies, the graph moves left
the right. or right (horizontal translation).
Notice that the shape of most graphs is generally the same regardless of the
parameter k. For example, the parabola still has the same shape even though it
may be narrower or wider or upside down.
This means that if you know the shape of a graph by looking at its
equation, you can sketch it easily by using some of the graphing techniques in
this chapter rather than a time-consuming table of values. It also helps you to
understand graphs more and makes it easier to find the domain and range.
You have already sketched some of these graphs in previous years.
Linear Function
A linear function is a function whose graph is a straight line.
Gradient form:
y = mx + b has gradient m and y-intercept b
General form:
ax + by + c = 0
Investigation
Are straight line graphs always functions? Can you find an example of a
straight line that is not a function?
Are there any odd or even straight lines? What are their equations?
Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability

to explore the effect of a parameter on a linear function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k

1. y = kx
2. y = x + k
3. y = mx + b where m and b are both parameters
What effect do the parameters m and b have on these graphs?
EXAMPLE
Sketch the function f ] x g = 3x - 5 and state its domain and range.
Solution
This is a linear function. It could be written as y = 3x - 5.
Find the intercepts y
0 = 3x - 5 6
5 = 3x 5
2 4
1 =x
3 3
For y-intercept: x = 0 2
y = 3 ]0 g - 5 1 1 23
= -5 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Notice too, that you can

Notice that the line extends over the whole of the number plane, so that substitute any real number
it covers all real numbers for both the domain and range. into the equation of the
function for x, and any real
Domain: {all real x} number is possible for y.
Range: {all real y}
The linear function ax + by + c = 0 has domain {all real x}

and range {all real y} where a and b are non-zero
Special lines
Horizontal and vertical lines have special equations.

EXAMPLES
1. Sketch y = 2 on a number plane. What is its domain and range?
Solution
x can be any value and y is always 2.
Some of the points on the line will be (0, 2), (1, 2) and (2, 2).
This gives a horizontal line with y-intercept 2.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4
-2
-3
-4
-5
Domain: " all real x ,

Range: " y: y = 2 ,
2. Sketch x = - 1 on a number plane and state its domain and range.
Solution
y can be any value and x is always - 1.
Some of the points on the line will be ^ - 1, 0 h, ^ - 1, 1 h and ^ - 1, 2 h .
This gives a vertical line with x-intercept - 1.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Domain: " x: x = - 1 ,
Range: " all real y ,
x = a is a vertical line with x-intercept a

Domain: ! x: x = a +
Range: {all real y}
y = b is a horizontal line with y-intercept b

Range: " y: y = b ,
5.4 Exercises
1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of 3. Find the domain and range of

each function. (a) 3x - 2y + 7 = 0
(a) y = x - 2 (b) y = 2
(b) f ] x g = 2x + 3 (c) x = - 4
(c) 2x + y - 1 = 0 (d) x - 2 = 0
(d) x - y + 3 = 0 (e) 3 - y = 0
(e) 3x - 6y - 2 = 0
4. Which of these linear functions
2. Draw the graph of each straight are even or odd?
line. (a) y = 2x
(a) x = 4 (b) y = 3
(b) x - 3 = 0 (c) x = 4
(c) y = 5 (d) y = - x
(d) y + 1 = 0 (e) y = x
(e) f ] x g = 2x - 1
5. By sketching x - y - 4 = 0 and
(f) y = x + 4
2x + 3y - 3 = 0 on the same set
(g) f ] x g = 3x + 2
of axes, find the point where they
(h) x + y = 3
meet.
(i) x - y - 1 = 0
(j) 2x + y - 3 = 0
Quadratic Function
The quadratic function gives the graph of a parabola.
f ] x g = ax 2 + bx + c is the general equation of a parabola.

If a 2 0 the parabola is concave upwards
If a 1 0 the parabola is concave downwards
The pronumeral
a is called the
coefficient of x 2.
Applications
The parabola shape is used in many different applications as it has special

properties that are very useful. For example if a light is placed inside the parabola
at a special place (called the focus), then all light rays coming from this light and
bouncing off the parabola shape will radiate out parallel to each other, giving a
strong light. This is how car headlights work. Satellite dishes also use this property
of the parabola, as sound coming in to the dish will bounce back to the focus.
The lens in a camera and glasses are also parabola shaped. Some bridges look
like they are shaped like a parabola, but they are often based on the catenary.
Research the parabola and catenary on the Internet for further information.
Investigation
Is the parabola always a function? Can you find an example of a parabola

that is not a function?

to explore the effect of a parameter on a quadratic function, or choose
different values of k (both positive and negative).
Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.

1. y = kx 2
2. y = x 2 + k
3. y = ] x + k g2
4. y = x 2 + kx
What effect does the parameter k have on these graphs?
Which of these families are even functions? Are there any odd quadratic
functions?
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of y = x 2 - 1, showing intercepts.

(b) State the domain and range.
Solution
(a) This is the graph of a parabola. Since a 2 0, it is concave upward
For x-intercept: y = 0 y
0=x -1 2
5
1 = x2 4
!1 = x 3
For y-intercept: x = 0 2
y = 02 - 1 1
= -1 x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
(b) From the graph, the curve is moving outwards and will extend
to all real x values. The minimum y value is - 1.
Range: " y: y $ -1 ,
2. Sketch f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2.
Solution
This is a quadratic function. We nd the intercepts to see where the
parabola will lie.
Alternatively, you may know from your work on parameters that
f ] x g = ] x + a g 2 will move the function f ] x g = x 2 horizontally a units to the
left.
So f ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2 moves the parabola f ] x g = x 2 1 unit to the left.
0 = ]x + 1 g2
x+1=0
x = -1
For y-intercept: x = 0
y = ]0 + 1 g2
=1
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
3. For the quadratic function f ] x g = x 2 + x - 6

(a) Find the x- and y-intercepts
(b) Find the minimum value of the function
(c) State the domain and range
(d) For what values of x is the curve decreasing?
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
This means f ] x g = 0
0 = x2 + x - 6
= ]x + 3 g]x - 2 g
x + 3 = 0, x - 2 = 0
x = - 3, x = 2
f ] 0 g = ] 0 g2 + ] 0 g - 6
= -6 You will learn more
about this in Chapter 10.
(b) Since a 2 0, the quadratic function has a minimum value.
Since the parabola is symmetrical, this will lie halfway between the
x-intercepts.
Halfway between x = - 3 and x = 2:
-3 + 2 1
=-
2 2
1
Minimum value is f c - m
2
1 1 2 1
f c- m = c- m + c- m - 6
2 2 2
1 1
= - -6
4 2
1
= -6
4
1
So the minimum value is - 6 .
4
CONTINUED
(c) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave upward parabola.

y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 3 4 5
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
-6
-1 , -6 14
2
From the graph, notice that the parabola is gradually going outwards and
will include all real x values.
Since the minimum value is - 6 1 , all y values are greater than this.
4
1
Range: ' y: y $ -6 1
4
(d) The curve decreases down to the minimum point and then
1
increases. So the curve is decreasing for all x 1 - .
2
4. (a) Find the x- and y-intercepts and the maximum value of the
quadratic function f ] x g = - x 2 + 4x + 5.
(b) Sketch the function and state the domain and range.
(c) For what values of x is the curve increasing?
Solution
(a) For x-intercept: y = 0
So f ]x g = 0
0 = - x 2 + 4x + 5
x 2 - 4x - 5 = 0
]x - 5 g]x + 1 g = 0
x - 5 = 0, x + 1 = 0
x = 5, x = -1
f ] 0 g = - ] 0 g2 + 4 ] 0 g + 5
=5
Since a 1 0, the quadratic function is concave downwards and has a

maximum value halfway between the x-intercepts x = - 1 and x = 5.
-1 + 5
=2
2
f ]2 g = -]2 g 2+ 4 ]2 g + 5
=9
So the maximum value is 9.
(b) Sketching the quadratic function gives a concave downward parabola.
y
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6
-2
-3
-4
-5
From the graph, the function can take on all real numbers for x, but the
maximum value for y is 9.
Range: " y: y # 9 ,
(c) From the graph, the function is increasing on the left of the
maximum point and decreasing on the right.
So the function is increasing when x 1 2.
5.5 Exercises
1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of 2. Sketch

each function. (a) y = x 2 + 2
(a) y = x 2 + 2x (b) y = - x 2 + 1
(b) y = - x 2 + 3x (c) f ] x g = x 2 - 4
2
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1 (d) y = x + 2x
(d) y = x 2 - x - 2 (e) y = - x 2 - x
(e) y = x 2 - 9x + 8 (f) f ] x g = ] x - 3 g 2
(g) f ] x g = ] x + 1 g2 6. Find the domain over which each

(h) y = x 2 + 3x - 4 function is
(i) y = 2x 2 - 5 x + 3 (i) increasing
(j) f ] x g = - x 2 + 3x - 2 (ii) decreasing
(a) y = x 2
3. For each parabola, find (b) y = - x 2
(i) the x- and y-intercepts (c) f ] x g = x 2 - 9
(ii) the domain and range (d) y = - x 2 + 4x
(a) y = x 2 7x + 12 (e) f ] x g = ] x + 5 g2
(b) f ] x g = x 2 + 4x
(c) y = x 2 - 2x - 8 7. Show that f ] x g = - x 2 is an even
(d) y = x 2 - 6x + 9 function.
(e) f ] t g = 4 - t 2
8. State whether these functions are
4. Find the domain and range of even or odd or neither.
(a) y = x 2 - 5 (a) y = x 2 + 1
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 6x (b) f ] x g = x 2 - 3
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - x - 2 (c) y = -2x 2
(d) y = - x 2 (d) f ] x g = x 2 - 3x
(e) f ] x g = ] x - 7 g 2 (e) f ] x g = x 2 + x
(f) y = x 2 - 4
5. Find the range of each function (g) y = x 2 - 2x - 3
over the given domain. (h) y = x 2 - 5x + 4
(a) y = x 2 for 0 # x # 3 (i) p ] x g = ] x + 1 g 2
(b) y = - x 2 + 4 for -1 # x # 2 (j) y = ] x - 2 g 2
(c) f ] x g = x 2 - 1 for -2 # x # 5
(d) y = x 2 + 2x - 3 for -2 # x # 4
(e) y = - x 2 - x + 2 for 0 # x # 4
Absolute Value Function

You may not have seen the graphs of absolute functions before. If you are not
sure about what they look like, you can use a table of values or look at the
definition of absolute value.
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch f ] x g = x - 1 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Method 1: Table of values
When sketching any new graph for the first time, you can use a table of
values. A good selection of values is -3 # x # 3 but if these dont give
enough information, you can find other values.
e.g. When x = -3:

y = | -3 | -1
=3-1
=2
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
y 2 1 0 -1 0 1 2
This gives a v-shaped graph.

y
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 2: Use the definition of absolute value

x-1
y = | x | - 1 = &- when x $ 0
x - 1 when x 1 0
This gives 2 straight line graphs:
y = x - 1 ]x $ 0 g
y
5
4 y=x-1
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
CONTINUED
y = -x - 1 ] x 1 0 g
y
y=-x-1 5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted
lines to get the graph shown in method 1.
y = -x - 1 5
y=x-1
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 3: If you know the shape of the absolute value functions, find the
intercepts.
So f ] x g = 0
0 = | x |- 1
1 =| x |
` x = !1
f (0) = | 0 | - 1
= -1
The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
-1
If you already know how
-2 to sketch the graph of
-3 y = | x | , translate the
graph of y = | x | - 1
-4
down 1 unit, giving it a
-5 y-intercept of -1.
From the graph, notice that x values can be any real number while the
minimum value of y is - 1.
Range: {y: y $ -1}
2. Sketch y = | x + 2 | .
Solution
Method 1: Use the definition of absolute value.
y = | x + 2 | = 'x +2 when x + 2 $ 0
- (x + 2) when x + 2 1 0
This gives 2 straight lines:
y = x + 2 when x + 2 $ 0
x $ -2
y
5
y=x+2
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
CONTINUED
y = - ] x + 2 g when x + 2 1 0
i.e. y = - x - 2 when x 1 -2
y
5
4
y = -x - 2
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Draw these on the same number plane and then disregard the dotted lines.
y
5
y=x+2
4
y = -x - 2
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
Method 2: Find intercepts

So f ] x g = 0
There is only one 0 =| x + 2 |
solution for the
equation | x + 2 | = 0. 0=x+2
Can you see why? -2 = x
f (0) = | 0 + 2 |
=2
The graph is V-shaped, passing through these intercepts.

y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
If you know how to
-3 sketch the graph of
-4 y = | x | , translate it 2
places to the left for the
-5 graph of y = | x + 2 | .
Investigation
Are graphs that involve absolute value always functions? Can you find an
example of one that is not a function?
Can you find any odd or even functions involving absolute values? What
are their equations?

to explore the effect of a parameter on an absolute value function, or
choose different values of k (both positive and negative).
1. f ] x g = k | x |
2. f ] x g = | x | + k
3. f ] x g = | x + k |
The equations and inequations involving absolute values that you studied in
Chapter 3 can be solved graphically.
EXAMPLES
Solve
1. | 2x - 1 | = 3
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x - 1 | and y = 3 on the same number plane.
The solution of | 2x - 1 | = 3 occurs at the intersection of the graphs, that

is, x = -1, 2.
2. | 2x + 1 | = 3x - 2
Solution
Sketch y = | 2x + 1 | and y = 3x - 2 on the same number plane.
The graph shows that

there is only one solution.
Algebraically, you need to
find the 2 possible solutions
and then check them.
The solution is x = 3.
3. | x + 1 | 1 2
Solution
Sketch y = | x + 1 | and y = 2 on the same number plane.
The solution of | x + 1 | 1 2 is where the graph y = | x + 1 | is below the

graph y = 2, that is, - 3 1 x 1 1.
5.6 Exercises
1. Find the x- and y-intercepts of (c) f ] x g = | 2x + 5 |

each function. (d) y = 2 | x |- 3
(a) y = | x | (e) f ] x g = -| x - 3 |
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 7
(c) f ] x g = | x | - 2 4. Find the domain over which each
(d) y = 5 | x | function is
(e) f ] x g = - | x | + 3 (i) increasing
(f) y = | x + 6 | (ii) decreasing
(g) f ] x g = | 3x - 2 | (a) y = | x - 2 |
(h) y = | 5x + 4 | (b) f ] x g = | x | + 2
(i) y = | 7x - 1 | (c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 |
(j) f ] x g = | 2x | + 9 (d) y = 4 | x | - 1
(e) f ] x g = - | x |
2. Sketch each graph on a number
plane. 5. For each domain, find the range
(a) y = | x | of each function.
(b) f ] x g = | x | + 1 (a) y = | x | for - 2 # x # 2
(c) f ] x g = | x | - 3 (b) f ] x g = - | x | - 4 for
(d) y = 2 | x | -4 # x # 3
(e) f ] x g = -| x | (c) f ] x g = | x + 4 | for -7 # x # 2
(f) y = | x + 1 | (d) y = | 2x - 5 | for -3 # x # 3
(g) f ] x g = -| x - 1 | (e) f ] x g = -| x | for - 1 # x # 1
(h) y = | 2x - 3 | 6. For what values of x is each
(i) y = | 4x + 2 | function increasing?
(j) f ] x g = | 3x | + 1 (a) y = | x + 3 |
3. Find the domain and range of (b) f ] x g = - | x | + 4
each function. (c) f ] x g = | x - 9 |
(a) y = | x - 1 | (d) y = | x - 2 | - 1
(b) f ] x g = | x | - 8 (e) f ] x g = - | x + 2 |
7. Solve graphically (k) | 2x + 3 | # 5

(a) | x | = 3 (l) | 2x - 1 | $ 1
(b) | x | 2 1 (m) | 3x - 1 | = x + 3
(c) | x | # 2 (n) | 3x - 2 | = x - 4
(d) | x + 2 | = 1 (o) | x - 1 | = x + 1
(e) | x - 3 | = 0 (p) | x + 3 | = 2x + 2
(f) | 2x - 3 | = 1 (q) | 2x + 1 | = 1 - x
(g) | x - 1 | 1 4 (r) | 2x - 5 | = x - 3
(h) | x + 1 | # 3 (s) | x - 1 | = 2x
(i) | x - 2 | 2 2 (t) | 2x - 3 | = x + 3
(j) | x - 3 | $ 1
The Hyperbola
a
A hyperbola is a function with its equation in the form xy = a or y = x .
EXAMPLE
1
Sketch y = x .
Solution
1
y = x is a discontinuous curve since the function is undefined at x = 0.
Drawing up a table of values gives:
1 1 1 1
x -3 -2 -1 - - 0 1 2 3
2 4 4 2
1 1 1 1
y - - -1 -2 -4 4 2 1
3 2 2 3
Class Discussion
What happens to the graph as x becomes closer to 0? What happens as x

becomes very large in both positive and negative directions? The value of
y is never 0. Why?
To sketch the graph of a more general hyperbola, we can use the domain and
range to help nd the asymptotes (lines towards which the curve approaches
but never touches).
The hyperbola is an example of a discontinuous graph, since it has a gap
in it and is in two separate parts.
Investigation
Is the hyperbola always a function? Can you nd an example of a

hyperbola that is not a function?
Are there any families of odd or even hyperbolas? What are their
equations?

to explore the effect of a parameter on a hyperbola, or choose different
values of k (both positive and negative).

k
1. y = x
1
2. y = x + k
1
3. y =
x+k
EXAMPLES
3
1. (a) Find the domain and range of f ] x g = .
x-3
(b) Hence sketch the graph of the function.
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola.
The denominator cannot
To nd the domain, we notice that x - 3 ! 0. be zero.
So x ! 3
Also y cannot be zero (see example on page 242).
Domain: {all real x: x ! 3}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
The lines x = 3 and y = 0 (the x-axis) are called asymptotes.
CONTINUED
To make the graph more accurate we can find another point or two. The
easiest one to find is the y-intercept.
For y-intercept, x = 0
3
y=
0-3
= -1
y
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 y=0
-1
-2
Asymptotes
Notice that this graph is -3 x=3
3
a translation of y = -4
x
three units to the right.
-5
1
2. Sketch y = - .
2x + 4
Solution
This is the equation of a hyperbola. The negative sign turns the hyperbola
around so that it will be in the opposite quadrants. If you are not sure
where it will be, you can find two or three points on the curve.
To find the domain, we notice that 2x + 4 ! 0.
2x ! - 4
x ! -2
For the range, y can never be zero.
Domain: {all real x: x ! -2}
Range: {all real y: y ! 0}
So there are asymptotes at x = -2 and y = 0 (the x-axis).
To make the graph more accurate we can find the y-intercept.
1
y=-
2 ( 0) + 4
1
=-
4
x
-2
- 14
a
The function f ] x g = is a hyperbola with
bx + c
c
domain & all real x: x ! - 0 and
b
range {all real y: y ! 0}
5.7 Exercises
1. For each graph 2

(h) y = -
(i) State the domain and range. x+1
(ii) Find the y-intercept if it 2
(i) f ] x g =
exists. 6x - 3
(iii) Sketch the graph. 6
(j) y = -
2 x+2
(a) y = x
1 2
(b) y = - x 2. Show that f ] x g = x is an odd
function.
1
(c) f ] x g =
x+1 3. Find the range of each function
3 over the given domain.
(d) f ] x g =
x-2 1
1 (a) f ] x g = for -2 # x # 2
(e) y = 2x + 5
3x + 6 1
2 (b) y = for -2 # x # 0
(f) f ] x g = - x+3
x-3 5
4 (c) f ] x g = for - 3 # x # 1
(g) f ] x g = 2x - 4
x-1
3 1 1
(d) f ] x g = - for - 3 # x # 3 (c) f ] x g = for -1 # y # -
x-4 x-1 7
2 3
(e) y = - for 0 # x # 5 (d) f ] x g = - for
3x + 1 2x + 1
1
4. Find the domain of each function -1 # y # -
3
over the given range. 6 1
(e) y = for 1 # y # 6
3 3x - 2 2
(a) y = x for 1 # y # 3
2 1
(b) y = - x for - 2 # y # -
2
Circles and Semi-circles

The circle is used in many applications, including building and design.
Circle gate
A graph whose equation is in the form x 2 + ax + y 2 + by + c = 0 has the

shape of a circle.
There is a special case of this formula:
The graph of x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is a circle, centre ^ 0, 0 h and radius r
Proof
(x, y)
r y
x
x
Given the circle with centre (0, 0) and radius r:

Let (x, y) be a general point on the circle, with distances from the origin x
on the x-axis and y on the y-axis as shown.
By Pythagoras theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
` r2 = x2 + y2
EXAMPLE
(a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 4. Is it a function?

(b) State its domain and range.
Solution
The radius is 4.
(a) This is a circle with radius 2 and centre (0, 0).
x
-2 2
-2
The circle is not a function since a vertical line will cut it in more than
one place.
y
x
-2 2
-2
CONTINUED
(b) Notice that the x-values for this graph lie between - 2 and 2 and
the y-values also lie between - 2 and 2.
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 2}
The circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 has domain: ! x: -r # x # r + and

range: " y: -r # y # r ,
We can use Pythagoras theorem to find the equation of a more general circle.
The equation of a circle, centre (a, b) and radius r is ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2
Proof
Take a general point on the circle, (x, y) and draw a right-angled triangle as
shown.
(x, y)
y
r y-b
b
(a, b) x-a
x
a x
Notice that the small sides of the triangle are x a and y b and the
hypotenuse is r, the radius.
By Pythagoras theorem:
c2 = a2 + b2
r 2 = ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2
EXAMPLES
1. (a) Sketch the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 81.

Solution
(a) The equation is in the form x 2 + y 2 = r 2.
This is a circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 9.
x
-9 9
-9
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -9 # x # 9}
Range: {y: -9 # y # 9}
2. (a) Sketch the circle ] x 1 g2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4.

Solution
(a) The equation is in the form ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2.
] x 1 g 2 + ^ y + 2 h2 = 4
] x 1 g 2 + _ y ] - 2 g i2 = 2 2
So a = 1, b = - 2 and r = 2
CONTINUED
This is a circle with centre ^ 1, - 2 h and radius 2.

To draw the circle, plot the centre point ^ 1, - 2 h and count 2 units up,
down, left and right to find points on the circle.
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
(1, -2)
-3
-4
-5
(b) From the graph, we can see all the values that are possible for x
and y for the circle.
Domain: {x: -1 # x # 3}
Range: {y: -4 # y # 0}
3. Find the equation of a circle with radius 3 and centre ^ -2, 1 h in

expanded form.
Solution
This is a general circle with equation ] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2 where
a = - 2, b = 1 and r = 3.
Substituting:
] x a g2 + ^ y b h2 = r 2
] x - ] - 2 g g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 3 2
You may need to revise this
] x + 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 9
in Chapter 2. Remove the grouping symbols.
] a + b g2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
So ] x + 2 g2 = x 2 + 2 ] x g ] 2 g + 2 2
= x 2 + 4x + 4
] a b g = a 2 - 2ab + b 2
2
So ^ y 1 h2 = y 2 - 2 ^ y h ] 1 g + 1 2
= y 2 - 2y + 1
The equation of the circle is:
x 2 + 4x + 4 + y - 2y + 1 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y - 2y + 5 = 9
x 2 + 4 x + y 2y + 5 - 9 = 9 - 9
x 2 + 4x + y - 2y - 4 = 0
Investigation
The circle is not a function. Could you break the circle up into
two functions?
Change the subject of this equation to y.
What do you notice when you change the subject to y? Do you get two
functions? What are their domains and ranges?
If you have a graphics calculator, how could you draw the graph of a
circle?
By rearranging the equation of a circle, we can also find the equations of

semi-circles.
The equation of the semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y = r 2 - x 2
The equation of the semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0)
and radius r is y = - r 2 - x 2
Proof
x2 + y2 = r2
y2 = r2 x2
y = ! r2 - x2
This gives two functions:
y = r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is y $ 0

for all values.
x
-r r
The domain is {x: -r # x # r } and the range is {y: 0 # y # r }

y = - r 2 - x 2 is the semi-circle above the x-axis since its range is

y # 0 for all values.
x
-r r
-r
The domain is {x: - r # x # r } and the range is {y: -r # y # 0}
EXAMPLES
Sketch each function and state the domain and range.

1. f ] x g = 9 - x2
Solution
This is in the form f ] x g = r 2 - x 2 where r = 3.
It is a semi-circle above the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 3.
x
-3 3
Domain: {x: -3 # x # 3}
Range: {y: 0 # y # 3}
2. y = - 4 - x 2
Solution
This is in the form y = - r 2 - x 2 where r = 2.
It is a semi-circle below the x-axis with centre (0, 0) and radius 2.
x
-2 2
-2
Domain: {x: -2 # x # 2}
Range: {y: -2 # y # 0}
5.8 Exercises
1. For each of the following (a) y = - 25 - x 2

(i) sketch each graph (b) y = 1 - x2
(ii) state the domain and (c) y = 36 - x 2
range. (d) y = - 64 - x 2
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 9 (e) y = - 7 - x2
(b) x 2 + y 2 - 16 = 0
(c) ] x 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 4 3. Find the length of the radius and
(d) ] x + 1 g2 + y 2 = 9 the coordinates of the centre of
(e) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y 1 h2 = 1 each circle.
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 100
2. For each semi-circle
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 5
(i) state whether it is above or
(c) ] x 4 g2 + ^ y 5 h2 = 16
below the x-axis
(ii) sketch the function (d) ] x 5 g2 + ^ y + 6 h2 = 49
(iii) state the domain and (e) x 2 + ^ y 3 h2 = 81
range.
4. Find the equation of each circle (e) Centre ^ -4, 2 h and radius 5
in expanded form (without (f) Centre ^ 0, -2 h and radius 1
grouping symbols). (g) Centre (4, 2) and radius 7
(a) Centre (0, 0) and radius 4 (h) Centre ^ -3, -4 h and radius 9
(b) Centre (3, 2) and radius 5 (i) Centre ^ -2, 0 h and radius 5
(c) Centre ^ -1, 5 h and radius 3 (j) Centre ^ -4, -7 h and radius 3
(d) Centre (2, 3) and radius 6
Other Graphs
There are many other different types of graphs. We will look at some of these
graphs and explore their domain and range.
You will meet these
graphs again in the
HSC Course.
Exponential and logarithmic functions
EXAMPLES
1. Sketch the graph of f ] x g = 3 x and state its domain and range.
Solution
If you do not know what this graph looks like, draw up a table of values.
You may need to revise the indices that you studied in Chapter 1.
e.g. When x = 0:
y = 3c
=1
When x = -1:
y = 3-1
1
= 1
3
1
=
3
x -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
y 1 3 9 27
27 9 3
If you already know what the shape of the graph is, you can draw it
just using 2 or 3 points to make it more accurate.
You learned about

exponential graphs in earlier
This is an exponential function with y-intercept 1. We can find one
stages of maths.
other point.
When x = 1
y = 31
=3
y
x
1
From the graph, x can be any real value (the equation shows this as well
since any x value substituted into the equation will give a value for y).
From the graph, y is always positive, which can be confirmed by
substituting different values of x into the equation.
Range: " y: y 2 0 ,
2. Sketch f ] x g = log x and state the domain and range.
Solution
Use the LOG key on your calculator to complete the table of values.
Notice that you cant find the log of 0 or a negative number.
x 2 1 0 0.5 1 2 3 4
y # # # 0.3 0 0.3 0.5 0.6
x
1 2 3 4
-1
From the graph and by trying different values on the calculator, y can be
any real number while x is always positive.
Domain: ! x: x 2 0 +
The exponential function y = a x has domain {all real x} and

range {y: y 2 0}
The logarithmic function y = log a x has domain ! x: x 2 0 + and

range {all real y}
Cubic function
A cubic function has an equation where the highest power of x is x 3 .
EXAMPLE
1. Sketch the function f ] x g = x 3 + 2 and state its domain and range.
Solution
Draw up a table of values.
x 3 2 1 0 1 2 3
y 25 6 1 2 3 10 29
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
If you already -3
know the shape of
y = x 3, f (x) = x 3 + 2 has -4
the same shape as f (x) = x 3
-5
but it is translated 2 units up
(this gives a y-intercept of 2).
The function can have any real x or y value:

Domain and range
Sometimes there is a restricted domain that affects the range of a function.
EXAMPLE
1. Find the range of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 over the given domain of -1 # x # 4.
Solution
The graph of f ] x g = x 3 + 2 is the cubic function in the previous example.
From the graph, the range is {all real y}. However, with a restricted
domain of -1 # x # 4 we need to see where the endpoints of this
function are.
f ] -1 g = ] -1 g3 + 2
= -1 + 2
=1
f ] 4 g = ] 4 g3 + 2
= 64 + 2
= 66
Sketching the graph, we can see that the values of y all lie between
these points.
y (4, 66)
(-1, 1)
x
Range: " y: 1 # y # 66 ,
You may not know what a function looks like on a graph, but you can still
find its domain and range by looking at its equation.
When finding the domain, we look for values of x that are impossible.
For example, with the hyperbola you have already seen that the denominator
of a fraction cannot be zero.
For the range, we look for the results when different values of x are
substituted into the equation. For example, x2 will always give zero or a
positive number.
EXAMPLE
Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x - 4.
Solution
We can only find the square root of a positive number or zero.
So x 4 $ 0
x$4
When you take the square root of a number, the answer is always positive
(or zero). So y $ 0
Domain: ! x: x $ 4 +
Range: " y: y $ 0 ,
5.9 Exercises
1. Find the domain and range of (c) f ] x g = | 2x - 3 |

(a) y = 4x + 3 (d) y = | x | - 2
(b) f ] x g = -4
(e) f ] x g = - 2x + 5
(c) x = 3
(f) y = 5 - | x |
(d) f ] x g = 4x 2 1
You may like to (g) y = 2 x
(e) p ] x g = x 3 2
simplify the function
(h) y = -5 x
by dividing by x.
(f) f ] x g = 12 - x - x 2 x+1
(i) f ] x g = x
(g) x 2 + y 2 = 64
4x - 3
3 (j) y =
(h) f ] t g = 2x
t-4
3. Find the x-intercepts of
2
(i) g (z) = + 5 (a) y = x ] x - 5 g2
z
(j) f ] x g = | x | (b) f ] x g = ] x 1 g ] x 2 g ] x + 3 g
(c) y = x 3 - 6x 2 + 8x
2. Find the domain and range of
(d) g ] x g = x 4 - 16x 2
(a) y = x
(e) x 2 + y 2 = 49
(b) y = x-2
4. (a) Solve 1 - x 2 $ 0. x
8. Given the function f ] x g = x
(b) Find the domain of
f ] x g = 1 - x2 . (a) find the domain of the
function
5. Find the domain of (b) find its range.
(a) y = x 2 - x - 2
(b) g ] t g = t 2 + 6t 9. Draw each graph on a number
plane
6. Each of the graphs has a (a) f ] x g = x 4
restricted domain. Find the range (b) y = - x 3
in each case.
(c) y = x 4 - 3
(a) y = 2x - 3 in the domain
(d) p ] x g = 2x 3
-3 # x # 3
(e) g ] x g = x 3 + 1
(b) y = x 2 in the domain
-2 # x # 3 (f) x 2 + y 2 = 100
(c) f ] x g = x 3 in the domain (g) y = 2 x + 1

-2 # x # 1 10. (a) Find the domain and range of
1
(d) y = x in the domain y = x - 1.
1# x #5 (b) Sketch the graph of y = x - 1 .
(e) y = | x | in the domain
11. Sketch the graph of y = 5 x .
0#x#4
(f) y = x 2 - 2x in the domain 12. For each function, state
-3 # x # 3 (i) its domain and range
(g) y = - x 2 in the domain (ii) the domain over which the
-1 # x # 1 function is increasing
(iii) the domain over which the
(h) y = x 2 - 1 in the domain
function is decreasing.
-2 # x # 3
(a) y = 2x - 9
(i) y = x 2 - 2x - 3 in the domain
(b) f ] x g = x 2 - 2
-4 # x # 4
1
(c) y = x
(j) y = - x 2 + 7x - 6 in the
domain 0 # x # 7 (d) f ] x g = x 3
(e) f ] x g = 3 x
7. (a) Find the domain for the
3 13. (a) Solve 4 - x 2 $ 0.
function y = .
x+1
(b) Find the domain and range of
(b) Explain why there is no
(i) y = 4 - x 2
x- intercept for the function.
(ii) y = - 4 - x 2 .
(c) State the range of the
function.
DID YOU KNOW?
A lampshade can produce a hyperbola

where the light meets the flat wall.
Can you find any other shapes made by

a light?
Lamp casting its light
Limits and Continuity
Limits
The exponential function and the hyperbola are examples of functions that
approach a limit. The curve y = a x approaches the x-axis when x approaches
very large negative numbers, but never touches it.
That is, when x " - 3, a x " 0.
Putting a - 3 into index form gives
1
a-3 = 3
A line that a graph approaches a
but never touches is called an 1
=3
asymptote.
Z0
We say that the limit of a x as x approaches -3 is 0. In symbols, we write
lim a x = 0.
x " -3
EXAMPLES
x 2 + 5x
1. Find lim x .
x "0
Solution
0
Substituting x = 0 into the function gives , which is undened.
0
Factorising and cancelling help us nd the limit.
x 2 + 5x x 1 ]x + 5 g
lim x = lim
x "0 x "0
x1
= lim (x + 5)
x "0
=5
x-2
2. Find lim .
x "2 x2 - 4
Solution
0
Substituting x = 2 into the function gives , which is undefined.
0
x-2 x-2 1
lim = lim
x "2 x -4
2 x " 2
^x + 2h _x - 2i
1
1
= lim
x "2 x + 2
1
=
4
2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h
3. Find lim .
h "0 h
Solution
2h 2 x + hx 2 - 7h h ^ 2hx + x 2 - 7 h
lim = lim
h "0 h h "0 h
= lim 2hx + x 2 - 7
h "0
= x2 - 7
Continuity
Many functions are continuous. That is, they have a smooth, unbroken curve
(or line). However, there are some discontinuous functions that have gaps in
their graphs. The hyperbola is an example.
If a curve is discontinuous at a certain point, we can use limits to find the
value that the curve approaches at that point.
EXAMPLES
x2 - 1
1. Find lim and hence describe the domain and range of the curve
x "1 x-1
x -1
2
y= . Sketch the curve.
x-1
Solution
x2 - 1 0
Substituting x = 1 into gives
x-1 0
CONTINUED
x2 - 1 ]x + 1 g]x - 1 g
lim = lim
x "1 x-1 x-1 x-1
= lim (x + 1)
x "1
=2
x2 - 1
y= is discontinuous at x = 1 since y is undefined at that point.
x-1
This leaves a gap in the curve. The limit tells us that y " 2 as x " 1, so
the gap is at ^ 1, 2 h .
Domain: " x: all real x, x ! 1 ,
Range: " y: all real y, y ! 2 ,
x2 - 1
y=
x-1
^x + 1h ^x - 1h
=
Remember that x ! 1. x-1
=x+1
` the graph is y = x + 1 where x ! 1
x2 + x - 2 x2 + x - 2
2. Find lim and hence sketch the curve y = .
x " -2 x+2 x+2
Solution
x2 + x - 2 0
Substituting x = -2 into gives
x+2 0
x2 + x - 2 ^x - 1h ^x + 2h
lim = lim
x " -2 x+2 x " - 2
^x + 2h
= lim ^ x - 1 h
x " -2
= -3
x2 + x - 2
y= is discontinuous at x = - 2
x+2
^x + 2h ^x - 1h
y=
x+2
=x-1
So the function is y = x - 1 where x ! -2. It is discontinuous at ^ -2, -3 h .
5.10 Exercises
1. Find 2. Determine which of these

(a) lim x 2 + 5 functions are discontinuous and
x "4
find x values for which they are
(b) lim t - 7
t " -3 discontinuous.
(c) lim x 3 + 2x - 4 (a) y = x 2 - 3
x "2
1
x 2 + 3x (b) y =
(d) lim x+1
x "0 x
(c) f ] x g =
x-1
h2 - h - 2
(e) lim 1
h "2 h-2 (d) y = 2
x +4
y 3 - 125 1
(f) lim (e) y = 2
y "5 y-5 x -4
x 2 + 2x + 1
(g) lim
x "-1 x+1 3. Sketch these functions, showing
any points of discontinuity.
x 2 + 2x - 8
(h) lim x 2 + 3x
x " -4 x+4 (a) y = x
c-2
(i) lim x 2 + 3x
c "2 c2 - 4 (b) y =
x+3
x-1 x 2 + 5x + 4
(j) lim (c) y =
x "1 x2 - x x+1
h 3 + 2h 2 - 7h
(k) lim
h "0 h
hx 2 - 3hx + h 2
(l) lim
h "0 h
2hx 3 - h 2 x 2 + 3hx - 5h
(m) lim
h "0 h
x3 - c3
(n) lim
x "c x - c
Further Graphs
Graphs of functions with asymptotes can be difficult to sketch. It is important
to find the limits as the function approaches the asymptotes.
1
A special limit is lim x = 0
x "3
EXAMPLES
3x 2
1. Find lim .
x "3 x 2 - 2x + 3
Solution
3x 2
3x 2
x2
lim 2 = lim 2 (dividing by the highest power of x)
x " 3 x - 2x + 3 x "3 x 2x 3
- +
x2 x2 x2
3
= lim
x "3 2 3
1-x+ 2
x
3
=
1-0+0
=3
2. Find
x
(a) lim
x "3 x 2 + 4x + 4
x
(b) lim
x " -3 x + 4x + 4
2
Solution
x
x x2
(a) lim 2 = lim 2
x " 3 x + 4x + 4 x "3 x 4x 4
+ +
x2 x2 x2
1
x
= lim
x "3 4 4
1+x+ 2
x
0
=
1+0+0
=0
1
Since x " 0 from the positive side when x " + 3, we can write
x
lim = 0+
x " 3 x 2 + 4x + 4
1
x x
(b) lim 2 = lim
x " -3 x + 4x + 4 x " -3 4 4
1+x+ 2
x
=0 1+
4
+
4
is positive
x x2
1
Since x " 0 from the negative side when x " - 3, we can write whether x is + or -. Can
you see why?
x
lim = 0-
x " -3 x 2 + 4x + 4
3x 2
3. Find lim .
x "3 x-1
Solution
3
Dividing by x 2 will give .
0
Divide by x.
3x 2
3x 2
x
lim = lim
x "3 x - 1 x "3 x 1
x-x
3x
= lim
x "3 1
1-x
3x
=
1-0
= 3x
General graphs
It is not always appropriate to sketch graphs, for example, a hyperbola or

circle, from a table of values. By restricting the table of values, important
features of a graph may be overlooked.
Other ways of exploring the shape of a graph include:

intercepts
The x-intercept occurs when y = 0.
The y-intercept occurs when x = 0.
even and odd functions
Even functions 6 f ^ - x h = f (x) @ are symmetrical about the y-axis.
Odd functions 6 f ^ - x h = - f (x) @ are symmetrical about the origin.
asymptotes
Vertical asymptotes occur when f ] x g ! 0 and h ] x g = 0, given
g ]x g
f ]x g = .
h ]x g
Horizontal and other asymptotes are found (if they exist) when
finding lim f ] x g .
x "!3
domain and range
The domain is the set of all possible x values for a function.
The range is the set of all possible y values for a function.
EXAMPLES
x2
1. Sketch y = .
x -9
2
Solution
Intercepts:
For x-intercept, y = 0
x2
0=
x2 - 9
0 = x2
0=x
So the x-intercept is 0.
02
y=
0-2
=0
So the y-intercept is 0
Type of function:
] - x g2
f (- x) =
] - x g2 - 9
x2
= 2
x -9
= f (x)
The function is even so it is symmetrical about the y-axis.
Vertical asymptotes:
x2 - 9 ! 0
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g ! 0
x + 3 ! 0, x - 3 ! 0
x ! -3, x!3
So there are asymptotes at x = !3.

As x " 3 from LHS:

-
^ 3 - h2
f (3 ) =
^ 3 - h2 - 9
+
=-
=-
So y " - 3
As x " 3 from RHS:
^ 3 + h2
f (3 +) =
^ 3 + h2 - 9
+
= You could substitute values
+ close to 3 on either side into
=+ the equation, say 2.9 on LHS
and 3.1 on RHS.
So y " 3
As x " - 3 from LHS:
^ - 3 - h2
f (- 3 -) =
^ - 3 - h2 - 9
+
=
+
=+
So y " 3
As x " - 3 from RHS:
^ - 3 + h2
f (- 3 +) =
^ - 3 + h2 - 9
+
=- You could substitute values
close to - 3 on either side
=-
into the equation, say - 3.1
So y " - 3 on LHS and - 2.9 on RHS.
Horizontal asymptotes:
x2
2
x x2
lim = lim
x "3 x2 - 9 x " 3 x2 9
2
- 2
x x
1
= lim
x "3 9
1- 2
x
1
=
1-0
=1
As x " 3
32
f ( 3) = 2
3 -9
21
So as x " 3, y " 1 from above
CONTINUED
As x " - 3
You could substitute ] -3 g 2
f (-3) =
values such as 1000 and ] -3 g 2 - 9
-1000 to see what
y does as x
21
approaches !3.
So as x " -3, y " 1 from above
Domain: {x: all real x ! !3}
Range:
When x 2 3, y 2 1
When - 3 1 x 1 3, y # 0
When x 1 - 3, y 2 1
So the range is {y: y 2 1, y # 0}.
All this information put together gives the graph below.
x2
2. Sketch f (x) = .
x-2
Solution
Intercepts:
For x-intercept, y = 0
x2
0=
x-2
0 = x2
0=x
So the x-intercept is 0
02
y=
0-2
=0
So the y-intercept is 0.
Type of function:
] - x g2
f (- x) =
]-x g - 2
x2
=
-x - 2
x2
=-
x+2
! - f (x)
The function is neither even nor odd.
Vertical asymptotes:
x-2!0
x!2
So there is an asymptote at x = 2.
As x " 2 from LHS:
^ 2 - h2
f (2 -) =
2- - 2
+
=-
=-
So y " - 3
As x " 2 from RHS:
^ 2 + h2
f (2 +) =
2+ - 2
+
=
+
=+
So y " 3
You could substitute values close to 2 on either side into the equation, say
1.9 on LHS and 2.1 on RHS.
e.g. When x = 2.1
] 2.1 g2
f (2.1) =
2 .1 - 2
= 44.1
Note: If we divide everything
1
Horizontal asymptotes: by x 2, we get
0
. Divide by x.
x2
2
x x
lim = lim
x "3 x - 2 x "3 x 2
x-x
x
= lim
x "3 2
1-x
x
=
1-0
=x
This means that as x approaches !3, the function approaches y = x.
As x " 3
32
f ( 3) =
3- 2
2x
So as x " 3, y " x from above.
As x " -3
] -3 g 2
f (-3) =
-3 - 2
1x
So as x " -3, y " x from above.
CONTINUED
This is not easy to see, so substitute values such as 1000 and -1000 to see
what y does as x approaches 3.
e.g. When x = - 1000
] -1000 g2
f (-1000) =
-1000 - 2
= - 998
The point ^ -1000, -998 h is just above the line y = x.
Domain: {x: all real x ! 2}
Range:
When x 2 2 we find that an approximate range is y 2 35 (substituting
different values of x)
When x 1 2, y # 0
So the range is {y: y 2 35, y # 0}
Putting all this information together gives the graph below.
y
x
2
There is a method that combines all these features to make sketching easier.
EXAMPLES
x2
1. Sketch y = .
x2 - 9
Solution
First find the critical points (x-intercepts and vertical asymptotes).
x#x
y=
]x + 3g]x - 3g
x-intercepts: y = 0
x2
0= 2
x -9
0 = x2
0=x
asymptotes: (x + 3) (x - 3) = 0
x = !3
These critical points, x = 0, !3, divide the number plane into four regions.
These are straight lines at the

Then sketch y = x, y = x + 3 and y = x - 3 on your graph. critical points.
A graph is positive if it is
Look at the sign of the curve in each region. above the x-axis.
Re gion 1: y = x +
y=x+3 +
y=x-3 +
x#x
` y=
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
+#+
= The curve is above the x-axis
+#+ in this region.
=+
Re gion 2: y = x +
y=x+3 +
y=x-3 -
x#x
` y=
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
+#+
=
+#-
+
=- The curve is below the x-axis
in this region.
=-
CONTINUED
Re gion 3: y = x -
y=x+3 +
y=x-3 -
x#x
` y=
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
-#-
=
+#-
The curve is below the +
x-axis in this region. =-
=-
Re gion 4: y = x -
y=x+3 -
y=x-3 -
x#x
` y=
]x + 3 g]x - 3 g
-#-
=
-#-
The curve is above the +
x-axis in this region. =
+
=+
Find any horizontal asymptotes.
x2 1
lim 2 = lim
x "3 x - 9 x "3 9
1- 2
x
= 1 from above
x2
Check these! lim = 1 from above
x " -3 x2 - 9
All this information put together gives the following graph.
x+1
2. Sketch y = .
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
Solution
Find the critical points.
x = -1 (x - intercept)
x = - 2 0 vertical asymptotes
x=1 ^ h
Use these to divide the number plane into 4 regions and sketch
y = x + 1, y = x + 2 and y = x - 1.
x+1 x+1
Re gion 1: y = Re gion 3: y =
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g ]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
+ -
= =
+#+ +#-
=+ =+
x+1 x+1
Re gion 2: y = Re gion 4: y =
]x + 2 g]x - 1 g ]x + 2 g]x - 1 g
+ -
= =
+#- -#-
=- =-
For horizontal asymptotes
x+1 x+1
lim = xlim
x "3 ]x + 2 g]x - 1 g "3
x2 + x - 2
1 1
x + x2
= xlim
"3 1 2
1+x- 2
x
= 0+
x+1
lim
x " -3 ]
= 0-
x + 2 g]x - 1 g
All this information put together gives the following graph.
1
The y-intercept is - .
2
Class Investigation
You can explore graphs of this type on a graphical calculator or by using

computer software designed to draw graphs.
5.11 Exercises
1. Find 4. Find
x x4
(a) lim 2 (a) lim
x "3 x x "3 3x 3 + 7x
2 5x 3
(b) lim (b) lim
x "3 x+4 x "3 4x + 3
5x 5. Sketch
(c) lim 2
x "3 x + 1
1
(a) y =
2x 3 2
x +1
(d) lim 3
x "3 x - x
1
(b) y =
x2 x2 - 1
(e) lim 2
x " 3 x + 7x + 1
x
(c) y =
6x 5
x+1
(f) lim
x "3 x 5 - 2x - 7 x2
3
(d) y = 2
2x - 3x - 6 x +1
(g) lim
x "3 3x 3 + 1 x2
(e) y =
x2 x2 - 4
(h) lim
x "3 4x 3 + 27x - 9 x
(f) y = 1 +
5x 2 x2 + 1
(i) lim
x "3 x+2 x+2
(g) y =
3 x x2 - 4
(j) lim
x "3
x-1 4 - x2
(h) y =
4 + x2
2. (a) Show that 1
(i) y = x + x
2
x +x+3 1 3
=1+x+ 2
x2 x 3
(j) y = 2
x2 + x + 3 x -4
(b) Find lim
x "3 x2
2
x +x+3
(c) Find lim
x " -3 x2
3. Find
2x
(a) lim
x "3 x+5
2x
(b) lim
x " -3 x+5
Solving inequations graphically
There are different methods of solving inequations involving pronumerals in

the denominator. You learned how to solve these using the number line in
Chapter 3.
EXAMPLES
1
1. Solve $ 2 graphically.
x+1
Solution
1
Sketch y = and y = 2 on the same number plane.
x+1
The hyperbola has domain {all real x: x ! -1} and range {all real y: y ! 0}.
1
y=
0+1
=1
y=2
2
1
x
-2 -1 - 2 1 2
-1
1
y=
x+1 -2
1 1
The solution of $ 2 occurs when the hyperbola y = is on or
x+1 x+1
above the line y = 2.
CONTINUED
1
The two graphs intersect where = 2.
x+1
1
# (x + 1) = 2 # (x + 1)
x+1
1 = 2 ]x + 1 g
= 2x + 2
-1 = 2x
-1 2x
=
2 2
1
- =x
2
1
The solution is -1 1 x # - (from the graph).
2
1
2. Solve 1 1 graphically.
x-2
Solution
1
Sketch y = and y = 1 on the same number plane.
x-2
The hyperbola has domain {all real x: x ! 2} and range {all real y: y ! 0}.
1
y=
0-2
1
=-
2
y
y=1
1
x
-2 -1 - 12 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
y= 1
x-2
1 1
The solution of 1 1 occurs when the hyperbola y = is below
x-2 x-2
the line y = 1.
1
The two graphs intersect where =1
x-2
1
# ( x - 2) = 1 # ( x - 2 )
x-2
1=x-2
3=x
The solution is x 1 2, x 2 3
5.12 Exercises
Solve graphically and algebraically.

1 1
1. x 1 -2 6. #1
x+2
1 2
2. x 23 7. $5
x-2
1 3
3. x $1 8. 2 -1
x+3
1 -1
4. -x $2 9. #3
x-1
1 x
5. 23 10. $4
x-1 x+2
Regions
Class Investigation
How many solutions are there for y $ x + 2? How would you record
them all?
Inequalities can be shown as regions in the Cartesian plane.

You can shade regions on a number plane that involve either linear or
non-linear graphs. This means that we can have regions bounded by a circle or
a parabola, or any of the other graphs you have drawn in this chapter.
Regions can be bounded or unbounded.
A bounded region means that the line or curve is included in the region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 3.
Solution
x # 3 includes both x = 3 and x 1 3 in the region.
Remember that x = 3 is a
Sketch x = 3 as an unbroken or filled in line, as it will be included in the
vertical line with x-intercept 3. region. Shade in all points where x 1 3 as shown.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5
x=3
An unbounded region means that the line or curve is not included in the
region.
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region y 2 -1.
Solution
y 2 -1 doesnt include y = -1. When this happens, it is an unbounded
region and we draw the line y = -1 as a broken line to show it is not
included.
Remember that y = -1 is a
Sketch y = -1 as a broken line and shade in all points where y 2 -1 as horizontal line with
y-intercept -1.
shown.
y
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
y = -1 -1
-2
-3
-4
-5
For lines that are not horizontal or vertical, or for curves, we need to
check a point to see if it lies in the region.
EXAMPLES
Find the region defined by

1. y $ x + 2
Solution
First sketch y = x + 2 as an unbroken line.
On one side of the line, y 2 x + 2 and on the other side, y 1 x + 2.
To find which side gives y 2 x + 2, test a point on one side of the
line (not on the line).
For example, choose ^ 0, 0 h and substitute into
y$x+2
0$0+2
0$2 (false)
CONTINUED
This means that ^ 0, 0 h does not lie in the region y $ x + 2. The

region is on the other side of the line.
Any point in the region will

make the inequality true.
Test one to see this.
2. 2x - 3y 1 6
Solution
First sketch 2x - 3y = 6 as a broken line, as it is not included in the
region.
To find which side of the line gives 2x - 3y 1 6, test a point on one
side of the line.
For example, choose ^ 0, 1 h and substitute into
2x - 3y 1 6
2 ] 0 g - 3 (1 ) 1 6
-3 1 6 (true)
This means that ^ 0, 1 h lies in the region 2x - 3y 1 6.
2x - 3y = 6
3. x 2 + y 2 2 1
Solution
The equation x 2 + y 2 = 1 is a circle, radius 1 and centre ^ 0, 0 h .
Draw x 2 + y 2 = 1 as a broken line, since the region does not include
the curve.
Choose a point inside the circle, say ^ 0, 0 h

x2 + y2 2 1
02 + 02 2 1
0 2 1 (false)
So the region lies outside the circle.
4. y $ x 2
Solution
The equation y = x 2 is a parabola. Sketch this as an unbroken line, as it is
included in the region.
Choose a point inside the parabola, say ^ 1, 3 h.
y $ x2
3 2 12
3 2 1 (true)
So ^ 1, 3 h lies in the region.
y = x2
Sometimes a region includes two or more inequalities. When this

happens, sketch each region on the number plane, and the final region is
where they overlap (intersect).
EXAMPLE
Sketch the region x # 4, y 2 -2 and y # x 2 .
Solution
Draw the three regions, either separately or on the same set of axes, and
see where they overlap.
Put the three regions together.
If you are given a region, you should also be able to describe it

algebraically.
EXAMPLES
Describe each region.

1. y
6
5
4
3
2
1
x
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
-2
-3
-4
Solution
The shaded area is below and including y = 6 so can be described as
y # 6.
It is also to the left of, but not including the line x = 4, which can be
described as x 1 4.
The region is the intersection of these two regions:
y # 6 and x 1 4
y
2.
x
-2 2
-2
CONTINUED
Solution
The shaded area is the interior of the circle, centre (0, 0) and radius 2 but
it does not include the circle.
The equation of the circle is x 2 + y 2 = 2 2 or x 2 + y 2 = 4.
You may know (or guess) the inequality for the inside of the circle.
If you are unsure, choose a point inside the circle and substitute into the
equation e.g. (0, 0).
LHS = x 2 + y 2
= 02 + 02
=0
1 4 ] RHS g
So the region is x 2 + y 2 1 4.
5.13 Exercises
1. Shade the region defined by (b)
y
(a) x # 2
(b) x 2 1
(c) y $ 0 6
(d) y 1 5 5
(e) y # x + 1 4
3
(f) y $ 2x - 3
2
(g) x + y 2 1
1
(h) 3x - y - 6 1 0
x
(i) x + 2y - 2 $ 0 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-1
(j) 2x - 1 1 0
-2
2. Write an inequation to describe -3
each region. -4
(a)
y (c)
y
6
6
5
5
4 y=x+1
4
3
2 3
1 2
x 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 x
-1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4
-2 -1
-3 -2
-4 -3
-4
(d) 5. Shade the region

y
(a) ] x - 2 g2 + y 2 # 4
5 y = x2 - 4 (b) ] x - 1 g2 + ^ y - 2 h2 # 1
4 (c) ] x + 2 g2 + ^ y - 1 h2 2 9
3
6. Shade the intersection of these
2
regions.
1
(a) x # 3, y $ -1
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 (b) x $ -3, y 2 x -3
-1
(c) y # 1, y $ 3x - 5
-2
(d) y 2 x + 1, y # 3 - x
-3
(e) y # 1, x 2 + y 2 # 9
-4
(f) x 2 -1, x 2 + y 2 1 4
-5
(g) y # 4, y $ x 2
(e) (h) x 1 -2, y # 3, y 2 x 3
y (i) y # 0, x 2 + y 2 $ 1
(j) -1 1 x - y # 2
y = 2x
7. Shade the region bounded by
3
(a) the curve y = x 2, the x-axis
2 and the lines x = 1 and x = 3
1 (b) the curve y = x 3, the y-axis
and the lines y = 0 and y = 1
x
1 (c) the curve x 2 + y 2 = 4, the
x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
x = 1 in the first quadrant The first quadrant is
2 where x and y values
(d) the curve y = x , the x-axis
are both positive.
3. Shade each region described. and the lines x = 1 and x = 4
(a) y 2 x 2 1 1
(e) the curve y = , the
(b) x 2 + y 2 # 9 x+2
(c) x 2 + y 2 $ 1 x-axis and the lines x = 0 and
(d) y # x 2 x=2
(e) y 1 x 3
8. Shade the regions bounded by
4. Describe as an inequality the intersection of
(a) the set of points that lie (a) x 1 2, y 1 5 and y # x 2
below the line y = 3x - 2 (b) x 1 3, y $ -1, y # x - 2
(b) the set of points that lie (c) y # 1 - x, y # 2x + 1, 2x - 3y # 6
inside the parabola y = x 2 + 2 (d) x $ -3, y # 2, x 2 + y 2 $ 9
(c) the interior of a circle with (e) x 1 2, y # 3, y $ | x |
radius 7 and centre (0, 0)
(d) the exterior of a circle with
radius 9 and centre (0, 0)
(e) the set of points that lie to
the left of the line x = 5 and
above the line y = 2
Application
Regions are used in business applications to find optimum profit. Two (or more)
equations are graphed together, and the region where a profit is made is shaded.
The optimum profit occurs at the endpoints (or vertices) of the region.
EXAMPLE
A company makes both roller skates (X ) and ice skates (Y ). Roller skates make a
$25 profit, while ice skates make a profit of $21. Each pair of roller skates spends
2 hours on machine A (available 12 hours per day) and 2 hours on machine B
(available 8 hours per day). Each pair of ice skates spends 3 hours on machine A
and 1 hour on machine B.
How many skates of each type should be made each day to give the greatest
profit while making the most efficient use of the machines?
SOLUTION
Profit P = $25 X + $21Y
Machine A: 2X + 3Y # 12
Machine B: 2X + Y # 8
Sketch the regions and find the
point of intersection of the lines.
The shaded area shows all possible ways of making a profit. Optimum profit
occurs at one of the endpoints of the regions.
(0, 4): P = $25 ] 0 g + $21 ] 4 g = $84
(4, 0): P = $25 ] 4 g + $21 ] 0 g = $100
(3, 2): P = $25 ] 3 g + $21 ] 2 g = $117
^ 3, 2 h gives the greatest profit, so 3 pairs of roller skates and 2 pairs of ice
skates each day gives optimum profit.
Test Yourself 5
1. If f ] x g = x 2 - 3x - 4, find 11. Describe each region
(a) f ] -2 g (a)
(b) f ] a g
(c) x when f ] x g = 0
2. Sketch each graph

(a) y = x 2 - 3x - 4
(b) f ] x g = x 3
(c) x 2 + y 2 = 1
(d) y = 1 - x 2
(e) y = - 1 - x 2 (b)
2
(f) y = x
(g) 2x - 5y + 10 = 0
(h) y = | x + 2 |
3. Find the domain and range of each graph

in question 2.
2x if x $ 1
4. If f ] x g = * 2
x -3 if x 1 1
find f ] 5 g - f ] 0 g + f ] 1 g
3 if x 2 3
(c)
5. Given f ] x g = * x 2
if 1 # x # 3
2 - x if x 1 1
find
(a) f ] 2 g
(b) f ] -3 g
(c) f ] 3 g
(d) f ] 5 g
(e) f ] 0 g
6. Shade the region y $ 2x + 1.
7. Shade the region where x 1 3 and y $ -1.

12. (a) Write down the domain and range of
8. Shade the region given by x 2 + y 2 $ 1. 2
the curve y = .
x-3
9. Shade the region given by 2
(b) Sketch the graph of y = .
2x + 3y - 6 # 0 and x $ -2. x-3
10. Shade the region y 2 x + 1 and

x + y # 2.
13. (a) Sketch the graph y = | x + 1 |. x3 + 1

(c) lim
(b) From the graph, solve x " -1
x2 - 1
(i) | x + 1 | = 3 2xh 2 + 3h
(ii) | x + 1 | 1 3 (d) lim
h "0 h
(iii) | x + 1 | 2 3
18. Sketch y = 10 x, y = log x and y = x on the
14. If f ] x g = 3x - 4, find same number plane.
(a) f ] 2 g
(b) x when f ] x g = 7 19. (a) State the domain and range of
(c) x when f ] x g = 0 y = 2x - 4 .
(b) Sketch the graph of y = 2x - 4 .
15. Find the x- and y-intercepts of
(a) 2x - 5y + 20 = 0 20. Show that
(b) y = x 2 - 5x - 14 (a) f ] x g = x 4 + 3x 2 - 1 is even
(b) f ] x g = x 3 - x is odd.
16. State which functions are (i) even
(ii) odd (iii) neither even nor odd. 21. Sketch the following graphs showing
(a) y = x 2 - 1 asymptotes and other features.
(b) y = x + 1 5
(a) y = 2
(c) y = x 3 x +5
(d) y = x 4 x
(b) y =
(e) y = 2 x x2 - 1
2x 2
17. Find (c) f ] x g = 2
x - 16
x 2 - 2x - 3
(a) lim x2
x "3 x-3 (d) y = 2
x +3
2x
(b) lim x+2
x "0
x 2 + 5x (e) f ] x g = 2
x - 2x - 8
Challenge Exercise 5
1. Find the values of b if f ] x g = 3x 2 - 7x + 1 5. Draw the graph of y = | x | + 3x - 4.
and f ] b g = 7. Z 2x + 3 when x 2 2
]
2. Sketch y = ] x + 2 g2 - 1 in the domain 6. f ] x g = [1 when -2 # x # 2
] 2
-3 # x # 0. x when x 1 -2
\
2x 3 Find f ] 3 g, f ] -4 g, f ] 0 g and sketch the
3. Sketch the curve y = .
x2 - 4 curve.
4. Sketch the region y 2 4 - x 2 in the first
7. Find the domain and range of
quadrant. 1
y= 2 .
x -1
8. Sketch the region x 1 y, x + 2y 1 6, (b) Find the domain and range of

x + 2y - 4 $ 0. 2x + 7
y= .
x+3
9. Find the domain and range of x 2 = y in
(c) Hence sketch the graph of
the first quadrant.
2x + 7
y= .
10. If f ] x g = 2x 3 - 2x 2 - 12x, find x when x+3
f ] x g = 0. 18. Sketch y = 2 x - 1 .
1 |x |
11. Sketch the region defined by y 2 19. Sketch y = .
x+2
in the first quadrant. x2
1 - t2 if t 2 1 20. Find the domain and range of
12. If h ] t g = )
2 f ] x g = 2x - 6 .
t -1 if t # 1
find the value of h 2 g + h ] -1 g - h ] 0 g and
] 1
21. What is the domain of y = ?
sketch the curve. 4 - x2
13. Sketch y = 1 - x 2 in the first quadrant. 1

22. Sketch f ] x g = 1 - .
x2
14. Sketch the region y $ x - 5, y 1 x 2 + x.
2 x
23. (a) Find lim .
15. If f ] x g = 2x - 1, show that x "3 x-1
f ^ a 2 h = f _ (-a)2 i for all real a. 2 x
(b) Sketch y = .
x-1
16. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0
when f ] x g = 2x 2 - x - 5 (give exact x+1
24. Sketch y = .
answers). x2 - 1
2x + 7 1
17. (a) Show that =2+ .
x+3 x+3

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5

DID YOU KNOW?

The number plane is called the Cartesian plane after Rene

Name Anne Jacquie Donna Hien Marco Russell Trang

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

For example, in y = x + 1, we can use any number for x (the independent

When we graph functions in mathematics, the independent variable

Here are two examples of graphs on a number plane.

1. Is this graph a function?

You will learn how to sketch these

2. Is this circle a function?

3. Does this set of ordered pairs represent a function?

Although it looks like this is not a function, the open circle at x = 3 on

Which of these curves are functions?

If y depends on what value we give x in a function, then we can say that y is a

1. Find the value of y when x = 3 in the equation y = x + 1.

If y = f ] x g then f (a) is the value of y at the point on the function where x = a

2. If f ] x g = x 3 - x 2, find the value of f ] - 1 g .

3. Find the values of x for which f ] x g = 0, given that f ] x g = x 2 + 3x - 10.

4. Find f ] 3 g, f ] 2 g, f ] 0 g and f ] - 4 g if f ] x g is defined as

Use f (x) = 3x + 4 when

5. Find the value of g ] 1 g + g ] - 2 g - g ] 3 g if

DID YOU KNOW?

1. Given f ] x g = x + 3, find f ] 1 g and 10. If f ] x g = 2x - 9, find f ^ p h and

2. If h ] x g = x 2 - 2, find h ] 0 g, h ] 2 g 11. Find g ] x - 1 g when We can use pronumerals

and h ] - 4 g . g ] x g = x 2 + 2x + 3. other than f for functions.

3. If f ] x g = - x 2, find f ] 5 g, f ] - 1 g, f ] 3 g 12. If f ] x g = x 3 - 1, find f ] k g as a

4. Find the value of f ] 0 g + f ] - 2 g if 13. Given f ] t g = t 2 + 2t + 1, find

17. Find g ] 3 g + g ] 0 g + g ] - 2 g if 21. If f ] x g = x 2 5x + 4, find

One of the most useful techniques is to find the x- and y-intercepts.

Everywhere on the x-axis, For x-intercept, y = 0

Find the x- and y-intercepts of the function f ] x g = x 2 + 7x - 8.

Solution This is the same as

Domain and range

Find the domain and range of f ] x g = x 2 .

Odd and even functions

If a curve is decreasing, then as x increases, y decreases and the curve

The curve isnt increasing or

Solution Notice that the curve is

As well as looking at where the curve is increasing and decreasing, we can

For even functions, f ] x g = f ] - x g for all values of x.

For odd functions, f ] - x g = - f ] x g for all values of x in the domain.

1. Show that f ] x g = x 2 + 3 is an even function.

2. Show that f ] x g = x 3 - x is an odd function.

Explore the family of graphs of f ] x g = x n.

1. Find the x- and y-intercept of (d) f ] x g = x 2 + 3x

x+3 12. For the functions below, state

5. Show that f (x) is odd, where

6. Show that f ] x g = x 2 - 1 is an even

9. Are these functions even, odd or

10. If n is a positive integer, for

11. Can the function f ] x g = x n + x

Use a graphics calculator or a computer with graphing software to sketch

Alternatively, you may sketch these by hand.

1. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.

2. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.

3. Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k.

For the family of functions y = k f ] x g, as k varies, the function changes

Use a graphics calculator or a computer with dynamic graphing capability

Sketch the families of graphs for these graphs with parameter k

Sketch the function f ] x g = 3x - 5 and state its domain and range.

Notice too, that you can

The linear function ax + by + c = 0 has domain {all real x}