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CHAPTER 4: DIFFERENTIAL CLALCULUS OF FUNCTIONS OF

SEVERAL VARIABLES

4.1 Introduction

A. Definition and Examples

So far, you have studied calculus (limit, continuity, derivative and integral) of functions of the form

𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ → ℝ (1)

Such a function is usually defined by a formula of the type y = f(x) and it is called a (real valued) function
of a single (real) variable. In this and next chapter, we deal with calculus of functions of several
variables; i.e., functions of the form

𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ (𝑛 𝜖 ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2) (2)

In fact, in the upcoming course you will deal with functions of the type

𝐹: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ → ℝ𝑛 (𝑛 𝜖 ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2) (3)

and

𝐹: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ𝑚 → ℝ𝑛 (𝑚, 𝑛 𝜖 ℕ, 𝑚, 𝑛 ≥ 2) (4)

The division of calculus that deals with functions of the form (1) is called single variable calculus and
calculus of functions of the form (2), (3) and (4) is called multivariable calculus. We could have two
variable calculus, three variable calculus, etc.

Notations: Let 𝑛 be a natural number. Then,ℝ𝑛 stands for the set of all finite sequences (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) of
𝑛 real numbers. Geometrically ℝ is identified with a line, ℝ2 with a plane and ℝ3 can be identified with
the usual 3D space.

Definition 1: Let 𝑛 be a natural number. A function whose domain D is a subset is of ℝ𝑛 and whose
range is a subset of ℝ is called a real valued function of n real variables (briefly, we call it a function of n-
variables). Thus a function of n variables has the form:

𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ

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If 𝑛 = 1, then it is called a function of a single variable and if 𝑛 ≥ 2 it is called a function of several

variables.

Notation: Functions of 1, 2 and 3 variables are given respectively by formulas of the type:

y = f(x), z = f(x, y) and w = f(x, y, z).

In general a function of 𝑛 variables is given usually by a formula of the type:

𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ).

Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be a function of two variables. Then

a) Domain 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦):= {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 | 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ} and

b) Range 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦): = {𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)| (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ Domain 𝑓}.

The domain and range of other functions of several variables can be defined analogously.

Example 1: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 4. Then 𝑓 is a function of two variables. The domain of 𝑓 is ℝ2 and the range
of 𝑓 is {4}.

Example 2: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2xy – y2. Then 𝑓 is a function of two variables. Find

a) 𝑓(1, −1) b) domain 𝑓 c) range 𝑓

Solution:

a) 𝑓(1, −1) = − 3.

b) Since 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a real number for every pair (x, y) of real numbers, so the domain of f is ℝ2 .

𝑟+1
c) Given any real number 𝑟, we have 𝑓 (1, ) = r . Thus r ∈ range f for every r ∈ ℝ. So, the range of f
2

is ℝ.

Example 3: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) =√4 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 . Find domain 𝑓, range 𝑓 and sketch domain 𝑓 as a region in 𝑥𝑦-
plane.

Solution:

Domain f = {(x, y) 𝜖 ℝ2 : f(x, y) 𝜖 ℝ }

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= {(x, y) 𝜖 ℝ2 : √4 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 𝜖 ℝ }

= {(x, y) 𝜖 ℝ2 : 4 − x2 – y2 ≥ 0 }

= {(x, y) 𝜖 ℝ2 : x2 + y2 ≤ 4}

Geometrically, the domain of f is the circular region (disk) with center (0, 0) and radius 2.

Figure 1: The domain of 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) =√𝟒 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐

Example 4: Let 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) =ln(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 4) . Find the domain 𝑓 and sketch it as a region in 𝑥𝑦𝑧 −
space.

Solution: Domain f = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜖 ℝ3 : f(x, y,z) 𝜖 ℝ }

= {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜖 ℝ3 : 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 > 4 }

Geometrically, the domain of 𝑔 is the set of all points that are not interior points of the sphere

𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 4

Figure 2: The domain of 𝒈(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) =𝐥𝐧(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝒛𝟐 − 𝟒)

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B. Operations with Functions of several variables

Definition 2(Combinations of functions): Let 𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔: 𝐸 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ (𝑛 𝜖 ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2).

Let 𝑘 be a real constant and P(x1, …,xn) be a point in ℝ𝑛 Then we define

a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑃) : = 𝑓(𝑃) + 𝑔(𝑃), 𝑃 𝜖 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸

b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑃) : = 𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑔(𝑃) , 𝑃 𝜖 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸

c) (𝑓 𝑔)(𝑃) : = 𝑓(𝑃) 𝑔(𝑃) , 𝑃 𝜖 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸

d) (𝑘𝑓)(𝑃) : = 𝑘𝑓(𝑃) , 𝑃 𝜖 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸

𝑓 𝑓(𝑃)
e) (𝑃) ≔ ,𝑃 𝜖 𝐷 ∩ 𝐸 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(𝑃) ≠ 0
𝑔 𝑔(𝑃)

Note that if 𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ and 𝑔: 𝐸 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ , the composition fog is not defined, because the range
of g is not a subset of the domain of f. For functions of several variables, composition has several
versions. We present one of these.

Definition 3 (composition): Let 𝑓: 𝐷 ⊆ ℝ → ℝ and 𝑔: 𝐸 ⊆ ℝ𝑛 → ℝ (n 𝜖 ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2. Then we define the

composition fog by

fog (P) = f(g(P))

C. Some Special Functions of Several Variables

Definition 4 [polynomial function]: A function 𝑃 (𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be a polynomial function if it

is a finite sum of terms of the type

𝑐 𝑥 𝑛 𝑦𝑚;

where 𝑐 is a real constant; 𝑥 , 𝑦 are real variables and 𝑚, 𝑛 are whole numbers.

The sum of the exponents of the variables that appear in a term of a polynomial is called the
degree of the term. The degree of a polynomial is the highest degree of its monomials with
nonzero coefficients.

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Definition 5 [rational function]: Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be a polynomial and 𝑄(𝑥, 𝑦) be a nonzero

polynomial. The function

𝑃(𝑥,𝑦)
𝑅(𝑥, 𝑦) : =
𝑄(𝑥,𝑦)

is called a rational function in 𝑥 and 𝑦.

Example 5: The functions 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 4, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) =

𝑥 6 + 𝑦 5 + 𝑥 3 𝑦 4 are polynomials of degree 0, 1, 2 and 7respectively. The functions 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) =

𝑥 + 𝑦 −2 and 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 are not polynomials.

Remarks:

1. We can define polynomial and rational functions of three or more variables in analogous
fashion.

2. We do also have exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric, hyperbolic, etc functions of several

variables.

D. Graphs, Level Curves and Level Surfaces

Definition 6 [graph]: Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be a function of two variables with domain 𝐷. The set

𝐺𝑓 ∶ = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)| (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ D and = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) }

is called the graph of 𝑓.

We can define the graph of a function of n variables, for any natural number n; however, it is impossible
to draw the graph of a function of three or more variables, because it requires four or more dimensions
(axes) to do so.

The graph of a function of two variables in xyz coordinate space is usually a surface, unlike the graph of a
function of one variable which is usually a curve. No line perpendicular to the 𝑥𝑦- plane can intersect the
graph of 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) at more than one point (Why?).

It is difficult to sketch the graph of a function of two variables. For some simple cases (such as planes,
spherical and cylindrical surfaces); we can use inspection. The so called level curves may also help in
visualizing the cross sections of the graph. For practical purposes, software packages (computer algebra
systems) such as Mathematica, Matlab and Maple may be used.

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Example 6: Sketch the graph of

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 4

Solution: The domain of f is the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers. The graph of f is the collection
(x, y, z) of all points in space where z = 4 and x and y are arbitrary real numbers. Geometrically, the
graph of f is the plane perpendicular to Z-axis and passing through (0, 0, 4).

Figure 3: The Graph of 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝟒 in xyz space

In general recall from vector algebra that the graph (in xyz-coordinate space) of any equation of the type

𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 ;

where a, b and c are not all zero, is a plane. The equation z= 4 is of this form (take a =b=0; c=1 and d=4).

𝑥 𝑦
Example 7: Sketch the graph of the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 2 – –
2 3

Solution: Since this is an equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑, so the graph is a plane. The x-,
y- and z- intercepts are respectively (2, 0, 0), (0, 6, 0) and (0, 0, 2). Thus the graph of f is the plane
determined by these three points.

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𝒙 𝒚
Figure 4: The Graph of 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝟐 – –
𝟐 𝟑

Example 8: Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) =√4 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 .

Figure 5: The Graph of 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) =√𝟒 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐

The graphs from Example 7 to 12 were plotted using a free online version of Mathematica at
https://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=plot3D%5Bsin(x)%5D.

Level Curves (Contour Curves)

The intersection of the graph of z = f(x, y) with the plane π with equation z =c is called the trace of the
graph of f in π. The orthogonal projection onto xy-plane of the trace of the graph of 𝑓 in the plane z =c is
called a level curve of the graph.

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Definition 7 [level curve]: Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑐 be a number in the range of 𝑓. The graph (on xy plane
) of the equation

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑐,

is called the level curve (contour curve) of the graph of 𝑓 at level 𝑐. We denote it by 𝑙𝑐 (𝑓) or just by 𝑙𝑐 .
Thus, 𝑙𝑐 (𝑓) is a curve on 𝑥𝑦 plane that connects all points on the graph of 𝑓 that are equidistant from 𝑥𝑦-
plane. (Contrast this with the contour lines in geography: A contour line is a curve on a map that
connects places on earth that have the same elevation/distance from sea level).

A level curve can be described as the projection of the intersection of the horizontal plane 𝑧 = 𝑐 with the
surface defined by 𝑓. We call this intersection the trace of the graph of 𝑓 in the plane 𝑧 = 𝑐. In general,,
we can consider the trace of the graph of 𝑓 in any plane. The projections of the traces of the graph of 𝑓 in
the planes 𝑥 = 𝑐 and 𝑦 = 𝑐 onto yz and xz planes respectively, are sometimes called sections.

The traces of the graph of f in the planes z =c, x =c and y =c and their orthogonal projections onto
coordinate planes are important in investigating the nature of the graph of f.

Two level curves never cross each other. Through every point in the domain there is exactly one level
curve.

Tips on sketching the graph of z = f(x, y) manually

a) Sketch enough number of level curves 𝑙𝑐 on the same 𝑥𝑦 plane for equally spaced values of 𝑐.

b) Translate each level curve 𝑙𝑐 by the vector v = c 𝑘⃗.These gives you some cross sections of the surface.

c) Connect the translated level curves (cross sections) into a surface

These guidelines can also be used to sketch the graphs of certain equations in 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 (which are not
functions).

Example 8: Given𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ,

a) Sketch the level curves l0, l1, l2, l3,l4

b) Sketch the graph of f.

Solution: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0. Thus, 𝑙0 is the origin. The level curves l1, l2, l3,l4 are
circles centered at the origin and having radii 1, √2, 3 and 2 respectively. Note that the radii of the circles

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are not equally spaced, though the levels are equally spaced. The level curves get closer as the levels
increase. This indicates that the graph of 𝑓 gets steeper as one gets further up from the origin. The graph
of 𝑓 and the level curves are generated by an online version of Mathematica, as follows.

Figure 6: The Graph of 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 with some level curves

Example 9: Given 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ,

a) Sketch the level curves l0, l1, l2, l3,l4

b) Sketch the graph of 𝑓.

Solution: √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ⇔ 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0. Thus 𝑙0 is the origin. The level curves l1, l2, l3,l4 are
circles centered at the origin and having radii 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively. Note that the radii of the circles
are equally spaced, just as the levels. The graph of 𝑓 is a cone.

Figure 7: The Graph of 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = √𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 with some level curves

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Example 10: Sketch the graph of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 – 𝑦 2 .

Solution: For any constant c, the graph of 𝑥 2 – 𝑦 2 = 𝑐 on xy plane is a hyperbola. Thus the level
curves are hyperbolas. If c> 0, the level curves are horizontal hyperbolas with vertices (c, 0) and (-c,0). If
c<0, , the level curves are vertical hyperbolas with vertices (0, c) and (0,-c). The graph of the given
function is the following saddle looking surface.

Figure 8: The graph of 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒙𝟐 – 𝒚𝟐 with some level curves

Example 11: Sketch the graph of 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 .

Solution: The graph of the equation 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 on xz plane is the usual sine curve. Translation of
the curve by the vector 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑗 gives us the cross sections of the graph of 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 in 𝑥𝑦𝑧-space. A
Mathematica plot of the equation is presented below.

Figure 9: The graph of 𝒛 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒙

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Definition 8 [level surface]: Let 𝑤 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧). The graph (in xyz-coordinate space) of the
equation 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐, where 𝑐 is a constant, is called a level surface of the graph of 𝑓 and 𝑐 is called
its level.

Example 12: Describe the level surfaces of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 for c=4, 8, 12 and 16.

Solution: The level surfaces are the spheres 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 4, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 8, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 =

12 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 16. Thus, the level surfaces are concentric spheres centered at the origin, as
shown.

Note: The graph of an equation involving only two of the variables 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 in space is a cylindrical
surface. To sketch the graph of an equation involving x and y in xyz-space, first sketch the equation as a
curve on xy-plane, then translate the curve by the vector 𝑣 ≔ 𝑐𝑗 for several values of c. The translates
give the cross sections of the graph. The same method can be used to sketch the graphs of equations
involving x and z only or y and z only.

Exercise 4:1

1. Find and sketch the domain of

1 √𝑥2 +𝑦2 −1
a) 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) : = d) 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) : =
√4−𝑥2 −𝑦2 𝑦
1 𝑥𝑦𝑧
b) 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) : = e) 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) : =
√𝑥−𝑦2 (𝑥+𝑦)3 −(𝑥+𝑧)3

𝑢2 +𝑣2
c) 𝑓(𝑢, 𝑣) : = 𝑙𝑛 ((𝑢2 )
−𝑣2 )2

2. Sketch the graphs of the following functions.

a) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑦 2 – 𝑥 2 d) 𝑧 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (3𝑥)

b) 𝑧 = 𝑦2 e) 𝑧 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥
c) 𝑧 = 1 − |𝑦|
3. Sketch the graphs of the following equations.
a) x2 + y2 = 4
b) 4x2 + 9y2 + 36z2= 36
4. Sketch the traces of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 10 − 4𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 for the plane 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 2.
5. Sketch the level surfaces of:
a) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = 0,1,2,3
b) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐 = 0,1,2,3

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Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)

4.2 Limit and Continuity

In order to define the limit of a function 𝑓 of several variables, we first need the notion of distance
between points in the domain of 𝑓. Recall that in coordinate geometry, if P(x1, x2) and Q (y1,y2) are two
points on xy plane, then the distance between P and Q , d(P,Q) , is defined by
𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) : = √(𝑥1 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑥2 − 𝑦2 )2. We can generalize the definition to points in ℝ𝑛 for any n.
A. Distance, Open balls and Closed balls
Definition 1 (Distance): If P(x1,…,x n) and Q = (y1, …,y n) are two point in ℝ𝑛 , then the distance between

𝑃 and 𝑄 is denoted by 𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) and it is defined by d (P, Q) : = √(𝑥1 − 𝑦1 )2 + ⋯ + (𝑥𝑛 − 𝑦𝑛 )2. The
distance between P and Q is also denoted by ‖𝑃 − 𝑄‖.

To define the limit of a function f of one variable at number ‘a’, the first requirement is that f must be
defined on some open interval I containing ‘a’ except possibly at ‘a’ itself. We now define two
dimensional and three dimensional analogies of open and closed intervals.
Definition 2(open disk and closed disk): Let 𝐴 (a1, a2) be a given point in ℝ2 and let r be a positive
number. Then set
a) 𝐷 (𝐴; 𝑟): = {P∈ ℝ2 |d (A, P) < r} is called the open disk with center A and radius r.
b) 𝐷 [𝐴; 𝑟]: = {P∈ ℝ2 |d (A, P) ≤ r} is called the closed disk with center A and radius r.
c) 𝐶 (𝐴; 𝑟): = {P∈ ℝ2|d (A, P) = r}is called the circle with center A and radius r.

Definition 3(open ball and closed ball in ℝ3 ): Let 𝐴 (a1, a2, 𝑎3 ) be a given point in ℝ3 and let 𝑟 be a
positive number. Then set
a) 𝐵 (𝐴; 𝑟): = {P∈ ℝ3|d (A, P) < r} is called the open disk with center A and radius r.
b) 𝐵 [𝐴; 𝑟]: = {P∈ ℝ3|d (A, P) ≤ r} is called the closed disk with center A and radius r.
c) 𝑆 (𝐴; 𝑟): = {P∈ ℝ3|d (A, P) = r}is called the circle with center A and radius r.

Definition 4 [boundary point and interior point]: Let S be a set of points in ℝ2 . A point P in ℝ2 is said to
be:
a) an interior point of S if there is an open disk centered at P that contains only points in S.
b) an exterior point of S if there is an open disk containing P and no points of S.
c) a boundary point of S if all open disks centered at P contain both points in S and points not in S.
The collection of all boundary points of S is called the boundary of S. It is denoted by 𝑏(𝑆) or 𝜕𝑆.

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Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)

Definitions 5 [open set, closed set and bounded set]:

A subset 𝑆 of ℝ2 is called:
a) open if every point in 𝑆 is an interior point.
b) closed if it contains all of its boundary points.
c) bounded if there is an M>0 such that the open disk, centered at the origin with
radius M, contains S. A set that is not bounded is unbounded.
d) compact if it is both closed and bounded.

Note:
1. While open balls generalize open disks and open intervals, open sets generalize open balls.
2. Definitions 3 to 5 can be extended to points and sets in ℝ𝑛 for any 𝑛.
B. Limits
Definition 6 (the limit of a function of two variables):
Let (a, b) be a fixed point in ℝ2 and let L be a fixed real number. Assume that f (x, y) is defined at all
points in an open disk D containing (a, b) except possibly at (a, b) itself. Then we say the limit of f(x,
𝑙𝑖𝑚
y) as (x, y) approaches (a, b) is L and we write (𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = L if for any positive number 𝜖,
there is a positive number 𝛿 such that for all (x, y) in the domain f ,
0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝛿 ⇒ | 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| < ∈. (1)

Remarks
𝑙𝑖𝑚
1. If there exists a real number L such that (𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑎,𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = L, then we say that the limit of f
at (a, b) exists.
2. The definition can be written briefly as follows:
𝑙𝑖𝑚
(𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = L ⟺ (∀∈> 0)(∃𝛿 > 0) ∋ 0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 ⇒ | 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| < ∈.

𝑙𝑖𝑚
Thus, in order to prove (𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = L, we must prove that the quantified proposition

“(∀∈> 0)(∃𝛿 > 0) ∋ 0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 ⇒ | 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| < ∈ " is true . And to prove the
latter, in turn, assume that a positive number 𝜀 is given. We must find a positive number 𝛿 such that the
implication
0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝛿 ⇒ | 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| < ∈,
is true. (See the analogy with what we do when proving"(∀𝑥)(∃𝑦)(𝑥 + 𝑦 = 0)” is true, for instance.)

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3. You can do the proof in two steps as follows.

Step 1(scratch work): By “some means” guess the value of 𝛿 which is supposed to satisfy the implication
0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝛿 ⇒ | 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| < ∈,
Step 2(Formal work): Show formally that the chosen 𝛿 satisfies the required.

4. Note that there is no hard and fast rule for finding 𝛿. The following two observations may help
you in guessing a value of 𝛿.
a) The implication "0 < 𝑧 < 2 ⇒ 𝑧 < 2” is true, because it is true that every number z
in(0,2) is less than 2. Likewise, in order for the implication
“0 < √(𝑥1 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑥2 − 𝑦2 )2 < 𝛿 ⇒ √(𝑥1 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑥2 − 𝑦2 )2 < ∈” to be true, we can choose
𝛿 to be ∈ itself. We can also take the value of 𝛿 to be any positive number less than ∈.

b) If there exists a function 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) such that the inequality

|𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| ≤ 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) ,
and the implication:
“0 < √(𝑥1 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑥2 − 𝑦2 )2 < 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) < ∈” ,
are true, then so does the statement

0 < √(𝑥1 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑥2 − 𝑦2 )2 < 𝛿 ⇒ | 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| < ∈. (Why?)

Thus in an attempt to prove that
𝑙𝑖𝑚
(𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝐿,
it suffices to find a function 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) and a positive number 𝛿 such that |𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| ≤

𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) and 0 < √(𝑥1 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑥2 − 𝑦2 )2 < 𝛿 ⇒ 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) < ∈ .

Definition6 can be extended to functions of three or more variables.

Definition 7 (the limit of a function of n variables): Let A (a1,…,an) be a given point in ℝ𝑛 and let 𝐿 be a
fixed real number. Assume that f (x1,…,xn) is defined at all points in an open ball B(A; r) except possibly
at 𝐴 itself. Then we say the limit of 𝑓(𝑃) as P approaches A is L and we write
𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑃→𝐴 𝑓(𝑃) =L
if and only if for any positive number ∈ there exists a positive number 𝛿 such that the following
implication is true:
if 𝑃 ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓 and 0 < ‖P − A‖, then | f(P) − L| < ∈.
Example 1: Show that

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𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
a) (𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) 𝑥=a b) (𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) 𝑦 = b.
Solution (a): Let a positive number 𝜀 be given. We must find a positive number 𝛿 such that

0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝛿 ⇒ | 𝑥 − 𝑎| < ∈

Step 1 (Preliminary Analysis): Observe that
| 𝑥 − 𝑎| = √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 ≤ √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 (*)
In view of Remark (3b) above and (*), it suffices to find a positive number 𝛿 such that
0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝛿 ⇒ √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < ∈
In view of Remark (3a) above, we can choose 𝛿 to be ∈ itself.
Step 2 (Formal work):

0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝛿

⇒ 0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < ∈

⇒ √(𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < ∈

⇒ | 𝑥 − 𝑎| < ∈ (by (*) and transitivity)
Solution (b) can be done in the same manner.
𝑙𝑖𝑚
Example 2: Show that (𝑥,𝑦)→(1,3) 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 11.
Solution : Let a positive number 𝜀 be given. We must find a positive number 𝛿 such that

0 < √(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 < 𝛿 ⇒ | 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 − 11| < ∈

Step 1 (Preliminary Analysis): Observe that
| 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 – 11|
= | 2𝑥 − 2 + 3𝑦 – 9|
≤ 2|𝑥 − 1| + 3|𝑦 − 3|
= 2√(𝑥 − 1)2 + 3√(𝑦 − 3)2

≤ 2√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 + 3√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2

=5√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2

Therefore, | 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 – 11| ≤ 5√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 (*)

By Remark (3b) and (*), it suffices to find a positive number 𝛿 such that
0 < √(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 < 𝛿 ⇒ 5√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 < ∈
∈
The last line suggests that we can choose 𝛿 to be .
5
Step 2 (Formal work):

0 < √(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 < 𝛿

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∈
⇒ 0 < √(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 <
5
∈
⇒ √(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 <
5

⇒ 5√(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 < ∈

⇒ | 2𝑥 + 3𝑦 – 11| < ∈ (By (*) and transitivity)
𝑙𝑖𝑚
Example 3: Show that (𝑥,𝑦)→(1,2) 3𝑥 2 + 𝑦 = 5.
𝜖
Answer: 𝛿 = min{1, }
10
𝑙𝑖𝑚
Example 4: Explain why (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,2) √4 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) does not exist.
Answer: Because for every open disk B containing (0, 2), the punched open disk B\ {(0, 2)} is not a
subset of the domain of f.

Theorem 1 [Basic Limit Rules for multivariable functions]:

lim lim
Let (x,y)→(a,b) f(x, y) and (x,y)→(a,b) g(x, y) exist. Then
lim lim lim
a) (x,y)→(a,b) [f(x, y) + g(x, y)] = (x,y)→(a,b) f(x, y) and + (x,y)→(a,b) g(x, y) [Sum Rule]
lim lim lim
b) (x,y)→(a,b) [f(x, y) + g(x, y)] = (x,y)→(a,b) f(x, y) and + (x,y)→(a,b) g(x, y) [Difference
Rule]
lim lim lim
c) (x,y)→(a,b) [f(x,y) + g(x, y)] =(x,y)→(a,b) f(x, y) and + (x,y)→(a,b) g(x, y) [Product Rule]
𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) lim(𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑎,𝑏) 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
d) lim(𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑎,𝑏) = (provided that lim (𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑎,𝑏) 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ 0).
𝑔(𝑥,𝑦) lim(𝑥,𝑦)→(𝑎,𝑏) 𝑔(𝑥,𝑦)

[Quotient Rule]

Remarks:
1. The rules can be extended to functions of three or more variables.
2. There are also versions of Substitution and Squeezing Rules for multivariable limits.
3. Simplification, rationalization, coordinate transformations and similar algebraic manipulations
may help in limit evaluation.
4. To evaluate limits we usually apply one of the following approaches.
a) For functions which are not composition or combination of other functions, guess the limit by
some means and prove that the guess is true by the formal definition.
b) For combinations and compositions of functions that are not indeterminate forms, apply the
basic limit theorems.

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c) For combinations and compositions of functions that are indeterminate forms, apply any
viable technique among substitution, squeezing, rationalization or simplification. But there is
no multivariable version of L’Hopital’s rule for indeterminate forms.
5. Software packages such as CAS can also be used in multivariable limit evaluations.

𝑙𝑖𝑚 2𝑥−𝑥𝑦2
Example 5[basic limit rules]: Evaluate (𝑥,𝑦)→(1,2) .
𝑥+2𝑦
2 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 2𝑥−𝑥𝑦 (𝑥,𝑦)→(1,2) 2𝑥−𝑥𝑦 2(1)−(1)(2)2 2
Solution: (𝑥,𝑦)→(1,2) 𝑥+2𝑦 =. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2
= =− //.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(1,2) 𝑥+2𝑦 1+2(2) 5

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥4 −𝑦4
Example 6 [simplification]: Evaluate (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) .
𝑥2 +𝑦2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) = 0. Observe
Solution: Note that we can not apply the quotient rule, because (𝑥,𝑦)→ (0,0)

𝑥4 −𝑦4 (𝑥2 −𝑦2 )(𝑥2 +𝑦2 ) 𝑥4 −𝑦4

that = = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 (for (𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ (0,0)). Thus we can replace by 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 , since
𝑥2 +𝑦2 𝑥2 +𝑦2 𝑥2 +𝑦2

they are equal except at the point (0,0) and our interest is in the behavior of 𝑓 “near” (0,0), not in the
behavior 𝑓 at (0,0).
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥4 −𝑦4 𝑙𝑖𝑚
Now, (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) =. (𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 ) = 0. //
𝑥2 +𝑦2 (𝑥,𝑦)→ (0,0)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥−𝑦
Example 7 [rationalization]: Find (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) .
√𝑥+√𝑦

Solution: We cannot apply the quotient rule to evaluate the given limit because the denominator’s
limit is 0. Now,
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥−𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥−𝑦 √𝑥−√𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑚
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥+ 𝑦.=.(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥+ 𝑦 𝑥− 𝑦 = (𝑥,𝑦)→ (0,0) (√𝑥 − √𝑦) = 0. //
√ √ √ √ √ √
3
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥
Example 8 [squeezing rule]: Show by squeezing rule that (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥2 +𝑦2 = 0.

Solution: We cannot apply the quotient formula because the denominator’s limit is 0.
Observe that
𝑥3
0≤| | ≤ |𝑥|.
𝑥2 +𝑦2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
Since (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 0 = 0 = (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) |𝑥| , so a version of squeezing law for functions of two variables
yields:
3
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥2 +𝑦2 = 0. //

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥𝑦2
Example 9 [using polar coordinates to evaluate multivariable limit]: Evaluate (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) .
𝑥2 +𝑦2

Solution: Again, we cannot apply the quotient rule. After evaluating the limit to be 0 on several
paths through the origin (0, 0), we believe that the limit might be 0 (but we can never be sure! It requires

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verification). If (𝑟, 𝜃) are the polar coordinates of (x, y), then = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 & 𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 . Clearly, as
(𝑥, 𝑦) → (0,0),r → 0.
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥𝑦2 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑟 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃sin2 𝜃
Thus, (𝑥, 𝑦) → (0,0) = 𝑟→0 = 0. //
𝑥2 +𝑦2 𝑟2

Caution: In using polar coordinates to evaluate the limit of a function of two variables, we must be
careful about the expressions containing 𝜃 . As 𝑟 → 0 along different paths, the 𝜃 -expression may
approach different values.

𝑙𝑖𝑚 sin(𝑥2 +𝑦2 )

Example 10 [substitution rule]: Evaluate (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) .
(𝑥2 +𝑦2 )

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 sin(𝑥2 +𝑦2 )

Solution: Let 𝑔(𝑡): = and 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 . Then𝑔(𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)) = . In line with the
𝑡 (𝑥2 +𝑦2 )

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚

case of single variable, (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)) = 𝑡→[ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑔(𝑡) = 𝑡→0 𝑔(𝑡) = 1. //
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)]

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥3 +𝑦3 +𝑧 3
Example 11 [limit of function of three variables]: Evaluate (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) . Ans. 0
𝑥2 +𝑦2 +𝑧 2

Solution: Let us represent ( 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) by spherical coordinates. Then x=𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 &𝑧 =

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥3 +𝑦3 +𝑧 3 3 3 3
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝜌 [𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] +[𝑠𝑖𝑛∅𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃] +[𝑐𝑜𝑠∅]
3
𝜌𝑐𝑜𝑠∅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. It follows that (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)→(0,0,0) = 𝜌→0 = 0. //
𝑥2 +𝑦2 +𝑧 2 𝜌2

Definition 8[A Generalization of one sided limits]:

Let P0 be a boundary point of a region 𝑆 of ℝ2 and let L be a fixed real number. Assume that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is
defined at all points in 𝐷 ∩ 𝑆 where D is an open disk containing P 0 except possibly at P0 itself. Then L is
said to be the limit of f restricted to S at P0, written
𝑙𝑖𝑚
(𝑥,𝑦) → P0 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = L
S

if for any positive number 𝜖, there is a positive number 𝛿 such that:

(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑆 and 0 < √(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )2 ⇒ | 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) − 𝐿| < ∈.

Remark [The Two Path Rule]: Let S1 and S2 two paths passing through (a, b). If
lim 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) lim 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
(𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) ≠ (𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) ,
(x,y)∈S1 (x,y)∈S2
lim 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
then (𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) does not exist.

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥𝑦
Example 12: Show that (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) does not exist.
𝑥2 +𝑦2

Solution: Let 𝑆1 : = {(𝑥, 0): 𝑥 ∈ ℝ} (i.e., 𝑆1 is the X-axis)

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𝑆2 : = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 = 𝑦} (i.e., 𝑆2 is the line y=x)

Both 𝑆1 and 𝑆2 are paths passing through (0, 0).
lim 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) 𝑥(0) lim𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) 𝑥(𝑥)
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) = lim𝑥→0 = 0 and (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) = lim𝑥→0 = ½.
𝑥2 +02 𝑥2 +𝑥2
(x,y)∈S1 (x,y)∈S2
lim 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) lim 𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥𝑦
Since (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) ≠ (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) , so (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) does not exist.
𝑥2 +𝑦2
(x,y)∈S1 (x,y)∈S2

Nonexistence of Limits
The limit of 𝑓 at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) fails to exist for one of four reasons::
a) Every neighborhood of (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) contains a point at which 𝑓 is not defined. (Example 4.)
b) There exist two different paths to(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) giving two different limiting values for 𝑓. (Example
13.)
c) The value of |𝑓| gets larger and larger without bound as 𝑃 gets closer and closer to (𝑥0 , 𝑦0).
(Exercise 4.2#2)
d) The values of 𝑓 oscillates near(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ). (Exercise 4.2 #3).

C. Continuity
Definition 9:
a) A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be continuous at (a, b) if
lim
(x,y)→(a,b) f(x, y) = f(a, b).
lim
b) A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be continuous on a set S if(x,y)→(a,b) f(x, y) = f(a, b) for an interior
lim
point (a, b) of S and (x,y)→(a,b) f(x, y) = f(a, b), if (a, b)is aboundary point of S.
S

c) A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be continuous if it is continuous on its domain.

Remarks:
1. Intuitively speaking, a function 𝑓 is said to be continuous at a point 𝐴 if it takes points close to 𝐴
into points close to 𝑓(𝐴).
2. Geometrically, a function is discontinuous at (𝑎, 𝑏) means the graph of 𝑓 has a hole, tear, gap, finite
jump or infinite jump at (𝑎, 𝑏).
4𝑥2 𝑦
𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ (0,0)
Example 13 [continuity at a point]: The function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = { 2+𝑦2
𝑥 is continuous at
0 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0)
(0,0).

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Example 14 [continuity on a set]: Let R be the rectangular region consisting of all points (x,y) such that
4 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑖𝑛 𝑅
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2 . The function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = { is continuous at (0,0).
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑖𝑛 (0,0)
Show that f is not continuous on 𝑅 but 𝑓 is not a continuous function.
Example 15[continuous function]: Polynomial and rational functions are continuous.

Continuous functions of two variables satisfy the entire usual properties familiar from single variable
calculus: The sum of a finite number of continuous functions is a continuous function. The product of a
finite number of continuous functions is a continuous function. The quotient of two continuous functions
is a continuous function wherever the denominator is non-zero.

Example 16: The functions 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥𝑦), 𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 + 𝑦), and 𝑒𝑥𝑝(3𝑥𝑦) are all continuous functions on
1
the xy-plane, whereas the function |𝑥|+|𝑦| is continuous everywhere except the point (0,0).

Exercise 4.2:
1. Use the formula definition of limit to show that
𝑙𝑖𝑚
a) (𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) √𝑥 = √𝑎 , where a > 0
3 3
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 +𝑦
b) (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑥2 +𝑦2 =0
𝑙𝑖𝑚
c) (𝑥,𝑦)→(a,b) 𝐶=C
𝑙𝑖𝑚
d) (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 4 =0.
𝑙𝑖𝑚 1
2. Show that (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) does not exist.
𝑥2 +𝑦2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 1
3. Show that (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) sin( ) does not exist.
𝑥+𝑦2

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥2 𝑦
4. Show that (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) does not exist.
𝑥4 +𝑦2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 1 1
5. Show that [𝑥 sin ( ) + 𝑦𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( )] = 0.
(𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑦 𝑥

6. Evaluate each of the following limits, if it exists.

𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑥−1)2 ln(𝑥)
a) (𝑥, 𝑦) → (0,0) .
(𝑥−1)2 +𝑦2

2𝑥2 −𝑥𝑦−𝑦2 )
b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑥, 𝑦) → (1,1)
(𝑥2 −𝑦2

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥−𝑦−1
c) (𝑥,𝑦)→(2,1) 𝑥−1− 𝑦
√ √

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1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) , 𝑥 ≠ 0
7. Show that (𝑥,𝑦)→(0,0) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 where 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = { 𝑥
0, 𝑥=0
𝑥−𝑦
8. Does the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = have any discontinuities?
1+𝑥+𝑦
𝑥−𝑦
What about 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ? Explain.
1+𝑥2 +𝑦2

4.3 Partial Derivatives

Let 𝑃0 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) be an interior point of the domain of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)and let the value of the independent
variable 𝑥 changes from 𝑥 = 𝑥0 to 𝑥 = 𝑥0 + ∆𝑥 while the value of y is kept constant at 𝑦0 . This
amounts to moving from the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) to 𝑃(𝑥0 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦0 ). Let ∆𝑧 ≔ 𝑓(𝑥0 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦0 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )

z z
(x0 + ∆x, y0 ,f(x0 + ∆x,y0 ))

(x0 + ∆x, y0 ,f(x0 + ∆x,y0 ))

∆z (x0 , y0 ,f(x0 ,y0 ))

y0 ∆z
y
∆x X0
(x0 , y0 ,f(x0 ,y0 ))
x0+∆x 𝑃0

𝑃
Figure 10: Partial derivatives of f(x, y)
X

∆𝑧 ∆𝑧
The ratio is the average rate of change of 𝑓 with respect to x over [x0, x0 + ∆x] and lim ∆𝑥→∞ is the
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
∆𝑧
instantaneous rate of change of 𝑧 with respect to x at (x0, y0). The limit, lim ∆𝑥→∞ , is called the partial
∆𝑥

derivative of 𝑓 with respect to 𝑥 at (x0, y0). Similarly, we can define the partial derivative of f with respect
to y at (x0, y0).
Definition 1: Let (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) be an interior point of the domain of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).
a. The partial derivative of f with respect to x at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )written 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ):is defined by
𝑓(𝑥0 +ℎ,𝑦0 )−𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ): = limℎ→0 , provided that this limit exists.
ℎ

b. The partial derivative of f with respect to y at (x0, y0), written 𝑓𝑦 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ):is defined by
𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 +ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
𝑓𝑦 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ):: = limℎ→0 , provided that this limit exists.
ℎ

Note: 𝑓𝑥 and 𝑓𝑦 are functions of two variables and they are defined by:

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𝑓(𝑥+ℎ,𝑦)−𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
i) 𝑓𝑥(𝑥, 𝑦): = limℎ→0 and
ℎ
𝑓(𝑥,𝑦+ℎ)−𝑓(𝑥,𝑦)
ii) 𝑓𝑦(𝑥, 𝑦): = limℎ→0 .
ℎ
These functions are called partial derivatives of f. The process of finding a partial derivative is called
partial differentiation.
Alternative Notations: Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦). Then
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑧
a) 𝑓𝑥= = = zx = f1 =z1 = D1f = D1z
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑧
b) 𝑓𝑦 = = = zy = f2 = D2f
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦

Example 1: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 𝑦 – 2𝑥 + 2. Find

a) 𝑓𝑥 (2,1) b) 𝑓𝑦 (2, 1) c)𝑓𝑥 d) 𝑓𝑦
Solution:
𝑓(2+ℎ,1)−𝑓(2,1) (2+ℎ)2 −2(2+ℎ)+2−2
a) 𝑓𝑥 (2,1) = limℎ→0 =limℎ→0 =2
ℎ ℎ
𝑓(𝑥+ℎ,𝑦)−𝑓(𝑥,𝑦) (𝑥+ℎ)2 𝑦−2(𝑥+ℎ)+2−[x2 y – 2x + 2]
c) 𝑓𝑦 (2, 1) = limℎ→0 =limℎ→0 = 2xy-2
ℎ ℎ
Detailed step by step Solutions to (b) and (d) are left for the reader. However the final answers are given
below.
b) fy (2, 1) = 4 d) fy (x, y) =𝑥 2
Remark: To evaluate𝑓𝑥treat y as a constant and apply the rules of ordinary derivatives. Similarly treat x
as a constant and apply the rules of ordinary derivatives when you evaluate 𝑓𝑦.
Note that since 𝑓𝑥 and 𝑓𝑦 are also functions of two variables, hence they can have partial derivatives on
their own right.
𝑥2 +𝑦2
Example 2: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = ∫𝜋 sin2 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡. Find 𝑓𝑥 and 𝑓𝑦.

Answer: 𝑓𝑥 = 2x sin(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )2 & 𝑓𝑦 = 2y sin(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )2.

Example 3: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 4𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 Find 𝑓𝑥, 𝑓𝑦 and 𝑓𝑧.
Answer: 𝑓𝑥 = 4𝑦 2 + 𝑧
𝑓𝑦 = 8𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 2
𝑓𝑧 = 𝑥 + 2𝑦𝑧
Definition 2: Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦). The partial derivatives of 𝑓𝑥 and 𝑓𝑦 are called the second order partial
derivatives of f.
Notations:
𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
i) (𝑓𝑥 )𝑥 = 𝑓𝑥𝑥 = ii) (𝑓𝑥 )𝑦 = 𝑓𝑥𝑦 =
𝜕𝑥2 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

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𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
iii) (𝑓𝑦) = 𝑓𝑦𝑥 = iv) (𝑓𝑦) = 𝑓𝑦𝑦 =
𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝑦 𝜕𝑦2

The second order partial derivatives 𝑓𝑥𝑦 and 𝑓𝑦𝑥are called mixed partials.
Remark: We can also define
1. mth order partial derivatives where 𝑚 = 3,4,….
2. partial derivatives of functions of 𝑛 variables where 𝑛 = 3,4, …
Example 4: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 𝑥. Find 𝑓𝑥𝑦 , 𝑓𝑦𝑥 , 𝑓𝑥𝑦(1.−1) and 𝑓𝑦𝑥 (1,−1).
Answer: 𝑓𝑥𝑦=2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 𝑓𝑦𝑥 and 𝑓𝑥𝑦 (1. −1) = 0 = 𝑓𝑦𝑥 (1, −1).

𝑥3 𝑦−𝑥𝑦3
, (𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ (0,0)
Example 5: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = { 𝑥2+𝑦2
0, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0)
Find 𝑓𝑥𝑦(0,0)and 𝑓𝑦𝑥 (0,0).
Answer: 𝑓𝑥𝑦 (0,0) = −1 and 𝑓𝑦𝑥 (0,0) = 1.
This examples indicates that, in general, 𝑓𝑥𝑦 ≠ 𝑓𝑦𝑥.
Theorem 1[Clairaut’s Theorem: Conditions under which 𝒇𝒙𝒚 = 𝒇𝒚𝒙 ]:
If the mixed partials 𝑓𝑥𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓𝑦𝑥 are continuous at every point of an open disk containing (𝑎, 𝑏), then
𝑓𝑥𝑦(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑓𝑦𝑥(a, b).

This theorem is sometimes called the mixed derivative theorem.

Note: Having both partial derivatives at a point does not guarantee that a function is continuous there.
𝑥𝑦
2 +𝑦2 ,
(𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ (0,0)
Example 6: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = {𝑥
0, (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0)
a. Show that both partial derivatives of f exist at (0,0).
b. Show that f is not continuous at (0,0).
Geometrical and physical interpretations of partial derivatives

Figure 11: Interpretation of partial derivative

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Geometrically, 𝑓𝑥 (𝑎, 𝑏) is the slope of the line tangent to the trace of the graph of 𝑓 in the plane 𝑦 = 𝑏.
Physically, it tells you how fast z changes with respect to changes in x.

Similarly, 𝑓𝑦(𝑎, 𝑏), tells you the rate of change of z with respect to y and the slope of the line tangent to
the trace of the graph of 𝑓 in the plane 𝑥 =a .

Example 6: Find the slope of the tangent line to the trace of the graph of 𝑧 + 𝑥𝑦 2 in the plane 𝑦 = 2 at
(1,2).
Answer: 4
Note that the vectors 〈1,0, 𝑓𝑥 (𝑎, 𝑏〉 and 〈0,1, 𝑓𝑥 (𝑎, 𝑏〉 are parallel to the tangent plane to the graph of f at
(a, b). Hence, the plane spanned by these vectors is the tangent plane to the graph of f at (a, b).

Exercises 4.3:

1. Let 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a continuous function. Show by using Claraiut’s theorem that 𝑓𝑥𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑦𝑥𝑦 = 𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑥.
2. Given 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑒 𝑦𝑧, find
𝜕3 𝑓
(a)𝑓213 (b) .
𝜕𝑥2 𝑦

3. Show that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is continuous at (0, 0) but has no partial derivatives at (0, 0).
𝑦
4. Given 𝑧 = tan−1 ( ), show that 𝑧𝑥𝑥 + 𝑧𝑦𝑦 = 0.
𝑥

4.4 Directional Derivatives and Gradients

Let P0(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) be an interior point of the domain of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑃(𝑥0 + ∆𝑥, 𝑦0 + ∆𝑦) be a point near 𝑃0
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
such that 𝑃 ⃗ = 𝑢1 ⃗⃗𝑖 + 𝑢2 𝑗 . Note that ∆x and ∆y tends to 0 ⟺P
0 𝑃 is parallel to a given unit vector 𝑢

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
approaches P0 ⟺ ‖𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ and 𝑢
0 𝑃 ‖ approaches 0. Moreover, since 𝑃0 𝑃 || 𝑢
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗ u is a unit vector, so 𝑃 0𝑃 = t 𝑢
⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
for some scalar t and ‖𝑃 0 𝑃 ‖= t. The directional derivative of 𝑓 at P0(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) in the direction of 𝑢
⃗ is the
∆𝑧
limit of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
as P approaches P0. It measures how sensitive the dependent variable z is to small changes
‖𝑃 0 𝑃‖

in the values of the independent variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the direction of 𝑢.

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P f(P0)

𝑃0

U
f(P)

Figure 12: Directional Derivative of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)

Definition 1 [directional derivative]: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be defined at each point of an open disk D ((𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ); r)
and let 𝑢 = < 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 > be a unit vector. The directional derivative of 𝑓 at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) in the direction of 𝑢 is
denoted by 𝐷𝑢 𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) and it is defined by:
𝑓(𝑥0 +𝑡𝑢1 ,𝑦0 + 𝑢2 𝑡)−𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
𝐷𝑢𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ): =lim𝑡→0 ,
𝑡

provided that this limit exists.

Remarks:
1. 𝐷𝑖 𝑓(𝑃0 ) = 𝑓𝑥 (𝑃0 ) and 𝐷𝑗 𝑓(𝑃0 ) = 𝑓𝑦 (𝑃0)
2. If a is any vector (not just unit vector) we define Da(x0, y0) = Duf(x0, y0) where u is the
unit vector in the direction of a.
3. The concept of directional derivative can be extended to functions of 3 or more variables.
4. We can also define higher order directional derivatives.
√2 √2
Example 1: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 6 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 and 𝑢
⃗ = 𝑖 − 𝑗. Find 𝐷𝑢 𝑓(1,2).
2 2
√2 √2
𝑓(1+ 𝑡,2− 𝑡)−𝑓(1,2)
2 2
Solution: D u f (1, 2) = lim𝑡→0 = − √2
𝑡
Example 2: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 + 5𝑦 and 𝑎 = 3𝑖 − 4𝑗. Find D u f (-1, 2).
3 4
Solution: The unit vector in the direction of a is 𝑢𝑎 = 𝑖 − 𝑗 .
5 5
3 4
𝑓(−1+ 𝑡,2− 𝑡)−𝑓(−1,2) 36
D a f (-1, 2) = 𝐷𝑢𝑎f (-1, 2) = lim𝑡→0 5 5
=−
𝑡 5

Example 3: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 3𝑥 3 𝑦 2𝑧 and 𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 - 2𝑘⃗. Find 𝐷𝑢 𝑓(2, −1,2).

Answer: 64
Theorem 1: Let 𝑓 be a function of 𝑛 variables, U be a unit vector and P0 be an interior point of the
domain of 𝑓. Define 𝜑(𝑡) ≔ 𝑓(𝑃0 + 𝑡𝑈). Then 𝜑′ (𝑡) = D u f(𝑃0).

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Geometrical Interpretations of Directional Derivative

Figure 13. Geometrical interpretation of directional derivatives

Let
- 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦),
- 𝐴 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) be an interior point of the domain of 𝑓,
- 𝑢
⃗ be a unit vector,
- 𝑙 be any line in xy-plane through (𝑥0 , 𝑦0) in the direction of 𝑢
⃗,
- 𝜋 be the plane through 𝑙 and perpendicular to xy-plane,
- 𝐶 be the trace of the graph of f in 𝜋,
- t be the tangent line to C at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑓((𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) ))
Then
𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐷𝑈 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
Directional derivatives can also be interpreted physically as a rate of change of a physical quantity with
respect to other physical quantities along a chosen direction.
Example 4: Find the slope of the tangent line t to the curve C at (½, ½) where C is the intersection of the
1 1 1 1
plane through the line 𝐿: 𝑃 = ( , ) + 𝑡 〈 , 〉 and the surface 𝑧 = √1 − 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2. Ans. -1
2 2 2 2

B. The Gradient
Definition 2 [gradient]: Let 𝑓 be a function of 𝑥 and 𝑦 and let 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).Then the gradient of 𝑓 at
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )is the vector denoted and defined
⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) ≔ 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )𝑖+𝑓𝑦 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 )𝑗

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Remark:
1. The gradient of 𝑓 at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )is also denoted by 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
2. The gradient grad 𝑓 of a function 𝑓 of two variables is a vector valued function.
3. We can also define the gradient of a function of three or more variables.
Example 5: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥𝑦.
Find
𝜋
a) ∇𝑓( , 1)
3
b) ∇𝑓
Solution: 𝑓𝑥 = ycos xy, 𝑓𝑦 = xcos xy,
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋
a) ∇𝑓( , 1) = 𝑓𝑥 ( , 1) 𝑖+𝑓𝑦 ( , 1) 𝑗 = 〈 , 〉
3 3 3 2 6

b) ∇𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 〈ycos xy, xcos xy〉

Example 6: Find the gradient of f(x, y, z) = z𝑒 −𝑥 tan 𝑦 at (0,𝜋, −2).
Answer: −2𝑗
The following theorem provides an alternative method for computing directional derivatives. It can be
extended to functions of three or more variables.
Theorem 2 [Relationship between directional derivative and gradient]: Let 𝑓 be a function of 𝑥 and 𝑦
such that both 𝑓𝑥 and 𝑓𝑦 are continuous at (x0,y0). Then
a) the directional derivative of f at (x0,y0) in any direction is the product of the unit vector u in that
direction and the gradient of f at (x0,y0), i.e.,
𝐷𝑈 𝑓(𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) = ∇𝑓(x0, y0) ∙ u
b) the directional derivative of f at (x0,y0) (regarded as a function of unit vector 𝑢 alone) is maximum
when 𝑢 points in the same direction as ∇f(x0, y0). Moreover, the maximum value of the directional
derivative of f at (x0,y0) is ‖∇f(x0, y0) ‖
c) the directional derivative of 𝑓 at (x0,y0) (regarded as a function of unit vector 𝑢 alone) is minimum
when 𝑢 points in the same direction as −∇f(x0, y0). Moreover, the minimum value of the directional
derivative of f at (x0,y0) is −‖∇f(x0, y0) ‖.

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Figure 13: Directional derivative is maximum in the direction of gradient

Example 7: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 3𝑥 3 𝑦 2𝑧 and 𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 − 2𝑘⃗. Find D u f(2,-1,2).

Solution: fx = 9x2y2z, fy = 6x3yz and fz = 3x3y2. This implies ∇f(2,-1,2) = 〈72, −96, 24〉. The unit vector in
2 1 2 2 1 2
⃗ = 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘⃗ . Thus D u f(2,-1,2) = 〈72, −96, 24〉 ∙
the direction of 𝑎 is 𝑢 𝑖− 𝑗 − 𝑘⃗ = 64 //
3 3 3 3 3 3

C. The Orthogonal Gradient Theorems

Theorem 3[The Orthogonal Gradient theorem: two variable case]:
∇f(x0, y0) is normal to the level curve 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = f(x0,y0) at (x0,y0).
Example 8: Find the equation of the tangent plane 𝜋 to the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 = 16 at (2, 2, 2√2).
Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +𝑧 2

Theorem 4 [The Orthogonal Gradient theorem: three variable case]:

∇f(x0, y0, z0) is normal to the level surface 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = f(x0, y0, z0) at (x0, y0, z0).

Example 9: Find the equation of the tangent plane 𝜋 to the sphere 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 = 16 at (2, 2, 2√2).
Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +𝑧 2
By the theorem, ∇f(2, 2, 2√2 )=〈4,4,4√2〉 is normal to the level surface 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 = 16 at (2, 2, 2√2 ).
An equation of plane 𝜋 is therefore 4x+4y+4 √2 z = 4 (2)+4(2)+4 √2 (2√2) or 4x+4y+4 √2 z = 32. //

Exercise 4.4:
1. If 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 4x2 +9y2 + z2 , then ∇𝐹 (-1, 1, 2) .
2. Calculate the directional derivative of 𝑓 = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 in the direction j at (1,2,3).
3. Calculate the directional derivative of 𝑓 = 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑦 2 in the direction -j at (1,2,3).
4. Find a unit vector that is normal to the surface 𝑥 2 𝑦𝑧 = 1 at (1,1,1).

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𝑦
5. Find the maximum rate of change of the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 + at the point (4, 3, −1).
𝑧
𝑦
6. Find the minimum rate of change of the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 + at the point (4,3, −1).
𝑧

4.5 Total Differential, Differentiability, Tangent Plane and Tangent plane

approximations
A. Differentials of a function of single variable and tangent line approximation
𝑑𝑦
What is the separate meaning of 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦 in ? Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑥0 be an interior point of the
𝑑𝑥

domain of 𝑓. Let 𝑥 be any number “near” 𝑥0 . Then the number ∆𝑥: = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 is called a change in x at
x0 . We can also denote it by 𝑑𝑥 Recall that a function 𝑓 is said to be differentiable at x0 if
𝑓(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥0 )
lim𝑥→𝑥0 exist. This limit is denoted by 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) .Geometrically, a function 𝑓 is differentiable at
𝑥−𝑥0

x0 means the graph of 𝑓 near (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is almost flat/straight/.

Suppose 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0) exist. Then the number
a) ∆𝑦 ≔ 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is called the actual change/increment/first part of 𝑓 at x0 with increment
∆𝑥.
b) 𝑑𝑦 ≔ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0)∆𝑥 is called the differential/linear part/principal part of 𝑓 at x0 with increment ∆𝑥.
Thus we can observe that 𝑑𝑦 and ∆𝑦 are different where as 𝑑𝑥 and ∆𝑥 are the same. Both 𝑑𝑦 and ∆𝑦 are
functions of two variables; they depend on ∆𝑥 and 𝑥0 .
∆𝑦
If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) exists, then it follows from " lim = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0)" that ∆𝑦 tends to 𝑑𝑦 as ∆𝑥 tends to 0. Hence, if
∆𝑥→0 ∆𝑥

∆𝑥 is small, then we have the approximation formula

∆𝑦 ≈ 𝑑𝑦
This approximation can be given correct to any required degree of accuracy.
It implies that
𝑓(𝑥) ≈ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) (𝑥 – 𝑥0 ) =: ℎ(𝑥)

The function ℎ(𝑥) : = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0) (𝑥 – 𝑥0 ) represents the tangent line to the graph of 𝑓 at the point
x0.
The approximation above enables us to approximate the value of an arbitrary function 𝑓 at an arbitrary
point 𝑥 by the value of a linear function ℎ at 𝑥.
This approximation formula is called tangent line approximation.
Example 1: Using the tangent line approximation, approximate √4.1.
1
Solution: Define 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and let 𝑥0 = 4 . Then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = .
2√𝑥
1
Thus √4.01 ≅ √4 + (4.1-4) = 2 + 1/40. //
2√4

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Proposition (A Characterization of Differentiability): A function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable at x0 if

and only if there exists a linear function 𝜀(𝑥0 ,ℎ) such that
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + ℎ 𝜀(𝑥0 , ℎ)
and 𝜀(𝑥0 , ℎ) tends to zero as ℎ tends to zero.
Surprisingly this was the original definition of differentiability. (Read a Wikipedia article on three
equivalent definitions of differentiability for a function of one variable at
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentiable_function.)

B. Differentials of a function of two variables

Definition 1 [total differential]: Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑃0 (𝑎, 𝑏) be an interior point in of the domain of 𝑓
at which both partial derivatives of 𝑓 exist. Let 𝑃(𝑎 + ∆𝑥, 𝑏 + ∆𝑦 )be a point near 𝑃0. Then the number:
a) ∆𝑧 ≔ 𝑓(𝑃) − 𝑓(𝑃0 ) is called the actual change/increment/first part of 𝑓 at 𝑃0 with increments
∆𝑥& ∆𝑦. b) 𝑑𝑧 ≔ 𝑓𝑥 ∆𝑥 + 𝑓𝑦 ∆𝑦 is called the total (exact) differential of 𝑓 at 𝑃0 with increments
∆𝑥& ∆𝑦.
The definition is extendable to other multivariable functions.
C. Differentiability of a function of two variables
Definition 2 [total differentiability]: Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and (𝑎, 𝑏) be an interior point of the domain
of 𝑓. Then 𝑓 is said to be (totally) differentiable at (𝑎, 𝑏 )if both partial derivatives of 𝑓 exist at (𝑎, 𝑏)
and if there exists functions 𝜀1 and 𝜀2 of 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑦 such that
i) ∆𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑑𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) + 𝜀1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜀2 𝑑𝑦
ii) lim (𝑑𝑥,𝑑𝑦)→(0,0) 𝜀1 = 0 and lim(𝑑𝑥,𝑑𝑦)→(0,0) 𝜀2 = 0

Thus 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to be differentiable at (𝑎, 𝑏) if as (𝑑𝑥, 𝑑𝑦) → (0,0), then ∆𝑓 → 𝑑𝑓. Geometrically,
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is differentiable at (𝑎, 𝑏) means the graph of 𝑓 near (around) (𝑎, 𝑏) is almost flat (planar). For
instance, the cone 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is not differentiable at (0, 0). The function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥| + |𝑦| is
also not differentiable at (0, 0). The graphs of both functions have sharp point at (0, 0).
Note [Conditions under which 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) is not differentiable]:
A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) fails to be differentiable at (𝑎, 𝑏) for one of the following reasons:
a. 𝑓 is discontinuous at (𝑎, 𝑏).
b. the graph of f has a sharp point at (𝑎, 𝑏).
Example 2 [differentiable function: 2 variable case]: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥 − 𝑥𝑦 2 .

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a) Find 𝑑𝑓 and 𝑑𝑓(1, −1)

b) Use the definition of total differentiability to show that 𝑓 is differentiable at every point (𝑎, 𝑏) of
ℝ2 .
Solution (a): 𝑑𝑓 = [3 − 𝑦 2 ]𝑑𝑥 + [−2𝑥𝑦]𝑑𝑦 and 𝑑𝑓(1, −1) = [3 − (−1)2 ]𝑑𝑥 + [−2(1)(−1)]𝑑𝑦 =
4𝑑𝑥 + 2𝑑𝑦.
Solution (b):
𝑓(𝑎 + 𝑑𝑥, 𝑏 + 𝑑𝑦) − 𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) = 3(𝑎 + 𝑑𝑥) − (𝑎 + 𝑑𝑥)(𝑏 + 𝑑𝑦)2
= [3 − 𝑏2 ]𝑑𝑥 + (−2𝑎𝑏)𝑑𝑦 + (−2𝑏𝑑𝑦
⏟ ⏟ − 𝑑𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑥 + ⏟
(−𝑎𝑑𝑦) 𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑓(𝑎,𝑏) ℰ1 ℰ2

Since ∆𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) = 𝑑𝑓(𝑎, 𝑏) + 𝜀1 𝑑𝑥 + 𝜀2 𝑑𝑦 and lim (𝑑𝑥,𝑑𝑦)→(0,0) 𝜀1 = 0 = lim (𝑑𝑥,𝑑𝑦)→(0,0) 𝜀2 , so the

given function is differentiable at (a, b). //

Theorem 1[A Necessary condition for differentiability]: If a function 𝑓 of two variables is

differentiable at (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is continuous there.

The converse of this theorem is not true, in general. For instance, the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is
continuous at (0, 0) but it is not differentiable at (0, 0). The function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3√𝑥𝑦 is continuous at (0, 0)
but it is not differentiable there. Note that while the first function has no partial derivatives at (0,0), the
second one has.
Theorem 2[A Sufficient condition for differentiability]: If a function 𝑓 ∶ 𝐷 ⊂ 𝑹2 → 𝑹 has
continuous partial derivatives at (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is differentiable at (𝑎, 𝑏).
The converse of this theorem is not true, i.e., the requirement of continuous partial derivatives is more
stringent than that of differentiability. There exist some differentiable functions which do not have
continuous partial derivatives. A function satisfying the hypothesis of the above theorem is called
continuously differentiable and the class of such functions is denoted by 𝐶 1 .
Example 3: Use the above theorem to show that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥𝑦 − 5𝑦 3 is differentiable everywhere.
In fact, every polynomial 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) is differentiable everywhere.
Note:

1. If a function is differentiable, it will be continuous and it will also have partial derivatives.

2. If a function is continuous, or has partial derivatives, or has both, it does not guarantee the function is
differentiable.

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D. Tangent Planes
Intuitively, it seems clear that, in a plane, only one line can be tangent to a curve at a point. However, in
three-dimensional space, many lines can be tangent to a curve at given point. If these lines lie in the same
plane, they determine the tangent plane at that point. only.
Definition 3 [tangent plane]: Let 𝑃0 = (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a point on a surface S, and let C be any curve
passing through 𝑃0 and lying entirely in S. If the tangent lines to all such curves C at 𝑃0 lie in the same
plane, then this plane is called the tangent plane to S at 𝑃0.

Figure 14: Tangent Plane to a surface

Equation of Tangent Plane: Let 𝑆 be a surface defined by a differentiable function 𝑧 =

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), and let 𝑃0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )be a point in the domain of 𝑓. Then, the equation of the tangent
plane to 𝑆 at 𝑃0 is given by:
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓𝑥(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑓𝑦 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0)(𝑦 − 𝑦0 )

Derivation: To see why this formula is correct, let’s first find two tangent lines to the surface 𝑆.
The equation of the tangent line to the curve that is represented by the intersection of 𝑆 with the
vertical trace 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) + 𝑓𝑦 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ). Similarly, the equation of the tangent
line to the curve that is represented by the intersection of 𝑆 with the vertical plane given by 𝑦 =
𝑦0 is 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0) + 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0)(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ). A parallel vector to the first tangent line is 𝑎 = 𝑗 +

𝑓𝑦 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0)⃗𝑘; a parallel vector to the second tangent line is 𝑏⃗ = 𝑖 + 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )𝑘

⃗ ; The cross

product of these two vectors is: 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ ≔ 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0)𝑖⃗ +𝑓𝑦( 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )𝑗 − 𝑘⃗ . This vector is

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perpendicular to both lines and is therefore perpendicular to the tangent plane. We can use this
vector as a normal vector to the tangent plane, along with the point(𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) to obtain the equation
for a plane.
Example 4: Find the equation of the tangent plane to the surface defined by the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) =

2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥𝑦 + 8𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 4𝑦 + 4 at point (2, −1).

Solution:
First, we must calculate 𝑓(2,−1), 𝑓𝑥 (2, −1) and 𝑓𝑦 (2, −1).
𝑓(2, −1) = 34
𝑓𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 2. This implies 𝑓𝑥 (2, −1) = 4(2) − 3(−1) + 2 = 13

𝑓𝑦(𝑥, 𝑦) = −3𝑥 + 16𝑦 − 4. Thus 𝑓𝑦 (2, −1) = −3(2) + 16(−1) − 4 = −26 . The equation is given by
𝑧 = 𝑓(2, −1) + 𝑓𝑥 (2, −1)(𝑥 − 2) + 𝑓𝑦 (2, −1)(𝑦 − (−1)),

which becomes 𝑧 = 13𝑥 − 26𝑦 − 18 //

E. Tangent plane approximations (linear approximations)

If there is a point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) at which the value of 𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is known and if 𝑓 is differentiable at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ),

then for values of (𝑥, 𝑦) reasonably close to(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) , the value of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) can be approximated as
follows. If 𝑓 is differentiable at (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ), then it follows from the definition of differentiability that 𝑑𝑓
tends to 𝑑𝑦 as ∆𝑥 tends to 0 and ∆𝑦 tends to 0. Hence, if ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 are small, then we have the
approximation formula
∆𝑧 ≈ 𝑑𝑧
It implies that

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ≈ 𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) + 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) (𝑥 – 𝑥0 ) + 𝑓𝑦 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) (𝑥 – 𝑥0 ) =: ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦)

The function ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) : = 𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) + 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥 – 𝑥0 ) + 𝑓𝑦 (𝑥 – 𝑥0 ) represents the tangent plane to the graph
of 𝑓 at the point (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ).

Example 5: Use differentials to approximate √2(2.02)3 + (2.97)2.

3𝑥2 𝑦
Solution: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = √2𝑥 3 + 𝑦 2 . Then 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) = and 𝑓𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) =
√2𝑥3 +𝑦2 √2𝑥3 +𝑦2
24 9
𝑓(2.02,2.97) ≈ 𝑓(2,3) + 𝑓𝑥 (2,3)(2.02, – 2) + 𝑓𝑦 (2,3) (2.97– 3) ≈ 5 + − ≈ 5.03 //
500 500

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Exercise 4.5:

1. Find 𝑑𝑧 if 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑦.
2. Find the differential 𝑑𝑧 of the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 and use it to approximate 𝛥𝑧 at
point (2, −3).

3. Find the linear approximation given by the tangent space to the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 +

𝑦𝑧 at the point (2, 10, 5).

4. Show that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3√𝑥𝑦 is not differentiable at (0, 0).

5. Show that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 is not differentiable at (0, 0).

6. Show that 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = |𝑥| + |𝑦| is not differentiable at (0, 0).
7. Show that function 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑙𝑛(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) is differentiable everywhere in its domain.
8. Let
2𝑥 3 + 2𝑦 3
𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) ≠ (0,0)
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = { 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
0 𝑖𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦) = (0,0)
a) Examine if 𝑓 is continuous at (0,0).
b) Examine if 𝑓 is differentiable at (0,0).

9. A cylinder of radius 2 𝑖𝑛. and height 5 𝑖𝑛. is deformed to a different cylinder, now of radius 1.98 𝑖𝑛.
and height 5.03 𝑖𝑛. Use tangent plane approximation (differentials) to find the approximate change in
volume.

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4.6 The Chain Rule, Implicit Differentiation and Implicit Partial differentiation
A. The Chain Rule
Recall that if 𝑢, 𝑦 and x are variables such that 𝑢 is a function of 𝑦 and 𝑦 is a function of 𝑥, then 𝑢 is a
function of 𝑥 and
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥

u depends on x,
𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑥

u y x

𝑑𝑦
y depends on x,
u depends on y ,𝑑𝑢
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥

Figure 14: Chain Rule in Leibnitz Notation: Single variable

For functions of several variables the chain rule has several versions.
Theorem 1(The Chain Rule, Version 1):
𝑑𝑥
If z is a differentiable function of x and y, defined by 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and if 𝑥 = 𝑔1 (𝑡), 𝑦 = 𝑔2 (𝑡), and
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
and both exist, then z is a function of t and
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝑑𝑦
= +
𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝑑𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝑑𝑡

Figure 16: Multivariable Chain Rule: two intermediate variables and one independent variable

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𝑑𝑧
Example 1: Let 𝑧 = 𝑒 𝑥𝑦, 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑡 3. Find .
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧 5
Answer: =5𝑡 4𝑒 𝑡 .
𝑑𝑡

Theorem 2(The Chain Rule, Version 2):

𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
If z is a differentiable function of x and y, defined by z=f(x, y)' and if x= 𝑔1 (s, t), y= 𝑔2 (r, s), and , ,
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
and all exist, then z is a function of s and t and
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
= +
𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑠 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑠
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
= +
𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑡

Figure 17: Multivariable Chain Rule: two independent variables and two intermediate variables

𝜕2 𝑧
Example 2: Let 𝑧 = 𝑥𝑙𝑛𝑦, 𝑥 = 𝑡 2 + 𝑠 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑡 3 − 𝑠 2. Find .
𝜕𝑡 2

Theorem 3(The Chain Rule, General Version):

If z is a differentiable function of the n variables 𝑥1 , ⋯ , 𝑥𝑛 , and each of these functions is in turn a
𝜕𝑥𝑖
function of the m variables 𝑡1 , ⋯ , 𝑡𝑚 and if each of the partial derivatives (i=1,⋯,n; j=1,⋯,m)exist,
𝜕𝑡𝑗

then z is a function of 𝑡1 , ⋯ , 𝑡𝑚 and

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥𝑛
=( )( ) +⋯ + ( )( )
𝜕𝑡1 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑡1 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑡1

⋮
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥𝑛
=( )( ) +⋯ + ( )( )
𝜕𝑡𝑚 𝜕𝑥1 𝜕𝑡𝑚 𝜕𝑥𝑛 𝜕𝑡𝑚

Example 3 [chain rule in word problems]: Two sides of a triangle have lengths 𝑎 = 3𝑐𝑚 , 𝑏 = 4 𝑐𝑚,
but are increasing at a rate of 1 𝑐𝑚/. 𝑠. If the area of the triangle remains constant, at what rate is the
𝜋
angle 𝜃 between a and b changing when 𝜃 = ?
6

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B. Implicit Differentiation
There are two ways of expressing 𝑦 as a function of 𝑥 by an a formula. These are:
(a) 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) form. This is called an explicit formula
(b) 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 form (where y is not uniquely solvable for x). This is called an imlicit form.
𝑑𝑦
If y is an imlicit function of x, then can be computed using the following result.
𝑑𝑥

Theorem 4(Implicit differentiation): Let the equation 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 defines the equation 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
implicitly. Then
𝑑𝑦 𝐹𝑥
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝐹𝑦

𝑑𝑦
Example 4: Let 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 = 2𝑥𝑦 defines implicitly y as a function of x. Find .
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 2𝑦−3𝑥2
Answer: .=
𝑑𝑥 3𝑦2 −2𝑥

C. Implicit Partial Differentiation

There are two ways of expressing 𝑧 as a function of 𝑥 and 𝑦 by an equation:

(a) 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) form and
(b) 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 0 form.
The former is called explicit form and the later is called implicit form.
Similarly a function of three or more variables can be given either by an explicit form or by an implicit
form.
𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
If z is an implicit function of x and y , then and can be computed using the following result.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

Theorem 5(Implicit partial differentiation): Let the equation 𝐹(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 0 defines the equation
𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) implicitly. Then
𝜕𝑧 𝐹𝑥
=−
𝜕𝑥 𝐹𝑧
𝜕𝑧 𝐹𝑦
=−
𝜕𝑦 𝐹𝑧

Note: The theorem can be extended to functions of three or more variables.

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Example 5: Let 𝑥 2 𝑧 2 = 2𝑥𝑦𝑧 − 𝑧 3 𝑦 2 defines implicitly z as a function of 𝑥 and 𝑦. Find 𝑧𝑥 , 𝑧𝑦 and 𝑧𝑥𝑥 .

−2𝑥𝑧 2 −2𝑦𝑧 −2𝑥𝑧+2𝑦𝑧 3

Answer: 𝑧𝑥 = , 𝑧𝑦 = //
2𝑥2 𝑧−2𝑥𝑦+3𝑧 2 𝑦2 2𝑥2 𝑧−2𝑥𝑦+3𝑧2 𝑦2

Exercise 4.6:
dz
1. a) Find where z = xy2 + x2y, 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 and 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑡, a constant
dt
b) If 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) with 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝑒 −𝑣 ; 𝑒 𝑢 + 𝑒 −𝑣 ;. Then show that

z z z z
  x  y
u v x y

𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
2. Suppose 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), where 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 and 𝑦 = 𝑡 2 + 3𝑡 + 2. Given = 𝑥 − 𝑦 and = −𝑥, find
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝑑𝑧
when t=0.
𝑑𝑡

3. Find the equation of the tangent plane to theeach of the following equations at the indicated
points.
a) 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 3x2 + 4y2; at 𝑃(−2,1,16) b) 𝑒 𝑥𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑧𝑦) = 1; at (1, 0, 1).

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4.7 Extrema of Functions of Several Variables

A. Local extrema
Recall that a function 𝑓(𝑥) of one variable is said to have a local minimum value at the point 𝑥0 if there
exist an open interval 𝐼 containing 𝑥0 such that 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼. The corresponding
definition for a function of two variables is as follows.

Definition 1 [local extrema]: A function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is said to have a local (relative) minimum value at the
point (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) if there exist an open disk 𝐷 centered at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) such that
𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) for all (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐷
In this case 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is called a local (relative) minimum value of 𝑓 and (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) is called a local
(minimum) point of f. Note that the point (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ), 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )) can also be called a local minimum point of
𝑓.

Similarly, we can define local maximum value and local maximum point of 𝑓. A local extreme value of 𝑓
is a value of 𝑓 which is either a local minimum value or a local maximum value. The definition can be
extended to functions of 3 or more variables.

Theorem 1[A Necessary Condition for Local Extrema]:

Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) attains a local extreme value at (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) and let 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) and 𝑓𝑦(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) both exist. Then
∇𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) = < 0, 0 >, i.e., 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) = 0 = 𝑓𝑦 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ).

Proof:
Case 1: If f has a local minimum value at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
Define
𝑔(𝑥): = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦0 )
𝐺(𝑦): = 𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦)
G and g are functions of single variables. Since f x(x0, y0) and fy(x0, y0) both exist and fx(x0, y0) = 𝑔′ (𝑥0 )
and 𝑓𝑦(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) = = 𝐺′ (𝑦0 )both exist
Since (x0, y0) is a local minimum point of f, so there is an open disk centered at (x0, y0) such that
𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) for all (x, y) ∈ D
⟹ 𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦0 ) for all (𝑥, 𝑦0 ) ∈ D
⟹ 𝑔(𝑥0 ) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) for all x in a nbd of 𝑔.
⟹ 𝑥0 is a local minimum point of 𝑔.

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⟹ 𝑔′ (𝑥0 ) = 0
⟹ 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) = 0
Similarly, 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) = 0
Case 2: If f has a local maximum at (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) (This case is left as exercise). ▀
Remarks:
1. We can re-state the theorem as follows: If (x0, y0) is a local extreme point of f(x, y), then either
∇𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )= <0, 0> or ∇𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) does not exist.
2. The converse of remark (1) is not true.
3. From remark (1), {local extreme points of f} ⊆ {points at which grad f is 0 or does not exist}.
4. The theorem is also valid for functions of three or more variables. For instance it may be stated
for a function 𝑓 of three variables as follows.
Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) attains a local extreme value at (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and let 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) ,𝑓𝑦(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and
𝑓𝑧 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) exist. Then
∇𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )= < 0, 0,0 >, i.e., 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = ,𝑓𝑦(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )= 𝑓𝑧 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = 0.

Definition 2 [critical point]: A point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) in the domain of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦 )is called a critical point (or a
stationary point) of 𝑓 if one of the following is true:
1. 𝛻𝑓(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) = < 0, 0 >,
2. ∇𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) does not exist (i.e., 𝑓𝑥 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) and/or 𝑓𝑦(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) does not exist).

Example 1 [finding critical point]: Find all critical points of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) : = 4𝑥𝑦 – 𝑥 4 – 𝑦 4.
Solution (a):
𝑓𝑥 = 4y – 4x 3 . 𝑓𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 4𝑦 3
Both fx and fy exist at all points (x, y) in ℝ2 . So, if (x, y) is a critical point of f, then ∇𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = < 0, 0 >.
This implies
4y – 4x 3 = 0 (1)
{
4𝑥 − 4𝑦 3 = 0 (2)
From (1) we obtain
y = x3 (3)
From (2) and (3) we obtain x=0,1 or -1.
When x=0, y=0.
When x=1, y=1.

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When x=-1, y=-1.

Therefore, (0, 0), (1, 1) and (-1, -1) are the only critical points of f.
Although every point at which a function takes a local extreme value is a critical point, the converse is not
true, just as in the single variable case.
Definition 3 [saddle point]: A point (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ), 𝑓((𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )) on the graph of f(x, y) is said to be a saddle
point of f if (x0, y0) is a critical point of f but it is not a local extreme point of f.

Theorem 2[The Second Derivative Test for a Function of Two Variables]:

Let(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )be a critical point of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and let the second partial derivatives of 𝑓 be continuous at
(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). Let 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ): = 𝑓𝑥𝑥(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )𝑓𝑦𝑦 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) –𝑓𝑥𝑦 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) 𝑓𝑦𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ). Then
a) 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) > 0 and 𝑓𝑥𝑥 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) < 0 ⟹ (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is a local maximum point of f at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
b) 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )> 0 and 𝑓𝑥𝑥 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) > 0 ⟹ (𝑥0 , 𝑦0) is a local minimum point of f at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
c) 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )< 0 ⟹ (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) is a saddle point of 𝑓 at (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ).
d) 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )= 0 ⟹ this theorem does not apply. The point (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )could be any of a minimum,
maximum or saddle point.

Remark:
a) The above theorem is also called Hessian test or the Critical point test.
b) The number 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) in the above theorem is called the discriminant of 𝑓 at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
𝑓𝑥𝑥(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) 𝑓𝑥𝑦 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 )
c) The matrix 𝐻𝑓( 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ): = [ ]is called the Hessian matrix of 𝑓 at
𝑓𝑦𝑥 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) 𝑓𝑦𝑦(𝑥0 ,𝑦0 )
( 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ).
Note that the determinant of 𝐻𝑓( 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is 𝐷𝑓 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ). Note also that 𝐻𝑓 is a matrix valued
function.
d) The Hessian matrix often plays a role analogous to the ordinary second derivative in single
variable calculus. Most notably, it arises in quadratic approximations of multivariable functions
and the second partial derivative test.
e) The theorem can be extended to functions of 3 or more variables. The Hessian matrix of
an n variable real-valued function 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ) = 𝑓(𝒙) (where 𝒙 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , . . . , 𝑥𝑛 ))
whose second partial derivatives exist is defined by:
𝑓11 𝑓12 ⋯ 𝑓1𝑛
𝑓 𝑓22 ⋯ 𝑓2𝑛
𝐻𝑓= [ 21 ]
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑓𝑛1 𝑓𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑓𝑛𝑛

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Example 2 [finding local extrema]: Find all local minimum and local maximum points of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) : =
4𝑥𝑦 – 𝑥 4 – 𝑦 4.
Step 1: Find all critical points of f.
From Example 1, the only critical points of f are (0,0), (1, 1) and (−1,−1).
Step 2: Apply the Second Partial derivative test. The discriminant of f is given by
𝐷𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓𝑥𝑥 𝑓𝑦𝑦 – 𝑓𝑥𝑦 𝑓𝑦𝑥
=(−12𝑥 2 )(−12𝑦2 ) − (4𝑦)(4𝑥)
=144𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 16

The values of 𝑓𝑥𝑥 and 𝐷𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) at the critical points and the corresponding conclusions are given in the
next table.
Critical point, (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) Discriminant, 𝐷(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) 𝑓𝑥𝑥 (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) conclusion

(0, 0) -16 NA Saddle point

(1, 1) 128 -12 Maximum point
(-1,-1) 128 12 Maximum point

Example 3 [Hessian of a function of three variables]: Find the Hessian matrix of the
function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 .

B. Global (Absolute) extrema

Definition 4[global extrema]: Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and let (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) ∈ Dom f. The function 𝑓 is said to have a
global minimum value at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )if
𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ∀(𝑥𝑥, 𝑦 𝑦) ∈ 𝑑𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓.
In this case (x0, y0) or (x0, y0, f(x0, y0)) is called a global minimum point of f and 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is called the
global minimum value of 𝑓.
Similarly we can define global maximum value and global maximum point.
Example 4: Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 4 − (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ) . The domain of 𝑓 is ℝ2 .
−(x 2 + y 2 ) ≤ 0 for all x and y, so 4 − (x 2 + y 2 ) ≤ 4 = 𝑓(0,0),∀(x, y) ∈ ℝ2. Thus 4 is the global
minimum value and (0,0) is the corresponding global minimum point of 𝑓.
Global extrema of 𝑓 can be seen as a special case of the next kind of extrema.

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C. Constrained (conditional) extrema

Definition 5 [conditional global and local extrema]: Let 𝑧 = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑅 ⊆domain of 𝑓 and (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) ∈
𝑅. The function 𝑓 is said to have:
a) global minimum value on 𝑅 at (x0, y0) if
𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ∀(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅.
b) local minimum value on 𝑅 at (x0, y0) if there exists an open disk D containing (x0, y0) such that
f(x0, y0) ≤ f(x, y) ∀(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ D ∩ R.

Similarly we can define global and local maximum value and point on a set. The set R in the above
definition is sometimes called a constraint set.
A function 𝑓 may or may not have an extreme value on a subset 𝑅 of its domain.
Example 5: Let
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 + 𝑦
𝑥
𝑖𝑓, 𝑦 ≠ 0
𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = { 𝑦
0 𝑖𝑓 , 𝑦 = 0
R1 = {(x, y): 0 < 𝑥 < 1; 0 < 𝑦 < 1}
R2 = {(x, y): 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1; 0 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1}.
R3 = {(x, y): x ≥ 0 and ≥ 0 } (first quadrant)
Clearly, 𝑓 has no extreme value on R 1 ; it has both extreme values on R2 and it has minimum value but
not maximum value on R3. Note that R1 is not a closed set and R3 is not a bounded set. The function g has
no extreme values on the three sets. Note that g is discontinuous on these sets.

Theorem 3 [Extreme value theorem for a function of two variables]: Let 𝑅 be a closed and bounded
region in xy-plane and 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) be continuous on 𝑅. Then 𝑓 has both minimum and maximum values on 𝑅.

Procedures for finding the extreme values of a continuous function f(x, y) on a compact set R
Step 1: Evaluate 𝑓 at all of its critical points in R.
Step 2: Find the extreme values of 𝑓 on the boundary of 𝑅. Note that 𝜕𝑅 is usually a curve.
Step 3: Compare the values obtained in steps 1 and 2. The largest is the maximum value and the smallest
is the minimum value .

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To accomplish step 2, we can use either the so called Lagrange multiplier method or substitution method
(i.e., converting the problem into one variable extremum problem by using substitution). The Lagrange
multiplier methods are based on the orthogonal gradient theorems of section 4.6 and it will be explained
soon.
Example 6: Find the extreme values of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 on the disk 𝑅: = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 4}.

Solution:

1 1 1
Step 1: The only critical point of 𝑓 is ( , 0), it is interior to R and 𝑓 ( , 0) = − .
2 2 4

Step 2: The boundary of R is the circle 𝐶: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4. To find the extreme values of 𝑓 on 𝐶 let us apply
substitution. Observe that 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4 ⇔ 𝑦 = ±√4 − 𝑥 2. Hence, 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 −
(4 − 𝑥 2 ) − 𝑥=2𝑥 2 – 𝑥 − 4 (for −2 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2).

Thus on C, 𝑓 can be treated as a function of 𝑥 only. Applying the theory of extrema for single variable
1 √63 33
calculus we obtain 𝑓(−2,±0) = 6 as the maximum value and 𝑓 ( , ± )= − as the minimum value
4 4 8

of 𝑓 on C.

Step 3: By comparing the values of 𝑓 at the critical point in Step 1 and at the boundary points in Step 2 at
33
last we get that 6 is the maximum value and − is the minimum value of 𝑓 on R.
8

Lagrange Multiplier Method

Let 𝑓: S → ℝ, S ⊆ ℝ2 and x0 ∈ S. If 𝑥0 is an interior point of S, then we can use the necessary and
sufficient conditions (first and second derivative tests) studied in subsection (A) to determine whether the
point is a local maximum or a local minimum of 𝑓 on S. But if 𝑥0 is not an interior point of S, then we
cannot apply these tests. For example one cannot apply these tests at a point on a circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2,
because no point is an interior point in this constrained set. In general constrained extremum problems are
very difficult to solve and there is no general method for solving such problems. In case the constrained
set is a level curve, for example a circle, there is a special method called Lagrange multiplier method can
be used.
Lagrange Multiplier Method I [Extrema of z = f(x, y) over a curve C]:
Suppose 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) have continuous partial derivatives. Let (𝑥0 , 𝑦0) 𝜖 C = {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0}
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) ≠ 〈0,0〉. If 𝑓 has a local extreme value at (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ), then there exists 𝜆 𝜖 ℝ such that
and ∇𝑔
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
∇𝑓 (𝑥0, 𝑦0 ) = 𝜆∇𝑔

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Remark:
a. The number 𝜆 in the above theorem is called Lagrange multiplier.
b. The equation 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0 is called constraint.
c. To find the critical points (𝑥, 𝑦) of a function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) on a (level) curve 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0, we need to
solve the following system of equations
⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜆∇𝑔
∇𝑓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦)
{
g(x, y) = 0
for 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝜆. This is equivalent to the system of equations below:
𝑓𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜆𝑔𝑥 (𝑥, 𝑦
𝑓𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝜆𝑔𝑦 (𝑥, 𝑦
g(x, y) = 0
d. Lagrange’s theorem can be extended to functions of three or more variables.

An Intuitive Explanation of Why the Lagrange Multiplier Method Works

If (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) is a local extreme point of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) on the curve 𝐶: 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0, then the level curve of the
constraint function 𝑔 at level 0 (this is just the curve C )is tangent to the level curve at level 𝑓(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) of
the objective function 𝑓 , because if they cross each other moving one direction along C increases a value
of 𝑓 while moving along another direction decreases it. (See Example 8).
Procedures for Finding extreme values on a Curve 𝐶: 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0
If 𝑓 has extreme values on the curve 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0, then the extreme values of 𝑓 can be obtained as
follows:
Step 1: Evaluate 𝑓 at all of its critical points on the curve 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = 0. The critical points are the solutions
obtained after solving the system of equations above.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 ) = 〈0,0〉.
Step 2: Evaluate 𝑓 at the end points of C and at all points (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) such that ∇𝑔
Step 3: Compare the values obtained in steps 1 and 2. The largest is the maximum value and the smallest
is the minimum value .

Tips for solving the system of equations arising from Lagrange multiplier theorem:
1. First, Solve for 𝜆 in terms of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧.
2. Try first solving for one of the variables in terms of the others.
3. Be careful when you do certain operations such as taking square roots, dividing an
expression by another, etc.

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Example 7 [extrema on circle]: Use Lagrange multiplier method to find the extreme values of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) =
𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 on 𝐶: 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 4.

Solution: Let 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) ≔ 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4. As per the procedures outlined above we solve:

2𝑥 − 1 = 2𝜆𝑥 (1)
−2𝑦 = 2𝜆𝑦 (2)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 4 (3),
1 ±√63
from which we get ( , ) and (±2,0) as solutions. These are the critical points of 𝑓 on 𝐶. Since 𝐶 has
4 4

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑥, 0) ≠ 〈0,0〉 on C, so the extreme values of 𝑓 on 𝐶 are obtained by comparing its
no endpoints and ∇𝑔
1 √63
values on the critical points only. We get that 𝑓(−2,±0) = 6 is the maximum value and 𝑓 ( , ± ) =
4 4
33
− is the minimum value of 𝑓 on C. //
8

The above theorem can be extended to functions of three or more variables. For three variables,
Example 8 [extrema on hyperobola]: (a)Find the values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 that make 𝑓 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 as small as
possible, while satisfying the constraint 𝑔: 𝑥𝑦 = 1. Sketch some level curves of 𝑓 and 𝑔 on 𝑥𝑦 plane and
through it explain why the Lagrange method works.
Solution:
(a) (1, 1) and (−1, −1)
(b)

Figure 18. extrema on a hyperbola

The red level curves are level curves of 𝑓 and the blue one is the constraint curve (which is also a level
curve of g). It turns out that at the level curve of 𝑓 through an extreme point of f must be tangent to the
constraint curve. To see why, it helps to look at a point where the curves are not tangent, such as the
orange point. Since the red and blue level curves aren’t tangent to each other there, they cross each

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other. Since they cross, moving one direction along the blue curve moves up in the red valley, and
moving the other direction moves down. In other words, there is a local change to that preserves the
constraint g(x, y)=0 and causes the objective function f(x, y) to decrease, and the opposite change causes
it to increase. There’s no way it can be a constrained minimum or maximum. Since the minimum can’t
be at a point where the level curves cross, it has to be at a point where they are tangent. This happens
when
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∇𝑓 = 𝜆∇𝑔

If the boundary curve 𝐶 of a region R is described by more than one formula, then finding the extrema of
a function on 𝐶 can require consideration of many cases, as shown in the next example.
Example 9 [extrema on triangular region]: Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 5 − 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 on a closed triangular region R with vertices (0,0), (4,0), and (4,5).

Answer: the maximum is 13 and the minimum is -7

Lagrange Multiplier Method II [Extrema of 𝒛 = 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚, 𝒛) over a surface 𝑺]:

Suppose f(x, y, z) and g(x, y, z) have continuous partial derivatives. Let (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) 𝜖 S =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) ≠ 〈0,0,0〉. If 𝑓 has a local extreme value at (𝑥0 ,𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ), then
{(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 0} and ∇𝑔
there exists 𝜆 𝜖 ℝ such that
⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑥0, 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) = 𝜆∇𝑔
∇𝑓 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 )

Remark: Lagrange method for a function of three variables can be extended to the case of two
constraints. (Read!)

Example 10 [constrained extrema of function of three variables): Find the minimum and
maximum values of 𝑓 = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 subject to 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 = 1.

D. Practical Applications of multivariable extrema : Word Problems

Example 11: Find the dimensions of the box with largest volume if the total surface area is 64𝑐𝑚2 .

32
Answer: x= 𝑦 = 𝑧 = √
3

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Exercise 4.7:

1. Compute the Hessian of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥𝑦 − 𝑦 6.

2. State the Hessian test for functions of three variables. Apply it to find and identify local extrema of

𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥𝑦 + 𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧 + 3𝑧.

3. If the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑘𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 has a local minimum point at (0, 0), then find the value
of k.
𝑥2 𝑦2
4. Find the smallest and the largest values that the function 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥𝑦 takes on the ellipse + =1.
8 2

5. Find the maximum and minimum values of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦𝑧 subject to the constraint 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 =
1.
6. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 2 𝑦 + 4 on the
rectangle 𝑅: −1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1 and −1 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 1.
y
7. Find the extreme values of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = tan−1 ( ) on the region bounded by 𝑥 = 2 , 𝑥 = 4 , 𝑦 =
x
1
−𝑥 , 𝑦 = − 𝑥.
2
8. Determine the point on the plane 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 1 that is closest to the point (−2, −1,5).

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