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Boundless Algebra

Polynomials and Rational Functions

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Rational Functions

Introduction to Rational Functions

A rational function is one such that f(x)=P(x)Q(x)f(x)=P(x)Q(x), where Q(x)≠0Q(x)≠0; the

domain of a rational function can be calculated.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Describe rational functions, including their domains

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 A rational function is any function which can be written as the ratio of two
polynomial functions, where the polynomial in the denominator is not equal to
zero.
 The domain of f(x)=P(x)Q(x)f(x)=P(x)Q(x) is the set of all points xx for which the
denominator Q(x)Q(x) is not zero.
 Domain restrictions of a rational function can be determined by setting the
denominator equal to zero and solving. The xx-values at which the denominator
equals zero are called singularities and are not in the domain of the function.

Key Terms

 domain: The set of all input values (xx) over which a function is defined.
 rational function: Any function whose value can be expressed as the quotient of
two polynomials (where the polynomial in the denominator is not zero).
 singularities: The xx-values at which a rational function is not defined, for which
the denominator Q(x)Q(x) is zero.
  vertical asymptote: A vertical straight line which a curve approaches arbitrarily
closely, as it goes to infinity.
 denominator: The number or expression written below the line in a fraction
(thus, 22 in 1212).

Rational Functions

A rational function is any function which can be written as the ratio of two polynomial
functions. Neither the coefficients of the polynomials, nor the values taken by the
function, are necessarily rational numbers.

Any function of one variable, xx, is called a rational function if, and only if, it can be
written in the form:

f(x)=P(x)Q(x)f(x)=P(x)Q(x)

where PP and QQ are polynomial functions of xx and Q(x)≠0Q(x)≠0.

Note that every polynomial function is a rational function with Q(x)=1Q(x)=1. A function
that cannot be written in the form of a polynomial, such as f(x)=sin(x)f(x)=sin⁡(x), is
not a rational function. However, the adjective “irrational” is not generally used for
functions.

A constant function such as f(x)=πf(x)=π is a rational function since constants are

polynomials. Note that the function itself is rational, even though the value of f(x)f(x) is
irrational for all xx.

The Domain of a Rational Function

The domain of a rational function f(x)=P(x)Q(x)f(x)=P(x)Q(x) is the set of all values

of xx for which the denominator Q(x)Q(x) is not zero.

For a simple example, consider the rational function y=1xy=1x. The domain is
comprised of all values of x≠0x≠0.

Domain restrictions can be calculated by finding singularities, which are the xx-values
for which the denominator Q(x)Q(x) is zero. The rational function is not defined for
such xx-values, and these values are excluded from the domain set of the function.

Factorizing the numerator and denominator of rational function helps to identify

singularities of algebraic rational functions. Singularity occurs when the denominator of
a rational function equals 00, whether or not the linear factor in the denominator cancels
out with a linear factor in the numerator.
Example 1

Consider the rational function

f(x)=(x2−3x−2)(x2−4)f(x)=(x2−3x−2)(x2−4)

The domain of this function includes all values of xx, except where x2−4=0x2−4=0.

We can factor the denominator to find the singularities of the function:

x2−4=(x+2)(x−2)x2−4=(x+2)(x−2)

Setting each linear factor equal to zero, we have x+2=0x+2=0 and x−2=0x−2=0.
Solving each of these yields solutions x=−2x=−2 and x=2x=2; thus, the domain
includes all xx not equal to 22 or −2−2. This can be seen in the graph below.

The domain of a function: Graph of a rational function with equation (x2–3x−2)(x2–4)(x2–3x−2)(x2–4). The
domain of this function is all values of xx except +2+2 or −2−2.

Note that there are vertical asymptotes at xx-values of 22 and −2−2. This means that,
although the function approaches these points, it is not defined at them.
Example 2

Consider the rational function

f(x)=(x+3)(x2+2)f(x)=(x+3)(x2+2)

The domain of this function is all values of xx except those where x2+2=0x2+2=0.
However, for x2+2=0x2+2=0, x2x2 would need to equal −2−2. Since this condition
cannot be satisfied by a real number, the domain of the function is all real numbers.

Asymptotes

A rational function can have at most one horizontal or oblique asymptote, and many
possible vertical asymptotes; these can be calculated.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Determine when the asymptote of a rational function will be horizontal, oblique, or vertical

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 An asymptote of a curve is a line, such that the distance between the curve and
the line approaches zero as they tend to infinity.
 There are three kinds of asymptotes: horizontal, vertical and oblique.
 A rational function has at most one horizontal asymptote or oblique (slant)
asymptote, and possibly many vertical asymptotes.
 Vertical asymptotes occur at singularities of a rational function, or points at which
the function is not defined. They only occur at singularities where the associated
linear factor in the denominator remains after cancellation.
 The existence of a horizontal or oblique asymptote depends on the degrees of
polynomials in
the numerator and denominator.

Key Terms

 asymptote: A straight line which a curve approaches arbitrarily closely, as it goes

to infinity.
 oblique: Not erect or perpendicular; neither parallel to, nor at right angles from,
the base; slanting; inclined.
  rational function: Any function whose value can be expressed as the quotient of
two polynomials (where the polynomial in the denominator is not zero).

Types of Asymptotes

In analytic geometry, an asymptote of a curve is a line such that the distance between
the curve and the line approaches zero as they tend to infinity.

There are three kinds of asymptotes: horizontal, vertical and oblique. Horizontal
asymptotes of curves are horizontal lines that the graph of the function approaches
as xx tends to +∞+∞ or −∞−∞. Horizontal asymptotes are parallel to the xx-axis.

Vertical asymptotes are vertical lines near which the function grows without bound.
They are parallel to the yy-axis.

An asymptote that is neither horizontal or vertical is an oblique (or slant) asymptote.

These are diagonal lines so that the difference between the curve and the line
approaches 00 as xx tends to +∞+∞ or −∞−∞.

Each type of asymptote is shown in the graph below.

Graph with asymptotes: The graph of a function with a horizontal (y=0y=0), vertical (x=0x=0), and oblique
asymptote (blue line).

Example 1

Consider the graph of the equation f(x)=1xf(x)=1x, shown below. The coordinates of
the points on the curve are of the form (x,1x)(x,1x) where xxis a number other than 0.

Graph of f(x)=1/xf(x)=1/x: Both the xx-axis and yy-axis are asymptotes.

Notice that as the positive values of xx become larger and larger, the corresponding
values of yy become infinitesimally small. However, no matter how
large xx becomes, 1x1x is never 00, so the curve never actually touches the xx-axis.
The xx-axis is a horizontal asymptote of the curve.

Similarly, as the positive values of xx become smaller and smaller, the corresponding
values of yy become larger and larger. So the curve extends farther and farther upward
as it comes closer and closer to the yy-axis. The yy-axis is a vertical asymptote of the
curve.

Asymptotes of Rational Functions

A rational function has at most one horizontal or oblique asymptote, and possibly many
vertical asymptotes.

Vertical asymptotes occur only when the denominator is zero. In other words, vertical
asymptotes occur at singularities, or points at which the rational function is not defined.
Vertical asymptotes only occur at singularities when the associated linear factor in the
denominator remains after cancellation.

For example, consider the function:

f(x)=(x−1)(x+2)(x−1)(x+1)f(x)=(x−1)(x+2)(x−1)(x+1)

We can identify from the linear factors in the denominator that two singularities exist,
at x=1x=1 and x=−1x=−1. However, the linear factor (x−1)(x−1) cancels with a factor
in the numerator. Thus, the only vertical asymptote for this function is at x=−1x=−1.

The degree of the numerator and degree of the denominator determine whether or not
there are any horizontal or oblique asymptotes.

Existence of horizontal asymptote depends on the degree of polynomial in the

numerator (nn) and degree of polynomial in the denominator (mm). There are three
possible cases:

1. If n>mn>m, then there is no horizontal asymptote (However, if n=m+1n=m+1,

then there exists a slant asymptote).
2. If n<mn<m, then the xx-axis is a horizontal asymptote.
3. If n=mn=m, then a horizontal asymptote exists, and the equation is:

y=Coefficient of highest power term in numeratorCoefficient of highest power term in denominatory=Coefficient of

highest power term in numeratorCoefficient of highest power term in denominator

When the numerator of a rational function has degree exactly one greater than the
denominator, the function has an oblique (slant) asymptote. The asymptote is the
polynomial term after dividing the numerator and denominator, and is a linear
expression.

Example 2

Find any vertical asymptotes of

f(x)=(x−1)(x+2)(x−1)2(x+1)f(x)=(x−1)(x+2)(x−1)2(x+1).

Notice that, based on the linear factors in the denominator, singularities exists
at x=1x=1 and x=−1x=−1. Also notice that one linear factor (x−1)(x−1) cancels with the
numerator. However, one linear factor (x−1)(x−1) remains in the denominator because
it is squared. Therefore, a vertical asymptote exists at x=1x=1. The linear
factor (x+1)(x+1) also does not cancel out; thus, a vertical asymptote also exists
at x=−1x=−1.

Example 3

Find any horizontal or oblique asymptote of

f(x)=2x2+x+1x2+16f(x)=2x2+x+1x2+16.

Because the polynomials in the numerator and denominator have the same degree
(22), we can identify that there is one horizontal asymptote and no oblique asymptote.

The coefficient of the highest power term is 22 in the numerator and 11 in the
denominator. Hence, horizontal asymptote is given by:

y=21=2y=21=2

Solving Problems with Rational Functions

The xx-intercepts of rational functions are found by setting the polynomial in the
numerator equal to 00 and solving for xx.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Use the numerator of a rational function to solve for its zeros

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 The xx-intercepts (also known as zeros or roots ) of a function are points where
the graph intersects the xx-axis. Rational functions can have zero, one, or
multiple xx-intercepts.
 For any function, the xx-intercepts are xx-values for which the function has a
value of zero: f(x)=0f(x)=0.
 For rational functions, the xx-intercepts exist when the numerator is equal to 00.
For f(x)=P(x)Q(x)f(x)=P(x)Q(x), if P(x)=0P(x)=0, then f(x)=0f(x)=0.
Key Terms

 denominator: The number or expression written below the line in a fraction

(thus 22 in 1212).
 rational function: Any function whose value can be expressed as the quotient of
two polynomials (except division by zero).
 numerator: The number or expression written above the line in a fraction
(thus 11 in 1212).

Finding the xx-intercepts of Rational Functions

Recall that a rational function is defined as the ratio of two real polynomials with the
condition that the polynomial in the denominator is not a zero polynomial.

f(x)=P(x)Q(x)f(x)=P(x)Q(x), where Q(x)≠0Q(x)≠0

An example of a rational function is:

f(x)=x+12x2−x−1f(x)=x+12x2−x−1

Rational functions can be graphed on the coordinate plane. We can use algebraic
methods to calculate their xx-intercepts (also known as zeros or roots), which are points
where the graph intersects the xx-axis. Rational functions can have zero, one, or
multiple xx-intercepts.

For any function, the xx-intercepts are xx-values for which the function has a value of
zero: f(x)=0f(x)=0.

In the case of rational functions, the xx-intercepts exist when the numerator is equal
to 00. For f(x)=P(x)Q(x)f(x)=P(x)Q(x), if P(x)=0P(x)=0, then f(x)=0f(x)=0.

In order to solve rational functions for their xx-intercepts, set the polynomial in the
numerator equal to zero, and solve for xx by factoring where applicable.

Example 1

Find the xx-intercepts of this function:

f(x)=x2−3x+2x2−2x−3f(x)=x2−3x+2x2−2x−3

Set the numerator of this rational function equal to zero and solve for xx:

0=x2−3x+2=(x−1)(x−2)0=x2−3x+2=(x−1)(x−2)
Solutions for this polynomial are x=1x=1 or x=2x=2. This means that this function
has xx-intercepts at 11 and 22.

Example 2

Find the xx-intercepts of the function:

f(x)=1xf(x)=1x

Here, the numerator is a constant, and therefore, cannot be set equal to 00. Thus, this
function does not have any xx-intercepts.

Example 3

Find the roots of:

g(x)=x3−2x2x2−10g(x)=x3−2x2x2−10

Factoring the numerator, we have:

0=x3−2x=x(x2−2)0=x3−2x=x(x2−2)

Given the factor xx, the polynomial equals 00 when x=0x=0.

Let the second factor equal zero, and solve for xx:

x2−2=0x2=2x=±√2x2−2=0x2=2x=±2

Thus there are three roots, or xx-intercepts: 00, −√2−2 and √22. These can be
observed in the graph of the function below.
Graph of g(x)=x3–2x2x2–10g(x)=x3–2x2x2–10: xx-intercepts exist at x=−√2,0,√2x=−2,0,2.

Simplifying, Multiplying, and Dividing Rational Expressions

A rational expression can be treated like a fraction, and can be manipulated via
multiplication and division.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Practice simplifying, multiplying, and dividing rational expressions

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 A rational expression is a quotient of two polynomials, where the polynomial in the

denominator is not zero.
 Rational expressions can often be simplified by removing terms that can be
factored out of the numerator and denominator. These can be either numbers or
functions of xx.
  Rational expressions can be multiplied together. The numerators of each are
multiplied together, as well as their denominators. Sometimes, it is possible to
simplify the resulting fraction.
 Rational expressions can be divided by one another. This follows the rules for
dividing fractions, where the dividend is multiplied by the reciprocal of the divisor.

Key Terms

 expression: An arrangement of symbols denoting values, operations performed

on them, and grouping symbols, e.g. (2x+4)2(2x+4)2
 rational expression: An expression that can be expressed as the quotient of two
polynomials, where the polynomial in the denominator is not zero.
 polynomial: An expression consisting of a sum of a finite number of terms, each
term being the product of a constant coefficient and one or more variables raised
to a non-negative integer power, such
as anxn+an−1xn−1+…+a0x0anxn+an−1xn−1+…+a0x0. Importantly, because all
exponents are positive, it is impossible to divide by xx.

A rational expression is a fraction involving polynomials, where the polynomial in the

denominator is not zero. Just like a fraction involving numbers, a rational expression
can be simplified, multiplied, and divided. The rules for performing these operations
often mirror the rules for simplifying, multiplying, and dividing fractions. Performing
these operations on rational expressions often involves factoring polynomial
expressions out of the numerator and denominator.

Simplifying a Rational Expression

Rational expressions can be simplified by factoring the numerator and denominator

where possible, and canceling terms.

As a first example, consider the rational expression 3x3x3x3x. This can be simplified by
canceling out one factor of xx in the numerator and denominator, which gives the
expression 3x23x2.

Note that the domain of the equation f(x)=3x3xf(x)=3x3x does not include x=0x=0, as
this would cause division by 00. The latter form is a simplified version of the former
graphically.

Consider a more complicated example:

x2+5x+62x2+5x+2x2+5x+62x2+5x+2

This expression must first be factored to provide the expression

(x+2)(x+3)(2x+1)(x+2)(x+2)(x+3)(2x+1)(x+2)

which, after canceling the common factor of (x+2)(x+2) from both the numerator and
denominator, gives the simplified expression

x+32x+1x+32x+1

Multiplying Rational Expressions

Rational expressions can be multiplied and divided in a similar manner to fractions.

Recall that when two fractions are multiplied together, their numerators are multiplied to
yield the numerator of their product, and their denominators are multiplied to yield the
denominator of their product.

For a simple example, consider the following, where a rational expression is multiplied
by a fraction of whole numbers:

x2+32x−3×23x2+32x−3×23

Following the rule for multiplying fractions, simply multiply their respective numerators
and denominators:

2(x2+3)3(2x−3)2(x2+3)3(2x−3)

This can be multiplied through to yield 2x2+66x−92x2+66x−9

Notice that we multiplied the numerators together and the denominators together, but
we did not multiply the numerator by the denominator or vice-versa.

We follow the same rules to multiply two rational expressions together. The operations
are slightly more complicated, as there may be a need to simplify the resulting
expression.

Example 1

Consider the following:

x+1x−1×x+2x+3x+1x−1×x+2x+3

Multiplying these two expressions, we have the product:

(x+1)(x+2)(x−1)(x+3)(x+1)(x+2)(x−1)(x+3)

Multiplying out the numerator and denominator, this can be written as:
x2+3x+2x2+2x−3x2+3x+2x2+2x−3

Notice that this expression cannot be simplified further.

Dividing Rational Expressions

Dividing rational expressions follows the same rules as dividing fractions. Recall the rule
for dividing fractions: the dividend is multiplied by the reciprocal of the divisor. The same
applies to dividing rational expressions; the first expression is multiplied by the
reciprocal of the second.

Example 2

Consider the following:

x+1x−1÷x+2x+3x+1x−1÷x+2x+3

Rather than divide the expressions, we multiply x+1x−1x+1x−1 by the reciprocal

of x+2x+3x+2x+3:

x+1x−1×x+3x+2x+1x−1×x+3x+2

Then, multiplication is carried out in the same way as described above:

(x+1)(x+3)(x−1)(x+2)=x2+3x+3x2+x−2(x+1)(x+3)(x−1)(x+2)=x2+3x+3x2+x−2

The expression cannot be simplified further.

Partial Fractions

Partial fraction decomposition is a procedure used to reduce the degree of either the
numerator or the denominator of a rational function.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Practice breaking a rational function into partial fractions

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Partial fraction decomposition is a procedure used to reduce the degree of either

the numerator or the denominator of a rational function, and involves splitting one
 ratio up into multiple simpler ratios. In mathematical terms, partial fraction
decomposition turns a function of the form f(x)g(x)f(x)g(x), where ff and gg are both
polynomials, into a function of the form ∑jfj(x)gj(x)∑jfj(x)gj(x), where gj(x)gj(x) are
polynomials that are factors of g(x)g(x).
 The main motivation to decompose a rational function into a sum of simpler
fractions is to make it simpler to perform linear operations on the sum.
 There are special cases that cannot be solved by the methodology described
here. These include rational functions with repeated roots, and those where the
degree of the polynomial in the numerator is greater than or equal to that in the
denominator.

Key Terms

 degree: the sum of the exponents of a term; the order of a polynomial.

 polynomial: an expression consisting of a sum of a finite number of terms, each
term being the product of a constant coefficient and one or more variables raised
to a non-negative integer power, such
as anxn+an−1xn−1+…+a0x0anxn+an−1xn−1+…+a0x0. Importantly, because all
exponents are positive, it is impossible to divide by xx.

Partial Fraction Decomposition

In algebra, partial fraction decomposition (sometimes called partial fraction expansion)

is a procedure used to reduce the degree of either the numerator or the denominator of
a rational function. It involves splitting one ratio up into multiple simpler ratios.

Here’s an example of one ratio being split into a sum of three simpler ratios:

8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6=1x+2+3x−3+4x+18x2+3x−21x3−7x−6=1x+2+3x−3+4x+1

In mathematical terms, partial fraction expansion is used to change a rational function in

the form f(x)g(x)f(x)g(x), where ff and gg are polynomials, into a function of the
form ∑jfj(x)gj(x)∑jfj(x)gj(x). The denominators of the terms of this summation, gj(x)gj(x),
are polynomials that are factors of g(x)g(x), and in general are of lower degree.

The main motivation to decompose a rational function into a sum of simpler fractions is
to make it easier to perform linear operations on the sum. Reducing complex
mathematical problems via partial fraction decomposition allows us to focus on
computing each single element of the decomposition rather than the more complex
rational function.

Steps to Decomposing a Rational Function

Say we have a rational function R(x)=f(x)g(x)R(x)=f(x)g(x), where the degree of the
numerator is less than the degree of the denominator. Assume R(x)R(x) has a
denominator that factors into other expressions, as g(x)=P(x)⋅Q(x)g(x)=P(x)⋅Q(x), and
that there are no repeated roots.

The first step to decomposing the function R(x)R(x) is to factor its denominator:

R(x)=f(x)(x−a1)(x−a2)⋯(x−ap)R(x)=f(x)(x−a1)(x−a2)⋯(x−ap)

where a1,…,apa1,…,ap are the roots of g(x)g(x).

We can then write R(x)R(x) as the sum of partial fractions:

R(x)=c1(x−a1)+c2(x−a2)+⋯+cp(x−ap)R(x)=c1(x−a1)+c2(x−a2)+⋯+cp(x−ap)

where c1,…,cpc1,…,cp are constants.

To complete the process, we must determine the values of these cici coefficients. To
find a coefficient, multiply the denominator associated with it by the rational
function R(x)R(x):

ci=(x−ai)R(x)ci=(x−ai)R(x)

This will yield an expression with an xx-value. Substitute the associated root aiai in
for xx, and solve for the constant. The following problems provide an examples of this
technique.

Example 1

Apply decomposition to the rational function f(x)=1x2+2x−3f(x)=1x2+2x−3

Factoring the denominator, we have:

x2+2x−3=(x+3)(x−1)x2+2x−3=(x+3)(x−1)

So we have the partial fraction decomposition:

f(x)=1x2+2x−3=c1x+3+c2x−1f(x)=1x2+2x−3=c1x+3+c2x−1

Now let’s solve for the constant c1c1:

c1=1x2+2x−3(x+3)=x+3(x+3)(x−1)=1x−1c1=1x2+2x−3(x+3)=x+3(x+3)(x−1)=1x−1

Substituting x=−3x=−3 into this equation gives c1=−14c1=−14.

Use the same process to solve for c2c2:

c2=1x2+2x−3(x−1)=x−1(x+3)(x−1)=1x+3c2=1x2+2x−3(x−1)=x−1(x+3)(x−1)=1x+3

Substituting x=1x=1 gives c2=14c2=14. Substituting these coefficients into the

decomposed function, we have:

f(x)=1x2+2x−3=14(−1x+3+1x−1)f(x)=1x2+2x−3=14(−1x+3+1x−1).

We have rewritten the initial rational function in terms of partial fractions. This is the
most simplified form possible, so we are finished.

Example 2

Apply decomposition to the rational

function g(x)=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6g(x)=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6

Factoring the denominator, we have:

x3−7x−6=(x+2)(x−3)(x+1)x3−7x−6=(x+2)(x−3)(x+1)

So we have the partial fraction decomposition:

g(x)=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6=c1(x+2)+c2(x−3)+c3(x+1)g(x)=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6=c1(x+2)+c2(x−3)+c
3(x+1)

We will now solve for each constant cici:

c1=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6(x+2)=8x2+3x−21(x−3)(x+1)c1=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6(x+2)=8x2+3x−21(x−
3)(x+1)

Substituting x=−2x=−2, we have:

c1=8(−2)2+3(−2)−21(−2−3)(−2+1)=32−27(−5)(−1)=1c1=8(−2)2+3(−2)−21(−2−3)(−2+
1)=32−27(−5)(−1)=1

c2=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6(x−3)=8x2+3x−21(x+2)(x+1)c2=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6(x−3)=8x2+3x−21(x+
2)(x+1)

Substituting x=3x=3, we have:

c2=8(3)2+3(3)−21(3+2)(3+1)=72−1215=4c2=8(3)2+3(3)−21(3+2)(3+1)=72−1215=4
c3=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6(x+1)=8x2+3x−21(x+2)(x−3)c3=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6(x+1)=8x2+3x−21(x+
2)(x−3)

Substituting x=−1x=−1, we have:

c3=8(−1)2+3(−1)−21(−1+2)(−1−3)=8−24−4=4c3=8(−1)2+3(−1)−21(−1+2)(−1−3)=8−
24−4=4

We have solved for each constant and have our partial fraction expansion:

g(x)=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6=1(x+2)+4(x−3)+4(x+1)g(x)=8x2+3x−21x3−7x−6=1(x+2)+4(x−3)+4(x+
1)

Additional Considerations

There are some important cases to note, for which partial fraction decomposition
becomes more complicated. Decomposition in each of the below cases involves steps
in addition to those described above.

 If there are repeated roots in the denominator of a rational function (for example,
consider G(x)=x+2(x−1)2(x+3)G(x)=x+2(x−1)2(x+3), for which x=1x=1 is a repeated
root), additional steps must be taken to decompose the function.
 For a rational function R(x)=f(x)g(x)R(x)=f(x)g(x), if the degree of f(x)f(x) is greater
than or equal to the degree of g(x)g(x), the function cannot be decomposed in a
straightforward way. It is necessary to perform the Euclidean division
of ff by gg using polynomial long division,
giving f(x)=E(X)g(x)+h(x)f(x)=E(X)g(x)+h(x). Dividing through
by g(x)g(x) gives f(x)g(x)=E(x)+h(x)g(x)f(x)g(x)=E(x)+h(x)g(x), which you can then
perform the decomposition on h(x)g(x)h(x)g(x).

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