The Human Foot

4/15/2017 TheHumanFoot
THE

HUMANFOOT

ITS

FormandStructure

FUNCTIONSANDCLOTHING

BY

THOMASS.ELLIS

CONSULTINGSURGEONTOTHEGENERALINFIRMARY
ATGLOUCESTER

MUSCLES,INEFFECTINGTHEFUNCTIONS,SUPPORTTHESTRUCTURE
ANDINFLUENCETHEFORM

LONDON:
J.&A.CHURCHILL
11NEWBURLINGTONSTREET
1889.
INTRODUCTION
AbookbyaSurgeononasubjectcloselyrelatedtohisprofession,butnotintended
exclusivelyformembersofit,maycallforsomeexplanationastooriginandobject.
TheCityandGuildsofLondonInstitutefortheadvancementofTechnicalEducation,have,
forsomeyearspast,conductedexaminationsinavarietyofsubjects:intheseisincluded,underthe
headofBootandShoeMaking,"Theanatomicalconstructionandnaturalfunctionsofthehuman
foot."Oneverysubjectbutthis,"WorksofReference"aregiven,thelistbeingoftenalongone,of
booksinEnglish,FrenchandGerman.Onthissubjectnotoneisnamed.
Thewantthusplainlyindicatedisfeltalsobythosewho,inmilitaryorincivillife,oras
regardseithersex,desiretounderstandtheprinciplesofPhysicalEducation,andwho,knowingthat
theformofthebodyisinfluencedmorebythemannerthanbytheamountofmuscularexercise,
http://www.ahcuah.com/ellis/ 1/60
seektolearnhowtodirectit.Evidenceisofferedthat,inatleastonerespect,theordinarymodeof
usingthefeet,althoughsupportedbymilitaryauthority,iswrong.
Reasonshavealsobeengivenwhysomeidealforms,asrepresentedbyartists,donotaccord
withatrueappreciationofthe"essentialcharacter"*ofthehumanfoot.
Iftheneedofsuchabookberecognized,itwillbeadmittedthatnoonebutaSurgeon
wouldbelikelytowriteit.AnyspecialfitnessImayhaveforthetaskisduetothecircumstance
that,morethantwentyyearsago,oneofmyownfeetwasverymuchdamagedbyanaccident,in
consequenceofwhichIwas,forsixyears,alwayslame,frequentlyinseveresuffering.Iowemy
recoverytoanindependentstudyofthestructureinrelationtothefunctionsofthefeet,andthe
interest,thusstronglyexcited,hasbeenkeptup,althoughthepersonalstimulushas,happily,long
ceasedtooperate.
DetailsofAnatomyhave,asfaraspossible,beenavoided.Suchasappearedtobenecessary
aregivenintheformofexplanationstotheplates,soarrangedthatthefiguresandtheexplanations
maybeseenatthesametime.FortheseillustrationsIhavebeengladtorelyontheworksof
recognizedauthorityandIamindebtedtomyoldteacherandfriendMrHolden,forpermissionto
copyfromhisOsteologytoMessrsLongman,forthesamekindnessinrespectofGray'sAnatomy,
andtoMrMarshall,whoverygenerouslyplacedatmydisposalthespeciallybeautifuldrawingsin
hisAnatomyforArtists.ForotherillustrationsIamresponsible.
Totheprinter,MrBellows,a"manofletters,or,ratherofwords,"whomIhavethe
privilegeofregardingasapersonalfriend,andtohisstaff,particularlytoMrHuntleytheartist,my
bestthanksaredue.
Notwithoutcarefulstudy,overmanyyearsextending,hasmybookbeenproduced.Not
withouthopethatitwillprovetobeuseful,isitnowpresented.
6,ClarenceStreet,Gloucester,May,1889.
*Murray'sGreekSculpture.[Back]
OliverWendellHolmesOurHundredDaysinEurope.[Back]
ASANEXPRESSIONOFGRATITUDE

OFADMIRATION,ANDOFAFFECTIONATEREGARD

IDEDICATETO

SJAMESPAGET,B.

THISILLUSTRATION

OFAPRINCIPLEOFPHYSIOLOGY

EARLYIMPRESSEDUPONMEBYHISTEACHING

ATST.BARTHOLOMEW'SHOSPITAL

THATMORETHANONEEFFECTGENERALLYRESULTS

FROMTHEEXERCISEOFAFUNCTION
THEHUMANFOOT
Ofthetwofeetwithwhichmanisendowed,eachmayberegardedasthecounterpartofthe
other,ineveryrespectcorresponding.Itis,however,impossibletounderstandthefeet,from
whateverpointofviewtheyberegarded,unlessweconsiderthemincombination.
ImighthavechosenTheHumanFeetformytitle,butitwould,possibly,haveconveyedan
impressionthatthevarietiesofhumanfeetwouldbediscussed,whichwouldbeforeigntomy
purpose.Weareconcernedwithelementsandcharacterscommontothefeetofmankindingeneral,
or,atleast,toallofthehigherraces.Littlereferencewillbemadetodifferencesintypeorindetail
asfoundinthefeetofdifferentracesorofindividualpersons.
Thetwofeetareperfectlysymmetricaladescriptionoftherightfootwouldserveequally
wellfortheleft,bythemerechangeofwordshavingreferencestotheinnerandoutersidesin
relationtoalinebetweenthetwo.Eachfulfilsapreciselycorrespondingpurposeinrespectofthe
twosidesofthebody,andeachisnecessarytotheotherincompletingthesupportaffordedbythe
twotogether.Thus,each,inrelationtoitsfellow,isthecomplementaswellasthecounterpart.
Ontheotherhandthereisamarkeddifferencebetweenthetwosidesofeitherone,taken
singly,anditismostimportantthattheywhoseektounderstandthemechanismofthefootshould
fullyrealizetheutterabsenceofsymmetrybetweentheinnerandtheouterside.
Itisforthepurposeofassistinginthisthatfig.3,pl.1,fig.9,pl.3,fig.16,pl.5,andfigs.
20,21,pl.7,aregiveninduplicateform.Onederivesaverydifferentimpressiononregardingthe
contourofafoot,howeverbeautiful,ifitbeseensinglyorincombinationwithitsfellow.Take,for
instance,theoutlineofthesoleasleftinthefootprintofanakedfoot.Itisunmeaning,nottosay
awkwardlooking,andcanhardlystrikeoneaselegantatall.Butifwelookatthetwotogether,as
showninfig.20,pl.7,weseeatoncehowtheotherlineofonegracefullyfallsintothe
correspondinglineoftheotherandasinglefootprint,whennextseen,leavesamentalimpression
farmorefavorable,becauseitisassociatedwiththefellowfootnecessarytocompletethefigure.In
form,then,eachisthecomplementaswellasthecounterpartoftheother.Butthisisnotall:thetwo
sidesdiffermateriallyinstructureandinfunction,aswellasinform.Norcanwedeterminethetrue
principlesonwhichfootclothingshouldbemade,withdueregardeithertocomfortandutilityorto
artisticeffect,unlesstheelementaryfactsthatthetwosidesarenotsymmetrical,andthateachfoot
isthecomplementoftheother,bekeptconstantlyinview.Thetwosidesofanyformoffoot
clothingshouldnotbemadetomatchtherealbeautyliesinthewellmarkeddifferencewhichis
essentialtoutility,andthisshouldbeexpressedratherthaneffacedintheclothing.
ItisfromthesefourpointsofviewForm,Structure,Function,andClothingthatthe
humanfeetwillbeconsidered.Howcloselytheyareallfourconnectedtogetherandboundupin
eachotherwillappearasweproceed.
Feetaretoocommonlyregarded,oratanyratetreated,asiftheywerepedestalsorplinths
onwhichthelegs,aspillars,restinstanding.Theirgreatcomplexityofstructureandthegreat
varietyofmovementofwhichtheyarecapablewouldseemtoforbidanysuchideabutifitbe
permissibletoregardtheminsuchanaspectatall,itmustbenotastwopedestalsorplinths,butas
thetwohalvesofonedivided,andthedivisionsseparated.Afrontvieworelevation,asseeninfig.
21,pl.7,would,ifrepresentedindiagram,belikefig.22ratherthanlikefig.23.
F.22,23.MarkingtheDifferencebetweenTwoHalvesofaSinglePlinth,andTwoWholePlinths.
Intheonethereisexpansiononbothsidesintheotherontheoutersideonly.Butifthe
hinderpartofthefootbetaken,asshowninasectionthroughtheankle(fig.16,pl.5),thereisno
lateralexpansionatall.Thisisentirelyinfront,and,asshowninfig.21,pl.7,isconfinedtothe
otherside.
Inthefront,orexpandedpart,ofeachfoottheinnermarginisorshouldbestraight,while
theothermargindescribesaboldcurve.Thestraightinnermarginisnearlyinlinewiththatofthe
heel,thetwosidesofwhich,fairlyparallel,aredirectedforward,orrather,veryslightlyoutward.
Allthisisseeninpl.7,where,infig.21,theouterpartsofthefeethavesomewhatthe
appearanceofbeingtackedontotherestofthefoot.Thisappearanceisstillmoremanifestinthe
skeleton,asseeninpl.1.AlinedrawnfromAtoBpassesontheothersideofthethirdtoethrough
thefootandalongtheoutersideoftheheelbone.Thiscutsoffthetwooutertoeswiththepartof
thefootbehindthemandinfrontoftheheel.Theareacutoffbythislineformsakindofsetoffin
thegroundplanoutsidethemainstructureinclosedbetweenitandtheinnermargin.Acrosstheline
ofseparationonlyonebone(thecuboid)projects,andthisservestoconnectthetwooutertoeswith
theouterpartreceivingthedownwardpressureofthebody.Theoutersideofeachfootdoes,in
reality,actasakindofbuttresstothemainstructure.Nosuchinfluenceisneededontheinnerside:
anequivalentismorethansuppliedbytheotherfoot.Hereisastrikingillustrationofthestatement
thattheonefootisthecomplementaswellasthecounterpartoftheother.
Theprominenceswhichtheexpansionofthelegbonesformsattheankleshouldherebe
noted,andtheobservationmadethattheouterisnarrower,thatitcomeslowerdownandthatitis
situatedfartherbackthantheoneontheinnerside.
Theinnermargindiffersfromtheouteringreaterheightaswellasinabsenceoflateral
expansion.This,however,isnotattendedwithfullycorrespondingincreaseofthickness.Ingreat
parttheinnermarginisraisedupaswellasthickened,sothatahollowisleftbeneathfromtheheel
tothebaseorrootofthegreattoe.Anarchisthusformed,visibleonlyontheinnersideofthefoot.
Theposteriorpillarconsistsoftheprojectingheel,whichabutsonthegroundwithoutlateral
expansiononthegroundline.Theanteriorpillar,formedbytheheadsofthemetatarsalbones(fig.
11,pl.4),isunevenlyextendedonthegroundlinebythevaryinglengthofthetoes.Thisexpansion
onthegroundlineismostsolidandmostextendedinalinewiththeinnermarginofthefootwhere
itisformedbythespeciallydevelopedgreattoe.Theheel,thearch,thegreattoe,andthestraight
innermargincontrastingwiththecurveontheouterside,arestrikingcharacteristicsofthehuman
foot.
Thesamefigure,(pl.4)showshowverydeepthehollowbeneaththesoleontheinnerside
wouldbeifeverythingbuttheboneswereremoved,andhowveryshallowitisontheotherside.In
fact,thehollowpartsofthetwofeetformthetwohalvesofadome,which,however,isshaped
somewhatirregularly.Thevaultismoreexpandedinthelongitudinalthaninthetransverse
diameter,andthelongitudinaldiametermoreextendedintheanteriorthanintheposteriordirection.
Theouterexpansion,asseeninthedrawing,touchesthegroundalongapartofitsmarginonly,the
partformedbytheheadsofthemetatarsalbonesattherootsofthefivetoesbut,whenthesoleis
filledupandthebonesarecoveredwiththeirusualcoveringofsofttissues,itisonlyinveryhighly
archedfeetthatanyopeningisleftbeneath.Thusthedomeshapedcharacterofthetwofeet,taken
together,ismadeevenmorecomplete,iflessconspicuous,whenthefootisintheordinary
conditionthanitisintheskeleton.Theextentandformoftheareawhich,whenthetwofeetare
closetogetherinstanding,isnotpresseduponbutcoveredinbyadomeorbellshapedcovering,is
seeninfig.20,pl.7.
Theinnermarginofthesesemidomeswillbethesubjectoffrequentreference.Eachforms
thevisibleportionofthearchalreadymentioned,whichisnotonlyastrikingfeaturebutplaysa
mostimportantpartinthemechanismofthefoot.Formedbyarisingofthesoleorplanta,itis
frequentlycalledtheplantararchsometimesfromthefactthatisconsistsmainlyofthebonesof
thetarsus(thenameappliedtothebonescollectivelyformingthebodyofthefootorinstep)itis
spokenofasthetarsalarch.Thisstructurehasbeenregardedasaweakpointintheconstructionof
thehumanbodyaneminentsurgeon,distinguishedasapracticalandphilosophicalanatomist,
speaksofitasoneofnature'shardesttaskstomakeandmaintainwellandstrong.Idonotconcurin
thatview:mycontentionformanyyearshasbeenthat,givenfairplaytothefunctionsofthefoot,
thearchwill,eveninrespectofprovisionsagainstdeformity,bearcomparisonwithanystructurein
thebody.Takingtheastragalus,(pl.1and4)onwhichthelegsdirectlyrest,asthekeystone,and
thedownwardpressurefromthelegistransmittedthroughittothegroundwhiletheboneis
inclinedataslightlydivergingangle.Thusthemaintenanceofthestructureinthispartpresentsno
greatdifficulty:itisthepartanteriortotheastragaluswheretheweaknessismostapparent.A
failureorsinkingofitcausestheanklestotoppleover,asoftenseeninweaklychildren,the
conditionbeingwellknownas"weakankles."Astillgreatersinkingconstitutesflatfoot.
Theobjectforwhichthearchofthefootexistsisgenerallystatedtobethatofgiving
elasticitybyyieldingtopressure.Itissupposedtoaffordsomethingoftheupanddownmovement
ofacarriagespring,butthiselement,althoughsometimesveryuseful,isverymuchoverrated.
Elasticityoftreaddependsonaverydifferentcause.Thebestfeethavethearchthemostrigidand
unyielding.Specialprovision,tobehereafterdescribed,ismadetopreventthearchfromyieldingin
activeexercise,andingoodfeetitgiveswaybutlittle,eveninstanding,provideditbefora
moderateperiodonly.Suchelasticpropertyasitpossesseswouldbebeneficialinbreakingthe
shockofafallfromaheight,iftheweightshouldcomedirectlyonthefootratherthanonthetoes,
isitoughttodobutthemainpurposewhichthearchservesis,inmyview,thatroomisprovidedin
thehollowforvariousimportantparts,includingbloodvessels,nervesandanumberofsmall
muscles,whicharethuspreservedfromtheinjuriousinfluencewhichtheweightofthebody
pressingthemagainstthegroundwouldoccasion.Theinjuriouseffectsofsuchpressure,whenthe
archhassunkandflatfoothasresulted,willbeseenwhenthatdeformityisexplained.
Iftothedescriptiongivenitbeaddedthatthelegswhichrestonthearch,thatistosay,on
theinnersidesofthesectionsofthedivideddome,havethelinesofdownwardpressuredirected
inwardstowardsthemarginofeachsectionratherthanoutwardstowardsthecircumferenceofthe
dome,andthatthesesemidomesareconstructedofyieldingmaterial,thestatementmaywelllead
onetoexclaimthatbadconstruction,fromamechanicalpointofview,couldnotbemoreforcibly
illustrated.Andyetsuchadescriptionwouldbestrictlytrueofthestructurebeforeus:theweakness
is,however,apparentonly.Suchdispositiontoyieldasthereisexistsforverygoodreasons,andthe
provisionsagainstundueyieldingareascompleteascouldbedesired.
Thefootisarchednotonlyinthelongitudinalbutalsointhetransversedirection.Fig.3,pl.
1,ismorethanadiagramitaccuratelyrepresentsinoutlineatransversesectionofthebonesin
aboutthemiddleofthefootpassinginanobliquedirectionthroughthethreecuneiformandthe
cuboidbones.Itwillbeseenthatwhileeachfootformsinitselfatransversearch,thetwo,ifjoined
together,wouldalsoconstituteanarch.Thisfiguregivesanotherillustrationinsupportofthe
statementthatonefootisthecomplementaswellasthecounterpartoftheother.Thetransverse
arch,thusrepresented,canhavebutlittleofthissupposedcarriagespringaction,beingunsupported
byanysolidbearingateitherend.Itmust,however,beobviousthatbloodvesselsandnerveslying
inthehollowaremuchbetterprotectedfrominjurythatifthebonespresentedaplanesurfacefrom
sidetoside.
Thecontourindicatedbythebonesofthetransversearch,asseeninthisfigure,isnotthat
seeninthefoot.Ontheoutersideoftheslopereststhefleshymassformedbytheextensorbrevis
digitorummuscle,(fig.15,pl.5)whichgivesaroundnessofoutlinetothewelldevelopedfoot.The
wellknowncastoftheVenusdiMedicihasthisfeatureverystronglymarked,alittletoostrongly,
asIthink,forafootwhichhaslittletosuggestmuscularvigour.Thismuscleliesonthetopofthe
foot,freefrominjurybypressureinwalkingorstanding.Themorecomplexarrangementof
musclesinthesolerequirethelongitudinalarchtoprotectthem.
Theveryexistenceofthisarchsuggeststhefactthattheweightofthebodyfallsonthetwo
abutments,theheelandtheexpandedfrontpartofthesole.Thetwopartsdonot,however,serve
preciselysimilarpurposes.Werestontheheel,butwetreadonthefrontpart.Thislatter,onwhich
theweightofthebodyfallswhentheheelisupraised,is,therefore,convenientlycalledthetreadof
thefoot.
Muchofthedifficultywhichisfeltinanyattempttodescribetheformofthefootisdueto
thecircumstancethatithasnowelldefineddividinglines:thereiscertainlynomiddleline.Itwill
beseenhereafterthatthereissomereasonforregardingthemiddlelineofthesecondtoeas,
functionally,themiddleone,butthereisnothinginthevisibleformtomarkthis.
ProfessorMeyer,ofZurich,morethanthirtyyearsago,pointedouttheimportantfactthat,
inanatural,healthyfoot,themiddlelineofthegreattoecontinuedbackwardspassesthrougha
centralpointintheheel.Hemight,Ithinkhavegonefurther,andsaidthatallthetoesradiatefrom
thatcentre.Thisline,whichshouldalwaysbecalledMeyer'sline,isshowninfig.20,pl.7.This
plateistakenfromafootprintmadebyafoot,thesoleofwhichhadbeencoveredwithprinter's
ink,anddrawninduplicate.Thesubjectwasaboyofeleven,whosefeetIknowtohavebeen
preservedfrominjurybyboots.
Meyer'slinebeingonthesoleisnot,underordinaryconditions,visible,but,morethanthis,
ithasnosurfacemarktoindicateitsposition.If.however,wecontinuethemiddlelineofthegreat
toeontheuppersurfacebackwardstotheankle,wefindthatitrunsalongthehighestpartofthe
footitruns,infact,alongthecrestoftheridge.Herewehavesomethingtangible,visible.Thisisa
linetowhichreferencemaybemadeinstudyingthecontourofthefoot.Itisshownbyablack
tracinginfig.21,pl.7,whichistakenfromaphotographofthesamefeetasthosewhichgavethe
footprintsintheadjoiningfigure.Itindicatesthecourseofthelongextensortendonofthegreat
toe,justasMeyer'slinefollowsthecourseofthelongflexor.
Thisline,seenupontheuppersurface,buthavingitscounterpartinthesole,marks,aswe
shallpresentlyfind,theprinciplelineofactioninthefoot.Ithereforeregardthevisible
representativeontheuppersurfaceastheleadinglineofthefoot,andproposetocallitso.Toso
designatethatwhichreallymarksthelineofthegreattoewillservetostamptheessential
differencewhichexists,visibly,structurallyandfunctionally,betweenthegreatandthesmaller
toes.
Thecrestorridgealongwhichtheleadinglinerunssoonceasestobemarked,andinfront
oftheankleisentirelylost.Itcan,however,betracedbyforciblyliftingupthegreattoeandfeeling
forthetendongoingdowntoit.
Thislinemustnotbeconfoundedwithanothervisibleontheinnersideoftheleg,and
runningdowntothefoot.Thislatterisverydistinctlyseenandfeltwhenthefootisforciblybentor
flexedontheleg,asshowninfig.24.Itmarksthecourseofthetendonofamuscle(tibialisanticus,
fig.9,pl.3),andthepointofinsertionintotheinnermarginofthefootisoneofsomeimportanceto
note,first,becauseitmarksalineacrossthefootwhereacreaseorbendmustoccurinanyformof
footclothing.Ipropose,forthesakeofaname,tocallitthecreasingpoint.
Showingextremerangeofflexionupwardsandofextension
downwards.Thelowerofthetwoshortlinesmarksthecreasingpoint
onthebackofthefoot.
Theinnermarginofagoodfootshowsawellmarkedline,thatofthearch,butthis,evenin
ahealthwellformedfoot,isliabletovaryaccordingtoposition.Figs.25and26markthis.They
arecopiedfromphotographs,takenatthesametime,ofthesamefoot,asshownonpl.7,theblack
linebeingpreviouslymarkedontheskin.Theonlydifferencemadewasthatwhichisshown.Inthe
firstthefootwasrestingontheground,bearingtheweightofthebodyinfig.26thebodywas
raisedtotiptoe,,stillsupportedontheonefoot.Thetwophotographsweretakenonedirectlyafter
theother,andthedrawingsarefaithfulrepresentationsofthechangeinthecurvedlineduetothe
changeofpositionalone.Thiscurvedlineisalsofoundtovaryaccordingasthefeetareturned
outwardsorthetoesinclinedtowardsthoseoftheoppositefoot.
Beforethechangesincontourandthemovementsonwhichtheydependcanbeunderstood,
itisnecessarytorealizethePositionofRestthepositiontowhichthefootalwaystendsin
repose,andwhichitinstinctivelyseekswheninpain.ThisIhaveelsewheredescribed,*with
referencetoeverypartofthebody,asoneoftheleaststretchingofthe *"ThePositionofRest,in
ligamentswhichbindthebonestogether,andmostevenadaptationof FatigueandinPain."British
thejointsurfacestoeachotherofleasttensionandleastpressure. MedicalJournal,1878.Vol.I.
Thisisalwaysfoundinameanbetweentheextremesofmotion.
Thus,asregardstheankle,wemightbequitesurethatitwouldnotbeinthepositionofthefoot,as
giveninfig.24norwoulditbewhenthefootisfullyextended.Thepresumptionisthatitwillbe
notfarfromapointmidwaybetweenthetwoextremes.Eventhiswillbringittowardsextension,
beyondtherightangleofthestandingposition.Myimpressionisthatitgenerallyinclinesstill
furthertowardsextension,asshowninthefrontispiece.
Thesefigures,(25,26)showtheincreaseinthecurveoftheplantararchwhenthefootis
raisedtotiptoe,asindicated,byalterationinthecurvedblacklinepreviouslydrawnon
thefoot.Theupperlinemarksthecourseofthetibialisanticusmusclecomingdownto
thecreasingpoint.
Itisacuriouscircumstance,inconnectionwiththepositionofrestinthefoot,thatthe
deformitywithwhichinfantsarenotinfrequentlyborn,knownasclubfoot,isanexaggerationof
thisposition.Itisalsoremarkablethatitinvolvesamarkedresemblancetothehinderhandofsome
oftheQuadrumana.Indeedthepositionofrestinthelimbsgenerallyinvolvesadeparturefromthe
humancharacter,mostmanifestinaction,andaretrogressiontowardsaprimitivetype,asseenin
theloweranimals.
Afootatrestisalwaysmoreorlessextendedtowardsalinecontinuouswiththatoftheleg
itisneveratrightangleswithit,asinstanding.Thefrontpartisinclinedinwardstowardsthe
middlelineofthebody,andisslightlyuplifted,withacorrespondingdepressionoftheouter
margin.Thegreattoeisinclinedupwards,awayfromthesoleline,andoutwards,towardstheother
toeslyingincontactwiththesecond.Thereisnobendingitmaintainsthestraightline,asifonthe
ground.Thesmallertoesareallturneddownwards,flexed,sothatthereisamarkeddifference
betweenthemandthegreattoe.Thefrontispieceistakenfromaphotographofaplastercastusedin
ArtSchools.
Thereisanimportantchangewhichtakesplaceinthegreattoe,inmovingfromtheposition
ofresttooneofactivity,whichinvolvesanalterationinthehorizontalcontourline.Letussuppose
thatithasbecomenecessary,tohaveaspeciallyfirmfoothold,thatsomeonesittingquietlyina
chairspringssuddenlytohisfeetandputshimselfintoanattitudeofdefence.Immediatelythegreat
toeleavesitsfellows,goingovertowardsthemiddlelineofthebody,andleavingaspacebetween
itandthesecondtoe.Thesameactionwhichpressesitagainstthegroundcausesthismovement
also,butthereisnobending,noflexionitremainsquitestraight.Ontheotherhand,thesmaller
toes,astheyarepressedagainsttheground,becomemorebent,moreflexed,andaseriesof
prominentupliftedjointsareconspicuousacrossthefoot.Theseconditionsofthegreattoeandlittle
toesrespectivelyare,forthem,thePositionofActivity.Actionofthetoesmustbeunderstoodto
meanhereactionwhenthefeetareusedasfeet,notwhenusedforpurposeofgraspingobjects.In
thelattercase,ofcourse,thegreattoemustbendastheothersdoifitistobeofanyuse,andinfact
itdoesso.Howitispreventedfrombendingintheformercasecanonlybeseenwhenthemuscles
andtheiractionontheboneshavebeenexplained.Itisobviousthatthehorizontalcontourline
describedbythemarginofthefootmustmateriallydifferaccordingtowhichofthesetwopositions
istheoneexisting.Atrestthestraightinsidelineattributedtotheinnermarginishardlycomplete.
Inactiontheinnermarginisevenaslightlyconcavelineasopposedtotheconvexityontheouter
side.
Infig.20,pl.7,itwillbefoundthatastraightlinedrawnontheinnermarginofthefootwill
touchatthegreattoeandtheheelonly,andthesefigures,asstatedintheexplanation,aretaken
underconditionswhichdonotadmitofmistake.Inaction,too,thebendingofthesmallertoesis
proportionatetothevigourwithwhichtheyarepressedagainsttheground,but,however,vigorous
theactionofthegreattoe,itdoesnotbenditispressedagainstthegroundinallitslength.Tomeit
haslongseemedveryremarkablethatthesepointshavenotbeenrecognizedmorefullybyartists,
andespeciallysoasregardsthoseartistswho,inclassictimes,hadsuchabundantopportunityof
studyingthehumanformwhenunconcealedbyclothing,bothinreposeandingymnasticdisplays.*
*"Thesandalofthe
This,perhaps,oughtnottobesaidwithoutgivingillustrations. ancientswasfavourabletothe
IntheSouthKensingtonMuseumisabronzecastofastatuteof naturalgrowthofthefoot.Asarule,
Hermesresting,seated.TheoriginalisintheMuseoNazionaleat therefore,thispartisthoroughly
Naples.Thetoesofonefoot,whichrestsontheheel,areraisedfrom understoodbytheantiquesculptor,
theground,andmanifestlytheattitudeisintendedtobeexpressiveof whoadmiredthefeet."Redford's
ManualofSculptureReasonswill
rest,astheMuseumCatalogue,byMrW.C.Perry,statesittobe.The begivenfordissentingfromthis
greattoeinthisfigureiswidelyseparatedfromitsfellowsbuta statement.
decidedeffortwouldberequiredtoputitinthatpositiontoholdit
therewouldbedifficultindeed.Thepositionisincompatiblewithrest.Ontheotherhandtakethe
DiscobolusofMyron.AnancientcopyinmarblestandsinthesecondGrecoRomanroomatthe
BritishMuseum,oppositetheTownleyVenusthereisaplastercastatSouthKensington.Astothis
statute,MrPerry,intheCatalogueofthelatterMuseum,says,"Theartisthaschosenthemomentof
pauseandtransitionbetweentwoenergeticactions,whenthediscthrowerhascollectedallhisforce
forthissupremedecisiveeffort.Everylimb,everymusclepartakesinandcontributestothemain
actionofthebody."MrPerryalso,inhislargerwork,pointsout,asexpressiveofthecondition,that
thetoesare"dug,asitwere,intotheground."Ifsuchanattitudeweretruetonatureasregardsany
ofthetoes,itwouldstillbedifficulttounderstandwhytheartistsoplacedthegreattoe.Thathe
couldhavesoseenanythinglikeitinhismodelisdifficulttobelieve.Theadvantageofagreattoe
islostifitbedrawnup,asinthisfigure.Weshallsee,inconsideringtheboneswhichform,andthe
actionofthemuscleswhichmovethegreattoe,thatitcannot,inagoodfoot,(suchasanathlete
wouldhave,andasthisfigurehas)riseupinthemannershown.Itmightdosoifthefootwereof
badtypeordebased,asinacquireddeformity.
Beforegoingfurtheritshouldbeclearlyunderstoodthatthereisinthegreattoeanessential
differenceinthefunctionaswellasinthestructurefromthatcommontoalloftheotherfour.The
formerservesasafirmsolidbasefromwhichthebodycanbepropelledonward,whilethelatter
griptheground,notbyanyactionofgraspingthereisnothingtograspbutbypressureofthe
undersurfacesofthetipsagainsttheground.These,inthisact,aredrawnbackwards.Thus,ifthere
beanythingtolayholdof,itisbythemseizedanddrawnbeneaththeupraisedtoesbetweenthetips
andthesolidfoot.Innocaseisthereanythingatalllikediggingintotheground,asthefingernails
mightdo.Thetoenails,inastruggletogetfoothold,areneverturnedtotheground.
Theshapeofthefootmust,obviously,bevariedaccordingasthegreattoeisinclined
upwardsandoutwards,inthePositionofRest,ordownwardsandinwards,towardstheopposite
foot,inthePositionofActivity.Thehorizontalcontourlineormarginalsovaries,andwithitthe
wholecharacterofthefoot,accordingasthefirstorsecondtoeprojectsthefurtherforwardnot,be
itsaid,accordingasthefirstorsecondisthelongerbecausethejointatthebaseorrootofthe
secondtoeisalwaysinadvanceofthecorrespondingjointofthefirstandthirdtoes.Ifthetipofthe
greattoebemostinadvancethenthecurveontheoutermarginofthefootmaybecontinuousupto
theinnermargin,unitingwithitbyarightangleonlyveryslightlyroundedattheinnersideofthe
tipofthegreattoe.Ifthetipofthesecondtoebemostforwardthentheoutercurveisinterruptedat
thatpoint.Thiscurvemaybeaboldone,orthesmallertoesmayrecedesorapidlythatthetipsform
hardlyacurveatall,butratherastraightlinefromthegreattoeoutwardstothelittletoe.Fig.20,
pl.7,givesaboldcurverunningintotheoneintheoppositefoot,thegreattoebeinglongerthanthe
second.
Acuriousdifferencedofopinionexistsamongobserverswhetherthefirstorsecondtoedoes
mostfrequentlyprojectthefurtherforward.Thereiscertainlyavarietyinindividuals,and,
probably,indifferentracesoneorotherformmayprevail.Myownimpressionisthat,inEngland,
thegreattoeisgenerallythemoreprominent,andIamgladtothinkso.ProfessorFlower,inhis
excellentlittlebook,FashioninDeformity,statesthatamonghundredsofbareand,therefore,
underformedfeetofchildrenwhichheexaminedinPerthshire,hewasnotabletofindoneinwhich
thesecondtoewasthelongest.
Anotherdifferenceofopinionexistsastohowartistsshouldinthisrespectrepresentthe
toes.Itisusualtoshowthesecondasmostprominent,andthiscourseisjustifiedasgiving,on
variousgrounds,amoreartisticappearancewhateverthatmaybetakentomean.
GrecianArtiscitedasanexampleinthisrespect,byMr.Harrison,whohasdiscussedthe
questionveryfullybeforetheBritishAssociationfortheAdvancementofScience,contendsthat
GrecianArtdoesnosupplythisauthority.Hedistinctlystatesthatalongsecondtoe,though
commonlymetwithintheworksofItalianpaintersandsculptors,seldomoccursinthefeetof
unrestoredGreekstatues.Unfortunately,hesays,thecastsinuseinmostofourArtschoolsare
derivedfromRomanorGrecoRomanstatuesforinstance,theFarneseApollo.TheChoiseul
Apollo,intheArchaicSculptureroomoftheBritishMuseum,isnot,asMr.Harrisonpointsout,an
instanceofalongersecondtoe,althoughithas,onauthority,beensostated.Themarbleisalittle
broken,butexaminationshowsthatthefirstandnotthesecondtoeisthelonger.
Whichevermaybethedirectioninwhichthevoiceofauthorityamongartistsmayonthis
questiontend,itwillsurelybeadmittedthattheartistshould,asMr.Murrayputsit,inthisGreek
Sculpture,reproduce,sofarasthematerialinwhichheworkswillpermithimtodoso,the
"essentialcharacteroftheobject"whichheportrays.Thegreatsizeandspecialfunctionofthefirst
toeisoneofthefeaturesmostcharacteristicofthehumanfoot.More,perhaps,thananythingelse,
thegreattoegivesitadistinctionfromthatoftheloweranimals.Isitpossiblethatanyartistwould
contentthatthefeaturewhichmoreparticularlygivesthehumancharacterisnotessential?Certain
itisthatasthehumancharacterofthefootiseffaced,thatwhichalliesittothefootofinferior
animalsmustbeaccentuated.Todeliberatelyandunnecessarilydothisinthenameofhighartisnot
acoursewhichwouldrecommenditselftosuchjudgmentortosuchtasteasIpossess.Tomeit
seemsthattheartistwhoso"reproduces"afoot,goingoutofhiswaytoeffacethehumanand
accentuatetheanimalcharacter,cannothavethat"perfectknowledgeoftheoriginal"whichMr.
Murraydeclarestobenecessary.
Inordertoattainthis"perfectknowledge,"evensofarasitispossibletodoso,therelation
ofthehumantothetypicalmammalianfootmustbeconsidered.Thisisapointofviewinwhich
humanfeetmustbepresentedtothosewholseekreallytounderstandthemandtheirstructure.
Theirrelationtocorrespondingpartsintheloweranimalsmayseemtobenotaverydignified
aspectinwhichtoplacethem,but,intruth,theirrealdignitycannotberealizedanymorethantheir
structurecanbefullyunderstoodunlesstheybeviewedincomparisonwiththetypeorplanto
whichtheyconformandonwhichtheyareconstructed.Elementsexistinthefootofmanasto
whichtoosuperficialobservershavebeentemptedtothinkthatabetterresultmighthavebeen
obtainedinanotherway,andotherswheretheutilityisnotapparentatall.Thesepartsaretobe
explainedonlybyreferencetotheoriginaltype,orsomeothervariationofit,asseeninanimalsof
lowergrade.Ontheotherhand,intheselattermaybefoundelementsorfeaturesofnoapparent
utilitytothem,which,inman,areessential,andwhich,astheyoccurinanimalsgeologicallylong
antecedent,wouldevenseemtosuggestaforeshadowingofahigherdevelopmentinthefuture.
Themorethehumanfootisstudiedthemorewilltheabsoluteperfectionofitsmechanismbe
evidentbutthewonderandadmirationwhichthiswillexcitewillbefeltthemoreasitisrealised
thatthestructurestrictlyconformstoonegeneralplanortype,commontoaverylargegroupof
animalsverywidelydifferingfrommanandfromeachother.
ThroughouttheMammaliankingdom,ofwhichman,albeitthehead,isamember,thebones
formingthesolidbasisorskeletonmayberepresentedinplanorschemeasfollows:First,along
bone,attachedtothetrunk,thehumerusintheupperarm,andthefemurinthethigh.Tothisare
attachedtwoothers,lyingparalleltoeachother,theradiusandulnaintheforearm,thetibiaand
fibulaintheleg.Finally,comesthethirdorterminalsegment,representedbythebonesofthehand
orfoot,or,asthecomparativeanatomistwouldinsistontermingthem,themanusandpes.Thisis
fromnopedanticpreferenceforaLatinratherthananEnglishword,butasanecessarymeansof
avoidingconfusionindiscussingfourfootedand,inthecaseoftheQuadrumana,fourhanded
animals.Forthesamereason,theareorforelegandthehinderlegofanymammaliananimal
wouldbecalled,respectively,theanteriorandposteriorlimb.
Theterminalsegment,beithandorfoot(manusorpes),iscomposedoftworowsorshort
bones,moreorlessresemblingcubesorcuboidinshape.Theseformthecarpus,orasitiscalledin
man,thewrist,intheonecase,andthetarsusorbodyofthefootorinstep,intheother.Tothemare
attachedarowoffivelongbones,withexpandedends,formingthemetacarpusandmetatarsus,
respectively.Lastly,comefivedigits,atermapplicabletofingersortoes.Theseparateboneswhich
formthesedigitsarealsomoreorlesselongatedinform,andarecalledphalangesfromafancied
resemblanceofthesinglebonestoaphalanxofsoldiers.Theyarenumberedsothattheone
correspondingtothethumborgreattoeranksasfirstbecause,inthetypicalpositionofthelimb,as,
forinstance,intheseal,ithasananteriorposition,preaxialasitiscalledthefifthdigitbeing
posteriororpostaxial.Itmustberememberedthatthemoreprimitiveandmoretypicalexamplesof
animalsincludedinthesametypehavebeenadaptedformovinginwater,whichrequiresthatthe
limbshouldhavetheexpansionofitsextremityinalinewiththelongaxisofthebody.For
movementonlandthisismodifiedtoalateralexpansionbyaltereddirectionofthelongbones.The
firstdigit,throughoutthewholemammaliankingdom,differsfromtheothersinthatitconsistsof
twodivisionsorsegmentsonlywhilealltheresthavethreeeach.Whythisshouldbeisnotclearit
willbesubjectofcommenthereafterbeing,forvariousreasons,apointofmuchinterestinrelation
tothehumanfoot.Eachofthedigitsisnotineveryinstancerepresented,farfromit,butthefirst,
whenexistentatall,hasalwaysthispeculiarity.Athirdboneisneverfoundinthefirstdigit,in
theonerepresentedinmanbythethumbandbythegreattoe.
Aglanceattheskeleton(fig.1,pl.1,)showsthatitwouldbeinconvenient,aswellas
apparentlyinappropriate,toregardthefirstmetatarsalboneotherwisethanasthefirstofaseriesof
five,arrangedinrankacrossthefoot.Therearehoweververygoodgroundsfornotregardingitasa
metatarsalboneatall,butasoneofthreephalangesbelongingtothefirstdigit,andthatthemissing
boneisthefirstmetatarsal.Inthethumbsuchanarrangementismoremanifestlyappropriate.The
ordinaryrulefornameswill,however,beobserved.
Mammaliananimalsareclassified,asregardstheirmodeofprogression,accordingtovaried
formsofthefoot.Pinnigrade,ifitbeexpandedlikeafinorpinna,asintheseal,whereitisadapted
formovinginwater.Plantigrade,wherethewholefootliesflatontheground,formingasoleor
planta,asinthebear.Digitigrade,wherethetarsalbonesareraisedsothattheweightcomesupon
thedigitsorsomeofthem,asinthedog.Unguiculate,wherethewholeweightcomesononedigit,
andthenailorunguesisexpandedintoahoof,asinthehorse.Manisclassifiedasplantigrade,but
ineverystepashewalkshebecomes,alternately,digitigradeinrunningheremainsso.Thisfeature
inmaninunique.
Thebonyelementsofthemammalianfootmaybemodifiedintogreatvarietiesofform.The
metacarpalormetatarsalbonesinparticularmaybeexaggeratedasregardsoneormore,andas
regardstheothersattenuateduntilonlyrudimentaryrepresentativesremain,orthesemaybe
suppressedaltogether.Therelationtooriginaltypeishoweveralwaysevident.
Nonecessarypurposewouldbeservedbydetailinginstancesofthemanycurious
modificationswhichthemammalianfootundergoestoadaptittotherequirementsofthegreat
varietyofanimalswhichthemammaliankingdomincludes.Ashoweverthehorsewillaffordusan
illustrationofthepracticaladvantagewhichmayarisefromacomparisonbetweenthefootofmen
andthatofloweranimals,asketchmaybegivenofthatpartofthehorse'shindlegwhich
correspondstothefootofman.Wecallitaleg,theComparativeAnatomistwouldincludethe
wholeofitinthefootorpes.Herethehockrepresentsthehumanheel,andsomesmallbones
immediatelybelowitthetarsus.Thelegisformedbythemiddlemetatarsalbonewithportionsof
thesecondandthirdinarudimentaryformoneitherside,thefirstandfifthbeingentirely
suppressed.Thefetlockisformedbythefirstandthesecondphalanxofthemiddletoe,the
exaggeratednail,intheformofahoof,beingsupportedbythethirdorfinalone.
Tothesuperficialobserveritmayseemthatthedifferenceinexternalcoveringconstitutes
anessentialdifferencebetweenthefootofmanandoftheloweranimals.Infact,however,the
thicknessandhardnessoftheskin,theamountandthekindofhairycovering,areallvariationsof
degreeratherthanofessentialcharacter.Evennailsandhoofsaretotheanatomistobviousvarieties
ofthesamematerial,modifiedtosuitparticularpurposes.Themodificationwhichmorethan
anythingelseconstitutesthespecialcharacteristicofthehumanfootistheformationofaheeland
theunusualdevelopmentofthegreattoe.Indeeditisnottoomuchtosaythat,fromtheanatomical
pointofview,thereisnomorestrikingdifferencebetweenmanandtheloweranimalsthanistobe
foundinthesetwofeatures.
Thiswastheviewexpressedinmymonographonthearchofthefoot,inignorancethatmy
oldmasterSirWilliamLawrencehadsaidtheheelis"aninfalliblecharacteristicofman,"andthatit
wouldbeprobablyasaferruletosaythatmanisknownbyhisheelthanitwastosaythatHercules
wasknowbyhisfoot*notknowingeitherthatProfessorHumphry *"Excalcehominem
hadsaidthat,intheanimalkingdom,"manliterallystandsonhis wouldprobablybeasaferrulethan
greattoe." ExpedeHerculem"Lectureson
Man.
Inexaminationoftheskeletonofthehumanfootitwillbe
seenthatallelementsofthetypicalskeletonofthemammalianfoot,assetoutinthescheme,are
therepresent.Onemodificationhoweverisseen.twoofthetarsalbonesareunitedtoformthe
heelsothatwefindsevenbonesonlyinsteadofeight,asfoundinthehand.Theboneoftheheelor
oscalcis,sometimescalledthecalcaneum,consistsoftwotarsalbonesfused,asitwere,intoone.
Theformwhichallthesebonesassumeinthehumanfootandthemannerinwhichtheyarebound
togetherisshownintheplates1to6andintheexplanationsgiven.
Inrespectoftheligamentscollectively,onepointofgreatimportanceshouldbenoted.They
sharetheinfluenceofalaw,universalinallthetissuesofthebody,thatconstantpressureor
constanttensioncauseswasting,whileintermittentpressureorintermittenttensionpromotesgrowth
andstrength,with,consequently,increasedcapacityforresistance.Thusifligamentsbeconstantly
stretched,as,inprolongedandcarelessstanding,happenstothosewhichbindtogetherthebones
formingthearchofthefoot,yieldingandconsequentdeformityensues.Thewordsconstantand
intermittentarehereusedintheirrelativesenseonly.Therestwhichthenightaffordsisnotenough
tocounteractcontinuousstrainduringtheday.Whenthestretchingisabsolutelyconstantchanges
takeplacewithgreatrapidity.Ontheotherhandwhenstretchingandrelaxationfolloweachotherin
frequentsuccessionofchangesandingreatvigour,thenthefulleffectinpromotinggrowthisseen.
Notonlydotheligamentsbecomestrongerbuttheattachmentstothebonesbecomemoresecure
projectionsofbonearethrownout,makingthesurfaceround,andsogivingafirmerhold.
Italsofollowsfromthislawthatligamentswillnotholdbonestogether,withthegreatest
firmnessofwhichtheyarecapable,withoutintermission.Iftheydidtheywouldceasetobefirm.In
fact,noligamentofthebodyisequallytenseineverypositionofthepartswhichitbindstogether:
ifitwere,itwouldceasetobetenseatall.Applyingthistothearchofthefoot,theligamentsmust
havearelaxedandtensecondition,varyinginaccordancewithchangeofpositionand,therefore,it
willinonecasebestrong,intheother,weak,becauseyielding.
ThishasanimportantbearingonthequestionInwhatpositionthearchofthefootisbest
adaptedtobeartheweightofthebodywhenstandingerect?Sufficienttosaynowthatthestrong
positionofthearchiswhenthetwogreattoesareinclinedtowardseachother.Therelaxedorweak
positioniswhenthefeetareturnedoutwards.
Theligamentshaveamostimportantrelationtothemusclesandtendons,andthefullextent
oftheprovisionagainstunduestretchingofligamentscannotbeseenuntiltheactionofmuscleshas
beenconsidered.Theremainderofthedifferenttissuesofwhichthefootiscomposedmust,
however,befirstenumerated,andthemovementsbetweenthedifferentpartsfurthernoticed.
Thetendonsofthedifferentmusclesareallcloselyencasedinfibroussheathswhichhold
themclosetothebone.Thesesheathsarelinedbyasmoothmembranelubricatedwithsynovia(and
thereforecalledsynovialmembranes)similartothatfoundinjoints.Bloodvesselsandnervesare
notshewnintheplates,havingnorelationtothemechanismofthefoot:indeed,specialplates
wouldbenecessary.Allintersticesarefilledupbyfatandfibroustissue,verycloselyintermixed.
Bandsofstrongfibroustissuepassdownwardsfromthebones,andupwardsfromtheskin,
bindingallthepartstogether.Thesebandsandportionsoffatinterveningformalsoasoftcushion
beneaththeskin.Aspecialexpansionofthisfibroustissueisformedintoamembraneorfascia.
This,theplantarfascia,extendsfromtheheelboneforwardsandsendsaprolongationtoeachtoe.It
isverycloselyattachedtothefirstlayerofmuscles,andisseen,cutthroughinfrontoftheheel,in
fig.7,pl.3,atapointwhereitisspeciallythickandstrong.
Thefibrousbandswhichconnecttheskintotheplantarfasciaandtothemoresolid
frameworkofthefoot,havetheeffectoflimitingthemovementoftheskinuponthefootwhenthe
footisfree,ofthefootupontheskinwhentheskinispressedontheground.
Verydifferentistheskinofthebackofthefoot,whichmovesfreelyandissoloosely
connectedwiththestructurewhichitenclosesthatitmightbestrippedoffbut,toremovetheskin
fromthesole,itwouldhavetobecut,bitbybit.Likethepalmofthehand,thesolehasnogrease
formingorsebaceousglands:likeittoo,theperspirationorsudiparousglandsarenumerous.Onthe
backofthefootandofthetoes,asinthecaseofthehand,somefewhairsarefound,whichsuggest
arelationshiptoanimalshavingabundanceofsuchcoveringincorrespondingpositions.
Acontrast,too,isseenbetweentheskinunderthearch,where,inagoodfoot,itdoesnot
touchtheground,andonthosepartstakingpressure.Itisseen,too,betweentheundersurfacesof
thetipsofthetoesandthepartsbetweenthetipsandthebodyofthefoot.Heretheskinisthinand
soft,admittingofveryfreebendingdownwards,especiallyofthesmallertoes.
Thisbendingofthetoesdownwardsisknowsasflexion,byitthetoesareflexed.When
straightened,themovementisknownasextension,thetoesareextended.If,however,thislatter
movementbecontinued,thefootisbentorflexedontheankle,asitisdrawntowardstheextreme
flexionshowninfig.24,p.10.Bymovementintheoppositedirectionthefootwouldbeextended
onthelegasitmovedtowardsextremeextension.Sothatextensionofthetoes,continued,goeson
toflexionofthefoot,andviceversa.
Thismovementofthefootontheleg,or,whenthefootisontheground,ofthelegonthe
foot,isahingemovementonly.Theupperpartoftheastragaluspassesbetweentwoflanges,
formedbyextensionofthetibiadownwardsontheinnersideand,ontheouterside,byan
expansionofthefibulacontinuedbodilydownwards.Thesetwoprojections,whicharewellshown
infig.16,pl.5,areknownasthemalleoli,fromthefanciedresemblancetolittlehammers,and,
respectively,astheinnerandoutermalleolus.
Adetaileddescriptionoftheanklejointwouldherebeoutofplace,andisunnecessary.A
curiousprovisionagainstdislocationmust,however,benoticed.Itisobviousthatwhenthefootis
fullyextended,ingoingdownhill,thelegmusthaveadispositiontorideovertheroundedtopof
theastragalusandslipforwards.Toassisttheligamentsinpreventingthistheflangeofthetibiais
continuedpartlyroundbehindtowardsthefibula.Nosucharrangementexistsinfront,whereitis
notonlyunnecessarybutitwouldbeanobstruction,becauseitwouldpreventtheheadofthe
astragalusfromcomingupinfrontagainsttheendofthetibia,andsoitwouldbethemeansof
limitingflexion.Itisunnecessary,becausewhenthefootisflexed,asingoinguphill,andsoa
dispositiontodislocatethelegbackwardsensues,thetendonsgoingdownbehindeithermalleolus
(fig.8,pl.3,andfig.15,pl.5,)aresotightenedthatsuchdisplacementiswellnighimpossible.
Theupperpartoftheastragalus,fittinginbetweenthemalleoli,iswiderinfrontthan
behind,sothatwhenthefootisfullyflexedthetwobonesaredrivenapart,andtheligament
holdingthemtogetherisstretched.Thereasonforthishasbeenmuchdiscussed.Myownviewis
thatitissosimplybecauseifitwereotherwisetheligamentwouldalwaysbeinthesamedegreeof
tension,whichwouldspeedilyimpairitsefficiency.WehaveseenthatinthePositionofRestthe
foottendstowardsextension,thepositioninwhichtheligamentinquestionismostrelaxed.Ifit
werealwaysstraineditwouldlosecapacityforresistance.
Theopeningbetweenthesetwoflangesisnotdirectedexactlyforwards.Withthebody
standingerectandthetwofeettogethereachopeningisdirectedslightlyoutwards.Moreoverthe
articularsurfaceontheouterborderoftheastragalusismoreextendedthanontheinnerside,so
thatthejointinmovingdescribesacurve.Theeffectisthatasthefeetarefullyextendedthey
inclinetowardseachotherastheyareflexedtheytendtoseparate.Thecurveisnotexactlya
segmentofacirclethesweepofthefootinwardsismoremarkedasitapproachesextreme
extension.
Thesameconfigurationoftheanklejointwhichcausesthefrontpartofthefoot,whenfree,
toinclineinwardsasitextendstowardsastraightline,necessarilycausestheanklestoincline
outwardswhenthefootisfixedontheground.Thusifwestandwiththefeetflatontheground,the
innermarginstogether,andthenspringtotiptoe,weshallfindthatthetwoanklesseparatefrom
eachother.Ontheotherhandifwesitwiththeheelsrestingontheground,thefeetalittledistance
apart,andextendthefootfully,thegreattoescometowardseachother.Ifwefullyflexthefeetthe
toeswilldiverge.
Verycloselyassociatedwithmovementintheanklejointunderalmostanycircumstancesis
themovementtakingplaceinthebodyofthefoot.Thismay,forallpracticalpurposes,be
consideredasintwoplacesonly.
1.Whenthefootismovedfromsidetoside,when,thatistosay,itrotatesonahorizontalplane,
theprincipalmovementoccursbetweentheastragalusaboveandtheoscalcicbelow.The
joints,asseeninthedrybone,areshowninfig.11,pl.4,wheretheformerboneisliftedup
soastorevealtheirregularbedinwhichitlies.
2.Whentheinnermarginisupliftedandtheouterdepressed(orthereverse),whenthatistosay,
thefootisrotatedonalongitudinalaxis,theprincipalmovementisatthejointslaidopenin
thedivisionshowninfig.9,pl.3.
Thesetwomovementsarenotsimple,theyareassociatedwitheachotherandbothwith
movementattheankle.Whenthefootisheldatthesameanglewiththelegnomotiontakesplace
intheanklejointinhorizontalorinlongitudinalrotationofthefoot,but,whenthefootisfree,these
movements,ifcarriedfar,arealmostinseparablyassociatedwithmovementthere.
Withextensionofthefootthetoesinclineinwards,andtheinnermarginisupliftedwith
flexionofthefootthetoesinclineoutwards,andtheoutermarginisslightlyuplifted.
Whenthefoot,withthesoleflatontheground,iseverted(thetoesturnedout)thescaphoid
boneisrotateddownwards,andtheligamentunitingittotheoscalcicisrelaxed.This(thecalcaneo
scaphoidligament)isthesupportoftheheadoftheastragalus,which,therefore,istheless
supported,andhas,inthisposition,thegreatertendencytosink.If,however,thefootbeinverted
(thetoesturnedinwards)thescaphoidboneisrotatedupwards,andtheligamentinquestion
tightened.Thisgivestheheadoftheastragalusafirmersupport.Thus,forthearchofthefoot,the
latteristhestrongandtheformertheweakposition.Thisisanimportantpointinthequestion
Howshouldwestand?
Operationoftheagencybywhichmovementsofthefootareeffecteddoesnot,paradox
thoughitseem,necessarilyinvolvemotionatall.Theprincipalfunctionofthetoesistogivegood
footholdbyactivepressureagainsttheground,soastosupplementthepassivepressureofthe
body'sweight.Thisiseffectedbythesamemeansasthatwhich,whenthetoesarefreetomove,
movesthem.
Hereletitbesaidthatthetoesplayafarmoreimportantpartintheordinaryfunctionsofthe
footthanisgenerallyadmitted.Oneseesstatements,(wherebetterthingsmightbeexpected)tothe
effectthattheirservicescouldbedispensedwith.Eveninwalking,asusuallydone,theyareused
muchmorethanisgenerallysupposed.Iftheywerenotusedthemusclesmovingthemwouldbe
foundtobewasted.Theyshould,however,beusedmuchmorethanis,intheconventionalstyleof
walking,possible.
But,beforeconsideringmorefullythemovementsofthefoot,itwillbeimportanttorealise
fullywhattheagencyisbywhichtheyareeffected.Thatmovementsaremadebymusclesmaybe
supposedtobesufficientlyknown,andyetindicationsarenotwantingthatwritersonthe
mechanismofthefootIamnot,ofcourse,speakingofsurgeonsdonotclearlyunderstand
whattheymeanbymuscles.Termsareusedwithregardtothem:suchforinstance,as"finely
articulated,"astowhichitwouldbedifficulttoguesswhatthewriterhadinview.
Musclesaremasses,varyinginsizeandshape,ofthatsubstanceknownasmuscle,or,with
referencetothefleshofanimals,asleanmeat.Theyaretheagentsbywhichthedifferent
movementsofthebodyareeffected,thestructurebeingcomposedoffibreswhichareenduedwith
thepropertyofcontraction.Itisbythiscontractionthattheendsattachedtodifferentpartsare
drawntowardseachother,movementsofthosepartsresulting.Theattachmentoftheendofa
muscle,usuallytoabone,maybedirect,byitsownpropertissueoritmaybeconnectedindirectly,
withamoreorlessdistantpartbymeansofacordoffibroustissue,inpopularlanguage,aleader,
or,inanatomicallanguage,atendon.Thishasnotcontractileproperty,itissimplyaconnecting
cord.Thefleshy,thatis,themuscular,attachmentiscommonlyspokenofastheorigin,the
attachmentofthetendon(whenitexists)beingcalledtheinsertion.Intheabsenceofthetendon,the
lattertermisappliedtothatendofthemusclewhichissupposedtomovemostfrequentlyormost
freely,whiletheoriginremainsstaionary.Thisdistinctionis,asIregardit,veryunfortunate,
becauseittendstoencouragetheideathatthemusclealwaysorprincipallyactsfromtheoriginas
thefixedpoint,ontheinsertionasamovableone.
Themarkeddifferenceinresultasoneoftheotherendofthemuscleisthefixedorthe
movablepointwillbeshownhereafterasbeinghighlyimportant.Aninstancemay,however,be
givennow.Powerful,andthereforelarge,musclesareattachedtothelegandtothetoestheeffect
ofactionofthesemusclesastheymovethetoeswhenthelegisfixed,orastheymovetheleg,and
withitthebody,whenthetoesarefixedontheground,isaltogetherdifferent.Yet,theaction,the
actofcontraction,whichtakesplaceinthemuscles,isexactlythesameineithercase.
Herethefleshymassesofmusculartissueareplacedinthelegfortheobviousreasonthat
thenecessarybulk,amatterofnoconsequencethere,wouldcauseseriousinconvenienceifplaced
inthefoot.Thetendons,whichtakeupbutlittleroom,passalongeithersurfaceofthefoot,and
causenoinconveniencewhatever.Thequestion,whichportionofthelengthofocmbinedmuscle
andtendonshallbemuscular,andwhichtendious,isentirelyoneofconvenience.Justasacord,
elasticatoneend,andrigidattheother,exercisesthesamedegreeoftractiononeachofits
attachments,sothetwoinsertionsofacombinedmuscleandtendonaredrawntowardseachother
injustthesamedegreeatwhicheverendthemuscleormotorpowerbeplaced.Mypreferenceisto
callbothendsinsertionsorattachments,muscularortendinous,asthecasemaybe,andtodripthe
termoriginaltogether.
Musclesoftheleg,actingonthetoesillustrateanotherprinciple.Thosebehindturnacorner
beneaththeankle,andsodivertthelineoftraction.Thetendonsruninsmoothgroovesintheends
ofthelegbones,andintheoscalcicandcuboidbonebelow,ascordsrunroundpulleys.Itisthe
positionofthepulleywhichdeterminestheeffectoftractiononthecord,soitisthepositionof
thesegrooves,asfixedpoints,thatdeterminestheeffectofactionofthesemuscles.Thepositionof
themovingforceisineithercaseimmaterial.Ontheuppersideofthefootasimilarresultis
effectedbystrongbands(a,fig.8,pl.3)whichbindthetendonsagainsttheankle.
Foreffectiveactionofmusclesitisnecessarythattheyshallbefreefrompressure,and
especiallyfromsuchpressureasanyhardsubstancewouldoccasion.Thebonyarchofthebootisa
necessaryprovisionagainstthis.
Wherevarietyandprecisionofmovementratherthanstrengthisdesiredthenthemuscles
aresmallandnumerous,andgenerallyacteitherdirectlyorwiththeinterpositionofshorttendons
only.Thisisexemplifiedinthenumberofsmallmuscleswhichlieinthesole,thatistosayunder,
andundertheprotectionofthearchofthefoot.Ifthemusclesactingonthefootwereallsituatedin
theleg,andconnectedwiththetoesbytendons,(evensupposingtheycouldthenfulfiltheir
functions)itwouldinvolveamanifestincreaseofcomplexity.
Fewmovementsofthebodyareeffectedbyasinglemuscle,nonecertainlyinthefoot.They
arethejointeffectorresultantoftwoormore.Itisobviousthatformovementsinopposite
directionsmusclesorgroupsofmusclesarerequired,which,iftheyactatthesametime,whillbe
antagonistictoeachother.Thepurposewhichwouldbeservedbytheactionofoneonlywouldbe,
inthatcase,moreorlesscompletelydefeated.Itmaybe,however,thatathirdpurposewouldbe
servedbythejointactionofboth.Inridingahorsetheeffectofpullingthelefthandreinwouldbe
neutralized,asfarasdirectionisconcerned,bypullingthereinoftheoppositesidewithequal
force.Butthiswouldnotbeallthehorsewouldbepulledinorrestrainedastheresultofpulling
both.Soalsotheeffectresultingfromtheactionofanyparticularmusclemustbeconsideredboth
astowhatitwouldifactingaloneadwhatitwouldbeifactingjointlywithothers.Thesepointsare
insistedonbecause,asithasseemedtome,theyarenotsufficientlyrecognizedinbookson
Anatomy,andespeciallysoindescriptionofthemechanismofthefoot.
Animportantlawrelatingtomusclemustbenoticed.Actionpromotesgrowthandstrength.
Totalinactivityleadstorapidwasting.When,hover,muscleshavebeenfullydevelopedinyouth,a
veryslightamountofexercisewillsufficetokeepthemfairlystrong.
Stillmoreimportant,inthecaseofthefoot,isanotherlaw.Musclesdevelopedbyaction
remain,whennotinaction,passivelycontracted,notstrained,but,assailorssay,taut.Nowthe
effectofthisistokeepthebonesonwhichtheyactfirmlypressedagainsteachotherinthejoints
onwhichtheymove.Herecomesintheoperationoftheotherlawsthatconstantpressurecauses
wasting.If,however,thealwaystautmusclesmaintainevenpressure,itwillkeepthearticular
surfacesofthejointadaptedtothemovementswhichactionofthemuscleoccasions.Letthisfail
andthejointswillsinkintowhateverpositiontheweightofthebodymaydetermine,andthe
articularsurfaceswillassumewhateverformthepressuresocausedmaydetermine.Allthis,of
course,appliesinamuchgreaterdegreetotheyoundandgrowingbodythantothatoftheadult.It
appliestothelatter,however,muchmorethanmightbesupposed.
Theleadingprincipleswhichunderliephysicaleducationdependontheselaws.Itis,
therefore,asitseemstome,ofthehighestimportancethattheyshouldbeunderstood,andthemore
becausethesalutaryeffectofsuitableexercisehasitscounterpartintheproductionofdeformity
whenwronglyapplied.Thepreventionofdeformity,causedbywantofexerciseontheonehand
andbyinjuriouslabourontheother,offersalargefieldforphysicaleducation.Theimportanceof
muscularactioninrelationtothefootfromthispointofviewwillbeseenpresently.
Thenamesandthepositionsofthedifferentmusclesactinginandonthefootareshownon
theplatesandsetforthintheexplanations.Thespecialfeaturetobenotedisthattheyformtwo
wellmarkeddivisions,thoseofthefootandthoseofthelegactingonthefoot.Thebonyheel
pushesthroughtheline,completelydividingeventhefibrousexpansionorfasciawhichcoversthe
solefromthemuscle,whichissupposedtotightenit.Theplantarismuscle.inshapelikeoneofthe
lumbricalesseeninfig.10,pl.4,andinsizelittlemore,sendsdownfrombehindthekneealittle
ribbonliketendonalldownthelegtotheheel,whereitmergesinthelargetendon(No.8,infig.8,
pl.3).Thecorrespondingmuscleinmonkeystightensthefasciaofthehinderhand,afunction
whichacorrespondingmuscleinthearmdoesforthehumanhand.Here,intheheel,itservesonly
asaconnectinglinktokeepupevidenceofuniformityoftype.
Oneofthemostinterestingandimportantmovementswhichthemusclesactingonthefoot
aredesignedtoeffectistoraiseittothetiptoeposition,or,inotherwords,tochangeitfromthe
plantigradetothedigitigradeform.Thewholeoftheweightthenfallsontheanteriorpillarofthe
archalone.Howthisisdone,notonlywithoutdamagebutratherwithincreasedstrengthtothat
structure,mustbefullycomprehendedifthemechanismofthefootistobeunderstood.
Theactionissometimesdescribedasthatofaleverofthefirstorder,wherethepowerofthe
musclesofthecalfactsontheheel,and,throughthefulcrumformedbytheleg,ontheweight
suppledbytheresistanceofthegroundagainstthetoes.Anotherandabetterwayofputtingitis
thattheleverisofthesecondorder,theweightbeingthatofthebody,whilethefulcrumissupplied
bythetoes.Thisisshowninfig.6,pl.2.Ineitherviewthereisanessentialdifferencefrom
ordinaryleversthepowerisattachedtotheleg,i.e.,tothefulcrumortotheweight,accordingas
theactionisregardedasthatofaleverofthefirstorofthesecondorder.
Bothviewsare,however,liabletomislead.Itisusualtogivethecombinedmuscleactingon
theheelasthepowerbywhichthebodyisraisedtotiptoeasifitweretheonlypower.Onewho
writeswiththehighestauthoritysays,inabookintendedforgeneralreaders,"Themusclewhich
actsupontheheelisoneofthelargestandmostpowerfulinthebody,andwellitmaybe,forin
raisingtheheelithastoraisethewholeweightofthebody."Thisismisleadingandinaccurate.If
thefootbetakenwhenatrest,notendonscanbefeltbehindtheankleswhenthebodyrisestotip
toetheystartoutoneitherside.Themostprominentontheinnersideistheflexorlonguspollicis,
ontheoutertheperoneuslongus.Thosetendonswhicharedeeperarealsotightenedtheflexor
longusdigitorumandthetibialisposticusontheoneside,andtheperoneusbrevisontheother.
Nowallthesemusclesarestrongtheircombinedstrengthisenormousandalthoughtheydo
notactatthesameadvantageasthecalfmuscle,whichactsontheprojectingorleverlikeheel,they
doexerciseaverygreatinfluenceinbringingthelegandfoottowardsacontinuousstraightline,
whichistheessenceofthetiptoemovement.Takethefirstnamedonlytheflexorlonguspollicisis
sostrongthatitmaybetrainedtobeartheweightofthebodyitself,asinthestagedancer,whowill
supporthimself,ormoregenerallyherself,literallyonthegreattoe.Thoughincapableinmost
personsofanythinglikesuchafeatasthis,themusclesinquestionis,inallgoodfeet,verystrong.
Ofmylongentertainedviewthattheinfluenceofthecalfmuscleinwalkinghasbeenover
rated,andthatoftheothermusclesunderrated,Ihaverecentlyhadastrikingillustration.Ayoung
gentleman,abletotakehisshareinroughgamesatapublicschool,andtodoalongday'sshooting
withhisfather,anexcellentwalker,has,ononeside,nocalfmuscleatall.Ithadbeenparalyzedin
infancy,andneitheritnorthetendoAchillishasdevelopedthelatteris,infact,amereattenuated
ligament,contrastingstronglywiththespeciallydevelopedtendonontheotherside.Hereanextra
developmentoftheremainingmusclesofthesamesideandofthoseoftheoppositefootandleg
havealmostcompletelycompensatedforthedeficiency,sothatthesubjectandhisfriendsare
hardlyconsciousofanydefect.Hadthedeficientyexistedinbothlegsitwouldhavebeenserious
indeed.
Themechanismofrisingtotiptoeconsistsinanelevationoftheheelbythegreatcalf
muscleactinguponit,(fig.8,pl.3,)assistedbytheconcurrentactionofthegroupsofmuscles
whosetendonspassdownbehandeitherankle.Theselatter,whichmovethefootorthetoes,when
thosepartsarefreetomove,movethebodyonthefootwhenthefootisfixed.Tosaythatthebody
israisedbythecalfmuscleactingontheheel,(astatementoftenmade,)isanincompleteand
misleadingdescription.Thesameactioncontinuedandeffectedwithsufficientvigourpropelsthe
bodyforwards,whetherforpurposeofwalking,running,hoppingorjumping.
Butsothattheheelberaiseddoesitverymuchmatterhowitisdone?Theanswertothis
willappearfromthefollowingconsiderations:Fig.27showsthetendonsofonemuscleonly
crossingthesolefromendtoend,allelsebeing,forthesakeofclearness,removed.This,thetendon
oftheflexorlonguspollicis,has,tothearchofthefootwhichitsubtends,therelationofachordto
anarc,ofabowstringtoabow.Nowthisarch,orarc,orbos,ismadeofflexiblematerial.The
bonesareboundtogetherbyligaments,asshowninfig.5,pl.2stilltheyarenotsofirmlybound
togetherbutthatthebracingswhichtheyformadmitofaconsiderableextentofyielding.If,then,
thearchbeyielding,andthemuscleactingonthistendonbestrong,bothofwhichfactsare
indisputable,theactionofthemusclemustbraceupthearchascertainlyastighteningabowstring
increasestheconvexityofthebowindiminishingthedistancebetweentheendsofit.Some
shorteningofthesoleought,therefore,totakeplaceintheactofrisingtotiptoe.
Showstheeffectofmuscularactioninthrowingupthearch,andistoFig.
27asFig.26istoFig.25.1istheflexorlonguspollicis,2thetibialis
posticis,and3thecombinedcalfmuscle.Thetibialisanticusisseenin
front.
Letapieceoftapebelaidonthefloorandtroddenoninalinewiththesoleofthenaked
foot,theendattheheelbeingcarriedroundandheldatapointontheskininthemiddlelinebehind
theankle.Nowstandontiptoe,bearingthewholeweightofthebodyonthefoot.Itwillbeseen
thatthetape(assumingthefoottobeinhealthyworkingorder)willbevisiblyslackenedwhich,as
itseemstome,provesbeyondalldoubtthattheanticipatedshorteningdoestakeplace.This,
however,isnotgenerallyacceptedasafact.Thebowstringactionofthetendonofthelegmuscles
andconsequentshorteningofthesoleinrisingtotiptoehadnever,sofarasdiligentsearchcan
discover,beenrecognizedatalluntilpointedoutbymyselfinacommunicationtoalocalmedical
association,in1874,expandedintoapamphletin1877.Figs.27and28areintendedtoshowthe
changesintheconditionofthearchshowninfig.25tothatinfig.26asaresultofthemuscular
actionattendantonraisingtheheel.Ofthefigures,28isto27as26isto25.Thelongflexorofthe
greattoe(1)bracesupthearchatthesametimethatthetibialisposticus(2)turnsuptheinner
marginofthefoot,andthecalfmuscle(3)liftsuptheheel.
Itwillbeseenthattheeffectoftightening,ofshorteningthetendonofthelongflexor
muscleistodiminishthedistancebetweenthegreattoeandthepointwherethetendonpasses
roundtheboneoftheheelbelowtheankle.Theresultofthisistobraceupthearchandincreaseits
convexity.But,itshouldalsobeunderstood,theeffectoftighteningthistendonorcordistodrawit
towardsastraightlinebetweenthepointofattachmenttothegreattoeandthepointwhereitpasses
belowtheheel.Bythisagencythejointattherootofthegreattoeisuplifted,andifthetightnessbe
sufficienttobeartheweightofthebody,theanteriorpillarofthearchliterallydancesonthetight
rope.If,however,theweightofthebody,asindicatedbythearrowinfig.28,besufficienttobearit
down,theanteriorpillaris,atleast,letdownlightly.Thusthesameagencythatassistsinraisingthe
bodybracesupthearchofthefoot,and,inliftingthejointattherootofthegreattoe,relievesit
fromthepressureagainstthegroundwhichtheweightofthebodysuddenlythrownuponitwould
occasion.
Thetiptoepositionwhichisattainedbyvigorousactionwillbeseentoprettyclosely
accordwiththatshowninthefrontispieceasthepositionofcompleterest.Theapparent
contradictionisapparentonly.Thebeautyofthearrangementisitisoneofthemanypretty
thingsinthedomainofphysiologythatthetiptoeposition,wherethemuscleshavebeenthrown
intovigorousaction,isoneinwhichtheydotheworkofsustainingthearch,intheiractionas
bowstringsorastierods.Thustheligamentswhichbearthestrainwhenthefootisflatonthe
groundarecompletelyrelieved.Forthiscompleterelaxationoftheligamentsitisnecessarythatthe
footbeasnearlyaspossibleinthepositionofcompleterest.Sofarasthereisanystrainatallon
ligamentsitisonthosewhichbindtogetherthebonesontheuppersurface.Thetwoagenciesfor
supportingthearchdonotdothesamedutyatthesametimeoneorotherisinrepose.
Itisnotsuggestedthatfigs.27and28areanythingmorethandiagrams.Itwouldbe
impossibletoeffectsomuchchangewithoutverymuchdisplacingthebonesoneachother.Fora
flatfoottobecomearchedinvolveschangesintheboneswhichcanonlybeeffectedintime.That
somesuchchangeasthatindicated(p.11)doesreallytakeplaceisshownbytheexperimentwith
thetape,andbythephotographsreproducedinfigs.25and26,ps.12and13.
Ascomparedwiththelongflexormuscle,whichiscommontoallthesmallertoes,that
actingonthegreattoealoneplays,insupportingthearch,themuchmoreimportantpart.In
animals,asinman,theflexormuscleisgenerallydividedintotwo.Thehorsehas,inhisdivided
flexormuscleactingonasingletendon,arelicofremoteancestorshavingtwotoesandtwoflexors
But,whereallthedigitsexist,thedivisionofdutyis,howevervariedinarrangement,more
evenlydistributedthaninthecaseofman,whereonedivisionformstheflexorlonguspollicis,
actingonasingletoe.Thisisaspecialcharacteristic.Thisisonemoreevidenceofthespecial
importanceofthegreattoeinthehumanfoot.
Thelongflexorofthesmallertoesactingontheouterandlessmarkedportionofthearch
haslessinfluenceuponitthantheothermuscle.Itserves,however,animportantpurpose:the
tendonwhichdividestogotoeachofthemcomesintothesoleonahigherlevel,fartherfromthe
extremityofthearch,butinpassingoutwardstothesmallertoes,itdoesnotpassabovetheother
tendon,aswithgreaterapparentconvenienceitmightdo:itpassesunderneath,dippingdownward
andpickingup,sotospeak,thelowerone.Thecourseofthemusclesisshowninfig.8,pl.3,andin
figs.10,11,and12,pl.4.Otherwise,howevermuchtensionofthelongflexorsincreasedtheheight
ofthearchitwoulddonothingtoincreasethehollowbeneath.Infig.28thespacebeneaththetight
tendon,betweenitandalinedrawnfromheeltotoeisnogreaterthanitisbeneaththerelaxedone
infig.27.Inthesefigures,forthesakeofclearness,onlyonetendonisshown.Thusitisthat
theactionofthelongflexortendonsonthearchofthefootmaywithgreaterproprietybecompared
toatierodthantoabowstring.Thechordofthearcbecomesitselfanarcasitisdrawnupwards
bythetendoncrossingit.Thisarrangementofthetendonsinthesoleisshowninfig.13,pl.4.
Specialprominencehasbeengiventotheflexorlonguspollicismuscleinbracingupthe
arch,becauseitsbowstringortierodinfluence(figs.27and28)ismostmanifestaswellasoffirst
importance.Thetibialisposticuswhichhasbeenmentionedservesaveryusefulpurpose:itdraws
thescaphoidbonetowardsthebonyprominenceontheoscalcis(sustentaculumtali)roundwhich
thetendonruns,andsothrowsuptheheadoftheastragalus,whichrestsontheligamentbetween
thosebones.Then,theperoneuslonguswhichdrawstheinnermarginofthefrontpartofthearch
andtheouterankletowardseachother,hasamostpotentinfluenceinbracingupandincreasingthe
concavity.
Animportantquestionherearises.Wehaveseenthatthemusclesconcernedinholding
downthetoes,especiallythegreattoe,aretheagentsforgivinggoodfoothold,andthatthese
musclesarealsoconcernedinraisingthebodytotiptoe,andinpropellingitonwardsinwalking.In
whatpositionofthefootdotheymosteffectivelyact?
Itiseasytotestthisquestionpracticallybymeansofpiecesoftapeorslipsofpaperplaced
oneunderthemiddlejointofeachgreattoe.Standwiththebarefeet,firstinthemilitaryposition,
theinnermarginsinclinedfromeachotheratanangleof45degrees.Judgenowofthedegreeof
firmnesswithwhichthetapesareheldinoppositiontoanattemptbyanotherpersontodrawthem
away.Nowdothesamethingwiththefeetslightlyinclinedtowardseachother,andnotethe
difference.
Itwillprobablybefoundthatthetapeorpaperwillbehelddownmostfirmlyinthelatter
position.Theexplanationseemstobethis:Turningthefeetoutwards,withthesolesflatonthe
ground,hastheeffectofrelaxingthetendonoftheperoneuslongusmuscle,whichcrossesthesole
fromtheotherankletobeinsertedintothebaseofthefirstmetatarsal(a
href="plates.htm#plate5">fig.14,pl.5).Thismuscleisamostimportantagentinholdingdownthe
frontpartoftheinnermarginofthefoot,andwithitthegreattoe.Butallmusclesactbestwhenthe
tendonsarealreadytaut,whenthereisnolooselinetogatherupbeforecommencingtopull.This
conditionispresentwhenthetoesareinclinedinwards,andthusgoodfootholdisbestmaintained,
andspringingtotiptoemostreadilyandeffectivelydonewhenthetoesaresodirected.
Thelawrelatingtotheeffectofconstantpressureandofconstanttensiononthetissuesof
thebodyhasbeenstatedonpage23,asalsotheonethatmusclesdevelopedbyuseremaintautand
firmwhennotinuse,(p.33).Theythusexertconstantpressureonthejointsurfaces,constant
tensiononanyligamentstretched,andtendsotmodifythemthatpermanentmodificationofformis
theresult.Asalreadystated,thewholeprincipleofphysicaleducationhangs,toaverylargeextent,
ontheselaws.Ifweapplythemtothearchofthefootitisapparentthatsuchexerciseasinvolved
springingontiptoemustinfluencethecontourofthearch,andthat,intheprocessofphysical
training,movementswhichinvolveitshouldplayalargepart,ifonlyasameansofcounteracting
theinfluence,inadirectiondirectlyopposite,ofprolongedstanding.* *Mentioningthisviewto
SirJamesPagetononeoccasion,he
Thearchofthefootis,infact,formedbyexerciseininfancy repliedthatmanyyearsbeforehe
ithardlyexists.Asyouthadvances,itbecomes,oroughttobecome, hadknownadancingmasterat
Windsorwhoalwaystoldhispupils
moreandmoremarked.Towhatdegreefulldevelopmentmaytakeit, tostandontiptoewhenever
dependspartlyoninheritance,stillmoreonthefreedomwithwhich possible,assuringthemthatifthey
thefootishabituallyused,andtheavoidanceofprolongedstanding, didsotheywouldneverbeflat
orofstandinginabadposition.Itisaquestionofphysicaleducation, footed.
designedorunconsciouslyeffected,or,ontheotherhand,ofneglect
andmisuse.
Butifitbetruethatthearchisformedbyexercise,thequestionnaturallyarises,whyisit
notoverformed,andthearchmadeexcessivebytooconstantortoopowerfulstrainingofthetie
rods,ofwhichtheflexorlonguspollicismuscleisthetype?
Anexcessiveformofarchmayexistasadeformity,butitisduetoamorbidcontractionof
thefibrousplantarfuscianottohealthymuscularaction,which,asitseemstome,couldnotcause
it.Thisispartlyexplainedbytheinfluenceofthetibialisposticusmuscle.Compareitattachmentas
seeninfig.14,pl.5,andthebonyconstructionofthearch(fig.11,pl.4)withthediagrams27,28,
ps.36and37.Itwillbeseenthatthetendonpassesunderthesustentaculumtali,andstretches
acrossthespaceunoccupiedbyboneonwhichtheheadoftheastragalusgalls,asseeninpl.1,fig.
2.Thusitisclearthatactionofthismusclerelievesfromstraintheligamentcrossingthespace.
Now,theastragaluscannotbedrivenupwardstoomuch,asshowninthesketch,fig.28,wherethe
bonesweresimplysetinclayforthepurposesofthedrawing.Theweightofthebodywillinany
casekeepitdowntoitsproperlevel.Butletussupposethatthescaphoidbonehasbeenthrownup
toohigh,abovethelevelofthesustentaculumtali,thenthemuscleinquestion,whoselineof
tractionisalwaysdeterminedbythatbonypoint,drawsthescaphoidbonedownwards,andcorrects
anyexcessiveconvexitysofarasthatboneinconcerned.Anyunduespringingupwardsatthebase
ofthefirstmetatarsalboneispreventedbytheperoneuslongusmuscle,whichtendstobringthat
pointandtheouterankletowardseachotherbymeansofthetendonpassingobliquelyacrossthe
sole,fig.14,pl.5.Althoughthisisoneoftheagenciesforbracingupthearch,italsokeepsthe
innersideofthefootdown,andpreventsundueuprising.Dr.Duchenne(ofBoulogne)hasspoken
oftheperoneuslongusastheagentwhichformsthearch(leformateur).Thisistoomuchtosay:it
assistsinformingandassistsinlimitingtheformation.Thesamemaybesaidofthetibialis
posticus.
Thus,therisingtotiptoe,whichistheprincipalmovementofthefoot,developsthe
principalfeatureithaswhileprovisionexistsagainstoverdevelopment.
Theinfluenceofexerciseindevelopingthecalfmuscleactingontheheeliswellknown.So
longasaweakcalfmuscleexists,alonglever,intheformoftheheel,issupposedtobebe
necessaryandthisarrangement,solongasonlyslowmovementisrequired,suffices.If,however,
quick,vigorousmovementoftheheelisnecessary,thenashorterleverandastrongerpoweris
required.Ithas,therefor,beencommonlysupposedthatasraceshavedevelopedlargercalvesthey
haveacquiredalsoshorterheels.ProfessorFlowerhasinvestigatedthissubject,andhefindsthatthe
heelsofthehigherracesarenotshorterthanthoseofsavages.IhavenodoubtofthisProfessor
FlowerisnotlikelytobewrongbutIalsohavenodoubtthattheheelofthehighlydeveloped
footispractically,thoughnotactually,shorter.Thereislessprojectionbackwardsbecausemore
projectiondownwards.Asthefootchangesfromthepositionshowninfig.25tothatinfig.26(p.
13),andexplainedbyfigs.27and28,(ps.36and37),theheeldoesnotshorten,butitdoesproject
moredownwards,lessbackwards.Andsoitisasonewatches,frommonthtomonth,aflatfoot
becomepermanentlymorearched.
Undertheinfluenceofvigorousandrapidlyexecutedmovements,themusclesofthecalf
andlowerpartofthelegaremodifiedinform,aswellasincreasedinsize.Thefleshy(muscular)
fibresofthedeepermuscles(fig.8,pl.3)areextendedverymuchlowerthanthoseofthecalf
muscles,wherethetendonextendshighupintotheleg.Thusanenlargementtakesplacejustabove
theankle,gentlyincreasingtothecalf.Thisisseeninthedancerbutinthelabourer,accustomed
onlytoliftheavyweights,butnottorapidmovements,thesedeepermuscles,althoughpartakingof
thedevelopment,shareitinalessdegree.Insuchcasesoneseesanenormouscalfabruptly
projectingfromtheleg,notgracefullynarrowingdowntotheankle,asinthedancer.
Thus,developmentdependsnotonlyontheamountbutonthemanneroftheexercise.
Excellenceofformdependsonexerciseoffunction,andonthemannerinwhichfunctionis
fulfilled.Thisistrueofthefootasregardsstrengthaswellasbeauty,andifitbeadmitted,thenwill
berecognisedtheimportanceofproperlyperfromingthemostordinaryfunctions.Foremostamong
thesearestandingandwalkingbut,aswearediscussingmovements,thelatterwillbetakenfirst.
Theactofwalkingis,essentially,aseriesofalternaterisingstotiptoeofeitherfoot,soasto
taketheweightofthebodyalternatelyoneach,andinthatpositionpropelthebodyonwardsinthe
directionoftheotherfoot(broughtforwardreadytogothroughthesamemovement),towards
whichthebodyisalsodrawn.Whereproperlyperformeditmaybebrieflydescribedasfollows:
Letustakeitatatimewhentherightfoothasbeenputforwardandhasreachedtheground.
Thebodywillhavebeenpropelledonwardsfromtheleftbytheagencyofthemuscleswhichraise
theheel,andthosewhichbeardownthefrontpartofthefootandthetoes.Now,thegroupof
extensormusclesonthefrontoftheleg,actingfromtheirattachmentstothebackofthefootandto
thetoes,asfixedpoints,drawtheleg,withthebody,forwards.Thus,principallybypropulsion,but
partlybytraction,thebodyisbroughtoverthespotwheretherightfootisplacedreadytobearit.
Themusclesactingastractorsarethetibialisanticus,peroneustertius,extensorlonguspollicis,and
extensorlongusdigitorum.Whiletheyaresoacting,theflexorsareholdingthetoestotheground,
readytobe,inturn,abasisfromwhichtospringupwardsandonwards.
Atthistimewhentheweightofthebodyisforthemomentborneontherightfoot,theleft
hasrisenfromtheground,andisswingingforward.Inthispositiontheleftfootisreadytobeagain
placedontheground,forthepurposeofreceiving,inturn,theweightofthebodypassingoverit.
Thetoesshouldbedirectedforwards,thelineoftheinnermarginofthefootslightlyinwards.The
footshouldbeinextension,thetoespointeddownwards,sothatthey,andnottheheel,shouldfirst
touchtheground.Thesetwopointsareinoppositiontothegenerallyacceptedview,andtothe
teachingofauthoritybut,theyare,tomymind,soimportantthewholequestionofwhat
constitutesgoodwalkingturnsontheiracceptanceorrejectionthateachwillbeseparately
discussedhereafter.
Bythetimethattheweighthasfallenonthetreadoftherightfoot,theheelhassunktothe
ground,andisimmediatelylifted,raisingthefootintothetiptoeposition.Theeffectofthis
movementinbracingupthearchhasbeenalreadypointedout(p.38).Now,astheweightcomesto
befullyborneontheanteriorpillar,abendingorhingemovementtakesplace.Howtensionofthe
flexortendonsactingonthegreattoelimitsthisbending,andrelievesthepressurewhichwould
otherwisebethrownontheanteriorpillar,hasalsobeenexplained(p.39.)Suchbendingastakes
placeatthisstageisatthejointsformedbythebendattheheadsofthethreeinnermetatarsal
bones.Onreferencetotheskeleton,itwillbeseenthatthesethreeendsarenotinline(E.F.,fig.1,
pl.1):itisnotdesirablethattheyshouldbe.Iftheywereso,thebendingwouldbeontoonarrowa
line,thecomparisontoahingewouldtoexact.Thearrangementoftheheadofthemiddle
metatarsalboneofthethreeinadvance,andthatofthetwoouter,oppositeeachother,increasesthe
baseonwhichtheweightofthebodyis,forthemomentborne,andfromwhichitispropelled
onwards.Butasthefootisbroughttoextremetiptoe,aftertheweightofthebodyhaspassedover
it,thetendencyoftheankleistogomoreandmoreoutwards.Forthis,anobliquehingeis
necessary,anditissuppoedattheheadsofthethreeoutermetatarsalbones.Thesearenearlyinline
CD,andsodoformanarrow,thoughnotanabsolutelystraight,hinge.Itwillberecognisedthata
broadbaseisnotnownecessary,theweightofthebodyhavingpassedover.Thepropulsiononward
inthelastpartoftheactbeingdonemainlyfromthegreattoe,littleweightisthrownonthelineof
theouterhinge.
Thus,forweightbearing,wehaveabroadhinge,onthelineEF,andthelimitinginfluence
onthebendingofitsuppliedbytheflexortendons.Whenafreebutsimplebendingonlyis
required,wehavethenarrowobliquehinge,CD.This,inmyview,istheexplanationofthe
irregularlineacrossthefootdescribedbytheheadsofthemetatarsalbones.
Butthisisnotall.Whenthefootisfullyraisedtotiptoe,andthebodythrustonward,the
jointattherootofthegreattoeisuplifted,dancingonatightrope,asshowninfig.28.Ithasceased
toactasahingetothefoot,thefinaljointofthegreattoemusttakepartinthebendingonwhich
thefootisfinallyupliftedfromtheground.Itwillbeseenthatitformspartofaline,CD,infig.1,
pl.1,whichcoincideswiththerestofthehingeconcernedinthismovement.
Whyshouldtheanklebesoconstructedthatitisprojectedoutwardsasthefootcomesotfull
extensioninmovingforwards?Therearetwodistinctadvantages.Oneisthattheankleofthe
movingfootisthrownoutofthewayoftheotherastheformerisbroughtpastthelatter.Thus
brushingoftheupliftedfootagainsttheankleontheoppositesideisavoided.Theotheradvantage
isthattheexcessiveextensionofthefoot,whichconveyingitdirectlyoverthetipofthegreattoe
wouldinvolve,isunnecessary,becausethefootis,infact,carriedovertheouterorshortertoes.
Inorderthatallthesemovements,involvedinasinglestep,shouldbedonewell,theymust
notbedonetoorapidly.Fastwalking,asdoneinfootraces,cannotpossiblybedonewellitought
nottobedoneatall.Whenanincreasedspeedisnecessary,runningisthenaturalcourse.Inthis
bothfeetareforaperiodentirelyremovedfromthegroundtheheelnevertouchesitthe
digitigradepositionbeingmaintainedthroughout.
Itisimportantalsothat,whateverthespeed,thelengthofstrideshouldnotbetoogreat.If
so,thegroundcanonlybereachedwiththeheelthereisnogoodfootholdtowhichthebodycan
bedrawnbythemusclesactingfromthebackofthefootonthefrontoftheleg.Thebearingofthe
hinderfootisalsodiminishedtothesmallestpoint,andthepropulsiononwardsismorelikelytobe
attendedwithaslidingbackwards.Thesedifficultiescausegreatermusculareffort,aswellas
greaterfrictiononthesole.
Thereshouldbegoodfirmpressureofthetoesontheground,andespeciallyofthegreattoe
atthebeginning,continueduptotheendofeverystep.
Dancingisamuchmorecomplexproceeding.Theprincipalmovement,however,evenhere,
istoandfromthetiptoeposition.Itsinfluence,asameansofpromotingthedevelopmentandin
maintainingthestrengthofthefootcanhardlybeoverrated.Ofthisexercise,lookedatfrom
anotherpointofview,letanotherspeak."Thetrueideaofdancingentitlesittofavour.Itsendisto
realizeperfectgraceinmotion.Andwhodoesnotknowthatasenseofthegracefulisoneofthe
higherfacultiesofournature?"* *Channing.
Itis,however,withthemechanismofmovement,ratherthanthepoetryofmotion,thatwe
arehereconcerned,andwenowcometoanotherhightlyinterestingfeatureinthemechanismofthe
humanfoot,onewhichverylargelycontributestoitsefficiency,andatthesametimestampsitas
altogetherdifferentfromanyotherfootthedifferenceinthebehaviorofthegreatandofthelittle
toesastheyareallpressedagainsttheground,whetherforthepurposeofsecuringgoodfoothold
instanding,forrisingtotiptoe,orforpropellingthebodyonwards.
Thedivisionofthegreattoeintotwophalangesonly,withtwoflexormuscles,onetoeach,
iseffectivetoholdbothdownandkeepitstraightinallitslength.Heretheadvantageofthis
constructionandofthespecialdevelopmenttoremarkablylargesizeofthefirstdigitisapparent.It
formsafirmsolidbase,muchmoresothanif,liketheothertoes,itbecameflexed.Figs.29and30
markthecontrast.Intheonecase,representingthegreattoe,ametatarsalbone(a)isshownwith
twophalanges.Letitberememberedthatthereisnotonlyashortflexorofthegreattoebutan
abductorandanadductor,onepullingonewayandoneintheoppositedirection,and,likethetwo
reinsofabridlewhenbotharepulledtogether,theyhaveajointorcollectiveaction.Thisisthe
sameasthatoftheshortflexor.Thethreemaythereforeberegardedasonesetofflexormuscles.
Theireffect,representedbytheline1,istoholddownthefirstphalanx,actingonitasonalever,
thefulcrumbeingformedbythejointatthebaseofthegreattoe.
Figs.29,30show,inthegreattoeandinthesmallertoes,theheadsofmetataturalbones(a)
bornedownbytheweightofthebody,indicatedbyarrows,andthephalanges(twointhe
caseofthegreattoe,threeinthecaseofthesmaller)actedonbythemusclesshownbylines.
1istheflexorbrevis,2istheflexorlongus.Thegreattoeisheldflatandnotflexedasinfig.
31,andthesmallertoeshaveadepressionatb,notaprominence,asinfig.32cisasmall
bone(sesamoid)notusuallyfoundinthesmallertoes.
Thisjointishelddownbytheweightofthebody,asindicatedbythearrow.Clearly,then,if
thecombinedmusclesbestrongenoughtoholddownthefirstphalanx,themiddlejointcannotrise.
Asafacttheyaresufficientlystrong,andinagoodfootnouprisingisseenatthatjoint.Onthe
contrary,asitliesbetweenthepointsoperatedOnthecontrary,asitliesbetweenthepointsoperated
onbythetwoforcesindicatedbythelines1and2infig.29,itisthepointofgreatestdownward
pressure.Thus,thefirstphalanxbeinghelddown,thepowerfullongflexor,(2)actingonthe
second,exertsallitsinfluenceonastraightgreattoe.
Fig.30showsatoewiththreephalangesandashortflexortendon(1)insertedintothe
secondormiddlephalanx.Herethereisnothingtopreventthejointbetweenthefirstand
secondrisingup,anditdoessoasthetoesaredrawnfirmlyagainstthegroundbythelong
flexormuscle(2.)Thisisdesirablewheretheobjectis,asfaraspossible,togriptheground,
whichisthefunctionofthesmallertoes.
Everyonecantryforhimselfhowfarthisdescriptionofthedifferenceinthebehaviourof
thegreatandofthesmallertoescorrespondswithobservationsongoodfeetinthelivingbody.On
theotherhand,ifarecentlyamputatedfootbeplacedonatableinthestandingpositionandtraction
madeonthetendonsofthelongflexors,thegreattoeandsmallertoeswillallofthembend.Inthis
experimenttheshortflexormusclesareasiftheydidnotexist.Thetoesarethendrawnintothe
positionshowninfigs.31and32.Weseethesamethinginfeetthathavebecomeflat,wherethe
bonypressurehasforthetimedestroyedtheactionofthesemusclesitprobablyexiststooinraces
alwaysflatfooted.Itcertainlydoesnotexistinfeetofahighclass.
Figs.31and32representthepositionwhichthebonesmustoccupyintoesasrepresentedin
sculpture.TheDiscobolusofMyronhasalreadybeenmentionedashavingthisfaultypositionof
thetoes.Hereeithertheathleterepresentedmusthaveflexedhisgreattoeandthenpressedit
againsttheground,whichhewouldnotbelikelytodo,orhehadnopowerinhisshortflexor
muscles,alsounlikelyinanathlete,ortheartistmusthaveidealisedfromafaultyideal.Thatartists
inclassictimesdidrepresenttheirownconceptionsofwhatthehumanbodyinthehighest
perfectionshouldbe,adoptingtheirownidealratherthanstrictlyfollowingnature,therecan,I
think,belittledoubt.ItisdifficulttolookonthefootoftheVenusdiMediciandregarditas
modelledfromoneinalivingbody.
ThemannerinwhichthesmallertoesarerepresentedintheDiscobolusalsocallsfor
remark:theyareproperlyshownasgrippingtheground,asflexed,buttheyarealsoshownasa
handwouldbeingraspinganobjectallthejointsareprominent,asseeninfig.32.Infact,
however,thetwomuscles,asseeninfig.30,combinetodepressthejointbetweenthesecondand
thirdphalanges,asweactuallyseeinnature,andasshownatb.Thejointisnotprominent,asatb,
fig.32.Thiserror,forsoIcannotbutregardit,isstillmoreapparentinanotherDiscobolusinthe
HellenicroomoftheBritishMuseum,amarblecopysaidtobemadeinRomantimesfromaGreek
original,possiblyofAlkamenes.Bothartists,asitseemstome,musthaveidealisedfromabad
ideal.
ThecollectionatSouthKensingtoncontainstwostrikingfiguresexpressiveofaction,by
eminentmodernartists:bothareplacedintheChantreyBequestroom.One(inbronze)isSir
FrederickLeighton'sAthletestrugglingwithaPython.Herethetoesofthefootfurthestbackare
seentobeallofthemvigorouslyflexed,themiddlejointofthegreattoeandthejointbetweenthe
firstandsecondphalangesofthesmalleronesareallofthemprojectingupwardsinonecontinuous
straightline,asiftheywereallconstructedonthesameplan.
InMr.Thornycroft'smarblestatueofTeucer,closeby,thesamefeaturesexist,butinaless
markeddegree.
Whoevertheartistsmaybe,whatevertheirauthority,whoportraythetoesasiftheywere
usedasgraspingorgans,itcannotberighttodoso.Manmaybe(inmoresensesthanone)a
graspinganimalhishandisadmirablydesignedforsuchactsbuthisfootisintendedtopress
upontheground,andgoodfootholdisgivenindirectproportionasitcanbesopressed.Such
pressurecanbestbegivenbymaintainingthegreattoeextendedinallitslength,asinfig.29,notas
infig.31.Thesmallertoes,itistrue,areadaptedtotakeadvantageofanysoftnessexistinginthe
surfaceoftheground,buteventheyhavetheirendspresseddownwards,asinfig.30thereisnd
diggingintothegroundwiththenails,asindicatedinfig.32.This,however,wouldactuallyhappen
inanyattempttoholdsoftgroundwiththehands.
Thehumanfootdoes,inaveryslightdegree,retainthegraspingpowerwhichcharacterises
theQuadrumana,butthiscannotbethe"essentialcharacter"whichtheartistwouldwishto
represent.Thegreatgloryofitistheadaptationfortreadingfirmlyonthatsolidearthwhichmanis
directedtosubdue.
Myapologyforexpressing,inamannersodecided,opinionsonasubjectwhichmayseem
tobelongtotheartistratherthantothesurgeonortothephysiologist,istwofold.First:Ifitbetrue
thatthefunctionoftheartististoreproducetheessentialcharactersofthefoot,itiswithinthe
domainofphysiologytopointoutwhattheyare.Secondly:Inthedecisionhowthefeetshouldbe
used,andhowtheyshouldbeclothed,artistswillexerciseaninfluencegreater,perhaps,than
physiologists,anditishighlyimportantthattheseessentialfeaturesshouldbeknown.
Thedifferencebetweenthegreatandsmallertoesisinterestingfromanotherpointofview.
ThecuriousarrangementcommontothewholeMammaliankingdom,oftwophalangesforthefirst,
andthreefortheotherdigits,seemstohavealwaysexistedthrougheverygeologicperiodsince
Mammalsfirstappeareditwasseeninreptilesevenbeforethat.AndyetnoMammalorother
animal,recentorfossil,hasbeenfoundinwhichthisarrangementhasappearedtobeoftheslightest
advantage,exceptingonlyman.Inhimitisessential.Onemightimagineahumanhandwithafirst
digitorthumbinthreesegments.Thewholeschemeofthehumanfootwouldhavetobechanged,if
suchanarragementexistedinit.HowequalefficiencycouldbeobtainedI,atanyrate,cannot
imagine.
Thefinermovements,whichcanbemadewiththefingers,needhardlybeconsideredin
relationtothetoes.Thesamemachineryexists.Thelumbricalesmusclesmight,perhaps,under
training,bemadetoholddownthefirstphalanx,whiletheextensors,bymeansoftheexpansionof
thetendonsonwardstowardsthetips,extendedthemamovementsimilartothatofmakingthe
upstrokeinwriting.Nosuchfacultyexistsinordinaryfeet.
Noristhereanysimilaritybetweenthesecondtoeandtheindexfinger,whichhasitsspecial
indicatormuscle.Still,thesecondtoehasaspecialcharacter.Itsuppliesfortheactofexpandingthe
toesanimaginarymiddleline.Infigs.17and19,pl.6,theactionoftheinterosseimusclesis
explained.Thefourontheupperside(dorsal)movethefourtoesfromanimaginarymiddlelinein
thesecond,which,therefore,hastwomusclesattachedtoit.Thethreemusclesontheunderside
(plantar)movethethreeoutertoestowardsthesecond,whichremainsstationary.Inthehand,the
correspondinglineisinthemiddlefinger.Therethebalanceofpowerislessdisproportionatethanit
isinthefootwherethegreattoe,ontheoneside,fullybalancesthethreeouteronesontheother.
Beforeleavingtheconsiderationofthetoes,andthemannerinwhichtheyareacteduponby
themuscles,itisdesirabletonoticethatthewordsflexorandextensor,asappliedtothosemuscles,
expressthatwhichthosecorrespondingtothemdointhehand.Theyexpressthatwhichthemuscles
actingonthetoeswoulddotowardsthemifthetoeswereusedasgraspingorgans.Thewordsdo
notexpresstheiractionintheordinaryfunctionofthefeet,inwalking.
Inthisacttheflexorsofthegreattoedonotflexitatall:theyholditagainstthegroundat
fulllength.Theflexorsofthesmallertoesdonotflexthemintheordinarysenseoftheword:they
donotputtheminthepositionshowninfig.32,p.51,butinthatshowninfig.30,wherethefinal
phalanxisactuallyextendedonthesecond.Theextensorsdonotextendthesmallertoes:theypull
thelegforward,actingonthefirstphalangesasfixedpoints,whilethesecondandthirdareheld
downbytheflexors.Nordoesthelongextensorspecialtothegreattoe,andtheportionoftheshort
extensorgoingtoit,haveanyeffectinextendingthegreattoetheypulluponitwhiletheflexors
holditstraightontheground.
Moreover,theflexorsandextensorsare,inthehand,antagonistic.Theformerrelaxinorder
thatthelattermayopenandextendthefingersthese,inturn,relaxinorderthattheflexorsmay
closethefingersandgrasptheobject.Inthefoot,onthecontrary,theflexorsholdthetoesagainst
theground,whiletheextensorsusethetoes,soheld,asfixedpointsonwhichtoactastheyassistin
pullingthebodyforwards.Thus,insteadofantagonisingeachother,theflexorsandextensors,act,
atthesametime,inperfectharmonyofaction.
Yetonemorecontrastwiththehand.Themuscleactingonthefingerswhichcorresponds
withtheflexorbrevispollicisissituatedhighupintheforearm.Itistherefreefrompressure.
Moreover,thereisnoroomforitinthepalm.Thesmallmuscleswhichactonthethumbandonthe
littlefinger,specially,canbepushedasideasthehandgraspsanobjectandsuchpressureasthey
thengetisofnoconsequence,becauseitisatatimewhenthefinerfunctionsofthethumbandof
theseparatefingerinwhichtheyareconcernedarenotinoperation.Inthesole,thankstothearch,
thereisroomandprotectionforall,atalltimes.Moreover,inthefoot,thesoleisneverusedasa
palmanygraspingactionisdonebythetoesonly.
Apointinconnectionwiththemovementsofthefootinwalkingwhichmustnotpass
unnoticedisthisTohavesuggestedthatneitherclassicnormodernartistshavereallyunderstood
theessentialcharactersofthefeettheyhaveportrayedishardlyagreaterheresythantosaythatthe
humanfoot,inwalking,doesnotlengthen.Thatitdoesdoso,seemstobeanarticleoffaithin
writersuponitoffaith,beitsaid,fortheydonotgiveanygroundsfortheassertion,nordothey
pointouthowitcanbedemonstrated.Oneseessimplythestatement,withoutexplanationor
reference,thatitdoeslengthen"aboutaninch."EventhelateDr.E.A.Parkes,anameeverheldin
deservedlyhighhonour,says,inhisManualofPracticalHygienepreparedespeciallyforuseinthe
MedicalServiceintheArmy,"Intheactionofwalking,thefootexpandsinlengthandbreadthin
length,aboutonetenth"thatwouldbeaboutaninch"inbreadth,evenmore.Inchoosing
shoesthismustbeattendedto."Ifthiswerereallyso,itwouldindeedbeimportant.Thefactthat
thisassertionisrepeatedinthelastedition(1887)editedbythelateDr.deChaumont,and
reproducedbythosewhoexercisemuchinfluence,issufficientreasontocallforacareful
examinationofthepointinquestion.Itwouldbeveryinterestingtoseesomedemonstrationofthe
groundsonwhichtheassertionisbased,iftheyexist,beyondthatgivenahundredyearsagoby
Camper.
Camper'sdiagramshowinghisviewofthe(supposed)lengtheningofthefootinwalkingexplained
inthetext.
Thestatementthatthefootinwalking,lengthensaboutaninch,sofarasIcandiscover,was
firstmadebyPetrusCamper,aDutchanatomistandphilosopher,whowroteonavarietyof
subjects:amongothers,onthelinesoftheface.Camper'sfaciallinesarewellknown.Hediedin
1789.Aposthumoustreatise,"Onthebetterformofshoe,"writteninDutch,wasquicklytranslated
intoGermanandFrench,butdidnotappearinanEnglishformuntilretranslatedfromtheFrench
forthelateMr.Dowie,thebootmaker.ItformsthefirstpartofhisworkonFeetandFootClothing.
Inordertobesurethatthetranslatorhadderivednowrongimpression,IprocuredtheFrench
edition,publishedin1792.*ThereisnodoubtastoCamper's *Forthis,Iamindebted
meaning.Fig.33isanexactreproductionofhisdiagram,omitting tothekindnessofMessrs.Hachette
only,forthesakeofclearness,someoftheletterswhicharenot &Cie.
essential.HereasonsthusthelinedBisequaltodc:therefored
Bislongerbyaquarterofaninchinthefigure,and,consequently,wearetold,anentireFrench
inch(aboutthesameastheEnglishinch)inthebody.Now,theextensioninlengthcannotgo
backwardsbecauseofthesolidheel,andofthestiffnessoftheleatherintheheeloftheboot.It
followsthenthatunlessthepointofthegreattoebeallowedtomoveforwardadistanceequivalent
tocB,itmustbeforcedback,intheformoftheanglef,inordertogive,inthedistanceAean
equivalenttocB.ThisisCamper'sreasoning.
NodoubtallwouldbeasheputsitifthefootdidlengthentotheextentofcB,butthereare
twofallacies.Inthefirstplace,disnotthecentreofthesegmentofcirclewhichtheheeldescribes.
TherealcentreisatamiddlepointinthejointbetweendandD.Fromthispointtotheextremityof
theheelwouldbetheradiusofacircle,whichradiuswouldbetheequalinlengthinwhatever
positiontheheelmightbe.Secondly,CamperhadnotrecognisedthatonwhichIhavesostrongly
insistedthat,byoneofthesameagenciesthatraisetheheel,thearchofthefootisbracedup,
andthedistancebetweenitsextremitiesdiminished.Theverysimpleexperimentwiththetape,
alreadydescribed(p.38),showsthattheremusthavebeensomefallacyinCamper'sreasoning.Itis
furtherdemonstratedinfigs.25and26,andexplainedbyfigs.27and28.
Everyonewhowearsslippersknowsthatiftheybeeversolittletoolongtheirheelsfall
downastheheelofthefootisraisedbut,ifthefootlengthenedinraisingtheheel,thatpartwould
beclippedmorefirmly.
ItisduetothehonouredmemoryofDr.Parkestopointoutthathewasaphysicianand
sanitarian,and,althoughamanysidedman,itisnotlikelythatheeverinvestigatedthepointin
questionforhimself.Heacceptedasfactthatwhich,evennow,isgenerallyaccepted.Really
nothingbuthishighauthorityandthewidespreadinfluenceofhisworkjustifiesfurtherdiscussion
ofthematter.Itis,however,remarkablethat,sofarasappears,neithertohimself,nortothe
distinguishededitorofthelasteditionofhiswork,nortothemanyreadershehashadamongthose
devotedtothepersonalwelfareofsoldiers,doesthisquestionseemtohaveoccurred,Ifthefoot
lengthenedaninchineverystep,whatwouldbecomeofitifsubjectedtothefrictionthatalong
marchwouldinvolve?Camperrightlyrecognisedthattheheelcannotextendbackwardsthefoot
mustcomeforwardsifitmoveatall.NowcalculatingfromdatasuppliedinDr.Parkes'book,a
soldiertakesmorethan2000stepsinamile,morethan1000foreachfoot.*Hemarchessay20
milesinoneday.20,000timesslippingforwardofthefrontofthe *Thewordmileindicates
foottotheextentofaninch,and20,000timesslippingback,the thismillepassus,orathousand
formermovementwiththeweightofaheavymanonit!Theresult Romanpacesastakenfromthespot
wouldbetooterribletocontemplate. whenceeachfootrises,tothaton
whichitfalls.
Thesupposedexpansioninbreadthtotheextentofonetenth,
oranythinglikeitisequallyimaginary.Thereisoneconditionunderwhichactuallengtheningof
thefootmayoccur.Whentheweightisbornebyonefootflatontheground,thearch,ifitbea
weakone,falls,withaslightincreaseoflength.Itis,however,eventhen,verylittlethefallingof
thearchbeingtosomeextentattendedwithabulgingoftheinnermargin,thereisonlyaveryslight
extensionofdistancebetweentoeandheel.Whatactuallytakesplacemaybeseenbyputtingthe
footbetweentwoobjectsonthefloor,andwatchingtheeffectofchangesinthepositionofthefoot
inseparatingthoseobjectsThefactis,thatnoman,dowhathewill,canaddoneinchtothelength
ofhisfoot,anymorethanhe,"bytakingthought,canaddonecubittohisstature."
Exceptionmustalsobetakentothestatement,commonindescriptionsoftheactof
walkingthatthefootunrollsitselfItdoesnotdo,oroughtnottodo,anythingofthekind.Wehave
seenthattheundersideisshortenedratherthanlengthened:itisbracedupbytheactionofmuscles
whichassistinraisingthefoottotiptoe.Thereisastiffeningwithincreaseoftheconcavityonthe
undersideofallthebodyofthefoot,andabending,withaconsequentconvexity,attherootsofthe
toes.Thisissomethingverydifferentfromunrolling.Theexistingroll,asrepresentedbythe
concavearch,isactuallyincreased.Again,thefobtisfrequentlycomparedtoarocker.Unhappily,
theprevalenthabitofcomingdownontheheel,thenfallingforwardontheballofthegreattoe,
withlittle,ifany,pressureonthegroundbythetoes,isonlytoocloseanimitationofarockerbut
shoulditbecalledwalking?
Ingoodwalking,thetoesshouldreachthegroundfirst:theyaretheorgansoffeelingitis
forthemtoliterallyfeeltheground.Indiscussingthequestion,whichpartofthefootshouldreach
itfirst,itmustberememberedthatuseoftheshoescannotbepresupposed.Manmustbe
consideredasgoingbarefootedifwearetodiscoverthebestmodeofwalking.Inthesavagestate,
thefootneverhasahardnessatallcomparabletothehoofsofanimalsitisnottothesavagea
matterofindifferencewhathetreadson.Nowletitbesupposedthatheiswalkingwhereheis
liabletoencountersharpobjectshidden,itmaybe,byverdure.Ifsuchanobjectbefeltbythetoes
inpointingthefootforwards,itispossibletoavoiditbywithdrawingordivertingthetoeswhile
stillholdingthegroundwiththeotherfoot.Iftherebenoimpediment:ifgoodfootholdforthetoes
andfrontpartofthefootbefound,itwillaffordabearing.Onthisbearingthewalkercanspringif
anysharpobjectcomeincontactwiththesoleofthehinderpartofthefoot.Moreover,theheel,
cominglast,istheleastsensitivepartofthesole.
Ontheotherhand,iftheheelreachthegroundfirst,itisapoorguideastothenatureofthe
foothold.Letusassumeittohavecomeonagoodsurface,butthatthepointwherethetreadwill
fallisoccupiedbyasharpobject,unsuspected.Inthatcase,whentheweightofthebodyfallsonit,
recoveryisimpossible:onecan'tspringbackwardsontotheheelasonecanforwardsontothetoes.
Letanyonetrytowalkblindfoldaboutaroomstrewedwithtintacks.Itcanbedoneifyoufeelthe
groundfirstwiththetoes,nototherwise.Itisidletomeetthisbysayingthatforwalkingamongtin
tacksitwouldbebettertowalkontiptoealtogetherthiswasthereplyactuallymade,inprint,by
acritic.Thequestionis,whatisthebestmeansofwalkingwheresharpobjectsareunexpected,
butliabletobe?
Norisitsufficienttosaythatpointingthetoesdownwardsisan"affected"modeofwalking.
Thatisamatteroftaste.Itisthenaturalwalkofatleastsomeofthehighesttypesofsavages.We
areatlibertytopreferseeingthetoesfirsttouchtheground,andhelddowntoitbytendonsof
muscles,whichallowtheheeltodescendsmoothlyandfirmly.Wemaythinkthatthisisbetterthan
usingthefootasifitwereindeedarocker,orasifitweretheplantigradefootofabear.Letthem
callit"affected"whowillitisonlyusingthefootasitoughttobeused.But,inreality,thereis
nothingveryremarkableintheformermodeofwalkingifitbedonewell.Itispossibletowalk
aboutaroomwithchalked,butotherwisebarefeet,andyetthepersistenceofthechalkontheheels
showthattheyhavenottouchedthecarpetand,still,toanordinaryobserver,nothingunusualbe
apparent.Wherethemusclesarevigorous,andundercompletecontrol,thatwhich,inapersonwith
weakfeet,orinonewearingtightorillfittingboots,wouldappearextraordinary,passesunnoticed.
Anattempttowalkinanaturalbutunaccustomedmanner,withunnaturalimpediments,isnotlikely
togosmoothly.
Thislastdescribedstyleofwalkingisonlymentionedforthesakeofillustration,andnotas
intendedforimitation.Itis,however,hardlytoomuchtosaythat,solongastheheeldoesreachthe
groundateverystep,thelessweightborneuponitthebetterthewalking.
Butitmaybeaskedwhatpurposeistheheelintendedtoserve?Itisfittedwithafirmandat
thesametimesoftpadcoveredwithathickskin,andissoadaptedbetterthananyotherpartofthe
footforcontactwiththeground.Isnotthisareasonforbelievingthattheweightofthebodyis
intendedtofalluponitinwalking?Wearetoldthattoplacethefootalmostflatonthegroundisa
mistake,asthebodylosesinparttheadvantageofthe"bufferlikemechanism"oftheheei.This
wouldbepertinentiftheconstructionoftheheelwerenototherwiseexplained.Asitis,thereis
nothinginittooutweighreasonsforbelievingthattheheelisintendedforadifferentpurpose.
Theheelisadmirablyadaptedforsustainingtheweightofthebody,which,intheposition
ofstandingatease,fallsmainlyuponit,andisbyittransmittedtotheground.Forthispurposea
softcoveringisverydesirable,whichconsiderationaloneissufficienttoaccountforthecushion
likepadbeneaththeheel,hardly,however,tobecomparedtoabuffer.Butitwouldbeintheactof
walkingdownahillsidewithbarefeetthatthenecessityforsuchastructureasexistswouldbe
evident.Inservingasadragtopreventslippingdownarockyslope,stronghardtissuesaremore
thandesirableinabarefoottheyarenecessary.Inwalkingupasteephillnooneusestheheelsin
levelgrounditinvolvesnogreatefforttodowithoutthembutitwouldbeimpossibleor,atleast,
exceedinglydifficulttodowithoutthemindescendingasteepincline.
Amongracesgoingbarefootthepracticeseemstovary.TheArabs,whohavefinely
developedfeet,pointthetoesdownward,whilesomeoftheflatfootedinhabitantsofIndiaaresaid
tobringtheheelfirsttothegroundbutitisadmittedevenofthemthat,ingoingdownhill,thetoes
firsttouchtheground.
If,then,pointingthetoesdownwardsbeanecessityingoingupandingoingdownan
incline,whowillexplainwhyitisbettertobringtheheelfirsttothegroundwhenitislevel?Who
willtellusatwhatangleofslopeapproximatingtoalevelitbecomesdesirabletochange?
Afterall,however,thequestionwhetherthetoesshouldfirsttouchthegroundmustbe
decidedbyanotheroughttheytobeturnedout?Tokeepthesoleofthefootparallelwiththe
levelofthegroundandyetpointthetoesoutwardsanddownwardsispracticablyimpossible.As
theyarepointeddownwardstheyarenaturallypointedinwardsthishasbeenshowntobeduetothe
constructionoftheanklejoint.IhavebeforemeabookonCalisthenics,wheretheauthor,having
prescribedanangleof60degrees,enjoinsontheteacherto"seethat,whilemarching,thepupils
pointtheirtoesdown."Withoutbeingactuallyimpossible,thisinvolvessomuchdifficultythatit
wouldneverbecontinuouslydone,howevermuchtheteachermightseetoit.
Thetwoquestions,whethertheheelorthetoesshouldfirsttouchthegroundandwhether
thetoesshouldbeinclinedoutwardsornot,mustbeconsideredtogethertheymuststandorfall
together.Thedecisionisofgreatpracticalimportance,ifonlybecauseitinvolvesthequestion
whetherthepresentmodeofmarchinginthearmyisbestforasoldier'sfeet,and,therefore,forhis
efficiency?
AstoturningoutthetoesCamperwasveryemphatic.Hesaidthatitwas"incontestible,"for
thereason"thatwethenformwiththetwofeetakindoftriangle,which,likethetripod,givesthem
firmness."Thepoet,onthecontrary,tellsusof
"Atowerthatstoodfoursquaretoeverywindthatblew."
Andtheexpressionstandingsquaretoallfourwindsofheavenisfamiliar,asindicativeofthe
firmnessofastructure.Itwillhardlybecontendedthattheideaofstrengthwouldbebetter
conveyedbysayingthatitstoodthreecornered,norwillanyoneallegethatasquaretablewithfour
legswillnotstandmorefirmlythanonethreecorneredwiththreelegs.Camper'sreason,therefore,
maybedismissedasuntenable.
Itistoohastilyassumedthatbecause,instanding,oneinstinctivelyinclinesthefeetatan
angleinrelationtoeachother,thereforeitisnatural,andconsequentlyright.Prolongedstanding
stillisitselfunnatural,andthequestionhowitcanbestbedonesoastoavoidillconsequenceisnot
soreadilydecided.
Thepositionofrest,intheattitudeofstandingupright,differsfromthatseeninthe
frontispiece,wherethefootishanginglooselyandthefrontpartturnedinwards.Instandingit
comestoarightanglewiththebodyitbecomesmoreflexed.Forthereasonthatthemorethe
footispointeddownwards,orextended,themoreitinclinesinwards,sothemoreitisdrawnupor
flexedthemoreitisturnedoutwards.Thisiswhy,instandingatease,thefeetaredivertedfrom
eachother.Thefeet,inwalking,areinstinctivelydirectedforwards,withtheinnermargininclined
slightlyinwards.Hangingloosely,thefoothavinglefttheground,itisinanattitudeverynearlythat
ofthepositionofrest,andinthatpositionfallsontheground.Then,astheheelislowered,that
whichwastherelaxedpositionofthearchwiththefootextended,becomesthestrongposition
whenthefootisatrightangleswiththebody.Allthisisinstinctive.Education,therefore,is
necessarytoacquirethehabitofturningoutthetoesinwalking,accordingtotheconventional
notionofelegance.Camperrecognizedthishesaidthat"thetoesofagentlemanshouldalwaysbe
turnedout,"butheadds"thoseofpeasants,andparticularlyofboatmen,arealwaysturnedin."If
therebeanywhowillcontendthatthetoesshouldbeturnedout,instandingbecauseitisnatural,
andinwalkingbecauseitisindicativeofeducation,theyarebeyondargument.
Letussupposethatamanhasbeenforaconsiderabletimewalking,andthathehasdoneit
well:theopportunitythencomesforapause.Theprobabilityisthathewillstraightentheright
knee,overextendingit,sothatitlocks,sotospeak,inthatpositionrequiringnomusculareffortto
holdthethighandleginastraightline.Overthepillarsoformedtheweightofthebodywillbe
thrown,thewholebeingsteadiedbytheleftleg,withthefootonthatsideinclinedatanangletothe
other.Hewillformanaturaltripodand"standatease."Itisarguedthatbecauseamandoesthis
naturally,thereforeitisthepositioninwhichnatureintendedhimtostand.Soitmaybeasameans
ofrestingfrommuscularexertion,andyetnotbethepositioninwhichtostandforalongperiod:
that,ifitistobedonewithoutinjury,mustbeitselfastateofmuscularaction,notameresinking
intorepose,lettingthebodysquatdownintowhatpositionitwill,solongasitdoesnotfall.Wedo
notarguethatbecauseawearymaninclineshisheadforwardonhischest,thereforestoopingisthe
properposition.
When,asinthecasesupposed,amanhaswalkedalongdistance,hismusclesaretiredthey
havebornetheburdentheligamentshavebeensupportedbytheirbracingaction,andverylittle
strainhasfallenonthem.Ontheligaments,then,theweightfalls,properlyandfairlyfalls,in
repose.Butligamentsarenotadaptedforaprolongedstrainwhetheritbeinwalkingorin
prolongedstanding,theymustberelieved.Theyarerelievedinwalkingbythebowstringortierod
actionofthemuscles,andthisagencymustbeutilizedforstanding,withthesameobject.Nothing
relievesfeetstrainedbylongstandingsomuchasspringingtotiptoe,tighteningthetierods.
Ifthefeetbeplacedparalleltoeachotheratsuchadistanceapartthatcentralpointsunder
thetreadofeachfootandundereachheelshallallofthembeatequaldistancefromeachother,we
havethefoursquarearrangementwhichisthemostsecurewehavealsothestrongpositionin
whichthearchisthemostfirm,andinwhichthemuscles,actingastierods,aremosteffective.
Thefoursquareandthemilitarypositioninstanding.
This,showninfig.34,is,asitseemstome,thepositioninwhich,beyondallquestion,
prolongedstandingshouldbedone.Iproposetocallitthefoursquareposition,becausecentral
pointsintheheelandinthetreadareequallydistant.Thefrontpartofthefootbeingwiderthanthe
heel,itfollowsthattheinnermarginisinclinedslightlyinwards.Itmakesanangleofabout10
degreeswithalinebetweenthetwofeet.Meyer'slineisindicatedindots.Fig.35isthemilitary
position,wherethefeetareinclined,atanangleof45degreesfromeachother.
Whyistheformerofthesetwopositionsthebetterforstanding?First,becauseitisfour
square,andnootherfigure,consistingofstraightlines,givessowideabasisofsupportinalimited
area.2ndly,itisthestrongpositionofthearch,sopronetoyieldinprolongedstanding.3rdly,a
turningoutofthetoestendstoupliftthegreattoe,andsopreventthemusclesactinguponitfrom
givingsofirmapressureagainsttheground,and,forthesamereason,thelongflexorisless
effectiveinactingasatierodwhentheheelislifted,asshouldbefrequentlydoneinprolonged
standing.
UndertheheadingHowtoStandIhavebeenatsomepainstoexplainmyreasons,forthe
benefitofthosewhosedutiescompelthemtostandformanyhoursdaily.*Theadvicemaybe
summedupinthis *"NursingNotes,"Sept.,
and"TheNursingRecord,"29th
1.Alwaysstandinthefoursquareposition. Nov.,1888.
2.Frequentlytightenthetierodsbyspringinggentlyontip
toe,anddothisvigorously,whenopportunityoccurs,withbarefeet.
3.Takecarethatfreemovementisnotimpededbybootsnorbysocks.Theproperformof
thesewillbedescribedpresently.
4.Letyourwalkingbewelldone.Thiswewillnowproceedtofurtherdiscuss.
Thefoursquarepositionshouldbemaintainedforwalking.Infig.36eachfootisin
preciselythesamerelationtothelinealongwhichthebodyissupposedtobemovingas,infig.34,
itistoonebetweenthetwo.TheimportanceofMeyer'sline,hereindicatedbydots,hasalready
beenmentioned.Itisthelinealongwhichthebodyisdrawn,principallybyactionofthetibialis
anticus,actingfromtheinnermarginofthefoot,andtheextensormusclesactingfromthetoes,as
fixedpoints.Itisthelinealongwhichthebodyispropelledbythepowerfullongflexorofthegreat
toe,assistedbythetibialisposticusandlongflexorofthesmallertoes,whichpasswithitroundthe
innersideoftheankleassistedalsobythetwoperoneiwhichpassroundtheoutersideofthatjoint.
Itis,infact,thelineoftractionforwardwhenthebodyisbehindthefoot,ofpropulsiononward
whenthebodyhaspassedoverit.
Onlookingatthisdiagram,itmaybeobservedthatthislinedoesnotaccordwiththatin
whichthebodyissupposedtobemoving.No,butitdoespointdirectlytowardsthespotonwhich
therightfootistofall,overwhichthecentreofgravitymustforatimebe.
Thetwoformercorrespond(inwalking)tofigs.34,35.Fig.38is
theRedIndianposition.
Therightfootdoesliterallyfallonthisspot,andinthepositionindicatedbythediagram.
Thetoesareinclinedinwardsbecausetheanklehasbeenthrownoutwardsasthefootbecame
extendedinrisingtotiptoe.Thefootisnowinthepositionofrest,andallthemusclesconcernedin
propellingthebodyonwardshavingrelaxed,therestiscomplete.
Thusthemostcompleterestpossibleisgiventothefootwhichhasjustbornethestrainof
havingthebodypropelledonwardsfromit.Thefootisalsointhepositionadaptedforfallinginto
theproperplaceforthenextstep,withoutmusculareffortinplacingit.Inthisway,footfallis,asit
shouldbe,somethingmorethanafigureofspeech.
Suchrestascanbeobtainedintheintervalsbetweenstepsmayseemtobeasmallmatter:
theperiodduringwhichthefootisupliftedfromthegroundseemssosmallastobeofno
appreciablevalueforrest.Thisisnotreallyso.Themusclesconcernedinrespirationgetnorest
beyondthatobtainedbetweentheinspirations:theheart,amuscularorgan,onlythatbetweenthe
beats.Yet,rest,formuscularaction,isnecessary,andisineachcasesufficientlysupplied.The
slightintervalofcompleterestisimportant,too,fortheligaments,anditishighlydesirablethatit
shouldbeascompleteaspossible.Thepositionwhichgivesthismust,therefore,besought.
Tomeitseemsthatallthesereasonstellmostconclusivelyinfavourofthefoursquare
position,andthat,indirectproportionastheydoso,theytellagainsttheconventionalpractice,
whichhasthesanctionofmilitaryauthority.
Itis,tome,impossibletobelievethatitcanberight,forstanding,toplacethefeetina
positioninwhichthearchofthefootisweakratherthaninonewhichrendersitstrong(p29)ina
positionforwhichthemuscleswhichbyactionbraceupthearcharemuchlessabletoactwith
effect(p41),andinthatwhichaffordsalesssatisfactoryareaofsupport(p67).Forwalking,too,
thesamereasonsholdgoodagainstthemilitaryposition,asshowninfig.37.Moreover,muscles
actingalongMeyer'slinedrawthebodyforwardandthenpropelitonwards,inadirectionaway
fromthatinwhichitistogothis,too,isacourseforwhichthehingesarenotadapted,whilethe
backwardthrustmustbeacrossthegreattoe,insteadofalongthelineofit.
ThehingelineEFisseentobeatrightanglestoMeyer'sline,which,passingthroughthe
greattoe,pointstowardsthespotwheretheoppositefootistofall,(fig.36).Thehingeline
CDisseentopassthroughthemiddlejointofthegreattoe.Thearrowpointstowardsthe
spotwherethisfootwillfallinthenextstep.
Letusseehowfarthesehingesareadaptedtothemovementsdescribed.Fig.39isan
enlargementofthebonesoftheleftfoot,asseeninfig,1,pl.1,thelettersbeingthesame.Meyer's
lineisseenpassingalongthegreattoe,whichpointstowardsthespotwheretherightfootistofall,
justasitdoesinfig.36,makingthesameanglewithalinebetweenthetwofeet.ThebroadhingeE
Fisatrightanglestothisline,justasitshouldbe.Whenthefoothasrisentoextremetiptoe,and
thebodyhasbeencarriedonward,thenthisfoothastobecarriedoutwardssoastocleartheright
foot,whichithastopassforthisthehingeCDiswelladapted.
Thesehinges,alreadymentionedatpage47,seemtomeeasytounderstand,ifthefour
squarepositionforwalkingbeacceptedasthenaturalone,butimpossibletoreconcilewiththe
militaryposition.
Thereasonsassignedforthispositioninwalkingdonotbearexamination.Here,forthesake
ofquotingfromanauthority,letustakethosegiveninDr.Parkes'book.First,astotheincreased
baseofsupportthegaininthisrespectmustbeinaforwardandoutwarddirection.Butwhenthe
onefootisliftedfromthegroundthecentreofgravityfallsontheinnersideoftheotherwhere,
then,istheadvantageofhavingturnedthetoesofthatfootoutwardwheresupportisnotwanted,
awayfromthemiddlelineofthebody,whereitisspeciallyneeded?Theincreasedareaofsupport
isrequiredonthesamesideastheupliftedfoot.
Secondly"thefeetcanadvanceinastraightline."Thisseemstoimplythatthereislessrisk
ofthefootwhichswingsforwardstrikingtheankleoftheotherleg.Thearrangementoftheangle
jointalreadydescribedwhichthrowsoutwardstheankleofthefootthathasrisentotiptoe(the
positionithasassumedatthetimewhentheotherpassesby),providessufficientlyagainstcollision.
Moreover,ifthetoesbeturnedout,theheelmustbeturnedin,andbe,consequently,directed
towardstheankleoftheotherfoot.Oftwomenwalkinginadirtypath,oneturningouthistoes,one
puttingthemstraightbeforehim,theformerwillbefoundtohaveleftmoremudonthetrouserlegs,
oppositetheankles,showingthegreaterratherthanthelessdispositiontobrushtheupliftedfoot
againsttheoppositeankle.
Thirdly,itisonlyadmittedtobe"doubtful"whether,withthetoesinfront,thereisany
increasedspringfromthegreattoe,anditisallegedthatthepositioninvolvesaloss,inthisrespect,
asregardstheothertoes.Now,takingthegreattoeasthebasefromwhichthebodyistobe
propelledonward,itis,whendirectedslightlyinwards,inlinewiththedirectioninwhichthebody
hastobecarried,andinlinewiththetendonofthelongflexormusclewhichpropelsit.Onthe
otherhand,whenturningout,itisobliqueinrelationtoboth.Astothesmallertoes,theyhavelittle
todowiththeforwardspringtheirfunctionhasbeenexplainedtobethatofgrippingbutindirect
proportionastheyareturnedout,thelineofpropulsionisobliqueasregardsthem.Thisisevident
fromexaminationoffig.39.
Itisarguedthatmilitaryauthoritiesmaybetrustedtohavediscoveredthebestwayto
march,andthatunlessithadbeenfoundbylongexperiencethatthemannerfollowedwas
satisfactoryitwouldhavebeenchanged.
Butismilitaryexperienceastothemodeofstandingandofmarchingsatisfactory?Weare
sometimestold,onreliabletestimony,that,inactualservice,thedirectionsoftheredbookare
ignored,andthattheregulationangleof45degreesisnotobserved.
Dr.Parkes'sbooktellsusregardingsoldiers"intheattitudeofattention"thattheheelsare
closetogether,thetoesturnedoutatanangleof60:hefurtherstatesthat"thepositionisnota
secureone,asthebasisofsupportissmall,"andthatinthemanualandplatoonexercises,because
ofthe"constantmuscularactionnecessarytomaintaintheequilibrium,"themenare"seldomkept
longunderattention."Maywenotaskwhythemenarenotallowedtostandinamoresecure
position?Whyshouldtheynotstandlikethetower,"foursquare?"Ifworkcanbedonewellunder
suchconditionsasdescribed,itcouldbedonebetterwiththefeetfurtherapart,andthemuscles,as
Dr.Parkesputsit,"lessconstrained."
Muscularactiontheremustbenooneadvocatesthattheworkinquestionshouldbedonein
astandateaseattitude.Itshould,however,bedoneinapositionthatisstrongandsecure,without
beingconstrained.
Evidencethatallisnotquitesatisfactoryinmarchingisfoundindirectionsformilitary
surgeonsonfieldservice."Attheendofthemarchinspectthefootsoremen."Thisconditionhas
alsobeendescribedasa"baneofmarchingarmies."Whyshouldtherebesomanycasesoffoot
sore,somemensuffering,andsomenotatall?Itislargely,ifnotmainly,aquestionofbadandof
goodmarching,offrictionontheground,orofpressureagainstit.
Weknowthatafile,asaninstrument,isinoperativeifitbemerelypressedonanobject
theremustbeslidingtocausefriction.Nowifthefootbepressedagainsttheground,andgood
footholdtaken,especiallywiththegreattoe,atthebeginninguptotheendofeverystep,thereis
verylittleslidingand,consequently,verylittlefrictiononthesole.Thisfoothold,forreasons
alreadygiven,canbebestsecuredwhenthefootisinlinewiththeonwarddirection.Ifontheother
hand,thetoesareturnedout,itisontheouterhalfofthesolethatthepressureandthefriction
mainlycomesthisisshownbythetendencyofbootstowearoutonthatsideanditisagainst
theoutersideofthebootthatthefootisthrustthisisshownbythetendencytotreadoveronthat
side.Allthismeanssliding,friction,andconsequentsoreness.Ifthefootbehardenoughtostandit,
nosuchharmensues,butthosepersonswhohavemuchhornycuticleonthesolearenottheleast
liabletothistrouble.Itispossible,ontheotherhand,tohaveaverysoftsole,andyet,withgood
walking,togolongdistances,andnotsufferatall.Thisisasitshouldbe.Ahornyconditionofsole,
oranypartofit,mustbetakenasindicatingbadwalking,andthisoughttomeanbadmarching
also.
SirJohnBurgoyne,aneminentlypracticalsoldier,couldnothavebeenperfectlysatisfied
withtheEnglishmodeofmarching,orhewouldhardlyhaverecommendedthatthetreadoftheRed
Indianshouldbeourmodel.*Theexcellenceofthismodeofwalking *Transactionsofthe
hasreceivedstrongtestimonyatthehandsoftravellers&mdashl RoyalEngineersquotedbyDr
notablybyCatlin,andinlatertimesbyLordMiltonandDr.Cheadle, Parkes.
inTheNorthWestPassagebyLand.Still,Ishouldbesorrytoseeit
adopted.
TheRedIndianwalkisshowninfig.38.Thecentrepointsofthetreadandoftheheelare
bothcoincidentwiththelineofmovement.Thereisamanifestadvantageinthis,undersome
circumstances,becausethefeetcanbekeptinpreciselythesametracks.Beyondthis,Iseeno
advantageoverthefoursquareposition,and,tome,afatalobjectionisthatthefeetrequiretobe
placedinposition.Footfallsshouldbealiterallyexactexpression.Moreover,theRedIndian,asI
aminformed,doesnotstraightenhisknee:thiskindofstepisnotconducivetodoingso.Thestepis
stealthyratherthanboldandspringing,and,asanapparrentconsequenceofthis,Iamalsoinformed
thattheirfeetarenotfinelyarched.TheArabmodeofwalking(a Itwassostatedinthe
statelyspringingstep)andtheArabidealofafoot(oneunderwhich MedicalPapersofDeerfoot,aNorth
waterwillflow)arebothfarmoredeservingofadmiration. AmericanIndian,whowasin
London,afewyearsago,engagedin
runningmatches.
Averyeminentmilitarysurgeon,atameetingoftheMedical
SocietyofLondon,inJanuary,1884,enquiredwhatcouldbedonefor
flatfootinsoldiers?Thatsuchaconditioncouldpossiblyariseinsoldiers,unlessitbefrominjury,
diseaseorparalysis,isenoughtocondemnanymannerofmarching.Theywhowalkproperlyare
neverflatfooted.Allthathasbeensaidofthetierodeffectofthelongflexormuscleswould,ifthis
couldbeshowntobewrong,havetobeunsaid,andtheprincipleswhichthisbookisintendedto
teach,admittedtobeunsound.Itisbadenoughthatthearmyauthoritiesshouldfeelcompelledto
rejectmanyotherwisesuitablemenonaccountofthisdeformityinslightorincipientform.Before
meisaletterfromasurgeonaccustomedtoexaminationofrecruits,whosays:"Ifitcouldbemade
cleartomilitarymedicalofficersthatthesecasesrapidlygetwellundertreatment,manyagood
manmightbegainedforherMajesty'sservice."Thereisnoreasonwhytheparadegroundshould
notbemadeaschoolforthecorrectionofanybutveryseverecasesofacquiredflatfootasitisfor
thecorrectionofroundshoulders.Aschoolissaidadvisedly.IneachcaseitisamatterofPhysical
Education.
Onegoodman,atleast,who,asaboy,hadthisdeformityinamostmarkedform,was
"gainedforherMajesty'sservice."AlbertOrgan,afarrier'sapprentice,wasundermycareinthe
GloucesterInfirmary,withfeetsoflatandsopainfulthathecouldnotwalkacrosstheward,a
conditionacquiredbystandinginhisoccupation.Hewentoutinabettercondition,havingbegun
exercisesconsistingofspringingtotiptoe,whichhewasurgedtocontinue.HeleftGloucester,and
Ihadforgottenhisexistenceuntilmorethantenyearsafter:hethenturnedupasafarrierinthe2nd
LifeGuards,justreturnedfromtheEgyptianCampaign.Hisgratitude,verystronglyexpressed,
was,however,temperedwithareproach.HesaidthatIhadadvisedhimtotaketodancingit
musthavebeentohim,intheconditionhethenwas,abitofverygrimhumour.Hetooktheadvice
toheartandcarrieditoutsovigorouslythathewas,itappears,celebratedintheregimentforhis
proficiency.Ithad,however,sohesaid,madehimmuchtoofondofit,andledhimintofrivolities,
whichheseemedtolayatmydoor.Happily,beitadded,thecareerhasbeentoocreditabletoleave
seriouscauseforremorseonmypart.
Thiscasehasbeenpublishedwithanaccountoftheaccidentwhichfirstdirectedmyspecial
attentiontothemechanismofthefoot.Ahorsefallingononeofmyownfeetingoingoverastreet
crossingcrusheditsoseverelythatthestrongligamentswhichbindtheoscalcisandthescaphoid
weretornthroughthusnothingremainedtopreventtheheadoftheastragalusfromsinking.Oneof
thecuneiformboneswasdisplacedupwards,andthecuboiddownwards.Thisderangementofthe
chessboard,asithasbeencalled,isevidenttothisday.Herewasaflatfootindeed.Itwasheldup
bycleverlycontrivedmechanicalarrangements,but,asafoot,ithadceasedtobeitwasablockon
whichIdidwalk,andwastomepreferabletoanartificialfoot,butonlyfromthehopeofmakingit
better,notbecauseitwasbetter.Thepainofbringinganewapparatusasoftenasrequiredinto
somethinglikecomfortwasgreat,and,onthewhole,itwasdifficulttoimagineanythingbetter
calculatedtostimulateaspecialstudyofthemechanismofthefoot,inordertoseeifitwere
possibletofindsomemeansofpermanentrelief.
Thefollowingbitofreasoningsavedme.Inahorse,thehockcorrespondstotheheel,and
thesocalledlegismadeofseparatebones,correspondingtothehumanfoot.Intheupliftedfoot
(fig.28)alikenessisapparent.Nowwhenahorserears,orspringsoverafence,thebackward
thrustagainstthelegmustbesuchasnoligamentscouldstand.Butapowerfulmusclewhichassists
inraisingthebodyhasitstendonpassingdownbehindthe"leg,"tobeinsertedintoafinalboneat
thehoof.Thus,thesameactwhichraisesthebodytightensthetendon,andhasatendencytothrow
thesebonesforward,andpreventthebackwardthrust.Alltheseconditionsseemedtobeprecisely
comparabletothehumanfoot,andmyreasoningwasthatifinmycasethetendonscrossingthe
solecouldbetightenedthearchofthefootmightbethrownup.Nothingwoulddothisbutactionof
themuscles,andanysuchactionwaspainfulbecauseitmovedthedisplacedbones.Littlebylittle,
however,thedesiredobjectwasrealized.Insixmonths,afootwhichforsixyearspreviouslyhad
never(withoutinstrumentalsupport)risentotiptoe,wasstrongenoughtoallowofhoppingovera
footstool.
Thiswasinrealityatighteningofthebowstringortierod(towhichthetendonscrossing
thesolehavealreadybeencompared)asameansforincreasingtheconvexityofthebow,or
throwinguptheroof.Thepersonalreferencesmustbepardoned:tomakethemismyonlycoursein
ordertogiveemphatictestimonytotheprincipleinvolved,aprincipleapplicabletotheprevention
andcureofacommonaswellasdistressingconditionarisingfromthetooprolongedstanding
incidentaltomanyoccupations.
Flatfootistoocommonlyregardedasduetotheweightofthebodypressingdownthearch.
FormyselfIdonotfindthatheavywellnourishedchildrenarethoseinwhichweakanklesandthe
morecompletedeformityaremostcommonnordoIbelievethatthedifferences,inraces,which
travellersdescribeareduetoweightofbodysomuchastomannerofwalking.Oftworaces,letone
beheavybuthaughtyandimperious,accustomedtoconquerandtocommand,lettheotherbelight
butsubmissive,aconqueredandservileraceIventuretopredictthatthelatterratherthanthe
formerwillbeflatfooted,differenceofweightnotwithstanding.
Thisdeformityhasreceivedagreatnumberandagreatvarietyofexplanationswhichneed
notbediscussed.One,however,seemstocallforprotest.AnEnglishwriterinaforeignjournal,a
copyofwhichhekindlysentme,hasinthepresentyear(1888)givenhisadhesiontotheopinionof
anotherauthoritythatitisduetodefectivedesign.FormyselfIcannotacceptas"themostrational"
orasrationalatall,theview"thatinthenormallyconstructedfootthelowerendofthetibiais
placedtoomuchtowardtheinnerborderofthefoot,sothatthetendencyofthetarsalarchistogive
wayunderthepressureoftheweightofthebody,andhastobeconstantlycombatedbytheefforts
ofthestronglegmusclesinsertedintothefoot.Ifwehadtocreateanewfootandlegsimplywith
theviewofpreventingflatfoot,weshouldplantthelowerendofthetibiarathermoretowardthe
outermarginofthefoot."
Ofcoursethetendencyofthetarsalarchistogiveway.Howotherwisecouldtherebe
sufficientelasticity?Althoughtheyieldingelementexists,asalreadystated,itisanecessity.Unless
thearchweremade,likeapieceofmasonry,unyielding,itmustyieldaccordingasitbracedupby
themuscles,asinwalking,orpresseddownbytheweightofthebody,asinstandingateaseorin
fallingsuddenlyonthefeet.Tosaythatthistendency"hastobeconstantlycombatedbytheaction
ofthestronglegmuscles,"ignoresthefactthattheydothisnotasaspecialexertionforthat
purposetheydoitinthefulfilmentoftheirproperfunctions,inmovingthefootonthelegandthe
legonthefoot.Theyandtheiractionwouldbejustasnecessaryifnosuchextraneedexisted.Itis
oneofthebeautiesoftheanimalmechanism,frequentlymanifest,thatmorethanonepurposeis
effectedbyasingleaction,justasmorethanoneeffectgenerallyresultsfromtheexerciseof
functioninthedifferentorgansofthebody.* *Seemottoontitlepage
anddedication.
When,inwalking,theheelisraised,thefootisthrown
outwards,soastoescapecontactinpassingtheother,and,atthesametime,intothepositionofthe
mostperfectrestandreadinessforfallingonthegroundinthenextstepallinonemovement.
Thetoesarepressedagainsttheground,andgoodfootholdobtained,bymuscleswhichalsoliftup
theheadsofthemetatarsalbones,relievingthemfromunduepressureastheweightofthebody
fallsonthem.Thearch,existingfortheprotectionofmuscles,isbytheactionofmusclesformed
andsupportedofthese,some,inhelpingtoform,limittheformationofit.Andso,too,thisarchis
bracedup,andalltendencytoflatfootpreventedbymuscles,which,intheactofraisingthebody,
andpropellingitonwards,relievetheligamentsfromstrain.
Theformerindicatesthenaturalcurvesattheknee(a)andattheankle(b),thelinesuniting
inthespineaboveS.Infig.41thearrowsshowthedirection,(towardsd),oftheresultantof
thetwoforcesacting,froma,towardsbandtowardse,thuspreventingknockknee.
Wemustalwaysbearinmindthatthepillarformedbytheuprightbodyisaseriesofcurves.
Inthespinetheyaredirectedalternatelyforwardsandbackwardsinhealththereisnolateral
deviationofthespinalcolumn,which,ifexisting,destroysthesymmetryofthebody.Atthehip
thereisanoutwardcurve,changingtooneinwardsatthekneethenthetibiahasanoutwardcurve,
changingtooneinwardsattheankle.Theoutwardcurves,itwillbeobserved,arerigidthose
directedinwardsaretheoneswhichyield.Fig.40isadiagramofthecurvesatthehip,attheknee,
attheankle,wherethecurveisagainchangedtoforwardsandbackwardsatthesametime.Knock
kneeisanundueyieldingattheknee(a),justasflatfootisayieldingattheankle(b).Ineachcase
thereis,ifanyonecaretocallitso,atendencytodeformityalwaysexisting,butitexiststosupplya
necessarypurpose,andprovisionagainstactualoccurrenceofdeformityissuppliedbytheagency,
muscularaction,which,atthesametime,effectsanotherpurpose,thatofmovement.Theextentof
thecurve(b)isseeninthesectionthroughtheankle,fig.16,pl.5.
Thetwodeformitiesaresocloselyalliedthatadiagramillustratingthemechanismof
knockkneeishereintroduced.Inittwolines,thethighandtheleg,areinclinedatananglemeeting
attheknee.Lettheseberepresentedbyabandac(fig.41).Weknowthatwhentwolinesare
inclinedatanangle,tractiononbothendshasatendencytodrawthemintoonecontinuousstraight
line.Thewellknownlawoftheparallelogramofforcesisbutanexpressionofthissimplefact.By
thislawifaforceactinginthelineabbecounteractedbyoneactinginthelineac,theresultant
willbeinthediagonalofacompletedparallelogram,ortowardsd,inthedirectionofthearrow.But
thisistowardsastraightlinebetweenbandc.Clearly,then,ifthiscouldbedonewithsufficient
force,theknockknee,orthetendencythereto,wouldbeprevented.
Now,beyondallquestion,theweightofthebodyisaforceactinginthelineatoc.Italso
actsinthelinebtoa,butthislatterismorethancounteractedbystrongmusclesactinginthelinea
tob.Ifthesewereinsufficienttocounteracttheweightofthebody,itcouldnotbeliftedfromthe
kneelingtotheuprightposition.Thesemusclesareallattached,above,tothepelvisorbonyring
formingthebasisofthetrunkand,beneath,tothebonesofthelegbelowtheknee.Some,unitingin
thetendoninwhichthekneecapisincluded,areinsertedtothetibiainthemiddlelineothersgoto
formthehamstringsoneithersidebehind.Thefactthatthesemusclesarealsoattachedtothethigh
bone,alongwhichtheypass,doesnotaffecttheposition.Theyareallcollectivelyrepresentedby
theforceactinginthelineab.
Herethenwehavealltheconditionsnecessaryfortheoperationofthelawofthe
parallelogramofforces.Nowletussupposethatapersonwithatendencytoknockkneehewill
probablyhaveatendencytoflatfootalsomakesanefforttoreachtothegreatestpossible
height.Hespringsontiptoe,andthefootisbracedupbythebowstringortierodactionofthe
musclesonthesolethemusclesofthefrontofthethighactinginthelineab(fig.41)exert
themselvestotheutmostinstraighteningtheknee,anddrawingittowardsastraightlinebetweenb
andc.This,however,isnotall.Theperoneuslongusmuscle,actingfromthefootasthefixedpoint,
notonlybracesupthesole,butalsodrawsthelegoutwards.Moreover,themassofmuscleattached
tothehaunchbones,whichswingsthethighandlegoutwards,whentheyarefreetomove,canonly
actonthekneeanddrawitoutwardswhenthefootisfixedontheground.Thuswehaveagreat
arrayofforcesalltendingtopreventknockkneeandflatfootastheydrawtowardsastraightline
betweenthetoesoftheupliftedfootandthehip.
Springingupwards,asdoneinreachingtheboughofatree,astrictlynaturaloccupation,
must,then,tendtopreventbothofthesedeformities.Unfortunately,itisamovementseldom
necessaryintheordinarylifeofmostpersons,andmanysinkdownwardsinconsequence.SirJames
Pagethaswellsaidthatpersistentefforttoconcealdeformitywilloftendomuchtocorrectit.This
isspeciallytrueinthesecases.Reachingupwardsisagoodthingtodo,notonlyinametaphorical
sense.
Nowletitbesupposedthatthebodyhasreachedtheextremeheight,andthatthehandshave
takenholdofsomethingtobedrawndowninoppositiontoresistancefromabove,liketheboughof
atree.Thisisdonebymusclesalsoactinginthelineab(fig.41),butbehindthethightheybend
orflexthekneeastheydrawthebodydownwards.Still,eventheytendtokeepthethighandthe
legbonesinastraightlinefrombeforebackwardstheytendtopreventknockknee.Buttheleg
hastobedrawndown,thekneetowardsthetoesthisisdonebytheextensormusclesonthefront
oftheleg,and,largely,bythetibialisanticus.Thislattermuscleisattachedtotheverycrownofthe
archofthefoot,which,byitsaction,isdrawndirectlyupwards.Hereagainwefindthesame
muscularact(thatofdrawingdowninoppositiontoresistancefromabove),goodalikeforthe
preventionofknockkneeandofflatfoot.
Theinfluenceofthetibialisanticusmuscleishereseentobeofvalueinthepreventionof
flatfoot,butnotatallcommensuratewiththatofthebowstringsbeneath.AneminentAmerican
authority,however,attributesflatfootentirelytoparalysisofthismuscle,aviewfromwhichI
emphaticallydissent.
Thearchofthefootisformed,ismaintained,and,asampleexperiencehasshownme,may
berestoredbythemuscularactionwhichfreeuseofthelimbsinvolves.Butenough,Ihope,has
beensaidinjustificationoftheviewalreadyputforththatitisnotaweakpointinthehumanbody
that,givenfreeplaytothefunctionsofthefoot,theprovisionformaintainingthearchwillbe
foundtobeascompleteasforthemaintenanceinpositionofanyotherstructure.Itisalmost
enoughtosay,withrespecttofallingofthearchorflatfootforpreventionpromote,for
restorationrenewthefunctionsofthegreattoe.Iftheshortflexormusclewhichholdsdownthe
first,andthelongflexormusclewhichholdsdownthefinalphalanx,behabituallyinvigorous
action,theothermuscleswhichassistinholdingupthearch(tibialisposticusandperoneuslongus
especially)willbeprettysuretobedoingtheirpartalso.Notsotheconversetheoperationofthe
musclesactingonthefootmaybecontinuedalthoughthoseactingonthegreattoehavebecome
inactive.Thismaybeinstinctive,onaccountofpainorirritationinthelargejointatthebaseofthis
toe.
Itwillreadilybeadmitted,iftheallimportantpartinthemechanismofthefootassignedto
thegreattoeandtothemusclesactingonitistobeefficientlyperformed,freeplayofallthejoints
concernedisanecessity.Buttheenormousamountofinjurymoreorlessdirectlytraceableto
interferencewithsuchfreeplaycannotberealizedunlesstheeffectsofitbecarefullytraced
throughavarietyofphases.
Inrestthegreattoeliesincontactwithitsfellowsinaction,whenpressedagainstthe
ground,itcomesawayfromthemtowardsthemiddleofthebody,movingnotonlydownwardsbut
sideways.Thissamemovementtakesplaceifitbesimplypusheddownwiththefingerandallowed
tofollowitsowncourseindependentlyofmuscularaction.Clearly,then,thatisthelineof
movementforwhichthearticularsurfacesatthebaseareintended(fig.1,pl.1).Nowletussuppose
thatitisheldfirmlyagainsttheothers,orevenoverorunder,asisdonebyamedianpointedboot.
Indirectproportionasthisisdonethejointinquestiongrinds,sotospeak,likeahingepressedout
oftheproperline.Providedthatthisbedonegentlyandconstantlynomanifestirritationissetupin
thejoint,andintimethenewpositionbecomesmoreorlesspermanent.Thedeformity,forsuchit
is,hasbeensuccessfullyinduced.If,however,theproceedingbeviolentorsudden,thenevidenceof
seriousinjurytothejointwillatonceappear,or,asismuchmorelikely,thefullextentofinjury
willnotbeapparent,butthejointwillinanycasebeadamagedone.
Sometimesthisjointisremarkablytolerant,andwillsubmitsoquietlythatthegreattoewill
befoundtohavedescribednearlyaquarterofacircle,andtohavecometolieacrosstheothertoes.
Insuchacaseitismanifest,thatthepowerfulflexormusclesmusthaveceasedtoact.Thusthe
bowstringortierodactionofthelongflexormustbelost.Flatfootmaythereforebeexpected,and
isinfactoftenfoundtoexist.Theirritationsetupmayresultinsuchspasmodiccontractionof
musclesastoholdthegreattoerigiduntilitassumesamoreorlesspermanentrigidity,oritmaybe
foundtobepersistentlyflexedateitherofthetwojointsitmayassumetheformseeninfig.31,or
thewholetoemaypointdownwards.Thelatterformisduetocausesnotalwaysclearthe
discussionofthemwouldbeoutofplacehere.Theformermaybecausedbydirectpressureofthe
boot,oritmaybeduetolossofpowerintheshortflexormuscles,(generallycausedbytemporary
paralysis,duetopressurebyafallenarch)whichfailtoexercisetheinfluenceshownbytheline1
infig.29.Thustheconditionportrayedbyartistsactuallyexistsasadeformity,and,happily,ceases
toexistsosoonasthearchisrestoredandthemusclesrelievedfrompressure.
Thesevereirritationsetupinthejoint,causedbythedistortionandbythepressureofthe
bootcausingit,leadstothickeningattheangleformedbythebaseofthegreattoe.Thisthickening
becomesitselfacauseofincreasedpressure,inturnleadingtostillgreaterthickening.Afully
formedbunion,asitiscalled,ultimatelyresults.Thisverycommondeformityisveryfrequently
supposedtohaveanhereditaryorigin,andthesubjectsofitflatterthemselvesthatitisnotdueto
bootsatall.Thetendencymaybehereditary,butanexcitingcause,suchasdistortionorpressure,
mustalwaysexist.
Acaseinwhichthejointinquestionhasneverbeeninjuredbydistortingthegreattoefrom
itsnaturalpositionandpreventingitfromfollowingitsnaturallineofmotion,is,Ibelieve,veryrare
indeed.Consequentlyitisalmostalwaysaweakpoint,andliabletobetheseatofdisease.
Thisjointiswellknowntobeafavouriteseatofgout.Althoughitmustbeadmittedthatthis
familiardiseasehascuriouspreferences,noteasytoexplainitiscertainthatdamagedpartsare
morefavourabletoit,astoallotherdiseases,andthatthefrequentoccurrenceofitatthisspotis
mainlyduetothecircumstancethatittherefindsaplacewhichhaslongbeentheseatofmoreor
lesspersistentirritation.
Ingrowingtoenailisafrequentandpainfulresultofpressureonthemarginsofthebroad
nail,developed,likeeverythingelseaboutthegreattoe,tolargesize.Theedgescurlunder,and,in
growingforward,throwoutexceedinglysharppoints,joinedtothefrontedgeofthenailbylittle
crescents.Thisisacaseinwhichremovalofthecauseisfrequentlyinsufficientforcure.Thenail
itselfhastoberemoved,soastomakeanewstart.
Theevilsofdistortionofthegreattoearenotconfinedtoitself.Aconditionresulting
therefromknownashammertoeisfrequentlyfoundinthesecond.Fig.30showsthepositionin
whichallthesmallertoesarenaturallydrawnbytheirflexors.Whentheupwardprojectingjoint
cannotbestraightened,andthispositionremainspermanent,itconstituteshammertoe.Letussee
howdistortionofthegreattoeisthecause.
Thesecondtoeinthepositionshowninfig.30,thatwhichitnaturallyassumesbytheaction
ofitsflexormuscles,presentsonitsupperside,atb,asurfaceorbedonwhichtheendofthegreat
toemaylie.Nowthattoe,initspositionofrest,isextendedupwardsandoutwards,closetoifnot
partiallyoverthesecond.Ontothissurface,atb,itwillprobablybepressedwhenpackedintoa
tightsockormedianpointedboot.Whentheunyieldingsockorbootpreventsthegreattoefrom
movinginwardsitcanonlypressdownwards.Thuswitheverystepitsownflexorsdrawthesecond
toeintothepositionwhich(whenpermanent)constitutesthisdeformity,whilethegreattoepresses
downtheendandkeepsitthere.Anyjointheldinonepositionlongenoughtendstogetfixedthe
ligamentsbecomepermanentlycontracted.Itmustalsoberecognizedthatveryfewpersonswill
deliberatelyextendtheirtoeswhentheclothingisremoved,asameansofcounteractingthe
contractedpositioninwhichtheyareheldwhileitisworn.ThePositionofRest,too,tendsto
promotecontraction,asinvolvingflexionratherthanextension.
Inasimilarmannereitherofthesmallertoesmaybecomeaffectedwithhammertoe,butthe
conditionsfavouritmostinthesecondtoepresseddownbythedistortedgreattoehereit
commonlyappears.
Muchmysteryismadeofhammertoe,whichhasbeensupposedbyauthoritiesofeminence
tobeduetosomeobscurecause,seatedsomewhereinthenervesystem.Tomymindthe
explanationIhavegivenisamplysufficient.But,itisargued,whyshoulditoccuralmostalwaysin
thisparticulartoe?Because,asexplained,itistheonewhichisoverriddenbythegreattoe.Itis,
however,distinctlyshowntobehereditary:itissomanifestlyhereditaryinonedistinguishedfamily
thatthefamilynamehasbeenappliedtothedeformity.
Doubtisthrownontheprobabilitythatdeformities,originallyduetoinjury,maybe
transmittedandbecomehereditary.Iseenoreasonfordoubtingthis.Ifindinthefeetofyoung
infants,eveninthosenewlyborn,thefourthtoeturnedinunderthethird,andtheopposedsurfaces
flattenedtofiteachother,aconditionexactlysimilartothatinducedbypointedboots.Surelythis
mustbeatransmissionofadeformitysoacquiredandthereisnoapparentreasonwhythesame
thingshouldnothappeninthecaseofhammertoe.
Letustakeabroadviewofthematter.Theseandothervarietiesofdeformityofthetoesare
notfoundinraceswhowalkbarefootedwhileflatfoot,whichisaconsequenceofbadwalking,is
commonenoughinpeoplewhogobarefoot.ThisisnoticedinIndia.Averyreliablecorrespondent,
writingfromSutherlandshire,statesthatamongthosewhogobarefootedorwho,likegamekeepers
andshepherds,wearbroadtoedboots,hammertoeisunknown,butthatitisfound"amongstthe
youngermembersofthecommunity,who,wishingtolookneat,wearthenarrowcrampingboots
whicharesentfromwholesalehousesinthesouth."Thisiscivilizationextendingnorthwards.
Therelationbetweencornsandtootightorbadlyfittingbootsistooobviousfordispute.
Cornsareillustrationsofthelawthatintermittentpressureandfrictioncausesovergrowth.The
cuticlebecomesthickenedatthepressurepointuntil,inturn,itbecomesitselfacauseofpressure
fromitsownhardnessandlargesize.Hereremovalofthecauseisspeedilyfollowedby
disappearanceoftheeffect.
Thatalongtrainofevilsaremoreorlessdirectlyduetodefectivefootclothingisbeyondall
reasonabledoubt.Butwhilethismayberecognizedandadmittedasregardsboots,fewpersonsat
allrealizetheamountofinjurytraceabletosocksandstockings.Theyareusuallymadewitha
middlepoint,and,beingputonwhilethefootisinthePositionofRest,thetoesreadily
accommodatethemselves,andassumeapointed,crowdedform,whichfrictionagainstthesidesof
theboot,inputtingiton,tendsfurthertoaggravate.Nowitrequiresavigorouslyactinggreattoeto
overcometheimpedimenttosidewayaction,evenifthesockbesufficientlyelastictoallowitatall
andthereberoominthebootforittotakeplace.
If,whenagreattoehasbeenpersistentlydistorted,thesubjectofitbeconvincedthataboot
withastraightinsidelineistheproperthing,andhasonemadeaccordingly,itisfoundthatthe
greattoewillnotoccupythespaceprovidedtheleatherfallsandhardens,thegreattoe,occupying
itsoldplace,crowdedupwiththeothers.Thisispointedto,triumphantly,asconclusiveevidence
thatroomontheinnersidewasnotwanted,andisofnousewhensupplied.
If,however,asockwithaseparatestallforthegreattoebeworn,thereisnolongerany
draggingonthesmalleroneseverytimethatitmovesdownwardsandinwardsthen,withgood
walking,thegreattoewillmaintainitsproperplace.Ifdistortionhavehadtheeffectofapparently
fixingthegreattoeinanevertedposition,eventhen,ifthegreattoebepersistentlyused,itwill,as
itrecoversitsfunctions,resumeitsproperplace,unlessthedeformityhavebeensobadasto
involvecompletelossoffunction,whenitcan'tbeusedatall.
Ordinaryandproperformsofsock.
Theordinarymedianpointedorevensidedsockisproductive,directlyandindirectly,of
muchoftheevilputdowntothechargeofboots,andshouldbediscardedbyallwhowishtouse
theirfeetasfeet.Theseparatestallforthegreattoeisalwaysdesirable,butforthosewho,happily,
havenodistortionandfulluseofthegreattoe,asockwithastraightinsidelinewillsuffice.The
threeformsareshowninfigs.42'3'4.
Theseparatestallforthegreattoeisanelementofgreatimportance,but,asregards
function,thereisnoadvantageinaseparatestallforeachofthesmallertoestheyallmovetogether
anddoverywellinonecasing.Undersomeconditionsofunhealthyskinitisofdecidedbenefit,but
onlythen.
Onthematerialofwhichthesockiscomposedthecomfortandthehealthinessoftheskin
muchdepends.Itisimportantthatitshouldbeofwool,notofacharacterliabletomattogetherthat
itshouldbeporous,readilyabsorbingperspirationandreadilyallowingittoevaporate.Cottondoes
notreadilyabsorbmoistureatall,butoncewetitremainsclammy,andisalongtimedrying.Asa
materialforclothingafootpentupinabootitismostunsuitable.
Freeexposureofthefeet,andofthesocks,iftheyaretobewornagain,totheairfrom
whichtheyhavebeensecludedishighlyimportant.Fortheunpleasantcharacterwhichthe
perspirationsometimesassumes,readilyamenabletojudicioustreatment,noremedyisefficacious
unlesstherebefreeexposuretotheair.Tothisend,clothshoesarehighlydesirable.
Itshouldbealwaysborneinmindthattheimpuritiesinclothingconsequentonpersonal
weararealloforganiccharacter,andcapableofoxidation,thatistosay,literallyburningupby
freecontactwithair.Sofarasmineralmatter,intheformofdust,getsinthematerial,that,onthe
removaloftheorganicmatterholdingit,readilyshakesout.Thus,ifonlyexposuretotheairbe
sufficientlyfree,washingisunnecessary.Whatamountofexposurewillbesufficientdepends
somewhatontheporousnessofthematerialaswellasonthefreedomoftheexposure.
OfaveryeminentmilitarycommanderIhaveheardMrVilliers,thewarcorrespondentof
theGraphic,saythatheonlytakesthreesocksinhiscampaigningkitonealwayshangingona
lineoutsidehistent,giveseacharenovationinturn.Inmyview,thateachshouldhaveastraight
innerline,ifnotaseparatestallforthegreattoe,twopairswouldbenecessary.Ifitberemembered
thattheorganicmatterisremovedbyoxidation,literallyburntout,andtheinorganicmatter,leftas
dust,isreadilyshakenout,thenthissubstitutionoffreshairforalaundressneedcausenosurprise.
Locke,inhis"EssayonEducation,"advisedforthe"younggentleman"thathis"shoesbe
madesothinastoleakandletinwaterwheneverhecomesnearit."Noonewhoadvocatedthis
wouldgainmanyadherentsnow.StillIhavelittledoubtthatifthefeetwereallowedtogetfreely
wet,astheywouldthroughaporousmateriallikecloth,andfreelydryagain,whichthatmaterial
wouldpermit,theriskofinjurywouldbelessthaninallowingthemtogetwet,orevendamp,and
retainingtheminthatconditionencasedinwetleather.Thismaterialissufficientlyimpermeableto
preventdrying,andis,especiallywhenwet,suchagoodconductorofheatthatthechillingofthe
feetissevere.
Amaterialwhichwouldallowairtocometotheskinandyetservetokeepthefeetdry,both
beingdesirable,involvesanimpossiblecombinationand,whateverbethedemeritsofleatherand
theyaremany,thereis,literally,nothinglikeitforgeneralacceptance,anditmustbeacceptedas
thematerialforclothingthefoot.Thereisnodoubtthatthepropertyofextensibilitywhichleather
possessesinaverymarkeddegree,andwhichwouldseemtorenderitexceedinglyeasytousefor
fittinganirregularobject,hasbeentheoccasionofthegreatwantofsuccessinfittingthefoot.
Ofthisgeneralwantofsuccessthereisnodoubt.AnAmericanyoungladyissaidtohave
paidherdressmakerthecomplimentofsaying,withrespecttoherdress,"ItfitsasifIhadbeen
meltedandpouredin."Whenabootwhichnearlyfittedatfirsthasbeenwornsometimeitdoesso
fitthatifliquidplasterwerepouredinafairlyaccuratemodelofthefootmightbeobtained.But
thisiswhentheboothasbeenmouldedtothefootbythefootitself.Fewifanymakerswouldcare
tosubmittothesametestasappliedtoanewboot.Andyettheleather,unlikethematerialofthe
younglady'sdress,issufficientlystifftostandupsoastoreceivetheliquidplaster.
Whyshouldnotthemouldingwhichthefoothastodoforitselfbedoneforit?Thatitis
possibletocutmaterialsounadaptableasthatofwhichdressesaremade,andwithitcover
shouldersaccurately,butthatitisnotpossible,withamaterialsoadaptableasleather,tocoverthe
footwithequalaccuracy,isnotapropositionwhichcarriesreasonableprobabilityonthefaceofit.
Moreoverawoodenmodel,intheformofalast,onwhichtowork,isavailableintheonecaseand
notintheother.Ifatailorcouldhaveanexactmodelinwoodoftheshouldersheiscalledontofit,
histaskwouldsurelybemademoreeasy.Icontendthatnoreasonexistswhyabootmakershould
nothave,intheformofalast,amodelofthefoothehastofitasaccurateasasculptor'sskillcan
makeit.
Noonewillallegethattheordinarylastisanythingmorethanagaugeastosize.Norcanit
bedoubtedthatabootsenthomeinashapestrictlyconformingtothecontourofanaturalfoot
wouldaffordnosatisfactiontoanybutveryfewpersonsforwhomtheymightbeintended.Anew
bootmustbeelegant,aseleganceisaccounted.Anoldbootissupposedtobeugly.Ithinkthatthe
oldbootshouldbethemoreelegantofthetwo.This,apparently,isnottheacceptedview.
Theexplanationisreallyduetoavainstrivingafterafalseidealofbeauty,forwhichboot
makersarenotwhollyresponsible.Theyseektosupplyfootclothingwhichaccordswith(toquotea
tradeprospectus)"thatsymmetryofformsodesirablewithpersonsofgoodtaste."Whether,as
appearstobethecase,symmetryishereusedinthestrictsenseofevensidednessornotis
immaterialthereisnodoubtthatthiselementisalwaysheldinviewandattainedasmuchas
possible.Eventhosemakerswhomakebootswithstraightinsidelinesthinkitnecessarytomake
theothersidetomatch,bygivingitanangletoo,asnearlyasmaybecorresponding,althoughless
pronounced.Noone,sofarastheworkhascomeundermynotice,hasboldlyacceptedthefactthat
thetwosidesofthefootarealtogetherunlike,thatthereisnosymmetryinthetwosides,andhas
actedaccordingly.
Andyetifthisevensidednessbeanelementofbeauty,itmustbeadmittedthatthepigand
otheranimalshaveitinfargreaterperfectionthan,tothehumanfoot,anybootcangive.
"Allfactsofnatureconformtoutilitarianaswellastostheticprinciples,andsymmetryis
nodoubtnecessarytothemechanicalbalanceofthebody."*Yes,of *MoodyLectureson
thebody,ofthefootoneithersideofit,nottothetwosidesofone Art.
footanymorethantothetwosidesofonehand.
SirGilbertScott,inhisLecturesonGothicArchitecture,condemnsanyattempt"toavoid
irregularitybymakingtwoessentiallydifferentpartslookalikeatthesacrificeoftheirpractical
demands."Hehadnosympathywithany"morbidstrivingafterforceduniformity,torturingofthe
internalarrangementstofitapreconceivedelevation."Isnotanexactlycorrespondingcoursetaken
inthe"morbidstriving"tomakethebootlook,ifnotsymmetrical,asnearlysoaspossible?Verily
thereisa"torturingoftheinternalarrangements"ofmanyafoottofitawronglyconceivedideaof
theform.
Thetwosidesofthefootdifferinform,instructureandinfunction.Insteadofattemptingto
concealthedissimilarity,oughtwenot(asSirGilbertputsitofabuildingwherethereisa
differenceintherequirements)to"rejoiceinmakingtheexteriorinsomedegreeexpressiveofthe
changeofpurposeintheinternalarrangement?"
Ifthefootistobeclothedwithdueregardtogoodtaste,asIunderstandit,allideaof
symmetrymustbeabandoned,andrealbeautyseenintheabsenceofanysuchfeature.Theinner
portionofthefootincludesthestrongarchonwhichthebodyissupportedandthepillarsthereof,
fromoneofwhichthebodyispropejledonwards.Theouterformsabuttresstogiveadditionalarea
ofsupportwheresuchsupportisnotaffordedbythefootontheotherside,Thisdifferenceshould
beexpressedratherthaneffacedintheclothing.
Itisclearthatanybeautytobeseeninthefootmustbeintheform.Thetextureandthe
colourarehidden,and,forthemostpart,anyexpressionwhichmovementcangive,ishiddenalso.
Ithasgreatbeautyinform,andprobablynobeautyismorepermanentlysatisfyingthanthatof
form,whetheritbeinavase,asMrGladstonehasrecentlypointedout,orintrees,asLord
Beaconsfieldfound.Itwouldindeedbeacauseforcongratulationifthisbeautyinthefootcouldbe
expressedthroughclothing,fittingthefootandfullyrevealingtheform.
Unhappilytheexistingstateofthingsisonlytooforciblyillustratedbythewriterofthe
officialaccountoftheClothingSectionintheHandbookoftheInternationalHealthExhibition,
whosays"Unfortunatelythemorehygienicthereputedqualitiesofthebootthelessdoesits
formcommenditselftotheartistictaste."Anyhowtheremustbesomethingwronghere.Theywho
worshippedthegoddessHygeiaknewwhatbeautyinformmeant,andnothingshouldbecalled
hygienicthatisuglyoroffensivetogoodtaste.
Itisbynomeanseasytoseeinwhatsensethismuchabusedword"artistic"isgivenandthe
onlycluewehaveisthat,whilethewritergoesoutofhiswaytoobjecttothesocalledhygienic
boot,hefindsnocausefordisapprovalatanyrateheexpressesnoneoftheconventionaltype.
Toordinarypersonsfineartmaybeasealedbook,"forfineartisadeepwelltodrawfrom
itcoversawidespace,itpenetratesfarbelowthesurfaceofthings,itappealstoawiderangeof
sympathies,embracingsubjectsnearakintoscienceandpoetry,philosophyandreligion."
Thesewordswerenotedandpreservedwhenfirstutteredlongbeforetheyappearedina
printedbook.*Theymayseemtodiscourageanyutterancewith *"TheMinistryofFine
respecttofineartbythosewhohavenopretensionstobethemselves ArttotheHappinessofHuman
artists,Notsotheirintention.Spokenbyonewhospokewiththe Life,"byT.GambierParry.The
deathofMrGamblerParryoccurred
highestauthority,onewhoevertaughtthatfineartmust,before
justasthesepagesarewritten,athis
everything,betrue,andmustaccepttruthfromwhateversourceit residence,HighnamCourt,near
maycome,theyencouragecommentratherthanforbidit. Gloucesteranirreparablelosstothe
neighbourhoodwhereforfiftyyears
Sciencetellsusthatthehumanfootissomethingvery hehadlivedandworkedtopromote
differentfromthatwhichthemodernbootmakesitappeartobe. thehappinessofthosearoundhim,
notonlybymeansofthefinearts
TherecanbelittleakintoPoetryinthatwhichlimitsthepoetryof whichheunderstoodandlovedso
gracefulmotionandassociatesitwithpain.Philosophycannotaccord well.
withthatwhichdegradestothesimilitudeoftheloweranimals
essentiallyhumancharacters.ReligioncannotfailtocondemnthatwhichdistortsaportionofGod's
noblestwork.
Butcanthebootmakerbeanartist?Whilethesepageshavebeeninpreparationonewho
claimedtopronouncedogmaticallyonart,saidinmyhearing,thatabootmaker,howeverskilfulas
anartizan,cannotbeanartist.FromthisIdidanddoemphaticallydissent.Hemaybesoasreally
asanyofthemonkmasonsofold,whodelightedtoexpressinstonethesensetheyfeltofwhat
theirworkwas.SurelyonemayconcludethatMrMurray,whotoldusthattheartistreproducesthe
essentialcharacteroftheobject,wouldallowthatthebootmaker,insofaronlyinsofaras
heexpressesintheclothingtheessentialcharactersoftheobjectheclothes,mayclaimtobe,inthe
highestsenseoftheword,anartist.
Ofthosewhomakeupforwantofknowledgeofthoseessentialcharactersbyexpressinga
middlelinewhichdoesnotexist,andbyputtingonornament,whichexpressesnothingbutthe
designersideaofelegance,nothingneedbeheresaid.
IfwithoutpresumptionImayofferadvicefromtheartisticpointofview,itwouldbe
summedupinthis:Lookonthefeetastwohalvesofaharmoniouswhole,eachthecomplement
aswellasthecounterpartoftheother.Bearinmindthattheprincipalcharacteristicofthehuman
footisthegreatdevelopmentoftheinnersidethatthemainlineofactionalongwhichthebodyis
drawnforwardandpropelledonwardisthatwhichIhavecalledtheleadingline,correspondingto
Meyer'slineinthesole.Theleadinglineisappropriatelymarkedinthefootbythecircumstance
thatitisthehighestpart,itis,infact,thecrestoftheridge.Expressthisintheclothing,andletitbe
markedoutbysomefeature,bythelineofthelacesorinthelineofaseam.Lettheoutsideofthe
footappearasitis,asortofbuttresstotheinnerportion,andabandonallattemptstomakethetwo
sidessymmetrical.Rather,asSirGilbertScottputit,rejoiceintheopportunityofmakingthe
clothingexpressiveofthedifferenceofpurposeinthetwosidesoftheobjectyouclothe.
Ifyoumustputornamentalstitching,or,asoftenseenintoecaps,perforatedwork,avoidall
appearanceofattemptingtoexpressamiddleline,whichexistsonlyinimagination.Accentuate,if
youwill,thatwhichisanessentialcharacter,andmarkouttheleadinglineoranyotherfeature
whichexists,but,atanyrate,abstainfromexpressingthatwhichhasnoexistence.
Theprincipleinvolvedinthemaxim"lettheshoemakersticktohislast,"nesutorultra
crepidam,ifappliedtotheSurgeon,mayforbidhimtomeddlewithit.Surgeonshavesaidhard
thingsofbootmakers,withoutdoingmuchtoshowwhat,fromtheirpointofview,iswanted.On
theotherhandonereadshowthateminentmedicalmenhave"recommendedshapesforthesolesof
bootsasunfitforthehumanfootasaQueenElizabethfrillforagiraffe."Thiswasthestatementof
acontributortotheBootandShoeTradesJournal,buttheeditorofthatpaperoncesaidthatthere
werequestionsinwhich"wethinkthatthefunctionsoftheSurgeonandthemilitarybootmaker
mightbejudiciouslyblended."Inthehopethattheywillbeacceptedinthesamespiritasthatwhich
dictatedtheabovesentenceanysuggestionshereinmadeastobootmakingincivillifeareoffered,
andcertainlywithnopretensionstoanyabilitytoteach,thatofwhichIhaveverylittlepractical
knowledge.
Formaterialthereislittlechoiceleatherisaforegoneconclusion.StillIfullybelievethatif
bootscouldbemadetoreallyfitthefootfititasacoatorlady'sdressfitstheshouldersthe
advantagesofclothforsummerwearwouldensureanextensiveadoption.Theobjectiontocloth
bootsisgenerallyexpressedinthewordclumsy.
Bootsarenotfittedtothefootwhileinprocessofmaking,astailorsordressmakerstryon
theirunfinishedwork:theyarefittedonceforallonalast,supposedtosupplythepurposeofa
gaugeratherthanamodelonwhichtheworkisdone.Myownfeelingisthatthislastshouldbe
indeedamodelthroughout,ofthesameformasthefoot,andincludingaportionofthelegabove
theankle.Thatthereisnovalidreasonwhythisshouldnotbewillbeshownfurtheron.
First,astotheoutlineofthesole.Idistrustthepenciltracingrunroundthefootwithno
guaranteethatthepencilwillalwaysbehelduprightorinclinedatthesameangle.Imuchprefera
tracingmadebymeasurementfromtwoparallellinesalongotherparallellines,asindicatedinfig.
45.Byholdinganordinaryflatruleonedgeitiseasytomeasurefromtheselinestotheedgeofthe
foot,andnotethedistancesfromtheheelofeverymeasurementtaken.
Butagroundplanofthesoleandaseriesofgirthsisnotsufficientthecontourshouldbe
taken.Ifthedifferencesinthetwosidesofthefootshouldevercometobefullyrealized,itmaybe
thatthisineverycasewouldnotbenecessarythesoleoutlineanddimensionswouldbesufficient
directionforfillinginthecontour.Ihaveneveryetseen,exceptsofarasImyselfhavehadthem
made,lastswhichhadanypretensionstofollowingthecontourofthefoot.But,surely,thehighest
partofthefootshouldhave,asfaraspossible,itsexactcounterpartinthelastwhichistoserveasa
modelforitsclothing.
Outlineofsolemeasuredfromthecontinuouslinesalongthedottedlines.ABsection
throughMeyer'sline.CDsectionacrossthefootatthecreasingpoint.
Fromthisthenecessityhasfollowedforhavingsomemeansoftakingmeasures,notof
lengthandgirthonly,butalsosupplyingcontourlines.Itisalsoobviouslynecessarythatthese
shouldbecapableofexpressioninsuchformthatthelastormodelmakercanunderstandthem,and
thatmeansshouldexistforverifyingtheaccuracywithwhichthedirectionsgivenhavebeen
fulfilled.
TofulfiltheseconditionsIdevisedaformoffootstand,which,forthesakeofa
distinguishingname,Iproposetocallthepedistat,fig.46.Itconsistsofwood,andhasamiddle
platformtwelveincheslongandfourwide.Atoneendofthisisablock,againstwhichtheheelis
placed.Outsidethetwobordersoftheplatformaresunkengrooves,alongwhichslidetwoupright
brasspillarstheinneredgesofthesealsomaintainadistanceoffourinchesapart.Themargins
outsidethegroovesaregraduatedinoneeighthsofaninch,datingfromtheheelblock.Thepillars
aresimilarlygraduated,datingfromtheplatformlevel.Thesepillarsslidebymeansofarunning
screw,movedbyaroundmilledhead,seeninfront.
FootstandorPedistatfortakingoutlineofsoleandcontouroffoot.
Asixinchbrassruleisprovided,markedinthemiddle,buttheinchesnotnumberedthisso
astomeasureeitherfromtheendoftheruleor,whenslidinginthegroovesofthetwopillars,from
thefirstinch.Thecorneriscutoffatoneendandnotattheother,soastoaffordapointedora
squareending,asdesired.Bothsidesaregraduatedalike,thelongeredgebeingbevelled,soasto
runinthegroovesofthepillars.Whenthesearesetatanyplaceinthelengthofthefoot,thebrass
rulebridgingacrossfrompillartopillarwillfixtheexactpositionofthehighestpointofasection
acrossthatline.L.H.D.willindicateitslengthfromtheheelblock,itsheightfromtheplatform
level,andthedistancefromtheinnerorouterborderofthefourinchplatform.
Itisobviouslyeasytoseewhetheralastwithaflatsolehasanypoint,correspondingtoone
inagivenfoot,accuratelyplaced,asinthedirections.Noristhereanydifficultyingivingaground
planwhichshallexpressthedistances(D)andthelines,alongoracrossthefoot,atwhichsections
aremadebymeansofmeasurementsrecorded.
Infact,themakingofanynumberofsectionsisonlyaquestionoftimeandcare.If,
however,theoutlinescommontoallfeetbeknown,veryfewarenecessary.Asectionmade,ifcut
outincardboard,suppliesagaugebywhichtotestthelastinmakingit.
Fig.45showsasoleoutlinesotaken,theextremelengthbeingfoundbystretchingtherule
frompillartopillar.Theadditionallengthhasbeenaddedandthedesiredcurvegiven.Whatthis
additionallengthshouldbemustvaryaccordingtothethicknessofmaterial.Somemustbegiven
foralthoughthesupposedlengtheningofthefootinwalkingisfallacious,roommustbegiven,for
variousreasons.Thefootdoesexpandalittleinstanding.Itisliabletoslideforwardingoingdown
hill.Turningroommustbegiventotheleather,especiallyifitbethick.Finally,theunpleasant
appearancecausedbytoosharp,tooabrupt,aturning,isthusprevented.
Nowsupposethatthecontour,followingtheleadingline,coincidentwithMeyer'sline,be
desired.Ifthelengthfromtheheelblock(L),theheightasshownbythepillars(H),andthe
distancefromtheinnermargin(D),beallnotedatasuccessionofpoints,asectioniseasily
obtained.Soalso,ifthepillarsbefixedoppositethecreasingpoint,dataareeasilyobtainedfora
sectionacrossthefoot.Thesearethetwosections,indicatedbythelinesABandCDinfig.45,
whichwereactuallysuppliedwiththegroundplanshowninthatfigure.
Theordinarylastisshowninfig.47.Thepartcorrespondingtotheanklehasnopretension
tobeatallliketheankleitself.Thecurveduppersurfaceisshapedasseeninplanata.Theupper
partofthehinderportionprojectsbackwards,(evenmorethanisshowninthefigure)althoughthe
tendonabovetheheelliesfurtherforwardthantheheelitself.Thisisfortheobviouspurposethat
thelastshalldraw,thatistosay,bedrawnfromtheboot,which,ifitwerelargerbelowthanabove,
couldnotbedone.Itwillbeseenthatthelastisdividedinsuchawaythat,althoughtheupperpart
canbemoved,thesolelineiscontinuous.Atbasectionofanordinarylastwouldbe,asshown,
highestinthemiddle,whereasthegreattoe,andstillmorethejointattherootofit,ismanifestly
thickerthanthelittletoeontheouterside.
Ordinaryformoflast.Comparefig.48.
Theordinarylastisalwaysraisedatthetoe,sothatthetreadofthefootshallrestinahollow
ofthebootsole.Thusitisonlywhentheheelisraisedthatthetoescanbebroughttotheground.*
TothisIobject.Forordinarywalkingboots,suchasIusemyself,I *Accordingtothedegree,
amsurethatitisnotnecessary.These,however,havenoheels:I thelastissaidtohavespring.
wouldnotonanyaccountreturntotheuseofthem.
Inmyjudgmentnolastissatisfactorythatdoesnotconformtotheshapeofthefoot
throughout,asitstandsonalevelsurface.Itshouldevenincludeasmallportionofthelegabove
theankle.Thedifficultyofdrawingthelastisgotoverbyalittledeviceofmyown,representedin
fig.48.
Author'sformoflastabeingahorizontalsectionacrosstheanklebaverticalsection
throughthefrontpart.Thedottedlinesshowthepinunitingthetwopartsdividedalongthe
linecde.
Herethelasthasnolongitudinaldivision,asinfig.47thenecessarydivisionismadefrom
ctoe.Beforethisisdoneaholeisdrilledfromabovetheheelthroughtothesoleatthepart
correspondingtothetread.Theendsarecountersunk,soastoreceiveascrewheadaboveanda
nutbelow,wherethebrokensurfaceisfilledinwithleather,soastorenderthesolesmooth.The
cut,cd,ismadeatrightanglestothedrillhole,sothatwhenthepin,forwhichtheholeisintended,
isscrewedintothenut,itshallpullquitestraightontheopposedsurfacesandnotobliquely.When
thecutismadeasfarasd,itismetbyonemadefromandatrightanglestothesole.Thetwolines
thusmeetandformaslightshoulderatd.Thislocksthetwopiecestogetherandpreventsrotation,
aswellasanytendencyofthehinderpiecetoslipuptheinclinedplanepresentedbythepiecein
front.
When,onthebootsbeingfinished,itisdesiredtowithdrawthelasts,theheelpartisturned
back,soastoexposethescrewheadandallowthepintobeunscrewed.Thepinbeingwithdrawn,
thesoleisbentupwards,soastodislodgethehinderpart,byraisingthesolelineandbringingit
aboved,whenitmovesuptheinclinedplane.Thehinderpartnowmovesforwardsasitmoves
upwards,andsoallowstheprojectingheeltobewithdrawn.Thefrontpartisthenpushedbackfrom
thetoe,whenitiseasilyremoved.
Itis,moreover,eminentlydesirablethatthelastshouldadmitofbeingreplacedintheboot.
Bythismeansalonecanthequestionbetestedwhetherthebootmakerhascuthispatternssoasto
fitthelast,orwhetherhehasstretchedtheleathersoastomakeitliesmooth.Withthisformoflast,
replacementwithinthebootiseasy,ifthebootreallyfitthelast.
Theselasts(fig.48)areseentobenotonlywithoutspringatthetoebutwithacontinuous
lineinfrontoftheheel,and,apparently,withoutanywaist,asitiscalled.Thefactisthatthegreat
majorityoffeetdotouchthegroundalongthewholeline,sofarastheoutermarginisconcerned,
andwherethisisthecaseitisbetterthatthelastsshoulddoso.If,however,thepairoflastsbeput
together,theyhavethesamedomelikeformasthepairoffeetwhosesoleprintsaregiveninfig.
20.Thereis,infact,awaist,althoughitdoesnotextendtothesolelineontheouterside.
HereIwouldpointoutthatastronglymarkedwaisttoaboot,asameansofsupportingthe
archorofmakingafootappearmorearchedthanitreallyis,leadstodisappointment.True,itgives
somesenseofsupport,atleastwhenthebootisfirstworn,buttheweightofthebodysoonbearsit
downandthewholebootisdistorted.*Themeansbywhich,andby *Padsorsprings,forthe
whichalonethearchcanbeproperlysupportedhavebeenfully purposeofsupportingthearch,
explained.Thelastshouldhaveasmuchandonlyasmuchwaistas shouldbeavoided.Inproportionas
theypressitupwards,theypress
thefoothas.
uponandparalysethemusclesofthe
sole.
Oneseesitstatedbylastmakersthat"byhavinglastsmadeto
yourfeetyounotonlyensureaperfectfittingbootbutarealwayscertainthateachsucceedingpair
willbeofthesameshape."Wouldthatitwereso.Such,however,isnotthefact.Ifthevampbecut,
asinfig.49,thesameforeachboot,asisusuallydone,itisobviousthat,ifthelastbehigheston
theinnerside,followingthecontourofthefoot,thentheleathermustbemorestretchedonthe
innerthanontheouterside.Whenthesupportofthesolidlastisremovedtheleatherwillsinkon
theinnerside,givinginsufficientroomfortheballofthegreattoe.Thewholefootisthusdriven
againsttheothersideoftheboot,anditiserroneouslyassumedthatmoreroomiswantedonthat
side.
If,ontheotherhand,thevampsbecutsoastofiteachfoot,thetwowillhavesomewhatthe
outlinesasinfig.50one,turnedover,isapatternbywhichtocuttheother.Then,thelastbeing
removed,theleathershouldstandupontheinnerside,andnothavetheleasttendencytofall.This
willbesoifthepatternreallyfitthelast.
Whenthepatternhasbeencutinthismanner,andreallyfitsthefoot,itbecomesabsolutely
necessarytodiscardallideaofsymmetry.LetussupposethatthelineofthelacesinaBalmoral
boot,oraprominentseamintheupperleatherinoneofanotherkind,comedownfromthefrontof
theanklethroughatoc,fig.50.Theupperpartofthebootwillthenseemtopointinthatdirection,
towardse,whilethefrontpartwillpointinthedirectionofthegreattoe,towardsd.Avery
awkwardappearanceistheresult.
Thelineofthelacesorofaseamshouldfollowthatwhichhasbeencalledtheleadingline
ofthefoot.Itthenfollowsthecrestoftheridgeandpointstowardsthegreattoe,andthusaccords
withandexpressesalinewhichexists,andafarmorepleasingappearanceisafforded.Thetwo
sidesofthebootareinthatcasenotsymmetrical.Norshouldtheybe.Thelineabpointingtowards
d(fig.50)indicatesthedirectionthatthelacesorvisibleseamshouldtake.
But,itmaybeasked,howisapatterntobecutsoastofitthelast?Howcananaccuratefit
beensured?Askilfulbootmakermightfindabetterorsimplerplanthanmine.Imarkorhave
markedonthelastalineindicatingthemarginofthevamp.Ithenlayanarrowstripofpaper,say
halfaninchwide,alongaportionofthisline,letitrunquitesmoothlywhereveritwillgo,and
attachtheendstothesolebydrawingpins.Ithenkeeponlayingsimilarstripsoverlappingeach
other,andgumthemtogetherasitisdoneuntilthewholesurfaceiscovered.Thegumhavingdried,
thewholesheetisspreadout,andasinglepieceofpaperoftheshapewhichthesemanypieceshave
assumediscuttoformthepattern.Theproceedingdoesnottakelong,thereisreallynodifficultyin
it.
Still,evenifthelastconformtothefootandthepatternofthevamptothelast,theresult
mayyetbebad.Theleatherwhichprojectsoverthemarginofthelastwillliesmoothlyalongthe
innerandouteredgesasitisturnedovertobeattachedtothesole.Butattheanglecorrespondingto
thegreattoe,and,inalessdegree,atapointoppositethelittleone,theleatherwillfallintofolds
crowdedtogether,involvingmuchdifficultyingettingittoliesmoothlyasitisturnedoverthe
marginofthelast.Thebootmakerwillsavehimselftroubleif,insteadofcarefullyarrangingthese
foldswheretheyare,heshouldslidesomeoftheleatherbackwardsfromdtowardsf,andfrome
towardsg(fig.50).Ifhedoso,byeandbyewhentheboothasbeenworn,theleatherwillfallinto
grooveshavingthosedirections.
Thuswhileagoodlastaffordsthemeansforobtaininga"perfectfittingboot,"itdoesnot
ensurethatitwillalwaysbe"ofthesameshape."Itoughttodoso,and,incarefulhands,itwill.
Adifficultymaybefoundingettinglastsofthenewpatternmade.Itisoutoftheordinary
way,andlastmakersdonotlikeit.Thereis,however,norealdifficultyinmakingthem.Infig.48
everymeasurementcanbereferredtoastraightlineonthesolebelowandtoanotheracrossthe
ankleabove.Infig.47thereisnostraightlineanywhere.Alastmakeraccustomedtothatformmay
makethemmoreeasily,but,inpointoffact,anyoneaccustomedtowoodcarvingcouldeasilylearn
toshapeoutthosehavingtwostraightlines,aboveandbelow,asinfig.48.
AsalreadystatedIobjecttoalastwhichhasanyspringorelevationatthetoes.Forgood
footholdpressureonthegroundbythegreattoebeforetheheelrisesisnecessary,andthis,asit
seemstome,isimpossibleifthetoebeuplifted.Howfarspringinthelastwouldbenecessaryin
bootswithverythicksolesIcan'tsay.Ofthis,however,Ihavenodoubtthatbootsareoften
madewithsolesunnecessarilythick.Thebestprovisionagainstrapidlywearingoutofthebootand
againstfootsoreness,isinlettingthefootfallontheground,withthesolelevel,andinfirmly
pressingitonthegroundwithoutfriction.
Itmaybetoothatforbootshavingheelssomespringwouldberequired,whichobviously
mustvaryaccordingtotheheightoftheheelintended.
HerethequestionarisesWhyisaraisedheelnecessaryatall?Idonotadmitthatitis
necessary,orevenadvisable.Thepresumptionisthatinastructuresoperfectasthefootnochange
oflevelinthesoleatanypartisdesirable.Theonusofproof,then,thatheelsarerequiredrestswith
thosewhoadvocatethemitisnotnecessarytoprovethenegative.Imayhoweverpointoutthatif,
asIcontend,themovementincidentaltochangeofpositionistheagencybywhichthearchofthe
footismaintained,thenthatmovementshouldbefree.Iftheheelistobevigorouslyraised,itmust
beallowedtogodownasapreliminarytospringingup.Andindirectproportionastheheelishigh
thisgoingdownisprevented.
Theraisingoftheheeldoesnotnecessarilytendtodestructionofthearchofthefoot.We
seesensationalpicturesofabridgewithoneofitsabutmentsupliftedandthestonesfallingoutof
placeasindicativeoftheinjurydonebyhighheels.Thisisnottruetonature:thearchisnotonly
justasstrongwhentheheelisraisedaswhenthefootisflat,but,whenraisedbytheactionof
muscles,itisevenstronger.
TheevilsreallyduetohighheelsinbootsaretheseFirst,theheelofthefootisprevented
fromgoingdown,thenecessarypreliminarytospringingup,whichisthemostimportantmovement
fromafunctionalpointofview.Secondly,thefootrestsonaninclinedplane,andthereisaconstant
tendencytoslideforwards,drivingthetoeslikeawedgeintothefrontpartoftheboot.Inthis
positionthetoescannotmovecomfortably,andthetendencyisforthemtoremainquiescent,andall
theweightofthebodytofallplumponthejointattherootofthegreattoe,toitsdamage,withall
thetrainofevils,therefromresulting,whichhavebeendetailed.
HighheelsaresupposedtobeanelegancederivedfromtheFrench,whoarecreditedwitha
tastesuperiortoourown.ItisnothowevergenerallyrecognizedthattheFrenchideaofahighheel
isathingtoreston,nottowalkon.TheobservantMaxO'Rell,whohascontrastedthemannersand
customsofthetwocountries,saysthatanEnglishladywalkswithherarmshangingdown,
supportingherselfonherheels,theFrenchladywalkswithherarmsbent,supportingherselfonthe
toes.*Ihaveseenitstated,inprintandinallgravity,thatFrench *L'Anglaisemarcheles
ladiesactuallypracticethismannerofwalkingwithaslipperfitted braspendants,enappuyantsurles
withanIndiarubberballbeneaththeheei.Thisballsqueakswhen talonslaFranaisemarchelesbras
subjectedtopressure,andtheobjectinthepracticeistomovefreely plis,enappuyantsurlapointede
pieds.
andyetnotsoundthissqueak.
WereadintheDramaof1793,byAlexandreDumas,thatMarieAntoinetteenteredthehall,
onhertrial,withthatstepofwhichVirgilspeaks,andwhichrevealsthequeenorthegoddess.Itis
verydifficulttoimaginethepossibilityofthisbeingdoneinhigh Elleentradanslasalle
heeledboots.Anywaywemaybequitesurethattherewasno decepasdontparleVirgile,etque
poundingontheheelssuchasstrikestheearsofanyonelivinginan rvlelareineouladesse.The
Englishtownandsittinginaroomnextthestreet. referenceistotheneid,BookI,
line405etveraincessupatuit
dea.
Thereasonmostreadilyassignedforheelsasbeingnecessary
isforthepurposeofkeepingthewearer"outofthedirt."Whythere
shouldbeanygreaterneedforprotectingtheheelthanthefrontpartofthefootdoesnotappear.
Thelatterisbyfarthemoresensitive.Moreover,whenonewalksinaspeciallydirtyplace,itison
thetoesratherthanontheheelthatitisdone,araisedheeltothebootnotwithstanding.Inthe
matterofcleanlinessthereisadistinctadvantageinabootwithoutaraisedheelthesolecanbe
passedbackwardsandforwardsalongthescraperordoormatwithouthindrancefromtheprojecting
heel.Gentlemenmayobjectthatthehinderedgeofthetrouserattheheelwillrubupanddownat
theheel.Itissimplyaquestionofshape:trousersforbootswithoutheelsshouldbeshaped
somewhatdifferentlyfromthoseintendedtobewornwiththem.
Thattrousersare,asanelementofdress,essentiallybad,atleastwhenactivityisdesired,
therecanbenodoubt.Pedestriansandhorsemenandcyclistsallrecognizethis,andtheworkman
imitatesthebreechesandgaiters,whichhe,ofallothers,oughtnottohaveabandoned,byfastening
astrapbeneathhiskneearoundtheupdrawntrouserleg.Whenmenhavelearnedtouseandto
clothetheirfeetastheyshoulddo,thenthesamefreedomwhichdevelopsfinefeetwilldevelopfine
legs,andademandmayariseforadressthatwilldisplaythem.
Forthefreedomnecessarytoanythingapproachingperfectfunctiononeelementintheboot
isabsolutelynecessary,itmusthaveastraightinsideedge.Agoodfoothasthegreattoecoming
uptoandevenbeyondastraightlinewiththeheelandtheinnermarginofthefootthisisseenin
fig.20pl.7andthebootmustpermitittoassumethatpositionwhenthetoesarepressedagainst
theground.
Thispointismentionedwiththemoreemphaticinsistancebecausetheviewhas,onhigh
authority,beenrecentlyputforwardthatProfessorMeyerwaswrongwhenhesaidthatthisformof
bootistherightone.Itisarguedthatbecausemocassins,aswornbytheNorthAmericanIndians,
andslippers,aswornbyourselves,alwaysturnupatthetoesandthatbecause,whenthetoesare
turnedup,thegreattoeisnotinlinewiththeinnermarginofthefootthereforethebootneednot
bemadewiththeinnermarginstraight.
Tomeitisperfectlyclearthat,ingoodwalking,thetoesmust,atoneperiodinthestep,be
pressedagainstthegroundwhenthegreattoeisinlinewiththeinnermarginofthefootandthat
thebootmustallowthistotakeplacejustasifthetoesremainedinthatpositionthroughout.
IdifferfromProfessorMeyeronlyinthis.Idonotseetheneedforleavingunoccupied
spaceoppositethesmallertoesmerelytomaketheoutermatchtheinnersideoftheboot,whichit
oughtnottodo.
Theevilswroughtbytheabsurddesiretomakethebootasevensidedaspossibleandas
pointedasthewearerscanbearthem,areterribleinamountandmoreorlessuniversalinextent.
Thesevererformsare,itmaybe,littleknowntothosewho,wearingonlybootsofsoftmaterial,and
makingonlymoderateuseoftheirfeet,areconsciousinthemselvesoflittleifofanysuchtrouble.
Andyettheadultfootofperfectdevelopment,whichwouldserveasamodelforanartist,is,I
believe,ineithersexnoteasytofind.Ofminortroublesandofveryimperfectdevelopmentarenot
exampleseverywhereabundant?
Theuglinesswhicharisesfromweaknessorfromdistortionissocommonthatthebeliefhas
ariseninthemindsofthosewhodeploreitthatthegloryofthehumanfoothasdepartedthatfinely
madefeet,beautifulintheirmanifeststrength,canneveragainbetheruleunlessbootsandshoesbe
discarded.Someenthusiasticmothersadoptthisplanfortheirchildren,butfindfewtoimitatethem.
Thepracticeofgoingbarefooted,evenforchildren,willnotbecomegeneral,whoevermay
recommendit.Thisissofarcertainthatlittlegoodcancomefromdiscussionoftheadvantagesof
suchpractice.Thatithasadvantagestherecanbenodoubt.WemayregardastreetArab,running
onpavement,asanobjectofpitybecausehehasnoboots.He,probably,whateverelsemaybehis
needs,wouldprefernottowearthem,evenifgiventohim.
Ontheotherhanditmustberememberedthat,speakinggenerally,racesandpersonsgoing
barefooteddonothavefinefeet.
Iftheobjectbetofullydeveloptheformorthefacultiesofthefoot,itisbestdonewithout
impedimentbyclothingofanykindbutthenthesurfaceonwhichtheyaretomovemustbe
selected.If,however,thefootbeproperlyclothedandproperlyused,Ibelievethatnoserious
impedimenttoitsfunctionsneedexist.Ontheotherhanditmaybethat,underordinary
circumstances,completeconfidenceofprotectionagainstinjurymaydomoretopromotefreedom
ofmovementthangoodfootclothingwilldotoimpairit.
Myendeavourhasbeentoshowthattheformofthehumanfootisdevelopedandthe
structuresupportedinandbythefreeexerciseofitsfunctions,andthattothistheclothingoughtto
conform.Iseenoreasonwhythismaynotbe.
Letfreedomoffunctionbereliedontogivefullsupport.Lettheunnaturalcustomofturning
outthetoesbeabandoned.Letitbeunderstoodthatifstandingistobeprolongeditmustbenot
merelyasinkingintoposition.Letitberealizedthatthetwosidesofeachfootarenotsymmetrical,
andoughtnottobemadetoappearso.Lettheformofbootlastscorrespondinshapetothatoffeet
inaction.Letbootsbemadetofitthelastsascarefullyasifalwaysmadeofunyieldingmaterial.
Then,asIbelieve,thefootmaybeclothedwitheveryreasonableregardforcomfortandelegance,
andyet,attainingitshighestdevelopment,bepreservedinthefulnessofstrengthandofbeauty.

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4/15/2017 TheHumanFoot

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