Limit

We say that the limit of f ( x) as x approaches a is L and write

lim f ( x) L
x a

if the values of f ( x) approach L as x approaches a.

y f ( x)
L

a
 Indeterminate Forms

Indeterminate forms occur when substitution in the limit

results in 0/0. In such cases either factor or rationalize the
expressions.
0
x5 Notice form
Ex. lim 2
x 5 x 25 0
x5
lim Factor and cancel
x5 x 5 x 5
common factors
1 1
lim
x 5 x 5 10
 More Examples
x 3 ( x 3)( x 3)
a) lim
= lim
x 9 ( x 9)( x 3)
x 9 x 9

x 9 1 1
lim 6
x 9
lim
x 9 ( x 9)( x 3)
x 3

4 x2 (2 x)(2 x)
b) lim 2 = lim
x 2 2 x x 3
x2 x 2 (2 x)

2 x
= lim
x
x 2 2

2 (2) 4
1
(2) 2
4
 3x if x 2
Find lim f ( x) where f ( x)
x2
1 if x 2

lim f ( x) = lim 3x
x2 x2
6 3 lim x
x 2

Note: f (-2) = 1 3(2) 6

is not involved -2
 More Examples
1. Suppose lim f ( x) 4 and lim g ( x) 2. Find
x 3 x 3

a) lim f ( x) g ( x) lim
x 3
f ( x) lim g ( x)
x 3
x 3
4 (2) 2

b) lim f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x) lim g ( x)

x 3
x 3 x 3

4 (2) 6
2 f ( x) g ( x) lim 2 f ( x) lim g ( x) 2 4 (2) 5
c) lim x 3 x 3

x 3
f ( x) g ( x) lim f ( x) lim g ( x) 4 (2) 4
x 3 x 3
 Use your calculator to evaluate the limits

4( x 2 4) Answer : 16
a. lim
x 2
x 2

1, if x 0 Answer : no limit
b. lim g ( x), where g ( x)
x 0
1, if x 0
1
c. lim f ( x), where f ( x) 2 Answer : no limit
x 0 x
1 x 1
d. lim Answer : 1/2
x 0 x

Examples Using Limit Rule
Ex. lim x 1 lim x lim1
2
x 3
2
x 3
x 3

lim1
2
lim x
x 3 x 3

32 1 10

2x 1 lim 2 x 1 2 lim x lim1

Ex. lim x 1
x 1 x 1
x 1 3 x 5 lim 3 x 5 3lim x lim 5
x 1 x 1 x 1

2 1 1

35 8
One-Sided Limit
One-Sided Limits
The right-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals L
written: lim f ( x) L
x a
if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close
to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
right of a.
y f ( x)
L

a
The left-hand limit of f (x), as x approaches a,
equals M
written: lim f ( x) M
x a

if we can make the value f (x) arbitrarily close

to L by taking x to be sufficiently close to the
left of a.
y f ( x)

M
a
Examples

Examples of One-Sided Limit

x 2
if x 3
1. Given f ( x)
2x if x 3

Find lim f ( x)
x 3

lim f ( x) lim 2 x 6
x3 x3

Find lim f ( x)
x 3

lim f ( x) lim x 2 9
x3 x3
 More Examples
x 1, if x 0
2. Let f ( x)
x 1, if x 0. Find the limits:

a) lim f ( x) lim ( x 1)
x 0
0 1 1
x 0
b) lim f ( x) lim(

x 1) 0 1 1
x 0 x 0

c) lim f ( x) lim(

x 1) 1 1 2
x 1 x 1

d) lim f ( x) lim( x 1) 11 2
x 1
x 1
One-sided Limits

lim f ( x) L Limit from the right

x c

lim f ( x) L Limit from the left

x c
Find the following limits

lim x 1 0
x 1

lim x 1 D.N.E.
x 1
1
lim x 1 D.N.E.
Left Right
x 1
 Asymptotes

The line y L is called a horizontal asymptote

of the curve y f ( x) if eihter
lim f ( x) L or lim f ( x) L.
x x

The line x c is called a vertical asymptote

of the curve y f ( x) if eihter
lim f ( x) or lim f ( x) .
x c x c
Step Functions Jump

Greatest Integer f ( x) x

lim x -1
x 0

lim x 0
x 0

lim x D.N.E.
x 0
Left Right
 Infinite Limits 20

For all n > 0, 15

10

1 5

lim
x a
n
x a
-8 -6 -4 -2 2
-5

-10

-15

-20
40

30
1
lim if n is even 20

x a
n
x a 10

-2 2 4 6

-10

-20
20
1
lim if n is odd 15

x a
n
x a 10

-8 -6 -4 -2 2
-5

More Graphs -10

-15
 INFINITE LIMITS
Some functions take off in the positive or negative direction (increase or decrease
without bound) near certain values for the independent variable. When this occurs, the
function is said to have an infinite limit; hence, you write

1. Given f(x) =
2. Given f(x)= . Find the ff.
3. Given f(x) =
 Examples
Find the asymptotes of the graphs of the functions

x 1
2
1. f ( x) 2 (iii) lim f ( x) 1.
x 1 x
(i) lim f ( x) Therefore the line y 1
x 1

Therefore the line x 1 is a horizonatl asymptote.

10

is a vertical asymptote. 7.5

(ii) lim f ( x) . 2.5

x 1 -4 -2 2 4

Therefore the line x 1

-2.5

-5

-7.5
is a vertical asymptote. -10
 Examples
Find the limits
3x 2 2 x 1 3 2 1 2 3
1. lim = lim
x x
x 0
2 x 0
2
2x
2

2x 1
2. lim = lim
2x 1
x 3 2 x 6 x 3 2( x 3)


40

20

-8 -6 -4 -2 2

-20
 x 1
2. f ( x) 2
x 1
x 1 (iii) lim f ( x) 0.
(i) lim f ( x) lim 2 x
x 1 x 1
x 1 Therefore the line y 0
x 1 1 1
= lim lim . is a horizonatl asymptote.
x 1
( x 1)( x 1) x1 x 1 2
Therefore the line x 1 10

7.5

is NOT a vertical asymptote. 5

2.5

(ii) lim f ( x) . -4 -2 2 4
x 1 -2.5

Therefore the line x 1

-5

-7.5

-10
is a vertical asymptote.
 Limits at Infinity
1 1
For all n > 0, lim n lim n 0
x x x x

1
provided that n is defined.
x
3x 5 x 1
2 3 5 1
lim
x x 2 Divide
Ex. xlim 2
2 4x 2 x 2 4 by x
x2

lim 3 lim 5
x x
x lim 1 x 3 0 0 3
x
2

lim 2
x
x2 lim 4
x
04 4
 More Examples
2 x3 3x 2 2
2 x3 3x 2 2 3
3 3
1. lim 3
x
x x 2
100 x 1

lim 3 x 2 x x
x x
x 100 x 1
3
x x3 x3 x3

3 2
2 x x3
lim
x 1 100 1
1 2 3
x x x

2
2
1
 4 x 5 x 21
2 x2 2 x 4
2. lim 3 3. lim
x 7 x 5 x 2 10 x 1

x
12 x 31
x2 2x 4
4 x 2 5 x 21
3 3

3 lim x x x
lim 3 x x x
2
x
12 x 31
x 7 x
5 x 10 x 1 x x
3 3 3 3
x x x x
4 5 21 4
x2 x

x x 2 x3
lim
x
7 5 102 13 lim
x 31
x x x 12
0 x
2
7
12
0
 4. lim
x
x 1 x
2


lim
x2 1 x x 1 x
2


x
1 x2 1 x

x2 1 x2
lim
x
x 1 x
2

1
lim
x
x 1 x
2

1 1
0

 Limit and Exponential Functions
y a , a 1
x

10
10
y a , 0 a 1
x

8
8
6
6

4
4

2
2

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 -6 -4 -2 2 4 6

-2 -2

The above graph confirm that exponential

functions are continuous everywhere.
lim a a
x c
x c
 Asymptotes

The line y L is called a horizontal asymptote

of the curve y f ( x) if eihter
lim f ( x) L or lim f ( x) L.
x x

The line x c is called a vertical asymptote

of the curve y f ( x) if eihter
lim f ( x) or lim f ( x) .
x c x c
INFINITE LIMITS AT INFINITY
Many functions do not approach a finite limit as x increases (or decreases) without
bound. For instance, no polynomial function has a finite limit at infinity. The next
definition is used to describe the behavior of polynomial and other functions at
infinity.
 Continuity

A function f is continuous at the point x = a if

the following are true:
i) f (a) is defined
ii) lim f ( x) exists
xa

f(a)

a
A function f is continuous at the point x = a if
the following are true:
i) f (a) is defined
ii) lim f ( x) exists
xa
iii) lim f ( x) f (a)
xa f(a)

a
 Continuous Functions
If f and g are continuous at x = a, then

f g , fg , and f
g g (a) 0 are continuous
at x a

A polynomial function y = P(x) is continuous at

every point x.

A rational function R( x) p( x) q( x) is continuous

at every point x in its domain.
Examples At which value(s) of x is the given function
discontinuous?
x 9
2

1. f ( x) x 2 2. g ( x)
x3
Continuous everywhere
Continuous everywhere
lim( x 2) a 2
x a
except at x 3

and so lim f ( x) f (a) g (3) is undefined

x a
4

6 2

4 -6 -4 -2 2 4

-2

2
-4

-6
-4 -2 2 4

-2 -8

-10
 x 2, if x 1 1, if x 0
3. h( x) 4. F ( x)
1, if x 1 1, if x 0
lim F ( x) 1 and lim F ( x) 1
lim h( x) 1
x 1
and lim h( x)
x 1
3 x 0 x 0

Thus F is not cont. at x 0.

Thus h is not cont. at x=1.
F is continuous everywhere else
h is continuous everywhere else
5

3
4

3 2

2
1

-10 -5 5 10

-2 2 4
-1
-1

-2
-2

-3 -3