List of mathematical symbols

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material
may be challenged and removed.(November 2011)

This is a listing of common symbols found within all branches of mathematics. Symbols are used in mathematical notation to express a formula or to replace
a constant. Each symbol is listed in both HTML, which depends on appropriate fonts being installed, and in TE
X, as an image.

This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it.

Contents
[hide]

1 Symbols

2 Variations

3 See also

4 References

5 External links

[edit]Symbols

Symbol Symbol Name Explanation

in HTML in TE
X

Read as
 Category

equality

is equal to;
= equals
x = y means x and y represent the same thing or value.

everywhere

inequality
x y means that x and y do not represent the same thing or value.
is not equal to;
does not equal
(The forms !=, /= or <> are generally used in programming languages where ease of typing and use of ASCII text is preferre
everywhere

strict inequality
x < y means x is less than y.
is less than,
is greater than
x > y means x is greater than y.
< order theory

> proper subgroup

is a proper subgroup of H < G means H is a proper subgroup of G.

group theory
 (very) strict inequality
x y means x is much less than y.
is much less than,
is much greater than
x y means x is much greater than y.

order theory

asymptotic comparison
f g means the growth of f is asymptotically bounded by g.
is of smaller order than,
is of greater order than
(This is I. M. Vinogradov's notation. Another notation is the Big O notation, which looks like f = O(g).)
analytic number theory

inequality
x y means x is less than or equal to y.
is less than or equal to,
x y means x is greater than or equal to y.
is greater than or equal to
order theory
(The forms <= and >= are generally used in programming languages where ease of typing and use of ASCII text is preferred

subgroup

is a subgroup of H G means H is a subgroup of G.

group theory

reduction A B means the problem A can be reduced to the problem B. Subscripts can be added to the to indicate what kind of reduc
 is reducible to

computational complexity
theory

congruence
relation

...is less than ... 7k 28 (mod 2) is only true if k is an even integer. Assume that the problem requires k to be non-negative; the dom
is greater than... as 0 k .

modular
arithmetic

vector inequality
x y means that each component of vector x is less than or equal to each corresponding component of vector y.
... is less than or
x y means that each component of vector x is greater than or equal to each corresponding component of vector y
equal... is greater
than or equal...
It is important to note that x y remains true if every element is equal. However, if the operator is changed, x y
only if x y is also true.
order theory

Karp reduction L1 L2 means that the problem L1 is Karp reducible to L2.[1]

is Karp reducible
to;
is polynomial-
time many-one
reducible to
 computational
complexity
theory

proportionality

is proportional
to; y x means that y = kx for some constant k.
varies as

everywhere

Karp reduction[2]

is Karp reducible
to;
is polynomial-
time many-one A B means the problem A can be polynomially reduced to the problem B.
reducible to

computational
complexity
theory

addition 4 + 6 means the sum of 4 and 6.

+
plus;
add

arithmetic
 disjoint union

the disjoint
union of ... A1 + A2 means the disjoint union of sets A1 and A2.
and ...

set theory

subtraction

minus;
take; 9 4 means the subtraction of 4 from 9.
subtract

arithmetic

negative sign

negative;
minus; 3 means the negative of the number 3.
the opposite of

arithmetic

set-theoretic
complement A B means the set that contains all the elements of A that are not in B.

minus; ( can also be used for set-theoretic complement as described below.)

without
 set theory

plus-minus

plus or minus 6 3 means both 6 + 3 and 6 3.

arithmetic

plus-minus

plus or minus 10 2 or equivalently 10 20% means the range from 10 2 to 10 + 2.

measurement

minus-plus

minus or plus 6 (3 5) means both 6 + (3 5) and 6 (3 + 5).

arithmetic

multiplication 3 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4.

times; (The symbol * is generally used in programming languages, where ease of typing and use of ASCII text is preferre
multiplied by

arithmetic
 Cartesian
product

the Cartesian
product of ... and
...; XY means the set of all ordered pairs with the first element of each pair selected from X and the second element s
the direct
product of ... and
...

set theory

cross product

cross u v means the cross product of vectors u and v

linear algebra

group of units
R consists of the set of units of the ring R, along with the operation of multiplication.
the group of
units of
This may also be written R* as described below, or U(R).
ring theory

multiplication a * b means the product of a and b.

*
times; (Multiplication can also be denoted with or , or even simple juxtaposition.* is generally used where ease of typi
multiplied by of ASCII text is preferred, such as programming languages.)
 arithmetic

convolution

convolution;
convolved with f * g means the convolution of f and g.

functional
analysis

complex
conjugate
z* means the complex conjugate of z.
conjugate
( can also be used for the conjugate of z, as described below.)
complex
numbers

group of units
R* consists of the set of units of the ring R, along with the operation of multiplication.
the group of
units of
This may also be written R as described above, or U(R).
ring theory

hyperreal *R means the set of hyperreal numbers. Other sets can be used in place ofR.
numbers

the (set of)

 hyperreals

non-standard
analysis

Hodge dual

Hodge dual; *v means the Hodge dual of a vector v. If v is a k-vector within an n-dimensional oriented inner product space, then
Hodge star vector.

linear algebra

multiplication

times;
3 4 means the multiplication of 3 by 4.
multiplied by

arithmetic

dot product

dot u v means the dot product of vectors u and v

linear algebra

placeholder A means a placeholder for an argument of a function. Indicates the functional nature of an expression without a
specific symbol for an argument.
(silent)
 functional
analysis

tensor
product, tensor
product of
modules
means the tensor product of V and U.[3] means the tensor product of modules V and U over
tensor product of

linear algebra

division (Obelus
)

divided by; 6 3 or 6 3 means the division of 6 by 3.

over

arithmetic

quotient group

mod G / H means the quotient of group G modulo its subgroup H.

group theory

quotient set A/~ means the set of all ~ equivalence classes in A.

 mod

set theory

square root

the (principal)
square root of means the nonnegative number whose square is .

real numbers

complex square
root

the (complex)
square root of if is represented in polar coordinates with , then

complex
numbers

mean
x
overbar;
(often read as x bar) is the mean (average value of ).
bar

statistics

complex means the complex conjugate of z.

conjugate
 conjugate
(z* can also be used for the conjugate of z, as described above.)
complex
numbers

finite
sequence, tuple

finite sequence, means the finite sequence/tuple .

tuple

model theory

algebraic closure

algebraic closure
of is the algebraic closure of the field F.

field theory

topological
closure
is the topological closure of the set S.
(topological)
closure of This may also be denoted as cl(S) or Cl(S).

topology
 unit vector

hat (pronounced "a hat") is the normalized version of vector , having length 1.

geometry

absolute value;
|| modulus

absolute value |x| means the distance along the real line (or across the complex plane) between x and zero.
of; modulus of

numbers

Euclidean
norm or
Euclidean length
or magnitude
|x| means the (Euclidean) length of vector x.
Euclidean norm
of

geometry

determinant |A| means the determinant of the matrix A

determinant of

matrix theory
 cardinality

cardinality of; |X| means the cardinality of the set X.

size of;
order of (# may be used instead as described below.)

set theory

norm

norm of;
|| x || means the norm of the element x of a normed vector space.[4]
length of

linear algebra
||
|| nearest integer
function
||x|| means the nearest integer to x.
nearest integer to
(This may also be written [x], x, nint(x) or Round(x).)
numbers

divisor, divides
a|b means a divides b.
ab means a does not divide b.
divides
(This symbol can be difficult to type, and its negation is rare, so a regular but slightly shorter vertical bar | charac
number theory

conditional P(A|B) means the probability of the event a occurring given that b occurs.
 probability

given

probability

restriction

restriction of
to ; f|A means the function f restricted to the set A, that is, it is the function withdomain A dom(f) that agrees with f.
restricted to

set theory

such that

such that;
| means such that, see ":" (described below).
so that

everywhere

parallel
||
is parallel to x || y means x is parallel to y.

geometry

incomparability x || y means x is incomparable to y.

 is incomparable
to

order theory

exact divisibility

exactly divides pa || n means pa exactly divides n (i.e. pa divides n but pa+1 does not).

number theory

cardinality
#
cardinality of; #X means the cardinality of the set X.
size of;
order of (|| may be used instead as described above.)

set theory

connected sum A#B is the connected sum of the manifolds A and B. If A and B are knots, then this denotes the knot sum, which ha
stronger condition.
connected sum
of;
knot sum of;
knot
composition of

topology, knot
theory
 primorial

primorial n# is product of all prime numbers less than or equal to n.

number theory

aleph number

aleph represents an infinite cardinality (specifically, the -th one, where is an ordinal).

set theory

beth number

beth represents an infinite cardinality (similar to , but does not necessarily index all of the numbers indexed by

set theory

cardinality of the
continuum

cardinality of the
continuum;
c; The cardinality of is denoted by or by the symbol (a lowercaseFraktur letter C).
cardinality of the
real numbers

set theory
 such that

such that;
: means such that, and is used in proofs and the set-builder notation(described below).
so that

everywhere

field extension
K : F means the field K extends the field F.
extends;
over
This may also be written as K F.
field theory

:
inner product of
matrices A : B means the Frobenius inner product of the matrices A and B.

inner product of The general inner product is denoted by u, v, u | v or (u | v), as described below. For spatial vectors, the dot
product notation, xy is common. See also Bra-ket notation.
linear algebra

index of a
subgroup
The index of a subgroup H in a group G is the "relative size" of H in G: equivalently, the number of "copies" (cose
index of
up G
subgroup

group theory
 factorial

factorial n! means the product 1 2 ... n.

combinatorics

!
logical negation
The statement !A is true if and only if A is false.
not
A slash placed through another operator is the same as "!" placed in front.
propositional (The symbol ! is primarily from computer science. It is avoided in mathematical texts, where the notation A is pre
logic

probability
~ distribution
X ~ D, means the random variable X has the probability distribution D.
has distribution

statistics

row equivalence

is row equivalent
A~B means that B can be generated by using a series of elementary row operations on A
to

matrix theory

same order of m ~ n means the quantities m and n have the same order of magnitude, or general size.
magnitude
 roughly similar;
poorly
approximates
(Note that ~ is used for an approximation that is poor, otherwise use .)
approximation
theory

asymptotically
equivalent

is asymptotically
equivalent to
f ~ g means .
asymptotic
analysis

equivalence
relation

are in the same

equivalence a ~ b means (and equivalently ).
class

everywhere

approximately x y means x is approximately equal to y.

equal
This may also be written , , ~, (Libra Symbol), or .
is approximately
equal to
 everywhere

isomorphism
G H means that group G is isomorphic (structurally identical) to group H.
is isomorphic to
( can also be used for isomorphic, as described below.)
group theory

wreath product
A H means the wreath product of the group A by the group H.
wreath product
of by
This may also be written A wr H.
group theory

normal subgroup

is a normal
N G means that N is a normal subgroup of group G.
subgroup of

group theory

ideal I R means that I is an ideal of ring R.

is an ideal of

ring theory
 antijoin

the antijoin of R S means the antijoin of the relations R and S, the tuples in R for which there is not a tuple in S that is equal on
attribute names.
relational
algebra

semidirect
product
N H is the semidirect product of N (a normal subgroup) and H (a subgroup), with respect to . Also, if G = N
said to split over N.
the semidirect
product of
( may also be written the other way round, as , or as .)
group theory

semijoin

the semijoin of R S is the semijoin of the relations R and S, the set of all tuples in R for which there is a tuple in S that is equal o
attribute names.
relational
algebra

natural join

the natural join

R S is the natural join of the relations R and S, the set of all combinations of tuples in R and S that are equal on t
of
attribute names.
relational
algebra
 therefore

therefore;
so;
hence
Sometimes used in proofs before logical consequences.

everywhere

because

because;
since
Sometimes used in proofs before reasoning.

everywhere

end of proof

QED; Used to mark the end of a proof.

tombstone;
Halmos symbol (May also be written Q.E.D.)

everywhere

D'Alembertian

non-Euclidean It is the generalisation of the Laplace operator in the sense that it is the differential operator which is invariant unde
Laplacian group of the underlying space and it reduces to the Laplace operator if restricted to time independent functions.

vector calculus
 material
implication
A B means if A is true then B is also true; if A is false then nothing is said about B.
implies;
if then ( may mean the same as , or it may have the meaning for functionsgiven below.)

propositional ( may mean the same as ,[5] or it may have the meaning for supersetgiven below.)
logic, Heyting
algebra

material
equivalence

if and only if;

A B means A is true if B is true and A is false if B is false.
iff

propositional
logic

logical negation The statement A is true if and only if A is false.

not A slash placed through another operator is the same as "" placed in front.

(The symbol ~ has many other uses, so or the slash notation is preferred. Computer scientists will often use ! but
propositional
logic in mathematical texts.)

logical
conjunction or m
The statement A B is true if A and B are both true; else it is false.

eetin a lattice For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) B(x) is used to mean min(A(x), B(x)).

and;
 min;
meet

propositional
logic, lattice
theory

wedge product

wedge product; u v means the wedge product of any multivectors u and v. In three dimensional Euclidean space the wedge produ
exterior product product of two vectors are each other's Hodge dual.

exterior algebra

exponentiation
a ^ b means a raised to the power of b
(raised) to the
power of (a ^ b is more commonly written ab. The symbol ^ is generally used in programming languages where ease of typin
plain ASCII text is preferred.)
everywhere

logical
disjunction or joi
The statement A B is true if A or B (or both) are true; if both are false, the statement is false.

nin a lattice For functions A(x) and B(x), A(x) B(x) is used to mean max(A(x), B(x)).

or;
max;
join

propositional
logic, lattice
 theory

exclusive or

xor
The statement A B is true when either A or B, but not both, are true. A B means the same.
propositional
logic, Boolean
algebra

direct sum
The direct sum is a special way of combining several objects into one general object.
direct sum of
(The bun symbol , or the coproduct symbol , is used; is only for logic.)
abstract algebra

universal
quantification

for all;
for any;
x: P(x) means P(x) is true for all x.
for each

predicate logic

existential
quantification
x: P(x) means there is at least one x such that P(x) is true.

there exists;
 there is;
there are

predicate logic

uniqueness
quantification

! there exists
exactly one
! x: P(x) means there is exactly one x such that P(x) is true.

predicate logic

definition x := y, y =: x or x y means x is defined to be another name for y, under certain assumptions taken in context.
=:
is defined as; (Some writers use to mean congruence).
is equal by
:= definition to P : Q means P is defined to be logically equivalent to Q.

everywhere

congruence

is congruent to ABC DEF means triangle ABC is congruent to (has the same measurements as) triangle DEF.

geometry

isomorphic
G H means that group G is isomorphic (structurally identical) to group H.
is isomorphic to
( can also be used for isomorphic, as described above.)
abstract algebra

congruence
relation

... is congruent to
... modulo ...
a b (mod n) means a b is divisible by n

modular
arithmetic
 set brackets
{, the set of {a,b,c} means the set consisting of a, b, and c.[6]
}
set theory

{:
}
set builder
notation
{| the set of {x : P(x)} means the set of all x for which P(x) is true.[6] {x | P(x)} is the same as {x : P(x)}.
} such that

set theory

{;
}

empty set

the empty set means the set with no elements.[6] { } means the same.

{} set theory

set membership a S means a is an element of the set S;[6] a S means a is not an element of S.[6]

is an element of;
 is not an element
of

everywhere, set
theory

subset (subset) A B means every element of A is also an element of B.[7]

is a subset of (proper subset) A B means A B but A B.

set theory (Some writers use the symbol as if it were the same as .)

superset A B means every element of B is also an element of A.

is a superset of A B means A B but A B.

set theory (Some writers use the symbol as if it were the same as .)

set-theoretic
union

the union of
or ;
A B means the set of those elements which are either in A, or in B, or in both.[7]
union

set theory
 set-theoretic
intersection

intersected with;
intersect
A B means the set that contains all those elements that A and B have in common.[7]

set theory

symmetric
difference
A B means the set of elements in exactly one of A or B.
symmetric
difference (Not to be confused with delta, , described below.)

set theory

set-theoretic
complement
A B means the set that contains all those elements of A that are not inB.[7]
minus;
without ( can also be used for set-theoretic complement as described above.)

set theory

function arrow

from to
f: X Y means the function f maps the set X into the set Y.
set theory, type
theory
 function arrow

maps to f: a b means the function f maps the element a to the element b.

set theory

function
composition

composed with
fg is the function, such that (fg)(x) = f(g(x)).[8]

set theory

Hadamard
product
For two matrices (or vectors) of the same dimensions the Hadamard product is a matrix of the
o entrywise
product
dimensions with elements given by . This is often u
based programming such as MATLAB where the operation is done by A.*B
linear algebra

natural numbers N means either { 0, 1, 2, 3, ...} or { 1, 2, 3, ...}.

N; The choice depends on the area of mathematics being studied; e.g.number theorists prefer the latter; analysts, set
the (set of) theorists and computer scientists prefer the former. To avoid confusion, always check an author's definition of N.
natural numbers
N Set theorists often use the notation (for least infinite ordinal) to denote the set of natural numbers (including zero
the standard ordering relation .
numbers
 integers
Z; means {..., 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}.
the (set of)
integers
Z + or > means {1, 2, 3, ...} . * or means {0, 1, 2, 3, ...} .
numbers

integers mod n

n Zn;
the (set of)
n means {[0], [1], [2], ...[n1]} with addition and multiplication modulo n.
integers
Note that any letter may be used instead of n, such as p. To avoid confusion with p-adic numbers, use /p or /(
modulon
p numbers

Zn p-adic integers

the (set of) p-

Zp adic integers
Note that any letter may be used instead of p, such as n or l.
numbers

projective space means a space with a point at infinity.

P;
the projective
P space;
the projective
line;
 the projective
plane

topology

probability
(X) means the probability of the event X occurring.
the probability of
This may also be written as P(X), Pr(X), P[X] or Pr[X].
probability
theory

rational numbers

Q;
the (set of)
rational means {p/q : p , q }.
numbers;
Q the rationals

numbers

real numbers

R;
the (set of) real
means the set of real numbers.
numbers;
the reals
R
numbers
 complex
numbers
C;
the (set of) means {a + b i : a,b }.
complex
C numbers

numbers

quaternions or
Hamiltonian
quaternions

H; means {a + b i + c j + d k : a,b,c,d }.
the (set of)
H quaternions

numbers

Big O notation

big-oh of
O The Big O notation describes the limiting behavior of a function, when the argument tends towards a particular val
Computational
complexity
theory
 infinity

infinity is an element of the extended number line that is greater than all real numbers; it often occurs in limits.

numbers

floor

floor;
greatest integer;
x means the floor of x, i.e. the largest integer less than or equal to x.

entier (This may also be written [x], floor(x) or int(x).)

numbers

ceiling
ceiling
x means the ceiling of x, i.e. the smallest integer greater than or equal tox.

(This may also be written ceil(x) or ceiling(x).)

numbers

nearest integer
function
x means the nearest integer to x.

nearest integer to
(This may also be written [x], ||x||, nint(x) or Round(x).)
numbers

degree of a field [K : F] means the degree of the extension K : F.

[:] extension
 the degree of

field theory

equivalence
[] class
[a] means the equivalence class of a, i.e. {x : x ~ a}, where ~ is anequivalence relation.
the equivalence
[,] class of [a]R means the same, but with R as the equivalence relation.

abstract algebra

[,,
] floor

floor; [x] means the floor of x, i.e. the largest integer less than or equal to x.
greatest integer;
entier (This may also be written x, floor(x) or int(x). Not to be confused with the nearest integer function, as described b

numbers

nearest integer
function
[x] means the nearest integer to x.
nearest integer to
(This may also be written x, ||x||, nint(x) or Round(x). Not to be confused with the floor function, as described abo
numbers

Iverson bracket [S] maps a true statement S to 1 and a false statement S to 0.

 1 if true, 0
otherwise

propositional
logic

image
f[X] means { f(x) : x X }, the image of the function f under the set X dom(f).
image of
under (This may also be written as f(X) if there is no risk of confusing the image of f under X with the function
application f of X. Another notation is Im f, the image of f under its domain.)
everywhere

closed interval

closed interval .

order theory

commutator

the commutator
[g, h] = g1h1gh (or ghg1h1), if g, h G (a group).
of
[a, b] = ab ba, if a, b R (a ring or commutative algebra).
group
theory, ring
theory

triple scalar [a, b, c] = a b c, the scalar product of a b with c.

 product

the triple scalar

product of

vector calculus

function applicat
() ion
f(x) means the value of the function f at the element x.
of
(,) set theory

image
f(X) means { f(x) : x X }, the image of the function f under the set X dom(f).
image of
under (This may also be written as f[X] if there is a risk of confusing the image off under X with the function application f
notation is Im f, the image of f under its domain.)
everywhere

combinations

(from) n choose
r means the number of combinations of r elements drawn from a set ofn elements.

(This may also be written as nCr.)

combinatorics

precedence Perform the operations inside the parentheses first.

 grouping

parentheses

everywhere

tuple

tuple; n-tuple; An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal vector, or row vector) of values.
ordered
pair/triple/etc;
row vector; (Note that the notation (a,b) is ambiguous: it could be an ordered pair or an open interval. Set theorists and compu
sequence
often use angle brackets instead of parentheses.)
everywhere

highest common
factor

highest common (a, b) means the highest common factor of a and b.

factor;
greatest common (This may also be written hcf(a, b) or gcd(a, b).)
divisor; hcf; gcd

number theory

open interval
(,) .
open interval
(Note that the notation (a,b) is ambiguous: it could be an ordered pair or an open interval. The notation ]a,b[ can
],[ order theory instead.)

multichoose
(( ) multichoose
) means n multichoose k.
combinatorics

left-open interval
(,] half-open
interval; .
left-open interval
],]
order theory

right-open
interval
[,) half-open
interval; .
right-open
[,[ interval

order theory
 inner product
u,v means the inner product of u and v, where u and v are members of an inner product space.

Note that the notation u, v may be ambiguous: it could mean the inner product or the linear span.
inner product of
, linear algebra
There are many variants of the notation, such as u | v and (u | v), which are described below. For spatial vectors,
product notation, xy is common. For matrices, the colon notation A : B may be used. As and can be hard to type
keyboard friendly forms < and > are sometimes seen. These are avoided in mathematical texts.

average

average of let S be a subset of N for example, represents the average of all the element in S.

statistics

linear span S means the span of S V. That is, it is the intersection of all subspaces of V which contain S.
u1, u2, is shorthand for {u1, u2, }.
(linear) span
of;
linear hull
of
Note that the notation u, v may be ambiguous: it could mean the inner product or the linear span.

linear
algebra The span of S may also be written as Sp(S).

subgroup ge
means the smallest subgroup of G (where S G, a group) containing every element of S.
nerated by a
set is shorthand for .

the
subgroup
generated
 by

group
theory

tuple

tuple; n-
tuple;
ordered An ordered list (or sequence, or horizontal vector, or row vector) of values.
pair/triple/et
c;
row vector; (The notation (a,b) is often used as well.)
sequence

everywhere

inner
| product
u | v means the inner product of u and v, where u and v are members of an inner product space.[9] (u | v) mean
inner
Another variant of the notation is u, v which is described above. For spatial vectors, the dot product notatio
product of
common. For matrices, the colon notation A : B may be used. As and can be hard to type, the more keybo
forms < and > are sometimes seen. These are avoided in mathematical texts.
(| linear
algebra
)

ket vector | means the vector with label , which is in a Hilbert space.
|
 the ket ;
the vector

Dirac
notation

bra vector

the bra ;
the dual of
| means the dual of the vector |, a linear functional which maps a ket | onto the inner product |.

|
Dirac
notation

summation

sum over
from to
of means a1 + a2 + + an.

arithmetic

product

product means a1a2an.
over
from
to
 of

arithme
tic

Ca
rte means the set of all (n+1)-tuples
sia
n (y0, , yn).
pr
od
uc
t

th
e
Ca
rte
sia
n
pr
od
uc
t
of;
th
e
dir
ect
pr
od
uc
t
of
set
th
eo
ry

co A general construction which subsumes the disjoint union of sets and of topological spaces, the
pr groups, and the direct sum of modules and vector spaces. The coproduct of a family of objects i
o "least specific" object to which each object in the family admits a morphism.
d
uc
t

co
pr

uc

ve

fr

ca
eo

de
lt
a

de

x means a (non-infinitesimal) change in x.

ch
an (If the change becomes infinitesimal, and even d are used instead. Not to be confused with the
ge difference, written , above.)
in

ca

us

L The Laplace operator is a second order differential operator in n-dimensionalEuclidean space

ap
la
ci
an

ap

ce

pe
ra
to

ve

ca

us

D
ir
ac
de
lt
a
fu
nc
ti
o
n

ac
de

of

pe
nc

K
ro
ne
ck
er
de
lt
a

ro
ne
ck
er
de

of

pe

nc
F
u
nc
ti
o
na
l
de
ri
va
ti
ve

nc

na

de

va

ve
of

iff

en

pe
pa
rti
al
de
ri
va
ti
ve

pa f/xi means the partial derivative of f with respect to xi, where f is a function on (x1, , xn).
rti

ca

us

b M means the boundary of M

o
u
n
da
ry

da
ry
of

de
gr
ee
of
a
p
ol
y
n
o
m f means the degree of the polynomial f.
ia
l (This may also be written deg f.)

de
gr
ee
of

ge
gr
ad
ie
nt

de

na
bl

gr
ad f (x1, , xn) is the vector of partial derivatives (f / x1, , f / xn).

nt
of

ve

ca

us

di
ve
rg
en
ce

de

ot

di
ve
rg
en
ce
of

ve

ca

us

cu
rl

cu

of

ve

ca

us

de f (x) means the derivative of the function f at the point x, i.e., the slope of the tangent to f at x.
ri
va (The single-quote character ' is sometimes used instead, especially in ASCII text.)
ti
ve

p

de

va

ve
of

ca

us

de
ri
va means the derivative of x with respect to time. That is .
ti
ve

d
ot

de

va

ve
of

ca

us

in f(x) dx means a function whose derivative is f.

de
fi
ni
te
in
te
gr
al
or
an
ti
de
ri
va
ti
ve

in
de

ni

in

gr

of
th
an

de

va

ve
of

ca

us

de b
f(x) dx means the signed area between the x-axis and the graph of
fi a
thefunction f between x = a and x = b.
ni
te
in
te
gr
al

in

gr

re
sp
ec

to

ca

us

li
f ds means the integral of f along the curve C,
neC , where r is
in
parametrization of C.
te
gr
al
(If the curve is closed, the symbol may be used instead, as described below.)
ne

pa
th

cu
rv

in

gr
of

lo

ca

us

C Similar to the integral, but used to denote a single integration over a closed curve or loop. It is s
o in physics texts involving equations regarding Gauss's Law, and while these formulas involve a
nt integral, the representations describe only the first integration of the volume over the enclosing
o Instances where the latter requires simultaneous double integration, the symbol would be mo
ur A third related symbol is the closed volume integral, denoted by the symbol .
in
te
gr The contour integral can also frequently be found with a subscript capital letter C, C, denoting
al loop integral is, in fact, around a contourC, or sometimes dually appropriately, a circle C. In rep
;
cl Gauss's Law, a subscript capital S, S, is used to denote that the integration is over a closed surfa
os
ed
li
ne
in
te
gr
al

co
nt
ur
in

gr

of

ca

us

pr
oj restricts to the attribute set.
ec
ti
o
n

Pr
oj
ec

of

na

ge
Pi

pi

3.

6;

Used in various formulas involving circles; is equivalent to the amount of area a circle would
square of equal width with an area of 4 square units, roughly 3.14/4. It is also the ratio of the cir
the diameter of a circle.

he

co
ns
se
le
ct
io
n

ec

The selection selects all those tuples in for which holds between the and the
of The selection selects all those tuples in for which holds between the attribu
value .

na

ge

co x < y means that x is covered by y.

ve
r

co
ve
re
de

eo

su
bt
y
pe

su
bt
T1 <: T2 means that T1 is a subtype of T2.
pe
of

pe

eo

co A means the transpose of the complex conjugate of A.[10]

nj
u This may also be written A*T, AT*, A*, AT or AT.
ga
te
tr
an
sp
os
e

co
nj

ga

an
sp
os

ad
jo
in

er
m
iti
an
ad
jo
in

co
nj

ga

/tr
an
sp
os
pe

ns

tr
an
sp
os
e

an
sp
os
AT means A, but with its rows swapped for columns.

This may also be written A', At or Atr.

pe

ns
to
p
el
e
m
en
t

th

to
means the largest element of a lattice.

m
en

ce

eo

to means the top or universal type; every type in the type system of interest is a subtype of top.
p
ty
pe

th

to

ty
pe
to

pe

eo

pe x y means x is perpendicular to y; or more generally x is orthogonal to y.

rp
en
di
cu
la
r

pe
rp
en
di
cu

to

ge
or W means the orthogonal complement of W (where W is a subspace of theinner product space V
th vectors in V orthogonal to every vector in W.
o
g
o
na
l
co
m
pl
e
m
en
t

or
th

na

pe
rp
en
di
cu

co
m
pl

m
en

of
pe
rp

ne

ge

co x y means x has no factor greater than 1 in common with y.

pr
i
m
e

co
pr

to

be

eo
in
de
pe
n
de
nt

in
de
pe
A B means A is an event whose probability is independent of event B.
de
nt
of

ba

b means the smallest element of a lattice.

ot
to
m
el
e
m
en
t

th
ot
to
m

m
en

ce

eo

b means the bottom type (a.k.a. the zero type or empty type); bottom is the subtype of every ty
ot system.
to
m
ty
pe

th

ot
to
m
ty
pe

ot
pe

eo

co
m
pa
ra
bi
lit
y

co
m
pa x y means that x is comparable to y.
ra
bl

to

de

eo

en A B means the sentence A entails the sentence B, that is in every model in which A is true, B i
ta
il
m
en
t

en

ils

de

eo

in x y means y is derivable from x.

fe
re
nc
e

in
fe

de

ve

m
os

na

ed

pa p n means that p is a partition of n.

rti
ti
o
n

pa
rti

of
be

eo