Conservatism

This article is about conservatism as a political and 1.1 United Kingdom

social philosophy. For other uses, see Conservatism
(disambiguation). Main article: Conservatism in the United Kingdom

Conservatism as a political and social philosophy pro- In Great Britain, conservative ideas (though not yet
motes retaining traditional social institutions in the con- called that) emerged in the Tory movement during the
text of culture and civilization. Conservatives seek to pre- Restoration period (16601688). Toryism supported a
serve institutions like the Church, monarchy and the so- hierarchical society with a monarch who ruled by divine
cial hierarchy, as they are, emphasizing stability and con- right. Tories opposed the idea that sovereignty derived
tinuity, while others, called reactionaries, oppose mod- from the people, and rejected the authority of parlia-
ernism and seek a return to the way things were.[1][2] ment and freedom of religion. Robert Filmer's Patriar-
The rst established use of the term in a political con- cha: or the Natural Power of Kings, published posthu-
text originated with Franois-Ren de Chateaubriand in mously in 1680 but written before the English Civil War
1818,[3] during the period of Bourbon restoration that of 16421651, became accepted as the statement of their
sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution. doctrine. However, the Glorious Revolution of 1688
The term, historically associated with right-wing politics, destroyed this principle to some degree by establishing
has since been used to describe a wide range of views. a constitutional government in England, leading to the
There is no single set of policies that are universally hegemony of the Tory-opposed Whig ideology. Faced
regarded as conservative, because the meaning of con- with defeat, the Tories reformed their movement, now
servatism depends on what is considered traditional in holding that sovereignty was vested in the three estates of
a given place and time. Thus conservatives from dif- Crown, Lords, and Commons[8] rather than solely in the
ferent parts of the worldeach upholding their respec- Crown. Toryism became marginalized during the long
tive traditionsmay disagree on a wide range of is- period of Whig ascendancy in the 18th century.
sues. Edmund Burke, an 18th-century politician who op-
posed the French Revolution but supported the Ameri-
can Revolution, is credited as one of the main theorists
of conservatism in Britain in the 1790s.[4] According to
Quintin Hogg, the chairman of the British Conservative
Party in 1959, Conservatism is not so much a philoso-
phy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless
function in the development of a free society, and corre-
sponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human
nature itself..[5] In contrast to the tradition based def-
inition of conservatism, political theorists such as Corey
Robin dene conservatism primarily in terms of a general
defense of social and economic inequality. From this per-
spective conservatism is less an attempt to uphold tradi-
tional institutions and more a meditation on and theo-
retical rendition of the felt experience of having power,
seeing it threatened, and trying to win it back.[6][7]

1 Development of Western conser- Edmund Burke (17291797)

vatism Conservatives typically see Richard Hooker (15541600)

as the founding father of conservatism, along with the

1
2 1 DEVELOPMENT OF WESTERN CONSERVATISM
Marquess of Halifax (16331695), David Hume (1711
1776) and Edmund Burke (17291797). Halifax pro-
moted pragmatism in government, whilst Hume argued
against political rationalism and utopianism.[9][10] Burke
served as the private secretary to the Marquis of Rock-
ingham and as ocial pamphleteer to the Rockingham
branch of the Whig party.[11] Together with the To-
ries, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century
United Kingdom.[12] Burkes views were a mixture of lib-
eral and conservative. He supported the American Rev-
olution of 17651783 but abhorred the violence of the
French Revolution (17891799). He accepted the liberal
ideals of private property and the economics of Adam
Smith (17231790), but thought that economics should
remain subordinate to the conservative social ethic, that
capitalism should be subordinate to the medieval social
tradition and that the business class should be subordi-
nate to aristocracy. He insisted on standards of honor
derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition, and saw
the aristocracy as the nations natural leaders.[13] That
meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found
the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than
commissions appointed by the executive. He favored an
established church, but allowed for a degree of religious
toleration.[14] Burke justied the social order on the ba-
sis of tradition: tradition represented the wisdom of the
species and he valued community and social harmony
over social reforms.[15] Burke was a leading theorist in
his day, nding extreme idealism (either Tory or Whig)
an endangerment to broader liberties, and (like Hume)
rejecting abstract reason as an unsound guide for politi-
cal theory. Despite their inuence on future conservative
thought, none of these early contributors were explicitly
involved in Tory politics. Hooker lived in the 16th cen-
tury, long before the advent of toryism, whilst Hume was
an apolitical philosopher and Halifax similarly politically
independent. Burke described himself as a Whig.
1.1.1 Revival
Shortly after Burkes death in 1797, conservatism revived
as a mainstream political force as the Whigs suered
a series of internal divisions. This new generation of
conservatives derived their politics not from Burke but
from his predecessor, the Viscount Bolingbroke (1678
1751), who was a Jacobite and traditional Tory, lack-
ing Burkes sympathies for Whiggish policies such as
Catholic Emancipation and American independence (fa-
mously attacked by Samuel Johnson in Taxation No
Tyranny). In the rst half of the 19th century many
newspapers, magazines, and journals promoted loyalist
or right-wing attitudes in religion, politics, and interna-
tional aairs. Burke was seldom mentioned but William
Pitt the Younger (17591806) became a conspicuous
hero. The most prominent journals included The Quar-
terly Review, founded in 1809 as a counterweight to
the Whigs Edinburgh Review, and the even more con-
servative Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine. Sack nds
that the Quarterly Review promoted a balanced Cannin-
gite toryism; was neutral on Catholic emancipation and
only mildly critical of Nonconformist Dissent; it op-
posed slavery and supported the current poor laws. It
was aggressively imperialist. The high-church clergy of
the Church of England read the Orthodox Churchmans
Magazine which was equally hostile to Jewish, Catholic,
Jacobin, Methodist, and Unitarian spokesmen. Anchor-
ing the ultra Tories, Blackwoods Edinburgh Magazine
stood rmly against Catholic emancipation, and favoured
slavery, cheap money, mercantilism, the Navigation acts,
and the Holy Alliance.[16]
Conservatism evolved after 1820, embracing free trade in
1846, and a commitment to democracy, especially under
Disraeli. The eect was to signicantly strengthen Con-
servatism as a grassroots political force. Conservatism no
longer was the philosophical defense of the landed aris-
tocracy but had been refreshed into redening its com-
mitment to the ideals of order, both secular and reli-
gious, expanding imperialism, strengthened monarchy,
and a more generous vision of the welfare state as op-
posed to the punitive vision of the Whigs and Liberals.[17]
As early as 1835, Disraeli attacked the Whigs and utilitar-
ians as slavishly devoted to an industrial oligarchy, while
he described his fellow Tories as the only really demo-
cratic party of England and devoted to the interests of
the whole people.[18] Nevertheless, inside the party there
was a tension between the growing numbers of wealthy
businessmen on the one side, and the aristocracy and ru-
ral gentry on the other.[19] The aristocracy gained strength
as businessmen discovered they could use their wealth to
buy a peerage and a country estate.
Although conservatives opposed attempts to allow greater
representation of the middle class in parliament, in 1834
they conceded that electoral reform could not be reversed
and promised to support further reforms so long as they
did not erode the institutions of church and state. These
new principles were presented in the Tamworth Mani-
festo of 1834, which historians regard as the basic state-
ment of the beliefs of the new Conservative Party.[20]
Some conservatives lamented the passing of a pastoral
world where the ethos of noblesse oblige had promoted
respect from the lower classes. They saw the Anglican
Church and the aristocracy as balances against commer-
cial wealth.[21] They worked toward legislation for im-
proved working conditions and urban housing.[22] This
viewpoint would later be called Tory Democracy.[23]
However, since Burke there has always been tension
between traditional aristocratic conservatism and the
wealthy business class.[24]
In 1834, Tory Prime Minister Robert Peel issued the
Tamworth Manifesto in which he pledged to endorse
moderate political reform. This marked the beginning
of the transformation of British conservatism from High
Tory reactionism towards a more modern form based
on conservation. The party became known as the
1.2 Germany
Robert Peel (17881850)
Conservative Party as a result, a name it has retained
to this day. Peel, however, would also be the root of a
split in the party between the traditional Tories (led by
the Earl of Derby and Benjamin Disraeli) and the 'Peel-
ites (led rst by Peel himself, then by the Earl of Ab-
erdeen). The split occurred in 1846 over the issue of free
trade, which Peel supported, versus protectionism, sup-
ported by Derby. The majority of the party sided with
Derby, whilst about a third split away, eventually merging
with the Whigs and the radicals to form the Liberal Party.
Despite the split, the mainstream Conservative Party ac-
cepted the doctrine of free trade in 1852.
In the second half of the 19th century, the Liberal Party
faced political schisms, especially over Irish Home Rule.
Leader William Gladstone (himself a former Peelite)
sought to give Ireland a degree of autonomy, a move that
elements in both the left and right wings of his party op-
posed. These split o to become the Liberal Unionists
(led by Joseph Chamberlain), forming a coalition with
the Conservatives before merging with them in 1912.
The Liberal Unionist inuence dragged the Conservative
Party towards the left; Conservative governments pass-
ing a number of progressive reforms at the turn of the
20th century. By the late 19th century the traditional
business supporters of the UK Liberal Party had joined
the Conservatives, making them the party of business and
commerce.[25]
After a period of Liberal dominance before the First Otto von Bismarck on the European political stage. Bis-
World War, the Conservatives gradually became more in- marcks balance of power model maintained peace in
uential in government, regaining full control of the cab- Europe for decades at the end of the 19th century. His
3
Margaret Thatcher (19252013)
inet in 1922. In the interwar period conservatism was the
major ideology in Britain, as the Liberal Party vied with
the Labour Party for control of the left. After the Second
World War, the rst Labour government (19451951)
under Clement Attlee embarked on a program of nation-
alization of industry and the promotion of social welfare.
The Conservatives generally accepted those policies un-
til the 1980s. In the 1980s the Conservative government
of Margaret Thatcher, guided by neoliberal economics,
reversed many of Labours programmes.[26]
Small conservative political parties, such as the United
Kingdom Independence Party (founded in 1993) and the
Democratic Unionist Party (founded in 1971), began to
appear, although they have yet to make any signicant
impact at Westminster (as of 2014 the DUP comprises
the largest political party in the ruling coalition in the
Northern Ireland Assembly).
1.2 Germany
Main article: Conservatism in Germany
Conservative thought developed alongside nationalism in
Germany, culminating in Germanys victory over France
in the Franco-Prussian War, the creation of the unied
German Empire in 1871, and the simultaneous rise of
4 2 FORMS OF CONSERVATISM

revolutionary conservatism was a conservative state-
building strategy designed to make ordinary Germans
not just the Junker elitemore loyal to state and emperor,
he created the modern welfare state in Germany in the
1880s. According to Kees van Kersbergen and Barbara
Vis, his strategy was:
Historian Gregory Schneider identies several constants
in American conservatism: respect for tradition, sup-
port of republicanism, the rule of law and the Chris-
tian religion, and a defense of Western civilization
from the challenges of modernist culture and totalitarian
governments.[30]

granting social rights to enhance the inte-

gration of a hierarchical society, to forge a 1.4 France
bond between workers and the state so as to
strengthen the latter, to maintain traditional re-
lations of authority between social and status
groups, and to provide a countervailing power
against the modernist forces of liberalism and
socialism.[27]

Bismarck also enacted universal male surage in the new

German Empire in 1871.[28] He became a great hero to
German conservatives, who erected many monuments to
his memory after he left oce in 1890.[29]
With the rise of Nazism in 1933, agrarian movements
faded and was supplanted by a more command-based
economy and forced social integration. Though Adolf
Hitler succeeded in garnering the support of many Ger-
man industrialists, prominent traditionalists openly and
secretly opposed his policies of euthanasia, genocide, and
attacks on organized religion, including Claus von Stauf-
fenberg, Dietrich Bonhoeer, Henning von Tresckow,
Bishop Clemens August Graf von Galen, and the monar-
chist Carl Friedrich Goerdeler.
More recently, the work of conservative CDU leader
Helmut Kohl helped bring about German Reunication,
along with the closer integration of Europe in the form of
the Maastricht Treaty. Today, German conservatism is
often associated with Chancellor Angela Merkel, whose Joseph de Maistre (17531821)
tenure has been marked by attempts to save the common
European currency (euro) from demise. Another form of conservatism developed in France in
parallel to conservatism in Britain. It was inuenced by
Counter-Enlightenment works by men such as Joseph de
1.3 United States Maistre and Louis de Bonald. Latin conservatism was less
pragmatic and more reactionary than the conservatism of
Main article: Conservatism in the United States Burke. Many Continental or Traditionalist conservatives
do not support separation of Church and state, with most
supporting state recognition of and cooperation with the
In the United States, conservatism is rooted in
Catholic Church, such as had existed in France before the
the American Revolution and its commitment to
Revolution.
republicanism, sovereignty of the people, and the rights
and liberties of Englishmen while expelling the king Eventually conservatives added patriotism and
and his supporters. Most European conservative writers nationalism to the list of traditional values they
do not accept American conservatism as genuine; they support. German conservatives were the rst to embrace
consider it to be a variety of classical liberalism. Modern nationalism, which was previously associated with
American social liberals in the New Deal do not disagree liberalism and the Revolution in France.[31]
with that consensus view, but conservatives spend much
more emphasis on the Revolutionary origins, with the
Tea Party advocates using an episode from the 1770s for
their name and some even dress in costumes from that 2 Forms of conservatism
era at their rallies.
2.3 Libertarian conservatism
2.1 Liberal conservatism
Main article: Liberal conservatism
Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism that
combines conservative values and policies with classical
liberal stances.[32] As these latter two terms have had dif-
ferent meanings over time and across countries, liberal
conservatism also has a wide variety of meanings. His-
torically, the term often referred to the combination of
economic liberalism, which champions laissez-faire mar-
kets, with the classical conservatism concern for estab-
lished tradition, respect for authority and religious values.
It contrasted itself with classical liberalism, which sup-
ported freedom for the individual in both the economic
and social spheres.
Over time, the general conservative ideology in many
countries adopted economic liberal arguments, and the
term liberal conservatism was replaced with conservatism.
This is also the case in countries where liberal economic
ideas have been the tradition, such as the United States,
and are thus considered conservative. In other countries
where liberal conservative movements have entered the
political mainstream, such as Italy and Spain, the terms
liberal and conservative may be synonymous. The lib-
eral conservative tradition in the United States combines
the economic individualism of the classical liberals with
a Burkean form of conservatism (which has also become
part of the American conservative tradition, such as in the
writings of Russell Kirk).
A secondary meaning for the term liberal conservatism
that has developed in Europe is a combination of more Main article: Fiscal conservatism
modern conservative (less traditionalist) views with those Fiscal conservatism is the economic philosophy of pru-
of social liberalism. This has developed as an opposi-
tion to the more collectivist views of socialism. Often
this involves stressing what are now conservative views of
free-market economics and belief in individual responsi-
bility, with social liberal views on defence of civil rights,
environmentalism and support for a limited welfare state.
In continental Europe, this is sometimes also translated
into English as social conservatism.
2.2 Conservative liberalism
Main article: Conservative liberalism
Conservative liberalism is a variant of liberalism that
combines liberal values and policies with conservative
stances, or, more simply, the right wing of the liberal
movement.[33][34][35] The roots of conservative liberalism
are found at the beginning of the history of liberalism.
Until the two World Wars, in most European countries
the political class was formed by conservative liberals,
from Germany to Italy. Events after World War I brought
the more radical version of classical liberalism to a more
conservative (i.e. more moderate) type of liberalism.[36]
5
2.3 Libertarian conservatism
Main article: Libertarian conservatism
Libertarian conservatism describes certain political ide-
ologies within the United States and Canada which com-
bine libertarian economic issues with aspects of conser-
vatism. Its four main branches are Constitutionalism,
paleolibertarianism, small government conservatism and
Christian libertarianism. They generally dier from
paleoconservatives, in that they are in favor of more
personal and economic freedom.
Agorists such as Samuel Edward Konkin III labeled lib-
ertarian conservatism right-libertarianism.[37][38]
In contrast to paleoconservatives, libertarian conserva-
tives support strict laissez-faire policies such as free
trade, opposition to any national bank and opposition to
business regulations. They are vehemently opposed to
environmental regulations, corporate welfare, subsidies,
and other areas of economic intervention.
Many conservatives, especially in the United States, be-
lieve that the government should not play a major role
in regulating business and managing the economy. They
typically oppose eorts to charge high tax rates and to
redistribute income to assist the poor. Such eorts, they
argue, do not properly reward people who have earned
their money through hard work.
2.4 Fiscal conservatism
Taxpayer March on Washington: Conservative protesters walk-
ing down Pennsylvania Avenue, Washington, D.C.
dence in government spending and debt.[39] Edmund
Burke, in his Reections on the Revolution in France, ar-
gued that a government does not have the right to run up
large debts and then throw the burden on the taxpayer:
...[I]t is to the property of the citizen, and
6 2 FORMS OF CONSERVATISM

not to the demands of the creditor of the state,

that the rst and original faith of civil society
is pledged. The claim of the citizen is prior
in time, paramount in title, superior in equity.
The fortunes of individuals, whether possessed
by acquisition or by descent or in virtue of
a participation in the goods of some commu-
nity, were no part of the creditors security,
expressed or implied...[T]he public, whether
represented by a monarch or by a senate, can
pledge nothing but the public estate; and it can
have no public estate except in what it derives
from a just and proportioned imposition upon
the citizens at large.

Most conservatives, especially in the United States, be-

lieve that government action should focus on moral and
social questions and oppose government action to help the
poor, to regulate the economy, or to protect the environ-
ment. They believe that government programs that seek
to provide services and opportunities for the poor actually
encourage dependence and reduce self-reliance. They
oppose armative action. They oppose a progressive in-
come tax.

2.5 National and traditional conservatism

Main articles: National conservatism and Traditional
conservatism
National conservatism is a political term used primar-
ily in Europe to describe a variant of conservatism which
concentrates more on national interests than standard
conservatism as well as upholding cultural and ethnic
identity,[40] while not being outspokenly nationalist or Gianfranco Fini, former President of the Italian Chamber of
supporting a far-right approach. In Europe, national con- Deputies, in 2004
servatives are usually eurosceptics.[41][42]
National conservatism is heavily oriented towards the tra-
ditional family and social stability as well as in favour of conservatives, including a few Americans, defend the
limiting immigration. As such, national conservatives can monarchical political structure as the most natural and
be distinguished from economic conservatives, for whom benecial social arrangement.
free market economic policies, deregulation and scal
conservatism are the main priorities. Some commenta-
tors have identied a growing gap between national and 2.6 Cultural and social conservatism
economic conservatism: most parties of the Right [to-
day] are run by economic conservatives who, in varying Main articles: Cultural conservatism and social conser-
degrees, have marginalized social, cultural, and national vatism
conservatives.[43] National conservatism is also related
to traditionalist conservatism. Cultural conservatives support the preservation of the
Traditionalist conservatism is a political philosophy em- heritage of one nation, or of a shared culture that is not de-
phasizing the need for the principles of natural law ned by national boundaries.[45] The shared culture may
and transcendent moral order, tradition, hierarchy and be as divergent as Western culture or Chinese culture.
organic unity, agrarianism, classicism and high culture, In the United States, the term cultural conservative may
and the intersecting spheres of loyalty.[44] Some tradi- imply a conservative position in the culture war. Cul-
tionalists have embraced the labels "reactionary" and tural conservatives hold fast to traditional ways of think-
"counterrevolutionary", defying the stigma that has at- ing even in the face of monumental change. They believe
tached to these terms since the Enlightenment. Hav- strongly in traditional values and traditional politics, and
ing a hierarchical view of society, many traditionalist often have an urgent sense of nationalism.
2.8 Progressive conservatism 7

Social conservatism is distinct from cultural conser- seeks to uphold traditional family structures and social
vatism, although there are some overlaps. Social conser- values. Religious conservatives typically oppose abor-
vatives may believe that the government has a role in en- tion, homosexual behavior, drug use, and sexual activity
couraging or enforcing traditional values or behaviours. outside of marriage. In some cases, conservative values
A social conservative wants to preserve traditional moral- are grounded in religious beliefs, and some conservatives
ity and social mores, often by opposing what they con- seek to increase the role of religion in public life.
sider radical policies or social engineering. Social change
is generally regarded as suspect.
A second meaning of the term social conservatism de-
2.8 Progressive conservatism
veloped in the Nordic countries and continental Europe.
Main article: Centre-right politics
There it refers to liberal conservatives supporting modern
European welfare states.
Progressive conservatism incorporates progressive poli-
Social conservatives (in the rst meaning of the word)
cies alongside conservative policies. It stresses the im-
in many countries generally favour the pro-life posi-
portance of a social safety net to deal with poverty, sup-
tion in the abortion controversy and oppose human
port of limited redistribution of wealth along with gov-
embryonic stem cell research (particularly if publicly
ernment regulation to regulate markets in the interests
funded); oppose both eugenics and human enhancement
[46] of both consumers and producers.[52] Progressive conser-
(transhumanism) while supporting bioconservatism;
vatism rst arose as a distinct ideology in the United King-
support a traditional denition of marriage as being one
dom under Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli's "One Na-
man and one woman; view the nuclear family model
tion" Toryism.[52][53]
as societys foundational unit; oppose expansion of civil
marriage and child adoption rights to couples in same- There have been a variety of progressive conserva-
sex relationships; promote public morality and tradi- tive governments. In the UK, the Prime Minis-
tional family values; oppose atheism,[47] especially mil- ters Disraeli, Stanley Baldwin, Neville Chamberlain,
itant atheism, secularism and the separation of church Winston Churchill, Harold Macmillan,[54] and previ-
and state;[48][49][50] support the prohibition of drugs, ous Prime Minister David Cameron are progressive
prostitution, and euthanasia; and support the censorship conservatives.[55][56]
of pornography and what they consider to be obscenity In the United States, the administration of Presi-
or indecency. Most conservatives in the US support the dent William Howard Taft was progressive conserva-
death penalty. tive and he described himself as a believer in progres-
sive conservatism[57] and President Dwight D. Eisen-
hower declared himself an advocate of progressive
2.7 Religious conservatism conservatism.[58] In Germany, Chancellor Leo von
Caprivi promoted a progressive conservative agenda
See also: Religious Right called the New Course.[59] In Canada, a variety of con-
Religious conservatives principally seek to apply the servative governments have been progressive conserva-
tive, with Canadas major conservative movement being
ocially named the Progressive Conservative Party of
Canada from 1942 to 2003.[60] In Canada, the Prime
Ministers Arthur Meighen, R. B. Bennett, John Diefen-
baker, Joe Clark, Brian Mulroney, and Kim Campbell led
progressive conservative federal governments.[60]

2.9 Authoritarian conservatism

Main article: Far-right politics

Authoritarian conservatism refers to autocratic regimes

that center their ideology around conservative national-
ism rather than ethnic nationalism, though certain racial
March for Life in Paris, France, 2012
components such as antisemitism may exist.[61] Authori-
tarian conservative movements show strong devotion to-
teachings of particular religions to politics, sometimes by wards religion, tradition, and culture, while also express-
merely proclaiming the value of those teachings, at other ing fervent nationalism akin to other far-right national-
times by having those teachings inuence laws.[51] ist movements. Examples of authoritarian conservative
In most modern democracies, political conservatism leaders include Antnio de Oliveira Salazar,[62] Engelbert
8 3 HISTORIC CONSERVATISM IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

Dollfuss,[63] and Ioannis Metaxas.[64] Authoritarian con- (risorgimento), liberals not conservatives emerged as the
servative movements were prominent in the same era as party of the Right.[71] In the Netherlands, conservatives
fascism, with which it sometimes clashed. Although both merged into a new Christian democratic party in 1980.[72]
ideologies shared core values such as nationalism and In Austria, Germany, Portugal and Spain, conservatism
had common enemies such as communism and materi- was transformed into and incorporated into fascism or the
alism, there was nonetheless a contrast between the tra- far right.[73] In 1940, all Japanese parties were merged
ditionalist nature of authoritarian conservatism and the into a single fascist party. Following the war, Japanese
revolutionary, palingenetic, and populist nature of fas- conservatives briey returned to politics but were largely
cism; thus, it was common for authoritarian conservative purged from public oce.[74]
regimes to suppress rising fascist and National Socialist Louis Hartz explained the absence of conservatism in
movements.[65] The hostility between the two ideologies
Australia or the United States as a result of their settle-
is highlighted by the struggle for power for the National ment as radical or liberal fragments of Great Britain. Al-
Socialists in Austria, which was marked by the assassina-
though he said English Canada had a negligible conser-
tion of Dollfuss. vative inuence, subsequent writers claimed that loyalists
opposed to the American Revolution brought a Tory ide-
ology into Canada. Hartz explained conservatism in Que-
bec and Latin America as a result of their settlement
3 Historic conservatism in dier- as feudal societies.[75] The American conservative writer
ent countries Russell Kirk provided the opinion that conservatism had
been brought to the US and interpreted the American rev-
olution as a conservative revolution.[76]
Further information: Right-wing politics and Political
spectrum Conservative elites have long dominated Latin American
nations. Mostly this has been achieved through control
of and support for civil institutions, the church and the
Conservative political parties vary widely from country to
armed forces, rather than through party politics. Typi-
country in the goals they wish to achieve. Both conserva-
cally the church was exempt from taxes and its employees
tive and liberal parties tend to favor private ownership of
immune from civil prosecution. Where national conser-
property, in opposition to communist, socialist and green
vative parties were weak or non-existent, conservatives
parties, which favor communal ownership or laws requir-
were more likely to rely on military dictatorship as a pre-
ing social responsibility on the part of property owners.
ferred form of government. However, in some nations
Where conservatives and liberals dier is primarily on
where the elites were able to mobilize popular support
social issues. Conservatives tend to reject behavior that
for conservative parties, longer periods of political sta-
does not conform to some social norm. Modern conser-
bility were achieved. Chile, Colombia and Venezuela
vative parties often dene themselves by their opposition
are examples of nations that developed strong conser-
to liberal or labor parties. The United States usage of the
vative parties. Argentina, Brazil, El Salvador and Peru
term conservative is unique to that country.[66]
are examples of nations where this did not occur.[77] The
According to Alan Ware, Belgium, Denmark, Iceland, Conservative Party of Venezuela disappeared following
Finland, France, Greece, Iceland, Luxembourg, Nether- the Federal Wars of 18581863.[78] Chiles conservative
lands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, and the UK re- party, the National Party disbanded in 1973 following a
tained viable conservative parties into the 1980s.[67] Ware military coup and did not re-emerge as a political force
said that Australia, Germany, Israel, Italy, Japan, Malta, following the subsequent return to democracy.[79]
New Zealand, Spain and the US had no conservative
parties, although they had either Christian Democrats
or liberals as major right-wing parties. Canada, Ire-
land, and Portugal had right-wing political parties that
deed categorization: the Progressive Conservative Party
3.1 Belgium
of Canada; Fianna Fil, Fine Gael, and Progressive
Democrats in Ireland; and the Social Democratic Party Having its roots in the conservative Catholic Party, the
of Portugal.[68] Since then, the Swiss Peoples Party has Christian Peoples Party, retained a conservative edge
moved to the extreme right and is no longer considered to through the twentieth century, supporting the king in the
be conservative.[69] Royal Question, supporting nuclear family as the corner-
stone of society, defending Christian education and op-
Klaus von Beyme, who developed the method of party posing euthanasia. The Christian Peoples Party domi-
categorization, found that no modern Eastern European nated politics in post-war Belgium. In 1999, the partys
parties could be considered conservative, although the support collapsed and it became the countrys fth largest
communist and communist-successor parties had strong party.[80][81][82] Currently the N-VA (nieuw-vlaamse al-
similarities.[70] liantie / new-Flemish alliance) is the largest party in
In Italy, which was united by liberals and radicals Belgium.[83]
3.4 Denmark 9

3.2 Canada 3.4 Denmark

Main article: Conservatism in Canada Founded in 1915, the Conservative Peoples Party of
Denmark. was the successor of Hjre (literally "The
Right). In the 2005 election it won 18 out of 179 seats
Canadas Conservatives had their roots in the Loyalists
in the Folketing and became a junior partner in coali-
Tories who left America after the American Revolu-
tion with the Liberals.[89] The party is preceded by 11
tion. They developed in the socio-economic and politi-
years by the Young Conservatives (KU), today the youth
cal cleavages that existed during the rst three decades
movement of the party. The Party suered a major de-
of the 19th century, and had the support of the business,
feat in the parliamentary elections of September 2011 in
professional and established Church (Anglican) elites in
which the party lost more than half of its seat and also lost
Ontario and to a lesser extent in Quebec. Holding a
governmental power. A liberal cultural policy dominated
monopoly over administrative and judicial oces, they
during the postwar period. However, by the 1990s dis-
were called the "Family Compact" in Ontario and the
agreements regarding immigrants from entirely dierent
"Chateau Clique" in Quebec. John A. Macdonald's suc-
cultures ignited a conservative backlash.[90]
cessful leadership of the movement to confederate the
provinces and his subsequent tenure as prime minister
for most of the late 19th century rested on his ability to 3.5 Finland
bring together the English-speaking Protestant oligarchy
and the ultramontane Catholic hierarchy of Quebec and The conservative party in Finland is the National Coali-
to keep them united in a conservative coalition.[84] tion Party (in Finnish Kansallinen Kokoomus, Kok). The
The Conservatives combined pro-market liberalism and party was founded in 1918 when several monarchist par-
Toryism. They generally supported an activist govern- ties united. Although in the past the party was right-wing,
ment and state intervention in the marketplace, and their today it is a moderate party. While the party advocates
policies were marked by noblesse oblige, a paternalistic economic liberalism, it is committed to the social market
responsibility of the elites for the less well-o.[85] From economy.[91]
1942, the party was known as the Progressive Conser-
vatives, until 2003, when the national party merged with
the Canadian Alliance to form the Conservative Party of 3.6 France
Canada.[86]
The conservative Union Nationale governed the province
of Quebec in periods from 1936 to 1960, in a close
alliance with English Canadian business elites and the
Catholic Church. This period, known as the Great Dark-
ness ended with the Quiet Revolution and the party went
into terminal decline.[87]

3.3 Colombia

Main article: Conservatism in Colombia

European Peoples Party Congress in Bucharest in 2012

The Colombian Conservative Party, founded in 1849,
traces its origins to opponents of General Francisco de
Paula Santander's 183337 administration. While the
term liberal had been used to describe all political
forces in Colombia, the conservatives began describing
themselves as conservative liberals and their opponents
as red liberals. From the 1860s until the present, the
party has supported strong central government, and sup-
ported the Catholic Church, especially its role as protec-
tor of the sanctity of the family, and opposed separation
of church and state. Its policies include the legal equality
of all men, the citizens right to own property and op-
position to dictatorship. It has usually been Colombias
second largest party, with the Colombian Liberal Party
being the largest.[88]
Conservatism in France focused on The rejection of
the French Revolution, support for the Catholic Church,
and the restoration of the monarchy. The monarchist
cause was on the verge of victory in the 1870s but then
collapsed because of disagreements on who would be
king, and what the national ag should be.[92] Religious
tensions heightened in the 18901910 era, but moder-
ated after the spirit of unity in ghting the First World
War.[93] An extreme form of conservatism characterized
the Vichy regime of 19401944 with heightened anti-
Semitism, opposition to individualism, emphasis on fam-
ily life, and national direction of the economy.[94]
Following the Second World War, conservatives in
10 3 HISTORIC CONSERVATISM IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

France supported Gaullist groups and have been nation-
alistic, and emphasized tradition, order, and the regen-
eration of France.[95] Gaullists held divergent views on
social issues. The number of Conservative groups, their
lack of stability, and their tendency to be identied with
local issues defy simple categorization. Conservatism has
been the major political force in France since the second
world war.[96] Unusually, post-war French conservatism
was formed around the personality of a leader, Charles
de Gaulle, and did not draw on traditional French con-
servatism, but on the Bonapartism tradition.[97] Gaullism
in France continues under Les Republicains (formerly
Union for a Popular Movement).[98] The word conser-
vative itself is a term of abuse in France.[99]
ter the merger with the Liberal Party. From the begin-
ning they have been the largest vote-winning party, aver-
aging around 40%. They combined liberalism and con-
servatism, supported nationalization of infrastructure and
opposed class conict. While mostly in opposition dur-
ing the 1930s, they embraced economic liberalism, but
accepted the welfare state after the war and participated
in governments supportive of state intervention and pro-
tectionism. Unlike other Scandanivian conservative (and
liberal) parties, it has always had a large working-class
following.[102] After the nancial crisis in 2008 the party
has sunk to a lower support level around 2025%.
3.9 Italy

3.7 Greece After WW2 in Italy the conservative theories were mainly
represented by the Christian Democracy, which govern-
The main interwar conservative party was called the ment form the foundation of the Republic until partys
Peoples Party (PP), which supported constitutional dissolution in 1994. Ocially DC refused the ideology
monarchy and opposed the republican Liberal Party. of Conservatism, but in many aspects, for example family
Both it and the Liberal party were suppressed by the values, it was a typical social conservative party.
authoritarian, arch-conservative and royalist 4th of Au- In 1994 the media tycoon and entrepreneur Silvio Berlus-
gust Regime of Ioannis Metaxas in 193641. The PP coni founded the liberal conservative Forza Italia move-
was able to re-group after the Second World War as ment. Berlusconi won three elections in 1994, 2001 and
part of a United Nationalist Front which achieved power 2008 governing the country for almost ten years as Prime
campaigning on a simple anticommunist, ultranationalist Minister.
platform during the Greek Civil War (194649). How-
ever, the vote received by the PP declined during the so- Besides FI, now the conservative ideas are mainly ex-
called Centrist Interlude in 195052. In 1952, Marshal pressed by the New Centre-Right party led by Angelino
Alexandros Papagos created the Greek Rally as an um- Alfano, former Berlusconis protg who split from the
brella for the right-wing forces. The Greek Rally came to reborn Forza Italia founding a new conservative move-
power in 1952 and remained the leading party in Greece ment. Alfano is the current Minister of the Interior in the
until 1963after Papagos death in 1955 reformed as the government of Matteo Renzi.
National Radical Union under Konstantinos Karamanlis.
Right-wing governments backed by the palace and the
army overthrew the Centre Union government in 1965,
3.10 Luxembourg
and governed the country until the establishment of the
Luxembourgs major conservative party, the Christian
far-right Regime of the Colonels (196774). After the
Social Peoples Party (CSV or PCS) was formed as the
regimes collapse in August 1974, Karamanlis returned
Party of the Right in 1914, and adopted its present name
from exile to lead the government, and founded the New
in 1945. It was consistently the largest political party in
Democracy party. The new party had four objectives: to
Luxembourg and dominated politics throughout the 20th
confront Turkish expansionism in Cyprus, to reestablish
century.[103]
and solidify democratic rule, to give the country a strong
government, and to make a powerful moderate party a
force in Greek politics.[100]
3.11 Norway
The Independent Greeks, a newly formed political party
in Greece has also supported conservatism, particularly The Conservative Party of Norway (Norwegian: Hyre,
national and religious conservatism. The Founding Dec- literally "right) was formed by the old upper class of
laration of the Independent Greeks strongly emphasises state ocials and wealthy merchants to ght the pop-
in the preservation of the Greek state and its sovereignty,
ulist democracy of the Liberal Party, but lost power in
the Greek people and the Greek Orthodox Church.[101] 1884 when parliamentarian government was rst prac-
tised. It formed its rst government under parliamen-
tarism in 1889, and continued to alternate in power with
3.8 Iceland the Liberals until the 1930s, when Labour became the
dominant political party. It has elements both of pa-
Founded in 1924, as the Conservative Party, Icelands ternalism, stressing the responsibilities of the state, and
Independence Party adopted its current name in 1929 af- of economic liberalism. It rst returned to power in
 11

the 1960s.[104] During Kre Willochs premiership in the 4 Modern conservatism in dier-
1980s, much emphasis was laid on liberalizing the credit-
and housing market and abolishing the NRK TV and ra-
ent countries
dio monopoly, while supporting law and order in criminal
justice and traditional norms in education[105] News media (USA)
view discuss
10
3.12 Sweden
0
Swedens conservative party, the Moderate Party, was
formed in 1904, two years after the founding of the liberal 10
party.[106] The party emphasizes tax reductions, deregu- Politico
lation of private enterprise, and privatization of schools, Washington Post
hospitals and kindergartens.[107] Hungton Post
New York Times
NPR
3.13 Switzerland Slate
New Yorker
There are a number of conservative parties in Switzer- Wall Street Journal
lands parliament, the Federal Assembly. These in- Yahoo News
clude the largest, the Swiss Peoples Party (SVP),[108] USA Today
the Christian Democratic Peoples Party (CVP),[109] rep- Bloomberg News
resented in the Federal Council or cabinet by Doris Google News
Leuthard (in 2011), and the Conservative Democratic CNN
Party of Switzerland (BDP),[110] which is a splinter of the MSNBC
SVP created in the aftermath to the election of Eveline Glenn Beck
Widmer-Schlumpf as Federal Council.[110] Shawn Hannity
The Blaze
The Swiss Peoples Party (SVP or UDC) was formed Rush Limbaugh
from the 1971 merger of the Party of Farmers, Traders, Breitbart News
and Citizens, formed in 1917 and the smaller Swiss Drudge Report
Democratic Party, formed in 1942. The SVP empha- Fox News
sized agricultural policy, and was strong among farmers in
German-speaking Protestant areas. As Switzerland con- Very Conservative
sidered closer relations with the European Union in the audience
1990s, the SVP adopted a more militant protectionist and
isolationist stance. This stance has allowed it to expand Conservative
into German-speaking Catholic mountainous areas.[111] audience
The Anti-Defamation League, a non-Swiss lobby group
based in the US has accused them of manipulating is- Nonpartisan
sues such as immigration, Swiss neutrality and welfare audience
benets, awakening anti-Semitism and racism.[112] The
Council of Europe has called the SVP extreme right, average
although some scholars dispute this classication. Hans- respondent
Georg Betz for example describes it as populist radical
right.[113] Liberal
audience

3.14 United Kingdom Very Liberal
audience
Main article: Conservatism in the United Kingdom Pew Research Center (2014)
"Ideological Placement of Each Sources Audience"
[ranked accurately; scaled for clarity]
Edmund Burke is often considered the father of English
conservatism and was a member of the Whig Party. How-
ever, the modern Conservative Party is generally thought While conservatism has been seen as an appeal to tradi-
to derive from the Tory party and the MPs of the mod- tional, hierarchical society, some writers, such as Samuel
ern conservative party are still frequently referred to as P. Huntington, see it as situational. Under this denition,
Tories. conservatives are seen as defending the established insti-
12 4 MODERN CONSERVATISM IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES

tutions of their time.[114] of Russian power into Crimea and eastern Ukraine.[121]
More broadly the New York Times reports in September
2016 how that Churchs policy prescriptions support the
4.1 Australia Kremlins appeal to social conservatives:

Main article: Conservatism in Australia

The Liberal Party of Australia adheres to the principles
of social conservatism and liberal conservatism.[115] It is
Liberal in the sense of economics. Other conservative
parties are the National Party of Australia, a sister party
of the Liberals, Family First Party, Democratic Labor
Party, Shooters Party and the Katters Australian Party.
The second largest party in the country, the Australian
Labor Party's dominant faction is Labor Right, a socially
conservative element. Australia undertook signicant
economic reform under the Australian Labor Party in the
mid-1980s. Consequently, issues like protectionism, wel-
fare reform, privatization and deregulation are no longer
debated in the political space as they are in Europe or
North America. Moser and Catley explain, In Amer-
ica, 'liberal' means left-of-center, and it is a pejorative
term when used by conservatives in adversarial political
debate. In Australia, of course, the conservatives are in
the Liberal Party.[116] Jupp points out that, "[the] decline
in English inuences on Australian reformism and radi-
calism, and appropriation of the symbols of Empire by
conservatives continued under the Liberal Party leader-
ship of Sir Robert Menzies, which lasted until 1966.[117]
4.2 India
In India, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) represents conser-
vative politics nationally and occupies the traditional right
wing position in the leftright political spectrum. So-
cial conservatism, Hindutva and Cultural Nationalism are
some major ideologies of BJP.
4.3 Russia
Under Vladimir Putin, the dominant leader since 1999,
Russia has promoted explicitly conservative policies in
social, cultural and political matters, both at home and
abroad. Putin has attacked globalism and economic
liberalism.[118] Putin has promoted new think tanks
that bring together like-minded intellectuals and writers.
For example, the Izborsky Club, founded in 2012 by
Aleksandr Prokhanov, stresses Russian nationalism, the
restoration of Russias historical greatness, and system-
atic opposition to liberal ideas and policies.[119] Vladislav 4.5 United States
Surkov, a senior government ocial has been one of the
key ideologists during Putins presidency.[120]
In cultural and social aairs Putin has collaborated The meaning of conservatism in the United States
closely with the Russian Orthodox Church. Mark Woods has little in common with the way the word is used
provides specic examples of how the Church under elsewhere. As Ribuo (2011) notes, what Americans
Patriarch Kirill of Moscow has backed the expansion now call conservatism much of the world calls liberal-
A fervent foe of homosexuality and any at-
tempt to put individual rights above those of
family, community or nation, the Russian Or-
thodox Church helps project Russia as the nat-
ural ally of all those who pine for a more se-
cure, illiberal world free from the tradition-
crushing rush of globalization, multicultural-
ism and womens and gay rights.[122]
4.4 South Korea
Main article: Conservatism in South Korea
South Koreas major conservative party, the Saenuri
Party or , changed its form throughout its his-
tory. First it was the Democratic-Republican Party
(1963~1980); its head was Park Chung-hee who seized
power in a 1961 military coup d'tat and ruled as an un-
elected military strongman until his formal election as
president in 1963. He was president for 16 years, until his
assassination on October 26, 1979. The Democratic Jus-
tice Party inherited the same ideology as the Democratic-
Republican Party. Its head, Chun Doo-hwan, also gained
power through a coup. His followers called themselves
the Hanahae. The Democratic Justice Party changed its
form and acted to suppress the opposition party and to fol-
low the peoples demand for direct elections. The partys
Roh Tae-woo became the rst president who was elected
through direct election. The next form of the major con-
servative party was the Democratic-Liberal Party. Again,
through election, its second leader, Kim Young-sam, be-
came the fourteenth president of Korea. When the con-
servative party was beaten by the opposition party in the
general election, it changed its form again to follow the
party members demand for reforms. It became the New
Korean Party. It changed again one year later since the
President Kim Young-sam was blamed by the citizen for
the IMF. It changed its name to Grand National Party
(Hannara-dang) (1998~2011). Since the late Kim Dae-
jung assumed the presidency in 1998, GNP had not been
the ruling party until Lee Myung-bak won the presidential
election of 2007. It renamed to Saenoori Party ( )
in 2011.
Main article: Conservatism in the United States
 13

growing role for the federal government in health care.

Electorally, it was considered a key force in Republicans
reclaiming control of the US House of Representatives in
2010.[131][132]

5 Characteristics of conservatism
in France, Italy, Russia, Poland,
UK, US and Israel
This is a broad checklist of modern conservatism in seven
countries.

President Ronald Reagan in 1982

6 Psychology
ism or neoliberalism.[123] Since the 1950s conservatism
in the United States has been chiey associated with the See also: Biology and political orientation
Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation
many Southern Democrats were conservatives, and they Following the Second World War, psychologists con-
played a key role in the Conservative Coalition that largely ducted research into the dierent motives and tenden-
controlled domestic policy in Congress from 1937 to cies that account for ideological dierences between left
1963.[124] and right. The early studies focused on conservatives,
Major priorities within American conservatism include beginning with Theodor W. Adorno's The Authoritarian
support for tradition, law-and-order, Christianity, anti- Personality (1950) based on the F-scale personality test.
communism, and a defense of Western civilization This book has been heavily criticized on theoretical and
from the challenges of modernist culture and totalitar- methodological grounds, but some of its ndings have
ian governments.[30] Economic conservatives and liber- been conrmed by further empirical research.[134]
tarians favor small government, low taxes, limited reg- In 1973, British psychologist Glenn Wilson published
ulation, and free enterprise. Some social conserva- an inuential book providing evidence that a gen-
tives see traditional social values threatened by secular- eral factor underlying conservative beliefs is fear of
ism, so they support school prayer and oppose abor- uncertainty.[135] A meta-analysis of research literature
tion and homosexuality.[125] Neoconservatives want to by Jost, Glaser, Kruglanski, and Sulloway in 2003 found
expand American ideals throughout the world and show that many factors, such as intolerance of ambiguity and
a strong support for Israel.[126] Paleoconservatives, in need for cognitive closure, contribute to the degree of
opposition to multiculturalism, press for restrictions on ones political conservatism.[134] A study by Kathleen
immigration.[127] Most US conservatives prefer Republi- Maclay stated these traits might be associated with such
cans over Democrats, and most factions favor a strong generally valued characteristics as personal commitment
foreign policy and a strong military. The conservative and unwavering loyalty. The research also suggested that
movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together these while most people are resistant to change, liberals are
divergent strands, stressing the need for unity to pre- more tolerant of it.|date = July 22, 2003[136]
vent the spread of Godless Communism, which Rea-
According to psychologist Bob Altemeyer, individuals
gan later labeled an "evil empire".[128] During the Rea-
who are politically conservative tend to rank high in right-
gan administration, conservatives also supported the so-
wing authoritarianism on his RWA scale.[137] This nding
called "Reagan Doctrine" under which the US, as part ofwas echoed by Theodor Adorno. A study done on Israeli
a Cold War strategy, provided military and other support
and Palestinian students in Israel found that RWA scores
to guerrilla insurgencies that were ghting governmentsof right-wing party supporters were signicantly higher
identied as socialist or communist. than those of left-wing party supporters.[138] However, a
Other modern conservative positions include opposition 2005 study by H. Michael Crowson and colleagues sug-
to world government and opposition to environmen- gested a moderate gap between RWA and other conser-
talism.[129] On average, American conservatives desire vative positions. The results indicated that conservatism
tougher foreign policies than liberals do.[130] is not synonymous with RWA.[139]
Most recently, the Tea Party movement, founded in 2009, Psychologist Felicia Pratto and her colleagues have found
has proven a large outlet for populist American conserva- evidence to support the idea that a high social domi-
tive ideas. Their stated goals include rigorous adherence nance orientation (SDO) is strongly correlated with con-
to the US Constitution, lower taxes, and opposition to a servative political views, and opposition to social engi-
14 7 NOTES

neering to promote equality,[140] though Prattos nd- [5] Quintin Hogg Baron Hailsham of St. Marylebone (1959).
ings have been highly controversial . Pratto and her col- The Conservative Case. Penguin Books.
leagues found that high SDO scores were highly corre-
[6] Rooksby, Ed (2012-07-15). What does conservatism
lated with measures of prejudice. David J. Schneider,
stand for?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved
however, argued for a more complex relationships be- 2016-12-23.
tween the three factors, writing correlations between
prejudice and political conservative are reduced virtu- [7] Robin, Corey (2012-01-08). The Conservative Mind.
ally to zero when controls for SDO are instituted, sug- The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved 2016-12-
gesting that the conservatismprejudice link is caused 23.
by SDO.[141] Kenneth Minogue criticized Prattos work,
[8] Eccleshall 1990, pp. ix, 21
saying It is characteristic of the conservative tempera-
ment to value established identities, to praise habit and to [9] Muller, Jerry Z., ed. (1997). Conservatism: an anthol-
respect prejudice, not because it is irrational, but because ogy of social and political thought from David Hume to
such things anchor the darting impulses of human beings the present. Princeton University Press.
in solidities of custom which we do not often begin to
value until we are already losing them. Radicalism of- [10] Wolin, Sheldon S. (2 September 2013). Hume and Con-
servatism. American Political Science Review. 48 (4):
ten generates youth movements, while conservatism is a
9991016. doi:10.2307/1951007. JSTOR 1951007.
condition found among the mature, who have discovered
what it is in life they most value.[142] [11] Stanlis, Peter J. (2009). Edmund Burke: selected writings
A 1996 study on the relationship between racism and con- and speeches. New York: Transaction Publishers. p. 18.
servatism found that the correlation was stronger among [12] M. Morton Auerbach. The Conservative Illusion.
more educated individuals, though anti-Black aect had Columbia University Press (1959). p. 33.
essentially no relationship with political conservatism at
any level of educational or intellectual sophistication. [13] Auerbach (1959). The Conservative Illusion. pp. 3740.
They also found that the correlation between racism and
[14] Auerbach (1959). The Conservative Illusion. pp. 5254.
conservatism could be entirely accounted for by their mu-
tual relationship with social dominance orientation.[143] [15] Auerbach (1959). The Conservative Illusion. p. 41.
A 2008 research report found that conservatives are hap-
[16] Sack, J. J. The Memory of Burke and the Memory
pier than liberals, and that as income inequality increases, of Pitt: English Conservatism Confronts Its Past, 1806-
this dierence in relative happiness increases, because 1829. The Historical Journal. 30 (3): 623640. JSTOR
conservatives (more than liberals) possess an ideological 2639162. Unknown parameter |DUPLICATE_year= ig-
buer against the negative hedonic eects of economic nored (help)
inequality.[144]
[17] Gregory Claeys, Political Thought, in Chris Williams,
ed., A Companion to 19th-Century Britain (2006). p. 195

7 Notes [18] Charles Richmond; Paul Smith (1998). The Self-

Fashioning of Disraeli, 18181851. Cambridge UP. p.
162. ISBN 9780521497299.
[1] Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, Conservatism,
Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, Third Edition, [19] Auerbach (1959). The Conservative Illusion. pp. 3940.
Sometimes it (conservatism) has been outright opposi-
tion, based on an existing model of society that is consid- [20] Eccleshall 1990, pp. 7980
ered right for all time. It can take a 'reactionary' form,
harking back to, and attempting to reconstruct, forms of [21] Eccleshall 1990, p. 83
society which existed in an earlier period., Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 2009, ISBN 978-0-19-920516-5 [22] Eccleshall 1990, p. 90

[2] Conservatism (political philosophy)". Britannica.com. [23] Eccleshall 1990, p. 121

Retrieved on 1 November 2009.
[3] Jerry Z. Muller (1997). Conservatism: An Anthology
of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the
Present. Princeton U.P. p. 26. ISBN 0691037116. Terms
related to 'conservative' rst found their way into polit-
ical discourse in the title of the French weekly journal,
Le Conservateur, founded in 1818 by Franois-Ren de
Chateaubriand with the aid of Louis de Bonald.
[4] Frank O'Gorman (2003). Edmund Burke: His Political
Philosophy. Routledge. p. 171. ISBN 9780415326841.
[24] Eccleshall 1990, pp. 67
[25] Feuchtwanger. p. 273. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[26] McLean, Iain; McMillan, Laistair. Concise Oxford Dictio-
nary of Politics. Oxford University Press. p. 364. ISBN
978-0-19-920516-5. In the developed world neoliberal-
ism is often coupled with Thatcherism [...].
[27] Kersbergen, Kees van; Vis, Barbara (2013). Comparative
Welfare State Politics: Development, Opportunities, and
Reform. Cambridge UP. p. 38. ISBN 9781107652477.

[28] Moore, Robert Laurence; Vaudagna, Maurizio (2003).
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[29] Frankel, Richard (2003). From the Beer Halls to the
Halls of Power: The Cult of Bismarck and the Legit-
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[30] Schneider, Gregory (2009). The Conservative Century:
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[31] ams, Ian Political Ideology Today (2nd edition), Manch-
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[32] Grigsby, Ellen (2008). Analyzing Politics. Cengage
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[33] (French) Ipolitique.fr Archived March 19, 2009, at the
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[34] parties-and-elections.de.
[35] Gallagher, M.; Laver, M.; Mair, P. Representative Gov-
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[36] Allen, R.T. Beyond Liberalism. p. 13.
[37] New Libertarian Manifesto (PDF). Archived from the
original (PDF) on February 23, 2012.
[38] Interview With Samuel Edward Konkin III.
[39] Freeman, Robert M. (1999). Correctional Organization
and Management: Public Policy Challenges, Behavior, and
Structure. Elsevier. p. 109. ISBN 978-0-7506-9897-9.
[40] Mandal, V.C. (2007). Dictionary Of Public Administra-
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[41] parties-and-elections.de.
[42] Traynor, Ian (April 4, 2006). The EUs weary travellers.
The Guardian.
[43] National questions - conservatives fragmenting as liberals
unite, National Review, June 30, 1997
[44] Frohnen, Bruce, Jeremy Beer, and Jerey O. Nelson, ed.
(2006) American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia Wilm-
ington, DE: ISI Books, pp. 87075
[45] Seaton, James (1996). Cultural Conservatism, Political
Liberalism: From Criticism to Cultural Studies. University
of Michigan Press. ISBN 978-0-472-10645-5.
[46] The Next Digital Divide (utne article)
[47] No, I don't know that atheists should be considered as
citizens, nor should they be considered patriots. This is
one nation under God. President George H. W. Bush,
Archived copy. Archived from the original on 2009-
02-28. Retrieved 2009-02-27.
15
[48] The World & I.: Volume 1, Issue 5 (1986). The World &
I.: Volume 1, Issue 5. Washington Times Corp. Retrieved
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conservatism
[49] Peter Davies; Derek Lynch (2002). The Routledge Com-
panion to Fascism and the Far Right. Psychology Press.
ISBN 978-0-415-21494-0. Retrieved 19 August 2011. In
addition, conservative Chrsitians often endorsed far-right
remines as the lesser of two evils, especially when con-
fronted with militant atheism in the USSR.
[50] Peter L. Berger; Grace Davie; Ee Fokas (2008).
Religious America, Secular Europe?: A Theme and Vari-
ations. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7546-6011-8.
Retrieved 19 August 2011. If anything the reverse is true:
moral conservatives continue to oppose secular liberals on
a wide range of issues.
[51] Andersen, Margaret L., Taylor, Howard Francis.
Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society Cen-
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 18 9 FURTHER READING

Against accusations of being pre-modern or even anti- [141] The psychology of stereotyping, David J. Schneider, Guil-
modern in outlook, paleoconservatives press for restric- ford Press, 2005 ISBN 978-1-59385-193-4 p. 275
tions on immigration, a rollback of multicultural pro-
grammes, the decentralization of the federal polity, the [142] The Social science encyclopedia, Jessica Kuper, Taylor &
restoration of controls upon free trade, a greater emphasis Francis, 1985 ISBN 978-0-7102-0008-2 pp. 15556
upon economic nationalism and isolationism in the con-
duct of American foreign policy, and a generally revan- [143] Sidanius, J; Pratto, F; Bobo, L (1996). Racism, con-
chist outlook upon a social order in need of recovering servatism, armative action, and intellectual sophistica-
old lines of distinction and in particular the assignment of tion: A matter of principled conservatism or group domi-
roles in accordance with traditional categories of gender, nance?" (PDF). Journal of Personality and Social Psychol-
ethnicity, and race. ogy. 70 (3): 47690. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.476.

[128] Paul Edward Gottfried, Conservatism in America: Making [144] Napier, J. L.; Jost, J. T. (2008). Why Are Conservatives
Sense of the American Right, p. 9, Postwar conservatives Happier Than Liberals?". Psychological Science. 19 (6):
set about creating their own synthesis of free-market cap- 56572. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02124.x. PMID
italism, Christian morality, and the global struggle against 18578846.
Communism. (2009); Gottfried, Theologies and moral
concern (1995) p. 12

[129] Peter J. Jacques; Riley E. Dunlap; Mark Freeman, The 8 References

organisation of denial: Conservative think tanks and en-
vironmental scepticism, Environmental Politics. v12 m3
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[130] Peter Hays Gries, The Politics of American Foreign Pol-
icy: How Ideology Divides Liberals and Conservatives over
Foreign Aairs (Stanford, 2014).
[131] Theda Skocpol and Vanessa Williamson, The Tea Party
and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism (2012) pp.
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[132] Katie Couric Interviews Tea Party Leaders. 25 January
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[133] see 2012 Republican NationalPlatform
[134] Jost, J.J, Glaser, J., Kruglanski, A.A., & Sulloway, F.J.
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[135] Wilson, G.D. (Ed.)(1973) The Psychology of Conser-
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[136] Researchers help dene what makes a political conserva-
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[137] Altemeyer, B. (1981). Right-wing authoritarianism.
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[139] Crowson, H. Michael, Stephen J. Thoma, and Nita Hes-
tevold. Is political conservatism synonymous with au-
thoritarianism?. The Journal of Social Psychology 145.5
(Oct 2005): 571(22). Expanded Academic ASAP. Gale.
Remote Access. 20 May 2009 Galegroup.com
[140] Pratto, Felicia; Sidanius, Jim; Stallworth, Lisa M.; Malle,
Bertram F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A per-
sonality variable predicting social and political attitudes.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 67 (4):
74163. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741.
Adams, Ian (2001). Political Ideology Today.
Manchester University Press. ISBN 0-71-906020-
6.
Eccleshall, Robert (1990). English Conservatism
since the Restoration: An Introduction and Anthol-
ogy. London: Unwin Hyman. ISBN 978-0-04-
445346-8.
Hainsworth, Paul. The extreme right in Western Eu-
rope, Abingdon, OXON: Routledge, 2008 ISBN 0-
415-39682-4
Heywood, Andrew (2012). Political Ideologies: An
Introduction. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-23-
036994-4.
Osterling, Jorge P. Democracy in Colombia:
Clientelist Politics and Guerrilla Warfare. New
Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1989 ISBN
0887382290, ISBN 9780887382291
Winthrop, Norman and Lovell, David W. Varieties
of Conservative Theory. In Winthrop, Norman.
Liberal Democratic Theory and Its Critics. Becken-
ham, Kent: Croom Helm Ltd., 1983 ISBN 0-7099-
2766-5, ISBN 9780709927662
Blee, Kathleen M., and Sandra McGee Deutsch,
eds. Women of the Right: Comparisons and Interplay
Across Borders (Penn State University Press; 2012)
312 pages; scholarly essays giving a global perspec-
tive on women in right-wing politics
Blinkhorn, Martin. Fascists and conservatives :
the radical right and the establishment in twentieth-
century Europe / 1990
 19

Carey, George (2008). Conservatism. In

Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Liber-
tarianism. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Institute. pp.
9395. doi:10.4135/9781412965811.n61. ISBN
978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN 2008009151. OCLC
750831024.

Crowson, N. J. Facing fascism: the conservative

party and the European dictators, 19351940 1997

Crunden, Robert Morse. The Superuous Men: Crit-

ics of American Culture, 19001945 1999

Theodore Dalrymple. Our Culture, Whats Left of It:

the Mandarins and the masses / 2005
Fryer, Russell G. Recent conservative political
thought : American perspectives 1979
Gottfried, Paul E. The Conservative Movement /
1993
Nugent. Neill. The British Right : Conservative and
right wing politics in Britain 1977
Sunic, Sunic and Alain de Benoist. Against Democ-
racy and Equality: The European New Right (2011)
Conservatism / Ted Honderich.

The Conservative Mind / Russell Kirk, 2001

Right-wing women: from conservatives to extremists
around the world / P. Bacchetta., 2002
Conservatism: Dream and Reality / Robert Nisbet.,
2001
Conservatism / Noel O'Sullivan

The Meaning of Conservatism / Roger Scruton.

9.1 Primary sources

Schneider, ed. Conservatism in America since 1930:
a reader (2003)
Witonski, Peter, ed. The wisdom of conservatism (4
vol. Arlington House, 1971) 2396 pages); world-
wide sources

10 Online sources
The Graphic Guide to Conservatism: a visual primer
on the conservative worldview / Olivier Ballou. .
2011

Conservatism / Kieron O'Hara / Reaktion Books,

2011 (Reviewed in The Montreal Review)
20 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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Puellanivis, Poiuytre, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Dekimasu, Jackbirdsong, Nyttend, Jatkins, K012957, Midgrid, Hekerui, BrianGV, Chad-
steele.com, Catgut, Daarznieks, Just H, Loonymonkey, Jwim1, Allstarecho, Couchcommander, Dane, DerHexer, JaGa, Edward321, Cocy-
tus, Misarxist, MartinBot, Shippa52, Rettetast, Anaxial, Kostisl, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, AlexiusHoratius, KTo288, J.delanoy, Pharaoh
of the Wizards, Child of Albion, Trusilver, Wessel88, Tftb, Ymirfrostgiant, Pajfarmor, Ian.thomson, Vanished user 342562, Keesiewon-
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Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Zidonuke, Java7837, FitzColinGerald, Technopat, Andres rojas22, Charlesdrakew, Clarince63,
Bstein80, Sirkad, Prevenient, Jackfork, Wassermann~enwiki, Seb az86556, Bob f it, Joraar, Larklight, Blurpeace, Happyme22, Carine-
mily, Falcon8765, Enviroboy, Jamessmithpage, Cnilep, Russell Nash, SchumiChamp, Mackabean, Monty845, HiDrNick, AlleborgoBot,
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er, Preisendanz, Dawn Bard, Caltas, SE7, Spamburgler, Rubbersoul20, CsikosLo, Keilana, Flyer22 Reborn, Ymlaenllanelli, 6mat1, Phil
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berg, The Four Deuces, Mygerardromance, Senseiseth, C23l04, Emokid0987654321234567890, Mojavebiological, Ejnogarb, Lethesl,
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Auntof6, Bbb2007, DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Goodone121, Gtstricky, Estirabot, Lartoven, Yorkshirian, NuclearWarfare,
11.2 Images 21

Arjayay, Razorame, Dekisugi, Lo que pasa, Cyberddemon, Leroyinc, Dozer0987, Thingg, Versus22, Belchre, Canihaveacookie, Classi-
crockfan42, SteelMariner, Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, Amwestover, YoungMasterbator, BarretB, Deshanel X, XLinkBot, Jonneroo,
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onelt, FrescoBot, Dot.amanda, Tobby72, Chadbrochill13, Usedmagic1, White3099, Charles Edwin Shipp, Steadfastpatriot, Rigm, 916high-
way, Pranjalghimire, Lionboy22, Kwiki, Mariozplaze, Sparrowhawk64, Raymond Dundas, Deathwish124, Arash.nikoo, Citation bot 1,
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riol, Mobius Bot, A930913, Giwin, SporkBot, Adventex, Melanthropist, LWG, , Rostz, L Kensington, Jj98, VLADIMIRSAMUEL,
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Dadfdad, Jace.trapp and Anonymous: 1423

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