Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Facolt
a di Ingegneria
Universit
a del Sannio in Benevento
82100 Benevento, Italy
(on leave from Dept. Eng. Maths,
University of Bristol, U.K.)
dibernardo@unisannio.it
Abstract
Power electronics is rich in nonlinear dynamics. Its operation is
characterized by cyclic switching of circuit topologies, which gives
rise to a variety of nonlinear behavior. This chapter provides an
overview of the chaotic dynamics and bifurcation scenarios observed
in power electronics circuits, emphasizing the salient features of the
circuit operation and the modelling strategies. This chapter covers
the modelling approaches, analysis methods, and a classication of
the common types of bifurcations observed in power electronics.
1 Financial support for C.K. Tse to undertake this work has been provided by the Hong
317
318 Chaos in Power Electronics
16.1 Introduction
L D
S S
H
H
+
+ +
Vin D A C Vo Vin L C Vo
+
(a) (b)
L D
H
H
+
+
Vin S C Vo
(c)
FIGURE 16.1
Simple dc/dc converters. (a) Buck converter; (b) buck-boost converter; (c)
boost converter.
L
S
6 +
+
Vin D A C Vo
Zf
R1
COMP
+ H
HH
+
PWM signal HH Vramp Vref R2
H
(a)
L D
H
H
+
+
Vin S C Vo
i
L
Q Zf
R S R1
clk
H
HH HH
+
+ Vref R2
COMP H
(b)
FIGURE 16.2
Typical control approaches for dc/dc converters: (a) Voltage-mode control; (b)
current-mode control.
322 Chaos in Power Electronics
ics circuits has been directed towards the derivation of a linear model that is
appropriate to a frequency-domain analysis; the limited validity being the price
to pay. (The fact that most engineers are trained to use linear methods is also
a strong motivation for developing linearized models.) For example, the aver-
aging approach [4], one of the most widely adopted modelling approaches for
switching converters, initially yields simple nonlinear models that contain no
time-varying parameters and hence can be used more conveniently for analysis
and design. Essentially, an averaged model discards the switching details and
focuses only on the envelope of the dynamical motion. This is well suited to
characterize power electronics circuits in the low-frequency domain.
In practice, moreover, such so-called averaged models are often linearized
to yield linear time-invariant models that can be directly studied in a standard
Laplace transform domain or frequency domain, facilitating design of control
loops and evaluation of transient responses in ways that are familiar to practi-
tioners.
exploited for useful engineering applications, provided that such operations are
thoroughly understood. For these reasons, the study of bifurcations and chaos
in power electronics has recently attracted much attention from both the power
electronics and the circuits and systems communities.
In the next section, we present a chronological survey of the recent ndings
in the identication, analysis and modelling of nonlinear phenomena in power
electronics circuits and systems.
1 1.2
1.1
0.9
1
0.8 0.9
0.7 0.8
0.7
0.6
i
i
0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2 0.1
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 1.1 1.2
Iref Iref
(a) (b)
FIGURE 16.3
Bifurcation diagrams from a current-mode controlled boost converter with
L = 1.5 mH, R = 40 and T = 100 s. For (a), T /CR = 0.125, and for (b),
T /CR = 0.625.
7.8 10.5
7.6 10
9.5
7.4
9
7.2
v 8.5
v
7
8
6.8
7.5
6.6
7
6.4 6.5
6.2 6
0.18 0.2 0.22 0.24 0.26 0.28 0.3 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
i i
(a) (b)
12 16
15
11 14
13
10
12
11
v
v
9
10
9
8
8
7 7
6
6 5
0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
i i
(c) (d)
FIGURE 16.4
Trajectories from a current-mode controlled boost converter. (a) Stable
period-1 operation; (b) stable period-2 operation; (c) stable period-4 operation;
and (d) chaotic operation.
When external clocks are absent and the system is free-running, for ex-
ample, under a hysteretic control scheme, the system is autonomous and does
not have a xed switching period. Such free-running converters were indeed
extremely common in the old days when xed-period integrated-circuit con-
trollers were not available. For this type of autonomous converters, chaos can-
not occur if the system order is below three. A representative example is the
free-running Cuk converter which has been shown by Tse et al. [37] to exhibit
Hopf bifurcation and chaos.
Power electronics circuits other than dc/dc converters have also been exam-
ined in recent years. Dobson et al. [38] reported switching time bifurcation
of diode and thyristor circuits. Such bifurcation manifests as jumps in the
switching times. Bifurcation phenomena from induction motor drives were re-
ported separately by Kuroe [39] and Nagy et al. [40]. Finally, some attempts
have been made to study higher order parallel-connected systems of converters
which are becoming popular design choice for high current applications [41].
Cuk converter, Hopf bifurcation that gives birth to a limit cycle consisting of
many switching periods (low-frequency behavior) can be clearly observed from
a suitable averaged model [37].
An eective approach for modelling power electronics circuits with a high de-
gree of exactness is to use appropriate discrete-time maps obtained by uniform
or non-uniform sampling of the system states. Essentially the aim is to derive
an iterative function that expresses the state variables at one sampling instant
in terms of those at an earlier sampling instant. In what follows, the basic
concepts of discrete-time maps and how they can be used to explore nonlinear
phenomena in power electronics are explained.
328 Chaos in Power Electronics
(stroboscopic instants). Note that the system states are sampled at each
stroboscopic instant irrespectively of whether the system conguration
switches or not at that instant.
S-switching map (synchronous switching): obtained by sampling the sys-
tem states at those stroboscopic time instants when the system commutes
from phase 2 to phase 1.
A-switching map (asynchronous switching): obtained by sampling the
system states at time instants within each ramp cycle when the system
commutes from phase 1 to phase 2.
In order to derive the relevant maps, we introduce the following two simpli-
fying assumptions. These assumptions can be later removed.
1. No more than one commutation takes place during each period of the
modulating signal.
2. The commutation from phase 2 to phase 1 can only take place at time
instants which are multiples of the ramp cycle T .
Note that the second assumption is always true when the converter is under
current-mode control, but is not so for voltage-mode control.
where xk denotes x(kT ), k is the duty ratio in the kth period, and the solution
to the state equation in each phase is given by x() = Ni () + Mi ()E with
Ni () = eAi T (16.6.3)
Mi () = A1
i (e
Ai T
I)Bi . (16.6.4)
Moreover, under certain drastic control conditions, the converter may stay in
phase 1 or phase 2 for the entire period. In such cases (normally called skipped
cycles), one must assume k = 1 or k = 0, as appropriate.
330 Chaos in Power Electronics
vc (t) 6 A-switching
tm tm+1 tm+2
? ?
e u e
u
u ?
e u
e
k T - k+1 = 1 m+1 T-
-
tk tk+1 tk+2 tk+3
6 6 6stroboscopic
tn tn+1 tn+2
6 6 6
S-switching
FIGURE 16.5
Two iterations of the stroboscopic, S-switching and A-switching maps under
voltage-mode control.
where 1 and 2 are the numbers of skipped cycles in phases 1 and 2, respec-
tively, between the time instants tn and tn+1 . Analytically the stroboscopic
Modelling Strategies 331
gT xm = + m T, (16.6.7)
gT xm+1 = + m+1 T. (16.6.8)
where T = gT /(T ) and a = /(T ). Note that (16.6.9) has a closed form,
although it is an implicit map.
332 Chaos in Power Electronics
0
-
L
L0
D
+
S L
*
M
M0 xn
D+
M **
FIGURE 16.6
Derivation of normal-form map near a grazing bifurcation.
where A1 , A2 , B are the linear system matrices valid for describing the local be-
havior near the point of grazing, and is a system parameter. In fact, when the
system undergoes a grazing bifurcation, a xed point of such a normal-form map
crosses transversally some boundary in the phase space (see Fig. 16.6). This
is also called border-collision bifurcation whose occurrence in one-dimensional
and two-dimensional maps was rst reported in the western literature by Nusse
et al. [33, 34].
It is worth noting that such normal-form maps are not always piecewise
linear. In fact, it can be shown [51] that the form of the normal-form map
at a grazing depends on the discontinuity of the system vector eld, and is
piecewise linear only if the discontinuity boundary between the ON and OFF
zones is itself discontinuous such as in the cases of many power electronics
circuits. Thus, knowing the form of the normal-form map associated with a
border collision becomes important when the aim is to predict the dynamical
behavior of the system following such a bifurcation. In the next subsection,
we describe a classication method to identify the scenario following a border
collision.
Analysis and Classification of Non-smooth Bifurcations 335
16.7.3 Classification
We begin with a brief description of the derivation of the normal-form map as-
sociated with a grazing or border-collision bifurcation. Referring to Fig. 16.6,
suppose that as the value of some parameter increases, a periodic orbit of sys-
tem (16.7.10), say L0 , becomes tangent (grazing) to the switching hyperplane,
0 , when = . The grazing limit cycle L0 is associated with a xed point, say
M0 , on the Poincare section D. As the parameter is varied, such a xed point
moves from M to M , i.e., from a xed point associated with an orbit which
does not cross the boundary to one corresponding to a solution which crosses
the boundary. Linearizing the system ow about each of these xed points, we
can then obtain a piecewise linear map of the form (16.7.11). This approximate
map is valid if the switching hyperplane 0 is itself non-smooth [51].
An eective method for classifying and predicting the dynamical scenarios
following a border-collision bifurcation is given in Di Bernardo et al. [52]. The
available results (up to now) for the n-dimensional case are summarized as
follows. Let 1+ and 2+ be the numbers of eigenvalues, respectively, of A1
and A2 in (16.7.11), which are greater than 1. Likewise, let 1 and 2 be
the numbers of eigenvalues that are less than 1. Specically, a periodic orbit
undergoing a border collision will
smoothly change into one containing an additional section on the other
side of the switching hyperplane, if
1+ + 2+ is even; (16.7.12)
1+ + 2+ is odd; (16.7.13)
undergo a period-doubling, if
1 + 2 is odd. (16.7.14)
on the discontinuity boundary. The presence of sliding can give rise to the
formation of so-called sliding orbits, i.e., periodic solutions characterized by
sections of sliding motion (or chattering). These solutions can play an impor-
tant role in organizing the dynamics of a given power electronics circuit [36].
Research is still on-going in identifying a novel class of bifurcations, called slid-
ing bifurcations, which involve interactions between the system trajectories and
discontinuity sets where sliding motion is possible [56].
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