ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer

Convectionisthemechanismofheattransferthroughafluidinthepresenceofbulkfluid
motion.Convectionisclassifiedasnatural(orfree)andforcedconvectiondependingon
how the fluid motion is initiated. In natural convection, any fluid motion is caused by
naturalmeanssuchasthebuoyancyeffect,i.e.theriseofwarmerfluidandfallthecooler
fluid.Whereasinforcedconvection,thefluidisforcedtoflowoverasurfaceorinatube
byexternalmeanssuchasapumporfan.

MechanismofForcedConvection
Convection heat transfer is complicated since it involves fluid motion as well as heat
conduction. Thefluidmotionenhancesheattransfer(thehigherthe velocitythehigher
theheattransferrate).
TherateofconvectionheattransferisexpressedbyNewtonslawofcooling:

q conv hTs T W / m 2

Qconv hATs T W
The convective heat transfer coefficient h strongly depends on the fluid properties and
roughnessofthesolidsurface,andthetypeofthefluidflow(laminarorturbulent).

V V
T Zerovelocity
Qconv atthesurface.

Qcond
Solidhotsurface,Ts

Fig.1:Forcedconvection.
Itisassumedthatthevelocityofthefluidiszeroatthewall,thisassumptioniscalledno
slip condition. As a result, the heat transfer from the solid surface to the fluid layer
adjacenttothesurfaceisbypureconduction,sincethefluidismotionless.Thus,

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer1
 T
T k fluid

q
k fluid y
q conv cond
y y 0

h
Ts T
y 0
W / m .K
2

h Ts T
q conv
Theconvectionheattransfercoefficient,ingeneral,variesalongtheflowdirection.The
mean or average convection heat transfer coefficient for a surface is determined by
(properly)averagingthelocalheattransfercoefficientovertheentiresurface.

VelocityBoundaryLayer
Considertheflowofafluidoveraflatplate,thevelocityandthetemperatureofthefluid
approachingtheplateisuniformatUandT.Thefluidcanbeconsideredasadjacent
layersontopofeachothers.

Fig.2:Velocityboundarylayer.
Assumingnoslipconditionatthewall,thevelocityofthefluidlayeratthewalliszero.
Themotionlesslayerslowsdowntheparticlesoftheneighboringfluidlayersasaresultof
friction between the two adjacent layers. The presence of the plate is felt up to some
distance from the plate beyond which the fluid velocity U remains unchanged. This
regioniscalledvelocityboundarylayer.
Boundarylayerregionistheregionwheretheviscouseffectsandthevelocitychangesare
significantandtheinviscidregionistheregioninwhichthefrictionaleffectsarenegligible
andthevelocityremainsessentiallyconstant.
Thefrictionbetweentwoadjacentlayersbetweentwolayersactssimilartoadragforce
(frictionforce).Thedragforceperunitareaiscalledtheshearstress:
V
s
y
N / m
2

y 0

whereisthedynamicviscosityofthefluidkg/m.sorN.s/m2.
Viscosityisameasureoffluidresistancetoflow,andisastrongfunctionoftemperature.
Thesurfaceshearstresscanalsobedeterminedfrom:

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer2
 U 2
s Cf
2
N / m 2

where Cf is the friction coefficient or the drag coefficient which is determined

experimentallyinmostcases.
Thedragforceiscalculatedfrom:
U 2
FD C f A N
2
Theflowinboundarylayerstartsassmoothandstreamlinedwhichiscalledlaminarflow.
Atsomedistancefromtheleadingedge,theflowturnschaotic,whichiscalledturbulent
anditischaracterizedbyvelocityfluctuationsandhighlydisorderedmotion.
The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs over some region which is called
transitionregion.
Thevelocityprofileinthelaminarregionisapproximatelyparabolic,andbecomesflatter
inturbulentflow.
Theturbulentregioncanbeconsideredofthreeregions:laminarsublayer(whereviscous
effectsaredominant),bufferlayer(wherebothlaminarandturbulenteffectsexist),and
turbulentlayer.
Theintensemixingofthefluidinturbulentflowenhancesheatandmomentumtransfer
betweenfluidparticles,whichinturnincreasesthefrictionforceandtheconvectionheat
transfercoefficient.

NondimensionalGroups
Inconvection,itisacommonpracticetonondimensionalizethegoverningequationsand
combinethevariableswhichgrouptogetherintodimensionlessnumbers(groups).
Nusseltnumber:nondimensionalheattransfercoefficient

h q conv
Nu
k q cond
where is the characteristic length, i.e. D for the tube and L for the flat plate. Nusselt
number represents the enhancement of heat transfer through a fluid as a result of
convectionrelativetoconductionacrossthesamefluidlayer.
Reynoldsnumber:ratioofinertiaforcestoviscousforcesinthefluid
inertia forces V V
Re
viscous forces
At large Re numbers, the inertia forces, which are proportional to the density and the
velocityofthefluid,arelargerelativetotheviscousforces;thustheviscousforcescannot
preventtherandomandrapidfluctuationsofthefluid(turbulentregime).

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer3
TheReynoldsnumberatwhichtheflowbecomesturbulentiscalledthecriticalReynolds
number.ForflatplatethecriticalReisexperimentallydeterminedtobeapproximatelyRe
critical=5x105.
Prandtlnumber:isameasureofrelativethicknessofthevelocityandthermalboundary
layer
molecular diffusivity of momentum C p
Pr
molecular diffusivity of heat k
wherefluidpropertiesare:
massdensity:,(kg/m3)specificheatcapacity:Cp(J/kgK)
dynamicviscosity:,(Ns/m2)kinematicviscosity:,/(m2/s)
thermalconductivity:k,(W/mK)thermaldiffusivity:,k/(Cp)(m2/s)

ThermalBoundaryLayer
Similar to velocity boundary layer, a thermal boundary layer develops when a fluid at
specifictemperatureflowsoverasurfacewhichisatdifferenttemperature.

Fig.3:Thermalboundarylayer.
Thethicknessofthethermalboundarylayertisdefinedasthedistanceatwhich:
T Ts
0.99
T Ts
Therelativethicknessofthevelocityandthethermalboundarylayersisdescribedbythe
Prandtlnumber.
For low Prandtl number fluids, i.e. liquid metals, heat diffuses much faster than
momentum flow (remember Pr = /<<1) and the velocity boundary layer is fully
containedwithinthethermalboundarylayer.Ontheotherhand,forhighPrandtlnumber
fluids,i.e.oils,heatdiffusesmuchslowerthanthemomentumandthethermalboundary
layeriscontainedwithinthevelocityboundarylayer.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer4
FlowOverFlatPlate
Thefrictionandheattransfercoefficientforaflatplatecanbedeterminedbysolvingthe
conservation of mass, momentum, and energy equations (either approximately or
numerically). They can also be measured experimentally. It is found that the Nusselt
numbercanbeexpressedas:
hL
Nu C Re mL Pr n
k
whereC,m,andnareconstantsandListhelengthoftheflatplate.Thepropertiesofthe
fluidareusuallyevaluatedatthefilmtemperaturedefinedas:
Ts T
Tf
2

LaminarFlow
The local friction coefficient and the Nusselt number at the location x for laminar flow
overaflatplateare
hx
Nu x 0.332 Re1x/ 2 Pr 1 / 3 Pr 0.6
k

0.664
C f ,x 1/ 2
Re x
wherexisthedistantfromtheleadingedgeoftheplateandRex=Vx/.
TheaveragedfrictioncoefficientandtheNusseltnumberovertheentireisothermalplate
forlaminarregimeare:
hL
Nu 0.664 Re1L/ 2 Pr1 / 3 Pr 0.6
k

1.328
C f 1/ 2
Re L
TakingthecriticalReynoldsnumbertobe5x105,thelengthoftheplatexcroverwhichthe
flowislaminarcanbedeterminedfrom
V xcr
Re cr 5 10 5

TurbulentFlow
ThelocalfrictioncoefficientandtheNusseltnumberatlocationxforturbulentflowovera
flatisothermalplateare:

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer5
 hx
Nu x 0.0296 Re 4x / 5 Pr 1 / 3 0.6 Pr 60 5 10 5 Re x 10 7
k

0.0592
C f ,x 1/ 5
5 10 5 Re x 10 7
Re x
The averaged friction coefficient and Nusselt number over the isothermal plate in
turbulentregionare:
hL
Nu 0.037 Re 4x / 5 Pr 1 / 3 0.6 Pr 60 5 10 5 Re L 10 7
k

0.074
Cf 1/ 5
5 10 5 Re L 10 7
Re L

CombinedLaminarandTurbulentFlow
Iftheplateissufficientlylongfortheflowtobecometurbulent(andnotlongenoughto
disregard the laminar flow region), we should use the average values for friction
coefficientandtheNusseltnumber.

1 cr
x L
Cf
L 0
C f , x , La min ar dx x f , x,Turbulent
C dx
cr

1 cr
x L
h
L 0
h x , La min ar dx x , x,Turbulent
h dx
cr
wherethecriticalReynoldsnumberisassumedtobe5x105.Afterperformingtheintegrals
andsimplifications,oneobtains:

Nu
hL
k

0.037 Re 4x / 5 871 Pr 1 / 3 0.6 Pr 60 5 10 5 Re L 10 7

0.074 1742
Cf 1/ 5
5 10 5 Re L 10 7
Re L Re L
Theaboverelationshipshavebeenobtainedforthecaseofisothermalsurfaces,butcould
alsobeusedapproximatelyforthecaseofnonisothermalsurfaces.Insuchcasesassume
thesurfacetemperaturebeconstantatsomeaveragevalue.
Forisoflux(uniformheatflux)plates,thelocalNusseltnumberforlaminarandturbulent
flowcanbefoundfrom:
hx
Nu x 0.453 Re 0x.5 Pr 1 / 3 Laminar (isoflux plate)
k

hx
Nu x 0.0308 Re x Pr
0.8 1/ 3
Turbulent (isoflux plate)
k
Note the isoflux relationships give values that are 36% higher for laminar and 4% for
turbulentflowsrelativetoisothermalplatecase.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer6
Example1
Engine oil at 60C flows over a 5 m long flat plate whose temperature is 20C with a
velocity of 2 m/s. Determine the total drag force and the rate of heat transfer per unit
widthoftheentireplate.

oil
T=60C
V=2m/s Q
Ts=20C

L=5m

5
We assume the critical Reynolds number is 5x10 . The properties of the oil at the film
temperatureare:
Ts T
Tf 40 C
2
876 kg / m 3
k 0.144 W /(m.K )
Pr 2870
242 10 6 m 2 / s
TheRenumberfortheplateis:
ReL=VL/=4.13x104
whichislessthanthecriticalRe.Thuswehavelaminarflow.Thefrictioncoefficientand
thedragforcecanbefoundfrom:
C f 1.328 Re L0.5 0.00653

FD C f A
V2
0.00653 5 1m 2
876kg / m 2m / s
3 2
57.2 N

2 2
TheNusseltnumberisdeterminedfrom:
hL
Nu 0664 Re 0L.5 Pr 1 / 3 1918
k
Then,
W
h 55.2
m2 K

Q hAT Ts 11040W

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer7
FlowacrossCylindersandSpheres
Thecharacteristiclengthforacirculartubeorsphereistheexternaldiameter,D,andthe
Reynoldsnumberisdefined:
V D
Re

ThecriticalRefortheflowacrossspheresortubesis2x105.Theapproachingfluidtothe
cylinder(asphere)willbranchoutandencirclethebody,formingaboundarylayer.

Fig.4:Typicalflowpatternsoversphereandstreamlinedbodyanddragforces.
At low Re (Re < 4) numbers the fluid completely wraps around the body. At higher Re
numbers,thefluidistoofasttoremainattachedtothesurfaceasitapproachesthetopof
thecylinder.Thus,theboundarylayerdetachesfromthesurface,formingawakebehind
thebody.Thispointiscalledtheseparationpoint.
To reduce the drag coefficient, streamlined bodies are more suitable, e.g. airplanes are
builttoresemblebirdsandsubmarinetoresemblefish,Fig.4.
Inflowpastcylinderorspheres,flowseparationoccursaround80forlaminarflowand
140forturbulentflow.
V2
FD C D AN N AN : frontal area
2
wherefrontalareaofacylinderisAN=LD,andforasphereisAN=D2/4.

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer8
The drag force acting on a body is caused by two effects: the friction drag (due to the
shear stress at the surface) and the pressure drag which is due to pressure differential
betweenthefrontandrearsideofthebody.
Asaresultoftransitiontoturbulentflow,whichmovestheseparationpointfurthertothe
rearofthebody,alargereductioninthedragcoefficientoccurs.Asaresult,thesurfaceof
golfballsisintentionallyroughenedtoinduceturbulentatalowerRenumber,seeFig.5.

Fig.5:RoughenedgolfballreducesCD.
Theaverageheattransfercoefficientforcrossflowoveracylindercanbefoundfromthe
correlationpresentedbyChurchillandBernstein:
4/5
hD 0.62 Re1 / 2 Pr 1 / 3 Re 5 / 8
0.3 1

Nu Cyl
1 0.4 Pr
2 / 3 1/ 4
k 282,000
wherefluidpropertiesareevaluatedatthefilmtemperatureTf=(Ts+T)/2.
Forflowoverasphere,Whitakerrecommendedthefollowing:

Nu Sph hD / k 2 0.4 Re1 / 2 0.06 Re 2 / 3 Pr 0.4 / s
1/ 4

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer9
whichisvalidfor3.5<Re<80,000and0.7<Pr<380.Thefluidpropertiesareevaluated
at the freestream temperature T, except for s which is evaluated at surface
temperature.
The average Nusselt number for flow across circular and noncircular cylinders can be
foundfromTable103Cengelbook.
Example2
Thedecorativeplasticfilmonacoppersphereof10mmdiameteriscuredinanovenat
75C.Uponremovalfromtheoven,thesphereissubjectedtoanairstreamat1atmand
23Chavingavelocityof10m/s,estimatehowlongitwilltaketocoolthesphereto35C.

Coppersphere
P=1atm.
D=10mm
V=10m/s
Ti=75C
T=23C
Tf=35C

Assumptions:
1. Negligiblethermalresistanceandcapacitancefortheplasticlayer.
2. Spatiallyisothermalsphere.
3. NegligibleRadiation.

Copperat328K Airat296K

=8933kg/m3 =181.6x107N.s/m2
k=399W/m.K v=15.36x106m2/s
Cp=387J/kg.K k=0.0258W/m.K
Pr=0.709
s=197.8x107N.s/m2

Thetimerequiredtocompletethecoolingprocessmaybeobtainedfromtheresultsfora
lumpedcapacitance.
VC P Ti T C p D Ti T
t ln ln
hA T f T 6h T f T
Whitakerrelationshipcanbeusedtofindhfortheflowoversphere:

Nu Sph hD / k 2 0.4 Re1 / 2 0.06 Re 2 / 3 Pr 0.4 / s
1/ 4

whereRe=VD/=6510.
Hence,

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer10
 1/ 4
181.6 10 7

Nu Sph hD / k 2 0.4(6510) 1/ 2
0.06(6510) 2/3

(0.709) 0.4
7
47.4
197.8 10
k
h Nu 122 W / m 2 K
D
Therequiredtimeforcoolingisthen

t
8933kg / m 387 J / kg.K 0.01m ln 75 23 69.2 sec
3

6 122 W / m 2 .K 35 23

M.BahramiENSC388(F09)ForcedConvectionHeatTransfer11