Abstract

Cooling towers are used to remove excess heat that is generated in places such as power
stations, chemical plant plants and even domestically in air conditioning units. This experiment is
used to study the operation of cooling tower, to determine average heat and mass transfer
coefficient and to examine the effect of various parameters such as feed flow rate, air flow rate,
inlet water temperature, outlet water temperature on the performance of the cooling tower. In this
experiment, the chosen variables are the heater power which is 1.0 KW and 0.5 KW & the flow
rate of water which is 1.0 LPM and 2.0 LPM. The readings of the temperature, dry & wet bulb,
orifice differential, and the packing density are taken twice, so that we will get the average reading
that is more accurate. The steady flow equations which is energy and mass balances were
employed in order to provide an insight on the amount of energy transferred between phases under
different conditions. The energy transfer calculated from the experiment for cooling load of 1.0
KW and 0.5 KW are _______kJ/s & ______kJ/s.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of gratitude to my teacher Engr. Sania Azam
(Project Supervisor) as well as Engr. Muhammad Umar Khalidoon (H.O.D Mechanical) who gave
me the golden opportunity to do this wonderful project on the topic Design and fabrication of
Cooling Tower, which also held me in doing a lot of research and I came to know about so many
new things. I am really thankful to them.

Secondly, I would also like to thank my parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finishing this project with in the limited time.

I am making this project not only for marks but to also increase my knowledge. Thanks
again to all who helped me.

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 DEDICATION
I like to dedicate my project work to my family and friends a special feeling of gratitude
to my loving parents. I also dedicate this project to my many friends who have supported me
throughout the process.

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 Table of Contents
CHAPTER NO. 1 INTRODUCTION....7
1.1 Cooling Tower: - ..............................................................................................................7
1.2 What is a Cooling Tower? ................................................................................................7
1.3 How Cooling Tower Works? ...........................................................................................8
1.4 Cooling Tower Classification: - .......................................................................................8
1.4.1 Forced Draft Cooling Tower: - .................................................................................9
1.4.2 Counter Flow Cooling Tower: - ................................................................................9
1.5 Aim of Project:-..............................................................................................................10
1.6 Basic Elements of Project:- ............................................................................................10
CHAPTER NO. 2 COUNTER FLOW FORCED DRAFT COOLING TOWER...11
2.1 Counter-flow Forced Draft Cooling Tower: - ................................................................11
2.1.1 Natural Draft Cooling Tower: - ..............................................................................11
2.1.2 Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower: - ........................................................................12
2.1.3 Comparison of Natural and Mechanical Drafts: - ...................................................12
2.2 Features of Counter-flow Forced Draft Cooling Tower: - .............................................12
2.3 Components/ Parts of Counter-flow Forced Draft Cooling Tower: - ............................12
2.3.1 Frame & Casing: - ...................................................................................................13
2.3.2 Cold Water Basin: - ................................................................................................13
2.3.3 Drift Eliminator: - ...................................................................................................13
2.3.4 Fills: - ......................................................................................................................13
2.3.5 Centrifugal Fan: - ....................................................................................................14
2.3.6 Sprinkler: - ..............................................................................................................14
2.3.7 Motor: - ...................................................................................................................14
2.3.8 Air inlet:-.................................................................................................................14
2.3.9 Louvers:- .................................................................................................................14
2.3.10 Nozzles:- .................................................................................................................14
2.3.11 Water Distribution:- ................................................................................................14
2.4 Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers:- ..................................................................................14
CHAPTER NO. 3 CIRCUIT OF COUNTER FLOW FORCED DRAFT COOLING
TOWER & MATERIAL OF PARTS....16
3.1 Pars attached to the circuit connected to Counter Flow Forced Draft Cooling Tower:- 16
3.1.1 Centrifugal Pump:-..................................................................................................16
3.1.2 Temperature Gauges:- .............................................................................................16

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 3.1.3 Water Tank:- ...........................................................................................................16
3.1.4 Electric Heating Rod:- ............................................................................................16
3.1.5 Balancing Valve:- ...................................................................................................16
3.1.6 Drain Valve:- ..........................................................................................................16
3.2 Material of Parts attached in the Cooling Tower to the Circuit:- ...................................17
3.3 Other Alternative Materials for parts attached in the Cooling Tower & to the
Circuit:...17
CHAPTER NO. 4 PERFORMANCE OF COOLING TOWER...18
4.1 Cooling Tower Performance:- ........................................................................................18
4.1.1 Range: - ...................................................................................................................18
4.1.2 Approach: - .............................................................................................................18
4.1.3 Effectiveness:-.........................................................................................................19
4.1.4 Cooling capacity:- ...................................................................................................19
4.1.5 Evaporation Loss:- ..................................................................................................19
4.1.6 Cycles of Concentration (C.O.C):- .........................................................................19
4.1.7 Blow Down Losses:- ...............................................................................................19
4.1.8 Liquid-Gas (L/G) Ratio:- ........................................................................................19
4.2 Measured Parameters/Assessment:- ...............................................................................20
4.2.1 Wet Bulb Temperature of Air:-...............................................................................20
4.2.2 Dry Bulb Temperature of Air:- ...............................................................................20
4.2.3 Cooling Tower Inlet Water Temperature:- .............................................................20
4.2.4 Cooling Tower Outlet Water Temperature:-...........................................................21
4.2.5 Exhaust Air Temperature:- .....................................................................................21
4.2.6 Electrical Readings of Pump and Fan Motors. .......................................................21
4.2.7 Water Flow Rate:- ...................................................................................................21
4.2.8 Air Flow Rate:- .......................................................................................................21
4.3 Factors Affecting Performance:- ....................................................................................21
4.3.1 Design:- ...................................................................................................................21
4.3.2 Fill Media Effects:- .................................................................................................23
4.3.3 Water Distribution:- ................................................................................................24
4.4 Energy Efficiency Opportunities:- .................................................................................24
4.5 Improving Energy Efficiency of Cooling Towers:- .......................................................25
CHAPTER NO. 5 PERFORMANCE OF COUNTER FLOW FORCED DRAFT
COOLING TOWER...26

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 5.1 Parameters required in calculation of performance of Counter-flow Forced Draft
Cooling Tower: - .......................................................................................................................26
5.2 Instruments used in calculating the Measured Parameters:- ..........................................26
5.2.1 Whirling Hygrometer:- ...........................................................................................26
5.2.2 Use of Anemometer for Calculating Air Flow Rate:-.............................................27
5.2.3 Calculating Water Flow Rate:- ...............................................................................27
5.3 Worksheet of Performance of Fabricated Counter Flow Forced Draft Cooling
Tower:28
5.4 Conclusion:- ...................................................................................................................28
CHAPTER NO. 6 COOLING TOWER PROBLEMS WITH SOLUUTIONS AND
THEITR APPLICATIONS....29
6.1 Problems of Cooling Tower:-.........................................................................................29
6.1.1 Corrosion:- ..............................................................................................................29
6.1.2 Micro-Biological Contamination: -.........................................................................30
6.1.3 Treatment:- ..............................................................................................................30
6.1.4 Scaling:- ..................................................................................................................30
6.1.5 Fouling:- ..................................................................................................................30
6.2 Applications of Cooling Tower:- ...................................................................................31

Contents of Figures
Figure 1.1 Process Flow .................................................................................................................7
Figure 1.2 Forced Draft Cooling Tower ........................................................................................9
Figure 1.3 Counter Flow Process ...................................................................................................9
Figure 2.1 Natural Draft Cooling Tower .....................................................................................11
Figure 2.2 Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower ...............................................................................12
Figure 4.1 Cooling Tower Performance Parameters ....................................................................18
Figure 6.1 Corrosion Cell.............................................................................................................29

Contents of Tables
Table 2.1 Comparison of Natural and Mechanical Drafts ...........................................................12
Table 3.1 Material of Parts attached in the Cooling Tower to the Circuit ...................................17
Table 3.2 Other Alternative Materials for parts attached in the Cooling Tower & to the Circuit
.......................................................................................................................................................17
Table 5.1 Measured Parameters of Counter flow forced draft cooling tower ..............................28
Table 5.2 Performance Parameters of Counter flow forced draft cooling tower .........................28
Figure 6.1 Corrosion Cell.............................................................................................................29

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 CHAPTER NO. 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Cooling Tower: -
Overheating of machine elements is common problem in industry. It is caused due to
continuous operation of machine and atmospheric conditions of the surroundings. Operation
cannot be stopped or in other words the machine cannot be given time to be cooled down and
therefore there has to be provision for cooling. Water is the best cooling medium as it is cheap
and available in abundance. However, it has to be noted that continuous flow of fresh water to the
machine is not advisable as it creates great waste.

Cooling tower is used to fulfil the purpose of cooling with minimum usage of fresh water.
It circulates fresh water for cooling to the machine and uses least make up water that is lost due
to evaporation. Apart from industry cooled water is needed for, for example, air conditioners, or
power generation. A cooling tower is the equipment used to reduce the temperature of a water
stream by extracting heat from water and emitting it to the atmosphere. Cooling towers make use
of evaporation whereby some of the water is evaporated into a moving air stream and subsequently
discharged into the atmosphere. As a result, the remainder of the water is cooled down
significantly as shown in the figure. Cooling towers are able to lower the water temperatures more
than devices that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator in a car, and are therefore more cost-
effective and energy efficient.

Figure 1.1 Process Flow

1.2 What is a Cooling Tower?

A cooling tower is a heat rejection device, which extracts waste heat to the atmosphere
though the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Common applications for cooling
towers are providing cooled water for air-conditioning, manufacturing and electric power
generation

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1.3 How Cooling Tower Works?
Heat and Mass transfer.
1 Kg of water on evaporator removes approx. 530 kCals of heat.
The heat given up by the water falling inside the tower equals the heat gained by the air
rising through the tower.
The hot water entering tower is distributed within the structure in a manner that exposes a
very large water surface to the air passing through.
Water distribution is accomplished by means of spray nozzles or distribution pans and by
means of various types of Fill.
This fill increases the exposed water surface to maximize contact with the air, increasing
the rate of heat transfer.

1.4 Cooling Tower Classification: -

The cooling tower might be classified into several types, but they are broadly categorized
by following considerations:

1. Whether there is direct or indirect contact.

2. The mechanism used to provide the required air flow.
3. The relative flow paths of air and water.
4. The primary materials of consideration.
5. The type of heat transfer media applied.
6. The towers physical shape.
The general classification of Cooling Tower is as follows:

Cooling Tower Classification

By Build Based on Heat Transfer Based on Air Draft Based on Air Flow Pattern

Package Type Wet Cooling Atmospheric Cross Flow

Tower Tower
Field Erected
Dry Cooling Natural Draft
Type Counter Flow
Tower Tower

Mechanical
Fluid Cooler Draft Tower

Forced Draft Induced Draft

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1.4.1 Forced Draft Cooling Tower: -
It has one or more fans located at the tower bottom to push air into the tower. During
operation, the fan forces air at a low velocity horizontally through the packing and then vertically
against the downward flow of the water that occurs on either side of the fan. The drift eliminators
located at the top of the tower remove water entrained in the air. Vibration and noise are minimal
since the rotating equipment is built on a solid foundation. The fans handle mostly dry air, greatly
reducing erosion and water condensation problems.

Figure 1.2 Forced Draft Cooling Tower

1.4.2 Counter Flow Cooling Tower: -

In a counter flow design, the air flow is directly opposite to the water flow. Air flow first
enters an open area beneath the fill media and is then drawn up vertically. The water is sprayed
through pressurized nozzles and flows downward through the fill, opposite to the air flow.

Figure 1.3 Counter Flow Process

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1.5 Aim of Project:-
To developed attitude of inquiry
To work as leader & as a member if a team
To measure physical phenomenon.
To developed problem solving ability.
To developed ability of report writing.
To developed planning & disciplinary studies
To give students some opportunities to learn of to keep good record.
To present students an exciting and demanding challenges.

1.6 Basic Elements of Project:-

1. Operation:-
These are carried out in particular sequence to order it would still better, if the method of
performing each operation may also be established. It may be kept in mind that for carrying out
each. Actually there is always an expenditure of resources may be in terms of coast, time etc.

2. Resources:-
For the purpose of carrying out the activities, the resources meet is in term of manpower,
material, machines, money & time. The competitions of any activity or for that matter the future
project cannot be said to be over values required resources are made available at the appropriate
time. In other words, a man has to be prepared co-ordination these resources.

3. Conditions:-
The activities are carries out under specified conditions of restrictions which we have a
direct bearing on the competition of the involving the factor.

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 CHAPTER NO. 2
COUNTER FLOW FORCED DRAFT COOLING TOWER
2.1 Counter-flow Forced Draft Cooling Tower: -
The cooling water is pumped into a system of sprayer pipes and nozzles within the tower
and is drawn by gravity into a pond below. Air from the atmosphere enters the base of the tower
and flows through the falling water. A "packing" is provided across the whole cross-section of the
tower to ensure that the water, in its descent, presents a large surface area to the air. Water flows
as a film or splashes and is provided across the whole cross-section of the tower to ensure that the
water, in its descent, presents a large surface area to the air. Water flows as a film or splashes and
trickles over the surfaces of the packing while air flows between the surfaces.

Depending on the particular design, air may flow predominantly upwards (counter-flow)
or horizontally (crossflow). As water temperature decreases, air temperature increases. When, as
in most towers, the water and air are in direct contact, the "driving force" for heat transfer is not
the local temperature difference but a local enthalpy difference; namely, the difference (hS hG)
where hS is the specific enthalpy of saturated air at the local temperature of the water/air interface
and hG is the local bulk specific enthalpy of the moist air. The local heat flux from the water to
the air is the product of this driving force and an empirical coefficient having the units of a mass
flux. It is several times greater than it would be if the local temperature difference were the driving
force, as is the case with "dry" heat transfer where the fluids are separated by a solid wall and no
evaporation occurs.

2.1.1 Natural Draft Cooling Tower: -

Flow of air through the tower can be created in two ways: by natural draft or by mechanical
draft. In natural draft towers, the packing region is located inside the base of what is, in effect, a
large chimney. After its contact with warm cooling water, the density of the air above the packing
is 5% or so less than that of the atmosphere. The difference in weight between the air in the
"chimney" and the air outside provides the driving force to overcome pressure losses that resist
the flow of air through the tower. The typical "hyperbolic" profile of such towers (as sketched in
is chosen mainly for structural and economic reasonsit is much more resistant to wind-induced
stress and vibration than a plain cylindrical shell and requires less material.

Figure 2.1 Natural Draft Cooling Tower

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2.1.2 Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower: -
Mechanical draft towers use fans, driven by electric motors, to produce the flow of air.
The tower is called "forced draft" when the fan is located in the air entry at the base of the tower;
"induced draft" when the fan is located in the air exit at the top of the tower. Both centrifugal and
axial flow fans are used, but axial fans are usual with induced draft.

Figure 2.2 Mechanical Draft Cooling Tower

2.1.3 Comparison of Natural and Mechanical Drafts: -

Factors Natural Draft Mechanical Draft
Height Tall Short
Construction Much on-site work Prefabrication possible
Noise Quiet Noisy
Air Recirculation No problem Can be serious
Range of Size Small size, uneconomic Large size range
Initial Cost Higher Lower
Running Cost Lower Higher
Table 2.1 Comparison of Natural and Mechanical Drafts

2.2 Features of Counter-flow Forced Draft Cooling Tower: -

High Performance
Low Energy Consumption
Smaller Size & Easy Installation
Low Noise Emission
Safe & Reliable
Easy Maintenance

2.3 Components/ Parts of Counter-flow Forced Draft Cooling Tower: -

o Main Structure (Frame & Casing)
o Water Distribution System
o Drift Eliminators

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 o Fill
o Centrifugal Fan
o Motor & Drive System
o Cold Water Basin
o Inspection Door
o Air Inlet
o Louvers
o Nozzles

2.3.1 Frame & Casing: -

The F.R.P (Fiberglass Reinforced Polyester) is composed of fiberglass mat laminated from
unsaturated polyester resin. The high structural strength of the material protects the unit against
impact and cracking. Gel coat is then applied to form a smooth surface. It has sufficient structural
and wind velocity. It is resistant to local impacts and even if damage is sustained local repairs can
easily be done.

2.3.2 Cold Water Basin: -

The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom of the tower. The cold-water basin
has two fundamentally important functions:

i. Collecting the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill.
ii. Acting as the towers primary foundation.

The basin usually has a sump or low point for the cold-water discharge connection. A drain
connection is provided for removal of accumulated dirt from the basin.

2.3.3 Drift Eliminator: -

Drift Eliminator captures water droplets entrapped in the airstream that otherwise would
be lost to the atmosphere. In every cooling tower, there is loss of water to the environment due to
the evaporative cooling process. This evaporation is usually in the form of pure water vapor and
presents no harm to the environment. Drift is the undesirable loss of liquid water to the
environment via small droplets that become entrained in the leaving air stream. These water
droplets carry with chemicals and minerals, thus impacting the surrounding environment.

Drift Eliminators are designed to capture large water droplets caught in the cooling tower
air stream. The eliminators prevent the water droplets and mist from escaping the cooling water.
Eliminators do this by causing the droplets to change the direction and lose velocity at impact on
the blade walls and fall back into the tower.

2.3.4 Fills: -
Made of rigid polyvinyl chloride sheet which is embossed and corrugated in a honeycomb
configuration. It provides maximum air-to-water contact for highest thermal efficiency. Most
towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximizing water and
air contact.
There are two types of fills:
1. Splash Fill: Waterfalls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously
breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fills
promote better heat transfer than wood splash fills.
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 2. Film Fills: It consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads,
forming a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,
honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides
same heat transfer in a smaller volume than the splash fill.

2.3.5 Centrifugal Fan: -

They are usually used on cooling towers designed for indoor installations; their capability
to operate against relatively high static pressures makes them particularly suitable for that type of
application. However, their inability to handle large volumes of air, and their characteristically
high input horsepower requirement limits their use to relatively small applications.

2.3.6 Sprinkler: -
It consists of a set of sprinkler pipes and one sprinkler head that is mounted on top of the
stand pipe on the cooling tower. There are numerous holes in the sprinkler pipe to allow the water
to jet out as the pump impacts rotation. The speed can be controlled by adjusting the sprinkling
angle in accordance with the water flow rate.

2.3.7 Motor: -
Electric Motors are used almost exclusively to drive the fans on mechanical draft towers,
and they must be capable of reliable operation under extremely adverse conditions. The motor
which we are using have following features:
220 volts, 2.49 Amperes, 1400 RPM.

2.3.8 Air inlet:-

This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an entire side
of a tower (cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or the bottom of the tower (counter-
flow design).

2.3.9 Louvers:-
Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equalize air
flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs do not
require louvers.

2.3.10 Nozzles:-
These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is essential
to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed and spray in a round
or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-
section towers.

2.3.11 Water Distribution:-

These spray water to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is essential
to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be fixed and spray in a round
or square patterns, or they can be part of a rotating assembly as found in some circular cross-
section towers.

2.4 Open vs. Closed-Circuit Towers:-

One of the primary differentiations between cooling towers is whether it is an open or
closed circuit tower. In open towers, the cooling water is pumped through the equipment where it

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picks up thermal energy and then flows directly to the cooling tower where it is dispersed through
spray nozzles over the fill, where heat transfer occurs. Then, this same water is collected in the
tower sump and is sent back to the equipment to begin the process again. In an open tower any
contaminants in the water are circulated through the equipment being cooled.

In a closed-circuit tower, sometimes referred to as a fluid cooler, the cooling water flows
through the equipment as in the open tower. The difference is when the water is pumped to the
cooling tower, it is pumped through a closed loop heat exchanger that is internal to the cooling
tower, then returned to the equipment. In this application, water in the closed loop is not in direct
contact with the evaporative water in the tower, which means contaminants are not circulated
through the equipment. In a closed-circuit tower, a small pump, known as a spray pump
circulates a separate body of evaporative water from the tower sump, through the spray nozzles
and over the internal heat exchanger piping. This open evaporative body of water is contained
within the tower and needs to be regularly made up to replenish evaporative and other losses.
However, once water treatment in the closed cooling loop is stabilized, the only time it needs to
be made up or adjusted is if there is a leak.

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 CHAPTER NO. 3
CIRCUIT OF COUNTER FLOW FORCED DRAFT COOLING TOWER &
MATERIAL OF PARTS
3.1 Pars attached to the circuit connected to Counter Flow Forced Draft
Cooling Tower:-
3.1.1 Centrifugal Pump:-
They are used to induce flow or raise pressure of a liquid. Its working is simple. At the
heart of the system lies impeller. It has a series of curved vanes fitted inside the shroud plates. The
impeller is always in the water. When the impeller is made to rotate, it makes the fluid surrounding
it also rotate. This imparts centrifugal force to the water particles, and water moves radially out.

3.1.2 Temperature Gauges:-

They measures temperature. Maintaining the specified temperature range ensures
maximum efficiency, longer equipment life and user safety. Temperature gauges operate on the
gas-actuated, bimetal or expansion principle. They can measure temperatures between -200 to
+700 oC. We are using the Bimetal system.

The bimetal system consists of two metal strips bonded together that have different
expansion coefficients. Therefore, one strip will expand faster than the other causing the bimetal
strip to curl in proportion to its temperature. The bimetal system is helically wound and heat
treated for long term stability. Temperature variations cause the bimetal strip to unwind or wind
tighter, which in turn rotates the pointer.

3.1.3 Water Tank:-

A water tank is a container for storing water. 150 Gallon water tank is used here. Water
tank parameters include: the general design of the tank, and choice of construction Materials.

3.1.4 Electric Heating Rod:-

An electric heater is an electrical device that converts electric current to heat. The heating
element inside every electric heater is an electrical resister, and works on the principle of Joule
heating: an electric current passing through a resister will convert that electrical energy into heat
energy. When electric supply is on, it start its working and heat the water inside the tank. It has a
power of 2000 W.

3.1.5 Balancing Valve:-

Balance Valve controls the amount of water which is to be flow through pipes from water
tank to cooling tower or from cooling tower to water tank. It balance the flow.

3.1.6 Drain Valve:-

A brass valve located near the bottom of the water heater that allows the tank to be drained
when the water heater needs to be replaced and also permits periodic partial draining to flush out
sediments that may have accumulated in the bottom of the tank.

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3.2 Material of Parts attached in the Cooling Tower to the Circuit:-
Sr. No. Part Material
1 Frame and Casing Fiber Glass
2 Stand Pipe PVC with Fiber Glass Coating
3 Cold Water Basin Fiber Glass
4 Fan Fiber Glass
5 Sprinkler Stainless Steel
6 Fan Hub Cast Iron
7 Hot Pipe Cast Iron
8 Cold Pipe PVC
9 Honeycomb PVC Fills PVC
10 Motor Hot-dip galvanized steel
Table 3.1 Material of Parts attached in the Cooling Tower to the Circuit

3.3 Other Alternative Materials for parts attached in the Cooling Tower &
to the Circuit:-
Sr. No. Parts Alternative Material
1 Frame Wooden towers are still available.
and Many towers are constructed of galvanized steel.
Casing Where a corrosive atmosphere is a problem, the tower and/or the basis
are made of stainless steel.
Larger towers sometimes are made of concrete.
Glass fiber is also widely used for cooling tower casing and basins.
2 Fill Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and
other polymers.
When water conditions require the use of splash fill, treated wood
splash fill is also widely used in wooden towers, but plastic splash fill
is also widely used. Because of greater heat transfer efficiency.
3 Fan Aluminum, glass fiber and hot-dipped galvanized steel are commonly
used as fan materials.
Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel.
Propeller fans are made from galvanized steel, aluminum, or molded
glass fiber reinforced plastic.
4 Water Plastics (polyethylene, polypropylene), fiber glass, concrete.
Tank
Table 3.2 Other Alternative Materials for parts attached in the Cooling Tower & to the Circuit

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 CHAPTER NO. 4
PERFORMANCE OF COOLING TOWER
4.1 Cooling Tower Performance:-

Figure 4.1 Cooling Tower Performance Parameters

Range
Approach
Effectiveness
Cooling Capacity
Evaporation Loss
Cycles of Concentration (C.O.C)
Blow Down Losses
Liquid-Gas (L/G) Ratio

4.1.1 Range: -
It is the temperature difference between the warm water inlet and cooled water exit.
Range (oC) = CW Inlet Temp. CW Outlet Temp.
High Range = Good Performance

4.1.2 Approach: -
It is the difference between cooling tower outlet cold water temperature and ambient wet
bulb temperature.
Approach (oC) = CW outlet temp. Wet bulb temp.

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Low Approach = Good Performance

4.1.3 Effectiveness:-
It is the ratio between the Range and the Ideal Range (Range + Approach).
Effectiveness in % = Range / (Range + Approach)
= 100 (CW in temp. CW out temp.) / (CW in temp. Wet bulb temp.)
High Effectiveness = Good Performance

4.1.4 Cooling capacity:-

This is the heat rejected in kCal/hr. or TR, given as product of mass flow rate of water,
specific heat and temperature difference.

4.1.5 Evaporation Loss:-

This is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty.
Evaporation quantity = theoretically 1.8 m3 for every 1000000 kCal heat rejected.
Evaporation Loss = 1.00085 1.8 circulation rate (m3/hr.) (T1 T2)
Where,
T1 T2 = Temp. Difference between inlet and outlet water.

4.1.6 Cycles of Concentration (C.O.C):-

It is the ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water to the dissolved solids in make-up
water. It is a dimensionless number.
C.O.C = Silica in Cooling Water / Silica in Make-up Water
C.O.C = Ca Hardness in Cooling Water / Ca Hardness in Make-up Water

The cycles of concentration normally varies from 3.0 to 7.0 depending on the Process
Design. It is advisable to keep the C.O.C as high as possible to reduce the makeup water
requirement of the cooling tower.

4.1.7 Blow Down Losses:-

Blow down losses depend upon C.O.C and the evaporation losses. Blow down losses is
given by the following relation:
Blow Down = Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C 1)

4.1.8 Liquid-Gas (L/G) Ratio:-

It is the ratio between the water and the air mass flow rates.

Cooling Towers have certain design values, but seasonal variations require adjustment and
tuning of water and air flow rates to get the best cooling tower effectiveness. Adjustments can be
made by water box loading changes or blade angle adjustments. Thermodynamic rules also dictate
that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the heat absorbed by the surrounding air.
Therefore the following formulae can be used:
L (T1 T2) = G (h1 h2)

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L / G = (h1 h2) / (T1 T2)
Where,
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (C)
T2 = cold-water temperature (C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature

4.2 Measured Parameters/Assessment:-

The performance of cooling towers is evaluated to assess present levels of approach and
range against their design values, identify areas of energy wastage and to suggest improvements.
During the performance evaluation, portable monitoring instruments are used to measure the
following parameters:

o Wet bulb temperature of air

o Dry bulb temperature of air
o Cooling tower inlet water temperature
o Cooling tower outlet water temperature
o Exhaust air temperature
o Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
o Water flow rate
o Air flow rate

4.2.1 Wet Bulb Temperature of Air:-

The wet bulb temperature (WBT) is the lowest temperature that can be reached under
current ambient conditions by the evaporation of water only.
Wet bulb temperature is largely determined by both actual air temperature (dry bulb
temperature) and the amount of moisture in the air (humidity).
At 100% relative humidity, the wet bulb temperature equals the dry bulb temperature.
Temperature is usually measured in degrees Celsius (oC), Kelvin (K), or Fahrenheit (oF).

4.2.2 Dry Bulb Temperature of Air:-

The dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of air measured by a thermometer
freely exposed to the air but shielded from radiation and moisture.
DBT is the temperature that is usually thought of as air temperature.
It indicates the amount of heat in the air and it is directly proportional to the mean kinetic
energy of the air molecules.
It does not indicate the amount of moisture in the air.

4.2.3 Cooling Tower Inlet Water Temperature:-

The temperature at which water enters the cooling tower inlet from water tank which is
heated with the help of the electric rod fitted inside the water tank.

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4.2.4 Cooling Tower Outlet Water Temperature:-
The temperature of cold water leaving the cooling tower from outlet pipe the help of
temperature gauges.

4.2.5 Exhaust Air Temperature:-

The temperature of air that leaves the cooling tower from top.

4.2.6 Electrical Readings of Pump and Fan Motors.

4.2.7 Water Flow Rate:-
The amount of water that moves through an area (usually pipe) in a given period of time.

4.2.8 Air Flow Rate:-

The air flow rate is a measurement of the amount of air per unit of time that flows through
a particular device.

4.3 Factors Affecting Performance:-

A number of factors that influence on the cooling towers performance are:

Capacity
Range
Approach
Heat Load
Wet Bulb Temperature
Tower Size

4.3.1 Design:-
4.3.1.1 Capacity:-
Heat dissipation (in kCal/hour) and circulated flow rate (m3/hr.) are not sufficient to
understand cooling tower performance. For example, a cooling tower sized to cool 4540
m3/hr. through a 13.9C range might be larger than a cooling tower to cool 4540 m3/hr.
through 19.5C range. Therefore, other design parameters are also needed.
Cooling Towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature to
another temperature at a certain wet bulb temp. For example, the cooling tower might be
specified to cool 4540 m3/hr. from 48.9 oC to 32.2 oC at 26.7 oC wet bulb temperature.
When the size of the tower has to be chosen, then the approach is most important, closely
followed by the flow rate, and the range and wet bulb would be of lesser important.

4.3.1.2 Range:-
Range is determined not by the cooling tower, but by the process it is serving.
The range at the exchanger is determined entirely by the heat load and the water circulation
rate through the exchanger and on to the cooling water.
Range (oC) = Heat Load (kCals/hr.) / Water Circulation Rate (LPH)
Thus, Range is a function of the heat load and the flow circulated through the system.
Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain flow rate from one temperature to
another temperature at a certain wet bulb temperature.
As, Range (oC) = CW inlet temp. CW outlet temp.
In this case, Range 16.7 oC = 48.9 oC 32.2 oC

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4.3.1.3 Approach:-
This approach is also important.
As, Approach (5.5 oC) = 32.2 oC 26.7 oC.
As a general rule, the closer the approach to the wet bulb, the more expensive the cooling
tower due to increased size.
Usually, a 2.8 oC approach to the design wet bulb is the coldest water temperature that
cooling tower manufacturers will guarantee.
If flow rate, range, approach and wet bulb had to be ranked in the order of their importance
in sizing a tower, approach would be first with flow rate closely following the range and
wet bulb would be of lesser importance.

4.3.1.4 Heat Load:-

The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is determined by the process being served.
The degree of cooling required is controlled by the desired operating temperature level of
the process.
In most cases, a low operating temperature is desirable to increase process efficiency or to
improve the quality or quantity of the product.
In some applications (e.g. internal combustion engines), however, high operating
temperatures are desirable.
The size and cost of the cooling tower is proportional to the heat load.
If heat load calculations are low undersized equipment will be purchased. If the calculated
load is high, oversize and costlier, equipment will result.
Process heat loads may vary considerably depending upon the process involved.
Determination of accurate process heat loads can become very complex but proper
consideration can produce satisfactory results.
On the other hand, air conditioning and refrigeration heat loads can be determined with
greater accuracy.

4.3.1.5 Wet Bulb Temperature:-

Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in performance of evaporative water cooling
equipment.
It is a controlling factor from the aspect of minimum cold water temperature to which
water can be cooled by the evaporative method.
Thus, the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the cooling tower determines operating
temperature levels throughout the plant, process, or system.
Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the entering wet bulb temperature, when
operating without a heat load.
However, a thermal potential is required to reject heat, so it is not possible to cool water
to the entering air wet bulb temperature, when a heat load is applied.
The approach obtained is a function of thermal conditions and tower capability.
Initial selection of towers with respect to design wet bulb temperature must be made on
the basis of conditions existing at the tower site.
The temperature selected is generally close to the average maximum wet bulb for the
summer months.
An important aspect of wet bulb selection is whether it is specified as ambient or inlet.
The ambient wet bulb is the temperature, which exists generally in the cooling tower area,
whereas inlet wet bulb is the wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower.
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 The later can be, and often is, affected by discharge vapors being re-circulated into the
tower.
Recirculation raises the effective wet bulb temperature of the air entering the tower with
corresponding increase in the cold-water temperature.
Since there is no initial knowledge or control over the recirculation factor, the ambient wet
bulb should be specified.
The cooling tower supplier is required to furnish a tower of sufficient capability to absorb
the effects of the increased wet bulb temperature peculiar to his own equipment.

4.3.1.6 Tower Size:-

If heat load, range, approach and wet-bulb temperature are held constant, changing the
fourth will affect the tower size as follows:
a) Tower size varies inversely with approach. A longer approach requires a smaller tower.
Conversely, a smaller approach requires an increasingly larger tower and, at 5F approach,
the effect upon tower size begins to become asymptotic. For that reason, it is not customary
in the cooling tower industry to guarantee any approach of less than 5F.
b) Tower size varies inversely with wet bulb temperature. When heat load, range, and
approach values are fixed, reducing the design wet-bulb temperature increases the size of
the tower. This is because most of the heat transfer in a cooling tower occurs by virtue of
evaporation (which extracts approximately 1000 Btus for every pound of water
evaporated), and airs ability to absorb moisture reduces with temperature.
c) Tower size varies directly and linearly with heat load.
d) Tower size varies inversely with range. Two primary factors account for this. First;
increasing the rangealso increases the ITD (driving force) between the incoming hot
water temperature and the entering wet-bulb temperature. Second, increasing the range (at
a constant heat load) requires that the water flow rate be decreasedwhich reduces the
static pressure opposing the flow of air.

4.3.2 Fill Media Effects:-

In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above fill media and is cooled down through
evaporation as it flows down the tower and gets in contact with air. The fill media impacts energy
consumption in two ways:

Electricity is used for pumping above the fill and for fans that create the air draft. An
efficiently designed fill media with appropriate water distribution, drift eliminator, fan,
gearbox and motor with therefore lead to lower electricity consumption.
Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by surface area of heat exchange,
duration of heat exchange (interaction) and turbulence in water effecting thoroughness of
intermixing. The fill media determines all of these and therefore influences the heat
exchange. The greater the heat exchange, the more effective the cooling tower becomes.
There are three types of fills:

a) Splash fill media. Splash fill media generates the required heat exchange area by splashing
water over the fill media into smaller water droplets. The surface area of the water droplets
is the surface area for heat exchange with the air.
b) Film fill media. In a film fill, water forms a thin film on either side of fill sheets. The
surface area of the fill sheets is the area for heat exchange with the surrounding air. Film

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 fill can result in significant electricity savings due to fewer air and pumping head
requirements.
c) Low-clog film fills. Low-clog film fills with higher flute sizes were recently developed to
handle high turbid waters. Low clog film fills are considered as the best choice for sea
water in terms of power savings and performance compared to conventional splash type
fills.

4.3.3 Water Distribution:-

4.3.3.1 Optimize Cooling Water Treatment:-
Cooling water treatment (e.g. to control suspended solids, algae growth) is mandatory for
any cooling tower independent of what fill media is used. With increasing costs of water, efforts
to increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by cooling water treatment would help to reduce make
up water requirements significantly. In large industries and power plants improving the COC is
often considered a key area for water conservation.

4.3.3.2 Install Drift Eliminators:-

It is very difficult to ignore drift problems in cooling towers. Nowadays most of the end
user specifications assume a 0.02% drift loss. But thanks to technological developments and the
production of PVC, manufacturers have improved drift eliminator designs. As a result drift losses
can now be as low as 0.003 0.001%.

4.3.3.3 Fans:-
The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air through the
system. The fan has to overcome the system resistance, which is defined as the pressure loss, to
move the air. The fan output or work done by the fan is the product of air flow and the pressure
loss. The fan output and kW input determines the fan efficiency. The fan efficiency in turn is
greatly dependent on the profile of the blade. Blades include:

a) Metallic blades, which are manufactured by extrusion or casting processes and therefore
it is difficult to produce ideal aerodynamic profiles
b) Fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) blades, are normally hand molded which makes it easier to
produce an optimum aerodynamic profile tailored to specific duty conditions. Because
FRP fans are light, they need a low starting torque requiring a lower HP motor, the lives
of the gear box, motor and bearing is increased, and maintenance is easier.

An 85-92% efficiency can be achieved with blades with an aerodynamic profile, optimum
twist, taper and a high coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop ratio. However, this efficiency is
drastically affected by factors such as tip clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape, etc. Cases
reported where metallic or glass fibber reinforced plastic fan blades have been replaced by
efficient hollow FRP blades. The resulting fan energy savings were in the order of 20-30%and
with simple payback period of 6 to 7 months (NPC).

4.4 Energy Efficiency Opportunities:-

The main areas for improving the energy efficiency of cooling towers are:

1. Selecting the right cooling tower (because the structural aspects of the cooling tower
cannot be changed after it is installed).
2. Fills
3. Pumps and water distribution system

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 4. Fans and Motors

4.5 Improving Energy Efficiency of Cooling Towers:-

1. Clearances around cooling towers needs to be adequate to ensure uninterrupted air intake
or exhaust.
2. Use right type of nozzles that do not clog & spray in a more uniform water pattern. Square
spray nozzles are clog free as compared to spray type nozzles.
3. Increase contact surface and contact time between air and water may be with the use of
PVC Film Type Fills by replacing splash bars.
4. Clean distribution nozzles regularly.
5. Optimize the blow down flow rate, taking into account the cycles of concentration limit.
6. Keep the cooling water temperature to a minimum level by:
Segregating high heat loads like furnaces, air compressors, DG sets.
Isolating cooling towers from sensitive applications like A/C plants, condensers of
captive power plant etc.
7. Monitor Approach, Effectiveness and Cooling Capacity to continuously optimize the
cooling tower performance. Seasonal variations be taken into consideration.
8. Monitor liquid to gas ratio and cooling water flow rates and amend these depending on the
design values and seasonal variations.
9. Increase COC improvement for water savings. The use of water treatment chemicals,
pretreatment such as softening & pH adjustment, and other techniques can affect the
acceptable range of cycles of concentration.
10. Check cooling water pumps regularly to maximize their efficiency.

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 CHAPTER NO. 5
PERFORMANCE OF COUNTER FLOW FORCED DRAFT
COOLING TOWER
5.1 Parameters required in calculation of performance of Counter-flow
Forced Draft Cooling Tower: -
Parameters required in calculation of performance of Counter Flow Forced Draft Cooling
Tower are:

1. Wet Bulb Temperature

2. Dry Bulb Temperature of air
3. Cooling tower inlet water temperature
4. Cooling tower outlet water temperature
5. Exhaust air temperature
6. Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
7. Water flow rate
8. Air flow rate

5.2 Instruments used in calculating the Measured Parameters:-

Instruments used in calculating the Measured Parameters are:

Whirling Hygrometer
Use of Anemometer for Calculating Air Flow Rate
Calculating Water Flow Rate

5.2.1 Whirling Hygrometer:-

A whirling hygrometer is also called a sling psychrometer.
The whirling hygrometer offers the maximum level of accuracy due to the nature of
measurement.
It measures relative humidity and temperature directly.
It is one of the most economic methods of monitoring relative humidity that utilities the
wet and dry principle.
It has two matched thermometers. One thermometer is called the dry bulb and the other is
the wet bulb. Thermometers allows accurate readings to be taken.
Thermometers housed in a robust yellow plastic frame and black folding handle.
The wet bulb thermometer has a cotton sleeve wrapped around its base.
Distilled water from a small reservoir is used to keep the sleeve wet.
The whirling hygrometer is whirled rapidly for thirty seconds.
While this happens, water from the sleeve of the wet bulb thermometer evaporates, and
the wet bulb temperature shown by the thermometer goes down.
After this a reading of the two thermometers is taken, with the wet bulb thermometer
normally read first.
This is repeated until 2 consecutive readings are obtained which are comparable.
Relative humidity can then be determined by correlating the readings with those on the
hygrometric table supplied with each instrument.

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 The whirling hygrometer comes complete with hygrometric tables, three spare wicks and
a carrying case.

5.2.2 Use of Anemometer for Calculating Air Flow Rate:-

The apparatus which assist in calculating the air flow rates is Anemometer.
Anemometers measure the speed (velocity) of moving air. The measurement units for
Anemometers includes: Feet per minute (ft./min.), Meters per second (m/s), Kilometers
per hour (km/hr.), Miles per hour (mph), etc.
The velocity of air is measured at the bottom of the cooling tower as fan situated at the
bottom of cooling tower pushes the air inside the cooling tower.
The velocity we find on Anemometer is 11.10 m/s.
After that we calculate area of the top of the cooling tower. For this:
o Firstly, measure the diameter D of the top of the cooling tower. The top of cooling
tower is in the shape of circle.
o The diameter calculated is D = 2ft = 0.6096 m
o As, Area = A = r2
o By putting values we get area:
A = 3.14 ft2 = 0.291 m2
Now, we calculate Volumetric Flow Rate which is the volume of air which passes per unit
time; usually represented by the symbol Q with units ft3/min.
Thus, Volumetric Flow Rate is calculated by:
Q=vA
Where,
v = Flow velocity of the air
A = Cross-sectional Area
By putting Values:
Q = 0.2(11.10) = 3.2301 m3/s = 11628 m3/hr.
Now, we calculate mass flow rate of air by formula:
mo = Q
Where,
= Density of Air = 1.225 kg/m3 = 0.0765 lb/ft3
By putting values, we get:
mo = 1.225 (3.2031) = 3.956 kg/s = 3.956 60 60 = 14241.6 kg/hr.
Thus, 14241.6 kg/hr. is mass flow rate of air.

5.2.3 Calculating Water Flow Rate:-

Water flow rate is accurately measured by Water Flow Rate Meter.
As, this apparatus is not available we adopt a general rule to measure the water flow rate
of cooling tower.
For this, we measure the water flow of hot pipe.
Turn the hand valve on hot pipe to its normal position,
Place a container under the drag valve and collect the water for 10 seconds.
Measure the quantity of water in the container. It is:
Quantity of water = 1 liters = 0.264 gallons
Multiply the measured quantity of water by 6 to calculate the flow rate in gallons per
minute or litters per minute.

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 Water Flow Rate = 0264 gal 6 = 1.584 GPM
= 1 liters 6 = 6 liters per minute
To calculate the water flow rate in gallons per hour or liters per hour:
Water Flow Rate = 1.584 60 = 95.04 GPH
= 6 liters 60 = 360 liters per hour
For water:
1 Liter = 1 kg
So,
Water Flow Rate = 360 kg/hr.

5.3 Worksheet of Performance of Fabricated Counter Flow Forced Draft

Cooling Tower:-
Measured Parameters:
Sr. No. Parameters Units Cooling Tower
Reference
o
1 Dry bulb temperature C 20
o
2 Wet bulb temperature C 16.5
o
3 CT inlet temperature C 40
o
4 CT outlet temperature C 23
5 Pumping Power HP 0.5
6 Pumping Head M 4
7 Fan Power HP 1.5
8 Water Flow Rate Kg/hr. 360
9 Air Flow Rate Kg/hr. 14241.6
Table 5.1 Measured Parameters of Counter flow forced draft cooling tower

Performance Parameters:
Sr. No. Parameter Reference Units Cooling
Tower (CT)
1 Range = CT in temp. CT out temp. o
C 17
2 Approach = CT out temp. Wet bulb temp. o
C 6.5
3 CT Effectiveness = Range / (Range + % 72
Approach) 100
4 Cooling Capacity = Q = mo Cp T kCal/hr. 6120
5 Liquid/Gas (L/G) Ratio = Water Flow Rate / Kg water/kg air 0.0252
Air Flow Rate
6 Evaporation Loss = 0.00085 1.8 m3/hr. 302.45
3
Circulation Rate (m /hr.) (T1 - T2)
Table 5.2 Performance Parameters of Counter flow forced draft cooling tower

5.4 Conclusion:-
Our fabricated cooling tower is of good performance with all parameters necessary for
determining the performance is calculated.

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 CHAPTER NO. 6
COOLING TOWER PROBLEMS WITH SOLUUTIONS AND
THEITR APPLICATIONS
6.1 Problems of Cooling Tower:-
Water is the favored heat transfer medium for many industrial applications because of its
availability, its high heat capacity, and its relatively low cost. Depending on the quality of
available fresh water supply, waterside problems develop in cooling water systems from:

Corrosion
Micro-Biological Contamination
Scaling
Fouling

6.1.1 Corrosion:-
Corrosion is an electrochemical or chemical process that leads to the destruction of the
system metallurgy. Figure illustrates the nature of a corrosion cell that may be encountered
throughout the cooling system metallurgy. Metal is lost at the anode and deposited at the cathode.
The process is enhanced by elevated dissolved mineral content in the water and the presence of
oxygen, both of which are typical of most cooling tower systems.

Figure 6.1 Corrosion Cell

6.1.1.1 Treatment:-
However, in fact, it is proved that Ozone perfectly prevents corrosion caused by the
chemical reaction of salts as well as bacteria together with algae in the cooling tower water. Unless
other chemicals for corrosion prevention is used, no more maintenance and operating costs, e.g.,
chemical purchase, storage, application and disposal expanses are.

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6.1.2 Micro-Biological Contamination: -
Microbiological activity is microorganisms that live and grow in the cooling tower and
cooling system. Cooling towers present the perfect environment for biological activity due to the
warm, moist environment. There are two distinct categories of biological activity in the tower
system. The first being plank tonic, which is bioactivity suspended, or floating in solution. The
other is sessile bio-growth, which the category is given to all biological activity, biofilms, or bio-
fouling that stick to a surface in the cooling system. Bio films are problematic for multiple reasons.
They have strong insulating properties, they contribute to fouling and corrosion, and the
byproducts they create that contribute to further micro-biological activity. They can be found in
and around the tower structure, or they can be found in chiller bundles, on heat exchangers
surfaces, and in the system piping. Additionally, bio films and algae mats are problematic because
they are difficult to kill. Careful monitoring of biocide treatments, along with routine
measurements of biological activity are important to ensure bio-activity is controlled and limited
throughout the cooling system. Cooling water microorganisms include: Algae, Fungi, and Bacteria
etc.

6.1.3 Treatment:-
In order to combat the biological growth problems, facility operators generally use
chemicals (biocides) to stop bio-growth. While the use of chemicals helps control the overall
biological problems, this solution does have some downsides such as: It is hazardous to operators;
Chemicals are expansive; and constant feeding of chemicals. Ultraviolet (UV) light, which is a
proven technology for drinking water, can be applied to the treatment of cooling tower water. As
with drinking water, cooling tower water enters the UV system where it is exposed to high doses
of UV light. The UV lamps produce light in the 254-nm wavelength. At this wavelength, UV light
targets the microorganisms DNA. Exposure to the light scrambles the DNA and prevents the
microorganisms from reproducing.

6.1.4 Scaling:-
Scaling is the precipitation of dissolved minerals components that have become saturated
in solution. Factors that contribute to scaling tendencies include water quality, pH, and
temperature. Scale formation reduces the heat exchange ability of the system because of the
insulating properties of scale, making the entire system work harder to meet the cooling demand.
Deposits typically consist of mineral scales (i.e. CaCO3. CaSO4, Ca3(PO4)2, CaF2, etc.),
corrosion products (i.e. Fe2O3, Fe3O4, CuO etc.), particular matter (i.e. clay, slit), and
microbiological mass.

6.1.4.1 Treatment:-
However, in fact, it is proved that Ozone perfectly removes the scale in the system and
never let the scale reappear in the cooling system as ozone treatment is still applied. No other
traditional chemicals are needed for water treatment. Even though some chemicals are effective
biocides. They have been banned due to long-term and costly investments as well as safety and
environmental concerns.

6.1.5 Fouling:-
Species that do not form scale (iron, mud, silt, and other debris) can also cause deposition
problems. Because these materials are composed of solid particles, their deposition is often more
flow-related than heat-related. Suspended solids tend to drop out in low-flow areas, such as the

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tower sump and heat exchangers with cooling water on the shell side. In addition to serving as a
water reservoir, the tower sump provides a settling basin. The most important factors influencing
fouling are:

o Water characteristics
o Temperature
o Flow Velocity
o Microbial Growths
o Corrosion
o Contamination
Distilled water will not foul. However, most waters contain the dissolved and suspended
materials that can cause a significant fouling problem under certain condition. Increasing
temperatures the fouling tendency. Because heat transfer surfaces are hotter than the cooling
water, they accelerate fouling.

6.1.5.1 Treatment:-
The accumulated solids can be removed from the sump periodically by vacuum or
shoveling methods. Natural and synthetic polymers of various types can be used to minimize
fouling in heat exchangers.

6.2 Applications of Cooling Tower:-

Common applications for cooling towers are:

Providing cooled water for air-conditioning, manufacturing and electric power generation.
The smallest cooling towers are designed to handle water streams of only a few Gallons
of water per minute supplied in small pipes like those might see in a residence, while the
largest cool hundreds of thousands of gallons per minute supplied in pipes as much as 15
feet (about 5 meters) in diameter on a large power plant.
Applications include:

Energy savings.
Reduce maintenance requirements (personnel and equipment replacement costs).
Precisely control process water temperature stabilization.

The generic term Cooling Tower is used to describe both direct (open circuit) and
indirect (closed circuit) heat rejection equipment. While most think of a cooling tower as an
open direct contact heat rejection device, the indirect cooling tower, sometimes referred to as a
closed circuit cooling tower is nonetheless also a cooling tower.

Main Applications are:

1. Process Plant Steam Condensation
2. Process Cooling
3. HVAC Heat Rejection:
a) Chiller Condenser Heat
b) WSHP Loop Heat

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References

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