Communicatin System 1 Lab Manual 2011 PDF

PRACTICAL WORK BOOK
For Academic Session 2011
COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS -I
(TC-391)
For
TE
(EE/EL)
Name:
Roll Number:
Batch:
Department:
Term/Year:
Department of Electronic Engineering

NED University of Engineering & Technology
LABORATORY WORKBOOK
For The Course
TC- 391 Communication Systems- I
Prepared By:
Ms. Sundus Ali, Lecturer, Telecommunications Engineering
Reviewed By:
Ms. Saba Ahmed, Assistant Professor and
Ms. Uzma Butt, Lecturer,
Telecommunications Engineering
Approved By:
The Board of Studies, Department of Electronic Engineering
INTRODUCTION
Communication Systems - I Practical Workbook covers a wide

range of Laboratory Sessions that can prove highly helpful in
allowing the students to grasp the core objective of this subject.
These labs will assist in solidifying the practical concepts that
are very essential for the engineering students.
This L a b work book comprises of the following portions:

1. Lab Sessions related to Signals Time and Frequency
Domain Analysis using MATLAB
2. Lab Sessions related to linear modulation techniques
(AM, SSB and FM), performed on modern trainer
board
3. Small Lab Projects, involving hands-on
implementation of modulation circui ts
Each Lab session also contains a brief account of relevant theory

about the topic being covered in the said session.
Credits: Lab Manual on Analog Communication (EC-205), Department

of Electronics and Communication Engineering, School of Engineering,
Udaipur, India.
Contents
NED University of Engineering And Technology-Department of Electronic Engineering
Telecommunications Laboratory
CONTENTS
Lab Page
Date Experiment Remarks
No. No.
MATLAB
Introduction to MATLAB, basic Mathematical operations,

1
variables, vectors, matrices basic plotting and MATLAB 1
Programming
Continuous Time Scaling And Shifting Transformation
Techniques 13
2 Study and check the linearity and time invariance of a system
Generation of an algorithm that gives the output obtained by
3
convolution of two signals 18
Generation of an algorithm that gives the output obtained by
correlation between two signals
To explore the application of correlation for identifying a
periodic signals corrupted by/buried in noise
MODULATION
To understand the concepts of Fourier Transform
4 22
To carryout Fourier Synthesis of a square wave
To examine the main parameters of amplitude modulated signal
5 Demodulation of AM signal using Envelope Detector 25
6.
LAB PROJECT (1) 33
To observe the operation of Product detector

7
To check the operation of the balanced amplitude modulator
34
with suppressed carrier.
8. LAB PROJECT (2) 42

Lab Page
Date Experiment Remarks
No. No.
To examine the main parameters of the single sideband

9 modulation
To Check the use of filters to generate the SSB 43
To examine the operation of RF (Radio Frequency)

10 receiver
49
To examine the operation of RF (Radio Frequency)
receiver

11 53
LAB PROJECT (3)
To examine the operation of AM-RF (Radio Frequency)
12 transmitter
To examine the operation of SSB-RF (Radio Frequency) 54
transmitter
13
LAB PROJECT(4) 58
LAB EXAM AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

14
Lab Manual Communication Systems-I (TC-391)
NED University Of Engineering And Technology-Department of Electronic Engineering
LAB SESSION 01
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
OBJECTIVES:
(a) To get acquainted with MATLABs environment

(b) To use MATLAB as a calculator
(c) To learn to create MATLAB variables and basic plots
(d) To learn to initialize and manipulate vectors, matrices
PRE-LAB THEORY:
What is MATLAB?
MATLAB is a software program that allows you to do data manipulation and visualization, calculations, math and
programming. It can be used to do very simple as well as very sophisticated tasks. It can solve large systems of
equations efficiently and it is therefore useful for solving differential equations and optimization problems. It also
provides excellent means for data visualization and has symbolic capabilities. Whilst simple problems can be solved
interactively with MATLAB, its real power shows when given calculations that are cumbersome or extremely
repetitive to do by hand!
Where can we use MATLAB?
MATLAB is recognized as the interactive program for numerical linear algebra and matrix computation. In
industries, MATLAB is used for research and to solve practical engineering and mathematical problems. Also, in
automatic control theory, statistics and digital signal processing (Time-Series Analysis) one can use MATLAB. The
following tool boxes make it useful in soft computing at various industrial and scientific areas:
(i) Neural Networks (ii) Optimization (iii) Genetic Algorithms
(iv) Wavelets (v) Fuzzy Logic (vi) Control systems
(vi) Signal processing (vii) Communication Systems
Starting MATLAB
After logging into your account, you can enter MATLAB by double-clicking on the MATLAB shortcut icon on the
Window.
After starting MATLAB, the MATLAB Desktop will appear. The default three-part window looks similar to the
figure below. The Desktop is also known as an Integrated Development Environment (IDE). Clicking the Start
button in the lower left-hand corner will display a list of MATLAB tools, shortcuts, and documentation.
1
Figure 1.1 GUI view of MATLAB

Using MATLAB as a Calculator:
As an example of a simple interactive calculation, just type the expression you want to evaluate. Lets start at the
very beginning. For example, in order to calculate the following expression
1+2*3, one needs to type it at the prompt command (>>) as follows:
>> 1+2*3
ans=
7
Lab Task:
Try the following and record your observations:
>>3+7.5
>>18/4
>>3*7
2
>>3^2
Observations:
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________________
Mathematical Functions:
The following table lists some commonly used standard MATLAB functions:
Function MATLAB Syntax

ex exp(x)
x sqrt (x)
Ln x log(x)
Log10 (x) log10(x)
Cos x cos(x)
Sin x sin(x)
Tan x tan(x)
Cos-1 x acos(x)
Sin-1 x asin(x)
Tan-1 x atan(x)
Table 1.1 Standard MATLAB functions
Example 1:
y= e-a sin(x) + 10y for a=5, x=2, and y=8 is computed by
>>a=5; x=2; y=8;
>>y=exp (-a)*sin(x) +10*sqrt(y)
y=
28.2904
Example 2:
To calculate sin (pi/4) and e10
>>sin(pi/4)
ans=
0.7071
>>exp(10)
ans=
3
2.2026e+004
Variables, Expressions & Statements:
Variable names must be a single word containing no space and up to 31 characters. Variables names are case
sensitive and a variable name must start with a letter. Punctuation characters are not allowed.
MATLABs statements are of the form:
>> variables = expression or
>> expression
Expressions are composed of operators, function and variable names. After evaluation the value is assigned
to the variable and displayed. If the variable name and = sign are omitted, a variable ans (for answer) is
automatically created and the result is assigned to it.
Rules of Precedence:
Expressions are evaluated from left to right with exponential operation having the highest precedence,
followed by multiplication and division having equal precedence, followed by addition and subtracting
having equal precedence. Parentheses can be used to alter this ordering in which case these rules of
precedence are applied within each set of parentheses starting with the innermost set and proceeding
outward.
The most recent values assigned to the variables you used in the current session are available. For example,
if you type a at the prompt you get the output as:
>> a
a=
7
The display of numerical values can have different format as we see below:
>> e= 1/3
e=
0.3333
>> format long (long decimal format)
>> e
e=
0.33333333333333
>> format short e (short exponential format)
>> e
e=
3.3333 e-01
>>format long e (long exponential format)
e=
3.33333333333333 e-04
4
>>format ( default format)

>>e
e=
0.333
Entering Matrices:
You can enter matrices in various different ways:
Enter an explicit list of elements.
Load matrices from external data files.
Generate matrices using built-in functions.
Create matrices with your own functions and save them in files.
MATLAB works with essentially only one kind of objects, i.e. a rectangular numerical matrix with possibly
complex entries. All variables represent matrices. If you want to store a matrix 1 2 3 in a
variable a in the MATLABs current memory, you type the following:
456
789
>> a = [1 2 3; 4 5 6; 7 8 9]
a=
123
456
789
The rows are separated by semicolons and elements are separated by space or by comma. That is, the above
matrix can also be stored by the following command.
>> a = [1,2,3;4,5,6;7,8,9];
or by the statement
>> a = [
123
456
789]
The semicolon at the end of a command suppresses the output.
The matrix a is transposed and is stored in b by the following command
>> b = a
b=
147
258
369
The following matrix operations are available in MATLAB:
5
Table 1.2 Matrix Operations

Matrix Initialisation and Addressing:
>>A=[1 2 3 4;5 6 7 8]
A=
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
>>A( : , : )
Ans=
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8
>>A(1,2)
Ans=
2
>>A(1, :)
Ans=
1 2 3 4
>>A(: ,[1,3])
Ans=
1 3
5 7
>>A=(: ,end)
Ans=
3
Selected portion of one matrix can be assigned to a new matrix
>>B= A(: , 3 :end)
B=
6
3 4
7 8
To select the elements along main diagonal,
>>Diag(B)
Ans=
3
8
Changing and deleting matrix elements:
>>A=1:5
A=
1 2 3 4 5
>>A(2) = 6
A=
1 6 3 4 5
>>A([1 3]) = 0
A=
0 6 0 4 5
Manipulating Matrix:
>>A=[1 3 4; 5 7 8]
A=
1 3 4
5 7 8
For transpose,
>>A
Ans=
1 5
3 7
4 8
>>fliplr (A)
Ans=
4 3 1
8 7 5
7
>>flipud(A)
Ans=
5 7 8
1 3 4
Matrix Operation:
>>A=[1 3 4;5 7 8]
A=
1 3 4
5 7 8
>>2+A
Ans=
3 5 9
7 9 10
Element-by-element operations vs. Matrix Operations:
Matrix multiplication has a special procedure, and it is different from simple element-to-element
multiplication. This is unlike addition operation, where two matrices cab be added by simple element-by-
element addition, this is adding corresponding elements of the two matrices in question.
Thus, we have a special set of operators that distinguish Matriz operations from element-by-element
operations. When you intend to perform matrix operation, you simply use, * for multiplication, / for
division, ^ for exponentiation and so on.
But if you intend to perform element-by-element operations, you have to use, .* for multiplication, ./ for
division and .^ for exponentiation.
Example,
>>A=[2 3 4;5 6 7;2 1 0];
>>B=[1 2 3;5 6 2;0 0 5];
>>A*B
Ans=
17 22 32
40 52 59
7 10 8
>>A.*B
Ans=
2 6 12
25 42 12
8
0 0 0
Basic Plotting:
MATLAB has an excellent set of graphics tools. Plotting a given data set or results of computation is possible with a
very few commands. Trying to understand mathematical functions with graphics is an enjoyable and very ancient
way of learning mathematics. Being able to plot mathematical functions and data freely is the most important step,
and this section is written to assist you to do just that.
The MATLAB command used to plot the graph is plot(x,y). For example, if the vector x= (1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6) and y=
(3; -1; 2; 4; 5; 1)
>> x= [1 2 3 4 5 6];
>> y= [3 -1 2 4 5 1];
>>plot(x,y)
Figure 1.2 Output Plot

Now try the following:
>>x = 0: pi/100: 2*pi;
>>y= sin (x);
>>plot (x,y)
Adding titles and axis labels:
MATLAB enables you to add axis labels and titles. For example, using the graph from the previous
example, add x- and y-axis labels.
>> xlabel (x = 0:2\pi);
>>ylabel (sine of x);
>>title (Plot of the Sine Function)
9
Multiple data sets in one plot:

Multiple (x;y) pairs arguments create multiple graphs with a single call to plot. For example, these statements plot
three plots related functions of x: y1=2 cos(x), y2=cos(x), and
y3=0.5*cos (x) in the interval 0 x 2
>> x= 0:pi/100:2*pi;
>>y1= 2*cos(x);
>>y2= cos (x);
>>y3= 0.5*cos (x);
>>plot (x, y1, - -,x, y2, - - , x, y3, :)
>>xlabel (0 \leq x \leq 2\pi)
>>ylabel (Cosine functions)
>>legend (2*cos(x), cos(x), 0.5*cos(x))
>>axis ([0 2*pi -3 3])
The result of the multiple data in one graph is shown below:
Figure 1.3 Output Plot

MATLAB Programming:
To make a file in MATLAB, click on New in the file menu in menu bar. It will open a new file.
After writing the code, if we want to save this file (called m-file), it will be saved in bin folder of
MATLAB by default.
Such files are called M-files because they have an extension of .m in its filename. There are two types of
M-files: Script Files and Function Files
% This is a sample m-file
a = [1,2,3;0,1,1;1,2,3]
b =a;
c = a+b
d = inv(c)
10
Save this file as rkg.m.

Then in order to execute this file, type
>> rkg <ENTER>
Write the output:
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
The % symbol indicates that the rest of the line is a comment. MATLAB will ignore the rest of the line.
However, the first comment lines which document the m-file are available to the online help facility and will
be displayed.
An M-file can also reference other M-files, including referencing itself recursively.
Function Files:
Function files provide extensibility to MATLAB. You can create new functions specific to your problem
which will then have the same status as other MATLAB functions. Variables in a function file are by default
local. However, you can declare a variable to be global if you wish.
Example:
Function y = prod (a,b)
y = a*b;
Save this file with filename prod.m then type on the MATLAB prompt
>> prod (3,4)
ans =
12
In MATLAB to get input from user the syntax rule is:
>>variable name = input (variable);
Example:
>>a=input ( Enter a number );
And on command prompt if we run this program it will be displayed like:
>> Enter a number
If we type 2 at the cursor then we get the output as
a=2
Control Flow:
MATLAB offers the following decision making or control flow structures:
1. If- Else End Construction
2. For loops
11
3. While loops
4. Switch-Case constructions etc.
Script Files:
A script file consists of a sequence of normal MATLAB statements. If the file has the filename, say, rkg.m,
then the MATLAB command >> rkg will cause the statements in the file to be executed. Variables in a
script file are global and will change the value of variables of the same name in the environment of the
current MATLAB session.
Script files are often used to enter data into a large matrix; in such a file, entry errors can be easily edited out.
The load Function:
The load function reads binary files containing matrices generated by earlier MATLAB sessions, or reads
text files containing numeric data. The text file should be organized as a rectangular table of numbers,
separated by blanks, with one row per line, and an equal number of elements in each row. For example,
outside of MATLAB, create a text file containing these four lines:
16.0 3.0 2.0 13.0
5.0 10.0 11.0 8.0
9.0 6.0 7.0 12.0
4.0 15.0 14.0 1.0
Save the file as magik.dat in the current directory. The statement load magik.dat reads the file and creates a
variable, magik, containing the example matrix. An easy way to read data into MATLAB from many text or
binary formats is to use the Import Wizard.
EXERCISE:
1. Given that x=-5+9i and y=6-2i, use MATLAB to show that x-y=1+7i, xy= -12+64i and x/y= -1.2 + 1.1i
2. Use MATLAB to compute: 6(351.4 )+140.35
3. Use MATLAB to plot the functions y=4(6x+1) and z=5e0.3x 2x over the interval 0<x<1.5
4. Use MATLAB to plot function s= 2 sin (3t+2) + (5t+1) over the interval 0<t<5.
5. Plot exp(-x) sin(8x) for 0 x 2
6. Plot the function y= (4/) [(sin x) + (sin 3x)/3 + (sin 5x)/5 + (sin7x)/7] over the interval <x<. These are the
first four terms of the Fourier Series representation of a square wave.
7. Define a 4x3 matrix with zeros everywhere except the first line that is filled with 1. Hint= use ones and zeros
command
8. Use MATLAB to solve following set of equations.

6x - 4y + 8z = 112
-5x 3y +7z = 75
14x + 9y 5z = -67
9. Use MATLAB to find roots of 13x3 + 182x2 184x +2503 = 0
12
LAB SESSION 02
SIGNAL TRANSFORMATION TECHNIQUES,

LINEAR AND TIME VARIANT PROPERTIES OF A SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES:
(a) Learn time domain representation of various discrete signals

(b) Learn and implement amplitude and continuous time scaling techniques
(c) Learn and implement various time shifting techniques
PRE-LAB THEORY (a):
Amplitude Scaling:
Amplitude scaling: the function g(t) is multiplied by the constant A for all values of t. This transformation can be
indicated by the notation:
g(t) Ag(t)
Figure shows two examples of amplitude-scaling of the function g(t)
Figure 2.1 examples- amplitude-scaling of the function g(t)

13
Time Shifting:
Time shifting by t0 corresponds to the transformation:

g(t) g(t-t0)
where, t0 is the time shift. If t0>0, the waveform g(t) is obtained by shifting towards the right, relative to the time
axis. If to<0, g(t) is shifted to the left.
Figure 2.2 Time shifting example

Time Scaling:
Time scaling corresponds to the transformation:
g(t) g(t/a)
If a>0, t t/a expands the function horizontally by a factor of a.
The figure compares g(t) and g(t/2)
PROCEDURE (a):
Problem 1: Use MATLAB, plot the following function defined by
G(t)= 0 t<-2
-4-2t -2<t<0
-4+3t 0<t<4
16-2t 4<t<8
0 t>8
14
Then plot the transformed functions:

3G(t+1)
0.5G(3t)
-2G((t-1)/2)
Problem 2: Draw the following built-in funtions:

a. Diric b. Sawtooth c. Square d. tripuls e. sinc
Continuous-Time Even and Odd Functions:

A Continuous-time even function verifies the relation:
g(t) = g(-t)
Even functions are symmetrical about the y-axis
A continuous-time odd function verifies the relation:
g(t) = -g(-t)
Odd functions are symmetrical about the origin O
Figure 2.3 Even and Odd Signal

Linear and Non-Linear Systems:
We now investigate the linearity property of a causal system of the type described. Consider the system given by:
y[n]-0.4y[n-1]+0.75y[n-2]=2.2403x[n]+2.4908x[n-1]+2.2403x[n-2] Eq. (A)
15
MATLAB program is used to simulate the system to generate three different input sequences x1[n], x2[n] and x[n]=
a* x1[n]+b*x2[n], and to compare and plot the corresponding output sequences y1[n], y2[n] and y[n].
PROCEDURE (b):
Problem 1:
1. Generate following signals: a. x1= cos (2pi(0.1n)) b. x2= cos (2pi(0.4n)) for n=0 to 40
2. Now, apply operation: x=a*x1+b*x2 such that a= 2 and b= -3
3. Assume y1 and y2 to be the outputs of the system when x1 and x2 are applied as inputs respectively. The system
has following response (refering to eq A):
y[n]-0.4y[n-1]+0.75y[n-2]=2.2403x[n]+2.4908x[n-1]+2.2403x[n-2]
Mathematically, y1=h convolved with x1 y2=h convolved with x2
4. Also compute y such that, y=h convolves with x where x was computed in point 2.
5. Now compute, yt such that yt=a*y1+b*y2 where a and b are defined in point 2.
6. Now, find out d, the difference signal by subtracting yt from y.
7. Plot the outputs and difference signal.
Time and Time-Invariant Systems:

We next investigate the time-invariance property of a causal system. Consider again the system given in Eq
(A). MATLAB program is used to simulate the system of Eq (A), to generate two different input sequences
x[n] and x[n-D], and to compute and plot the corresponding and plot the corresponding output sequences
y1[n], y2[n] and the difference y1[n] y2[n+D]
Figure 2.4 Time-Invariant System

PROCEDURE (c):
Problem 1:
1. Use the same values of input signals x1 and x2, a and b, as well the same system response values used
in the above problem in procedure (b).
2. Assume the value of D to be 10
16
3. Compute x= a*x1+b*x2
4. Compute y= system convolves with x.
5. Compute yd such that yd=system convolves with xd, where xd is a delayed version of x byD.
(Hint: xd=[zeros(1,D) x])
6. Compute the difference signal d= y-yd
7. Plot the outputs y[n] and yd[n] and difference signals
Exercise:
1. Generate a code which uses input to shift unit-sample right or left using function.
2. Using MATLAB, graph the following discrete-time function:
g[n]= 10 e-/4 sin(3n/16) u[n]
then graph the following functions: a. g[2n] b. g[n/3]
3. Using MATLAB, find the energy or power of the following signals:

a. x(t) = tri ((t-3)/10)
b. X[n] = e-[n/10] sin (2n/4)
4. find and sketch the even and odd parts of these signals:
g[n]= u[n]- u[n-4]
g[n]= cos (2n/4)
g[n]= sin(2n/4)
g[n]= e-(n/4)u[n]
5. Compute and plot the impulse response of the system described below:
y[n] - 0.4[n-1]+0.75y[n-2]= 2.2403x[n]+2.24908x[n-1]+2.2403x[n-2]
17
LAB SESSION 03
CONVOLUTION AND CORRELATION
OBJECTIVES:
(a) To learn the generation of an algorithm that gives the output obtained by convolution of two signals
(b) To learn the generation of an algorithm that gives the output obtained by correlation between two
signals
(c) To explore the application of correlation for identifying a periodic signals corrupted by/buried in
noise
PRE-LAB THEORY (a):

CONVOLUTION:
The response y (n) of the LTI system as a function of the input signal x(n) and the unit sample response h(n),
is a convolution sum between x(n) and h(n). The input x(n) is convolved with the impulse response h(n) to
yield the output y(n).
The equation of the correlation: Y (n) =h (n) * X (n)
It is implemented in MATLAB by the command Conv, provided that two sequences be convolved are of
finite length.
PROCEDURE (a):
Problem 1:
Two signals are provided below. Apply convolution on the two signals and plot the output.
N 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
h(n) 4 2 -1 3 -2 -6 -5 4 5
x(n) -4 1 3 7 4 -2 -8 -2 -1
Problem 2:
1. Given a discrete-time sine wave (frequency and amplitude of your choice). Plot the waveform.
2. Generate AWGN signal. Plot the waveform.
3. Add White Gaussian Noise (random in nature) to the sine signal in order to have it corrupted.
4. Plot the corrupted signal.
5. Generate a moving average FIR filter (number of taps should be user-defined). Plot the response of the
filter.
6. Now, convolve the corrupted signal (noise + sine) with the FIR filter. Plot the output and provide the
conclusion.
18
Figure 3.1 Projected output of the convolution problem

CORRELATION:
Correlation is the process that qualifies the degree of inter-dependence of one process upon another or
measures the similarity between one set of data and other. Correlation is of two types: Cross-correlation and
Auto Correlation. It is implemented in MATLAB by the command xcorr, provided that two sequences be
convolved are of finite length.
Problem 3:
Two signals are provided below. Apply correlation on the two signals and plot the output.
n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
x1(n) -4 1 3 7 4 -2 -8 -2 -1
x2(n) 4 2 -1 3 -2 -6 -5 4 5
Problem 4:
Calculation of Auto-correlation sequence (ACS) and effect of time-shifting
1. Provided a signal x1= [1 2 3 4]
2. Apply auto-correlation on x1 and plot the output.
3. Apply time shifting (n0=2 or 4) to the signal and save the output in vector x2. Plot the output.
4. Now, apply autocorrelation on x2 and x3 and plot the output graphs.
5. Observe and write down your conclusion.
19
Figure 3.2 Projected output of Correlation problem
Application of Correlation: Detection of periodic signal buried in noise!

Problem 5:
1. Given a sine wave signal (amplitude and frequency of your choice and 100 samples on x-axis).
2. Apply auto-correlation of the sine wave signal and plot the output.
3. Generate AWGN signal of equal number of samples (100). Plot the noise signal.
4. Apply auto-correlation of noisy signal and plot the output. Write your observation regarding the output.
5. Now, add the sine wave signal (generated previously) to the noisy signal and plot the graph showing the
corrupt signal.
6. Now, apply auto-correlation of the sine + noise signal and plot the output. What do you observe? Write
your conclusion.
20
Figure 3.3 Projected output of Application of Correlation Problem
LAB ASSIGNMENT:
Compute and plot the convolution x(n)*h(n) for the pairs of signals given below:
1. X(n)={1 1 1 1}; Y(n)={6 5 4 3 2 1}

2. X(n)={1 1 1 1}; Y(n) {6 5 4 3 2 1}

3. X(n)= 13n 0n6, 0 elsewhere
h (n)= 1 -2n2, 0 elsewhere
4. Determine the autocorrelation sequences of the following signals and write your observations:
a. X(n)= {1 2 1 1}

b. Y(n)= {1 1 2 1}

21
LAB SESSION 04
FOURIER SYNTHESIS OF SQUARE WAVE
OBJECTIVES:
(a) To understand the concepts of Fourier Transform

(b) To carryout Fourier Synthesis of a square wave
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Modules T10H.
+/- 12Vdc Supply
Oscilloscope
PRE-LAB THEORY:
A square wave spectrum is made up of the sum of all the harmonics being odd of the fundamental
frequency with decreasing amplitude according to the law of trigonometric Fourier series. In other
words, the square wave shown in fig 4.1 can be obtained by summing up the infinite sine waves as per
the following relation:
S(t) = sin(2Ft)/1 + sin(23Ft)/3 + sin(25Ft)/5 + sin(27Ft)/7 + sin(29Ft)/9 + ..
Figure 4.1 Square wave time and frequency domain representation

Frequency spectrum of a square wave can be mathematically represented by:

f(t) = a0 + ( an cos nwt + bn sin nwt)
n=1
22
PROCEDURE:
For Odd harmonics (1, 3, 5, 7, 9): set two way switches -/0/+ on + and two way
switches sin/cos on sin.
Even harmonics (2, 4, 6, 8): two way switches -/0/+ on 0.
Connect the oscilloscope with the amplifier output of the fundamental (1st) and adjust the
amplitude at 10Vp-p.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Connect the oscilloscope with the output of the third harmonic amplifier (3RD) and adjust the
amplitude at 10/3 303Vp-p.
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Connect the oscilloscope with the output of the 5TH harmonic amplifier (5TH) and adjust
the amplitude at 10/5 = 2Vp-p.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Connect the oscilloscope with the output of the seventh harmonic amplifier (7TH) and
adjust the amplitude at 10/7 1.4Vp-p.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Connect the oscilloscope with the output of the 9th harmonic amplifier (9TH) and adjust the
amplitude at 10/9 1.1Vp-p-
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Connect the oscilloscope with OUT and check that there is the signal corresponding to
the components sum.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Remove some harmonics (put the relating two way switch on 0) and check the O/P
signal.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
RESULT AND WAVEFORMS:
24
LAB SESSION 05
AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

OBJECTIVES:
(a) To examine the main parameters of an Amplitude Modulated signal

(b) To check the operation of an amplitude modulator
(c) To carry out characteristic measurement on Amplitude Modulated signal
(d) To investigate the Demodulation of an AM signal with an Envelope Detector
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Amplitude Modulation Work board 53-130 which comprises the following blocks:
Signal Generation
Modulation
Filters
Demodulation
PRE-LAB THEORY (a):
Modulation:
The modulation is simply a method of combining two different signals and is used in the transmitter
section of a communication system. The two signals that are used are the information signal and the
carrier signal. The information signal is the signal that is to be transmitted and received and is sometimes
referred to as the intelligent signal. The carrier signal allows the information signal to be transmitted
efficiently through the transmission media. The carrier signal is normally generated by an oscillator
and has a constant frequency and amplitude. The information signal that is fed into the transmitter
modifies the carrier signal.
Figure 5.1 Modulation Techniques

25
Amplitude Modulation:
It is the simplest form of signal processing in which the carrier amplitude is simply changed
according to the amplitude of the information signal, hence the name Amplitude Modulation. When the
information signals amplitude is increased the carrier signals amplitude is increased and when the
information signals amplitude is decreased the carrier signals amplitude is decreased. In other
words, the ENVELOPE of the carrier signals amplitude contains the information signal.
Modulation index m = Vmax Vmin
Vmax + Vmin
Figure 5.2 Amplitude Modulation

Modulation Mathematics:
The equation of a sinusoidal voltage waveform is given by: v = Vmax.sin(t+) where:
v is the instantaneous voltage
Vmax is the maximum voltage amplitude
is the angular frequency
is the phase
Amplitude modulation uses variations in amplitude (Vmax) to convey information. The wave whose
amplitude is being varied is called the carrier wave. The signal doing the variation is called the
modulating signal. For simplicity, suppose both carrier wave and modulating signal are sinusoidal; i.e.,
vc = Vc sin c t (c denotes carrier)
and vm = Vm sin m t (m denotes modulation)
We want the modulating signal to vary the carrier amplitude, Vc , so that:
vc = (Vc + Vm sin mt).sin c t
where (Vc + Vm sin m t) is the new, varying carrier amplitude.
Expanding this equation gives:
vc = Vc sin c t + Vm sin c t. sin m t which may be rewritten as:
26
vc = Vc [sin c t + m sin c t. sin m t] where m = Vm/Vc and is called the modulation index.
Now:
sin c t.sin m t = (1/2) [cos(c - m) t - cos(c + m) t]
so, from the previous equation:
vc = Vc [sin c t + m sin c t. sin m t]
we can express vc as:
vc = Vc sin c t + (mVc/2) [cos(c - m) t] - (mVc/2) [cos(c + m) t]
This expression for vc has three terms:
1. The original carrier waveform, at frequency c, containing no variations and thus carrying no
information.
2. A component at frequency (c - m) whose amplitude is proportional to the modulation index. This is
called the Lower Side Frequency.
3. A component at frequency (c + m) whose amplitude is proportional to the modulation index. This is
called the Upper Side Frequency.
It is the upper and lower side frequencies which carry the information. This is shown by the fact that only
their terms include the modulation index m. Because of this, the amplitudes of the side frequencies vary in
proportion to that of the modulation signal.
Sidebands:
If the modulating signal is a more complex waveform, for instance an audio voltage from a speech
amplifier, there will be many side frequencies present in the total waveform. This gives rise to
components 2 and 3 in the last equation being bands of frequencies, known as sidebands. Hence we have
the upper sideband and the lower sideband, together with the carrier. Clearly, for a given carrier
amplitude there are limits for the size of the modulating signal; the minimum must give zero carrier, the
maximum gives twice the unmodulated carrier amplitude. If these limits are exceeded, the modulated
signal cannot be recovered without distortion and the carrier is said to be over-modulated.
Figure 5.3 Frequency Spectrum of AM Signal
27
Experimental Determination of the Modulation Index

This is most easily done by measuring the maximum and minimum values which the instantaneous
amplitude of the carrier reaches. Let us call these x and y. Taking our previous equation:
vc = Vc [sin c t + m sin ct. sin m t]
and re-arranging it yet again, we can express vc as:
vc = Vc sin c t [1 + m sin m t]
so that the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier is:
Vc [1 + m sin m t]
Since sin wm t can vary between +1 and -1,
x = Vc (1 + m) and y = Vc (1 - m)
To get the value of modulation index m from x and y, we eliminate Vc between these
equations by division, giving:
y /x = (1 - m)/(1 + m).
Solving for m gives:
m = (x - y)/(x + y)
PROCEDURE (a):
In this practical the hardware is configured as shown in figure 5.4.
Figure 5.4 Experiment (a)

Set the carrier level to maximum. Set modulation level to zero. Observe the signals at all monitoring
points. Write your observations.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
28
____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Now increase the modulation level and observe at monitor point 6
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Increase the modulation level until the carrier amplitude just reaches zero on negative modulation
peaks. This is 100% modulation. Observe the signals at all the monitoring points both with the
oscilloscope and the spectrum analyser at various modulation levels.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Also, with a fixed modulation level try adjusting the carrier level.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
QUESTIONS (a):
1. The 'envelope' of the modulated carrier wave is a curve joining its peaks. The positive envelope,
joining the positive peaks, should follow the shape of the modulating signal in one polarity and the
negative envelope, joining the negative peaks, in the opposite polarity. What happens to the positive
and negative envelopes when over-modulation occurs?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. How would you recognise over-modulation on the spectrum analyser display?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
29
3. What is the amplitude of the two sidebands relative to the carrier expressed in dB for 50 percent
modulation with a sine wave?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
PRE-LAB THEORY (b):

The purpose of any detector or demodulator is to recover the original modulating signal with the minimum of
distortion and interference. The simplest way of dealing with an AM signal is to use a simple half- wave
rectifier circuit. If the signal were simply passed through a diode to a resistive load, the output would be a
series of half-cycle pulses at carrier frequency. So the diode is followed by a filter, typically a capacitor and
resistor in parallel.
Figure 5.5 Envelope Detector Circuit

The capacitor is charged by the diode almost to the peak value of the carrier cycles and the output therefore
follows the envelope of the amplitude modulation. Hence the term envelope detector.
The time constant of the RC network is very important because if it is too short the output will contain a
large component at carrier frequency. However, if it is too long it will filter out a significant amount of the
required demodulated output.
In this practical the output of the AM generator that is fed to an envelope detector. The output can be
monitored and compared with the original modulation source. The time constant of the filter following the
detector can be adjusted. This filter is often called a post-detection filter. It also introduces a phase shift
between the original signal and the output.
PROCEDURE (b):
Power the module and connect it with the PC
Obtain an AM modulated signal from an AM modulator and apply it the input of the envelope
detector. Here the signal from the amplitude modulator from the AM Signal generator is demodulated
using an envelope detector.
Confirm that the modulated signal is the same.
30
Use the oscilloscope to monitor the detector output 16 and adjust the time constant. If its too less and
too large what will happen? Also state the reason.
_______________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 5.6 Experiment Setup (b)

Use the spectrum analyzer to observe the carrier spectral components. Record your observations:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Compare the original modulating signal with the detector output in both shape and phase at various
time constants using the oscilloscope. Record your observations:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
31
QUESTIONS (b):
1. Is the phase shift caused by the post detection filter a lead or lag?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. Why do you think that the filter causes a phase shift?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. How does the ratio of modulating frequency to carrier frequency affect the design of the detector and
the post detection filter?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. What problems could be caused if the range of modulating frequencies was quite large?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
RESULTS AND WAVEFORMS/SPECTRUM:
32
LAB SESSION 06
LAB PROJECT (1)
TASK ASSIGNED BY THE INSTRUCTOR:
SUBMISSION DEADLINE:
REMARKS BY THE STUDENT:
REMARKS BY THE INSTRUCTOR:
MARKS OBTAINED:
33
LAB SESSION 07
PRODUCT DEMODULATOR AND DSBSC

OBJECTIVES:
(a) To observe the operation of Product detector
(b) To check the operation of the balanced amplitude modulator with suppressed carrier
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Signal Generation
Modulator
Filters
Demodulator
PRE-LAB THEORY (a):

Product detector has certain advantages over the simple envelope detector but at the expense of some
complexity. It is not often used for Amplitude Modulation but is the only type of detector that will
demodulate the suppressed carrier amplitude. It is important to appreciate that a product detector will
demodulate all forms of AM.
Product Detector:
If the AM signal is mixed with (i.e., modulated by) a frequency equal to that of its carrier, the two
sidebands are mixed down to the original modulating frequency and the carrier appears as a dc level.
The mathematics of the process shows that this will only happen if the mixing frequency is equal not
only in frequency to that of the carrier, but also in phase; i.e., the two signals are synchronous. This is
why a product detector when used for AM is sometimes called a synchronous detector. For AM, the
effect is very similar to a full-wave rectifier rather than the half-wave of the envelope detector.
Figure 7.1 Product Detector Block Diagram
34
The output still needs a post-detection filter to remove the residual ripple, but this time the ripple is
at twice the carrier frequency and is therefore further away from the modulation and hence easier
to remove. In general terms the product detector gives less distortion, partly because it uses both positive
and negative peaks of the carrier.
Generating the Mixing Frequency:
This is produced by an oscillator which is usually referred to as a Beat Frequency Oscillator or
BFO. This is because it is not at the same frequency as the carrier the output of the product detector.
It works on a frequency equal to the difference between o f the two, which is called a beat frequency.
(You will be able to see this when you adjust the BFO for synchronism).
As previously described, it is vital that the BFO be synchronised to the carrier. In practice this is achieved
with a special recovery circuit but here for simplicity a sample of the carrier is fed directly to the BFO
and when the free running frequency of the BFO is near to that of the carrier it locks into synchronism.
PROCEDURE (a):
Follow required procedure to obtain product detector demodulating AM output.

The oscilloscope shows its input at monitor point 6, which is the output of the same modulator as
before.
Monitor the BFO output with the oscilloscope and use the BFO frequency control to lock it to
the carrier. This will be indicated by a stationary TRACE.
Figure 7.2 Experiment Setup (a)

Use the oscilloscope to look at the output of the detector before the filter and note the
frequency of the ripple compared with the carrier.
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Use the spectrum analyzer to confirm this. Examine the output of the filter and compare it with
the modulation source. Record your observations:
_______________________________________________________________________________
35
_______________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
Monitor the detector output before the filter with the oscilloscope, then unlock the BFO with
the BFO frequency control and observe the result. Repeat whilst observing the filtered
output. Record your observations:
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
QUESTIONS (a):
1. Are the design considerations for a post-detection filter different from those for the envelope detector?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Examine the filtered output, using the spectrum analyser at large size, with the BFO synchronised. The
trace should show three points where the level is above the background ripple. What do they represent?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Again examine the filtered output, using the spectrum analyser at large size. Decrease the amplitude of the
modulation signal as far as possible without the instrument trigger failing. Then vary the BFO control. How
wide is the available range of beat frequency?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
PRE-LAB THEORY (b):

Double sideband suppressed carrier modulation:
In AM modulation, two-third of the transmitted power appears in the carrier which itself conveys no
information. The real information is contained within the sidebands. One way to overcome this
problem is simply to suppress the carrier. Since the carrier does not provide any useful information,
there is no reason why it has to be transmitted. By suppressing the carrier the resulting signal is
simply the upper and lower sidebands. Such a signal is referred to as a double-sideband
suppressed carrier (DSB-SC or DSB) signal. Double sideband suppressed carrier modulation is
36
simply a special case of AM with no carrier. A circuit called balanced modulator generates double
sideband suppressed carrier signals.
Figure 7.3 DSBSC Signal Generation
Figure 7.4 DSBSC Spectrum

In the theory for the Amplitude Modulation with Full Carrier assignment, it was established that the output
signal of the AM Modulator circuit is:
vc = Vc sin c t + (mVc/2) [cos(c - m) t] - (mVc/2) [cos(c + m) t]
In DSB suppressed carrier modulation, the carrier term Vc sin c t is suppressed, leaving just:
vc =(mVc/2) [cos(c - m) t] - (mVc/2) [cos(c + m) t] as the modulated signal.
The two cosine terms represent the lower and upper sidebands respectively.
37
Figure 7.5 a. information signal b. Carrier Signal c. DSBSC modulator output
Demodulating the DSB Signal:

In order to change the sideband frequencies back to the original modulating frequency, a locally-generated
carrier frequency (from the BFO) is used to modulate the DSB signal. (Remember that modulation for the
purpose of frequency changing is traditionally called mixing).
Suppose that the BFO signal is: vo = Vo sin (o + )
The modulation process will produce a signal proportional to:
[Vo sin(o + )] (Vc/2) [cos(c - m) t - cos(c + m) t]
or to: 2 sin(o + ) [cos(c - m) t - cos(c + m) t]
This can be divided into two terms:
2 sin(o + ) cos(c - m) t ... (1) and: - 2 sin(o + ) cos(c + m) t ... (2)
but as 2 sin A cos B = sin(A + B) + sin (A - B), the first term, (1), becomes:
(1) sin(o + + c - m) t + sin(o + - c + m) t
Since o is supposed to be equal to c, (o + c - m) will be a frequency roughly twice of that of the carrier.
This does not contribute to the desired signal. The rest of the expression, which does
contribute, is: sin(wo + - c + m) t
If o = c, then sin (o + - c + m) t becomes simply
38
sin( + m) t, which is the original modulating frequency. Similarly the other term, (2), makes
contribution: (2) - sin(o + - c - m) t
which, for o = c , becomes: sin(- + m) t
We now have two terms, or components of the output signal, each of the original modulating frequency.
However, there is a problem when we combine them. The two terms are: sin( + m) t and sin(- + m) t
If the phase is zero, the two terms become identical, so they combine to produce the signal: 2 sin m t
i.e. a signal at the original modulating frequency. Now suppose that the phase now changes through /2
radians (90 degrees).
The two sinusoids would now be radians (180 degrees) apart in phase and would cancel each other out.
We have assumed that o = c. If this were not true, the effect would be the same as if were continually
changing, making the two terms alternately reinforce and cancel each other.
This may be shown mathematically thus: sin( + m) t + sin(- + m) t = 2 sin m t cos
Since cos 0 = 1, the strongest output is obtained for = 0. With = /2, cos = 0, so no output is obtained.
PROCEDURE (b):
Use the oscilloscope and spectrum analyser to examine the signals at monitor point 4 and monitor
point 5.
Figure 7.6 Experiment Setup

Set the carrier balance to mid-scale. Note that they are the same as for simple AM.
Now examine at monitor point 6 and observe the wave shape.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
39
Use the spectrum analyser to observe that there are two sidebands but no carrier. Record your
observations:
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Adjust the carrier balance and observe the effect on carrier amplitude
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Adjust modulation level and carrier level and observe the effects
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Monitor at monitor point 13 and adjust the BFO frequency for a stable trace, so that the
BFO is in phase with the original carrier. Observe the changes
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Unlock the BFO and observe the result
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
QUESTIONS (b):
1. Why does AM have a low efficiency when the full carrier is transmitted?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. How can you tell whether the modulator is balanced when using the oscilloscope? and when
using the spectrum analyser?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
40
3. Measure the carrier suppression ratio for the system in Practical 1 when set for maximum
modulation and minimum carrier amplitude.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. Does the term over modulation have any meaning in a DSB system?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
RESULTS AND WAVEFORMS/SPECTRUM: (attach)
41
LAB SESSION 08
LAB PROJECT (2)
MARKS OBTAINED:
42
LAB SESSION 09
SINGLE-SIDE BAND SIGNAL GENERATION AND

DETECTION
OBJECTIVES:
(a) To examine the main parameters of the single sideband modulation

(b) To check the use of filters to generate the SSB
(c) Demodulation of SSB signals using Product/ Synchronous detection
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Signal Generation
Modulator
Filters
Demodulator
PRE-LAB THEORY (a):
Single sideband modulation:
A modulation technique in which only one sideband out of the two is transmitted is known as
Single Side band transmission. In double sideband transmission, the basic information is
transmitted twice once in each sideband. Therefore, transmitting both signals is redundant. The
information can be transmitted through one sideband by further suppressing the one sideband. The
generated signal is termed as single sideband suppressed carrier.
Figure 9.1 Generation of SSB signal
43
Generating SSB:
The generator in the practical is a balanced modulator, producing DSB, followed by a bandpass filter for
the required sideband. There are other methods but this filter method is the simplest to understand and is
in very common usage in communication systems. It may be necessary for the bandpass filter to have a
very good shape factor because, at normal carrier and audio frequencies, the upper and lower sidebands
are quite close in frequency.
Another consideration is that the sideband filter should offer significant attenuation to the carrier, so that
the balanced modulator need not be so accurately balanced. In practice the balanced modulator might
provide 30 db of carrier suppression and the filter a further 10db. The other sideband would normally be
about 30 to 40 db down on the wanted one. In order to achieve this, the SSB filter has several poles and
is, in most cases a ceramic filter or crystal filter. Various filters are commercially available with
different specifications depending on the application.
In the practical, a high modulating frequency is used, so one can see clearly the relationship between the
various frequency components. This means that the filter specification can be relaxed and here a single
tuned circuit is used. Separate filters are provided for upper and lower sidebands and the means is
provided to monitor the output of both.
Figure 9.2 Frequency Spectrum Representations

Upper or Lower Sideband?
There is no reason why one sideband gives better results than the other, but general practice seems to
favour the upper sideband. One convention is that with carrier frequencies below 10 MHz the lower
sideband should be used, but this is not always the case. The result of this is that many pieces of
communication equipment have to be able to deal with both.
44
PROCEDURE (a):
Use the spectrum analyser and oscilloscope to observe at monitor point 6. Note that the signal is
DSB. Adjust the carrier balance as before.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Monitor at monitor point 8, and at monitor point 9, and note the observations.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Figure 9.3 Experiment Setup (a)

Use the oscilloscope to observe that the SSB output.
Use the spectrum analyser to note the sidebands. Write your observations.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
QUESTIONS (a):
1. Why is the balance of the modulator less important in a filter method SSB generator than for a DSB
generator?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
45
2. How is the width of the SSB filter related to the maximum and minimum modulating frequencies?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
PRE-LAB THEORY (b):
Single sideband demodulation:
In the double sideband suppressed carrier practical, we saw how DSB is demodulated using the BFO to
reinsert the carrier. In the case of DSB, the BFO must be in phase with the original carrier or the process
will not work correctly. Since SSB is transmitted without a carrier it is not surprising that a similar
method is employed.
The main difference is that, for SSB, the BFO need not be in phase with the carrier. It does need to be
at the same frequency but even a small error in the frequency results only in a small error in the frequency
of the demodulated output. This means that in non-critical applications, such as speech, a small overall
frequency error does not make the system useless. The effect on speech is to raise or lower the tone of the
voice, which within limits does not reduce intelligibility.
The fact that the BFO need not be locked, greatly simplifies the design of the receiver, and makes SSB
one of the most powerful techniques for transmitting audio frequencies over radio links with its narrow
bandwidth and efficient use of available transmitter power.
In the practical, you can use both upper and lower sidebands and see that with the BFO set correctly, near
to the original carrier frequency, even though the two sidebands are at different frequencies the
demodulated output is the same. You can also see that changing the BFO frequency causes the
demodulated output to change in frequency by a similar amount.
PROCEDURE (b):
Figure 9.4 Experiment Setup (b)

46
Monitor at monitor point 6, and observe the DSB signal

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Move to monitor point 10 and note the upper sideband signal
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Use the spectrum analyser to confirm the frequency. What do you observe?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Change to lower sideband (by pressing the button) and repeat.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Now monitor at point 14 and compare the output with the modulation input.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
Use either the oscilloscope or analyser to set the BFO frequency to that of the carrier, by
monitoring at monitor point 13
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
QUESTIONS (b):
1. Why is SSB more efficient than either simple AM or DSB?

__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
2. If the BFO frequency rises, what happens to the frequency: a) of the upper sideband? b) of the
lower sideband?
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
47
__________________________________________________________________________________
3. Calculate the bandwidth of the transmitted signal when the modulation frequency band extends
from 500 Hz to 50 kHz for simple AM, DSB and SSB.
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________________
4. If a SSB channel has no modulating signal, what is the modulated signal like?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
RESULTS AND WAVEFORMS:
48
LAB SESSION 10
RF TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER
OBJECTIVES:
(a) To examine the operation of RF(Radio Frequency) transmitter

(b) To examine the operation of RF (Radio Frequency) receiver
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Power supply mod. PSI-PSU/ EV
Experiment Mod MCM24/EV
Dual-trace Oscilloscope
Function generator
PRE-LAB THEORY (a):
The purpose of the transmitter is to convert the information that is to be transmitted into modulated
radio frequency signal. Through a transmission line, this signal is applied to the antenna that
radiates the information is space as electromagnetic waves. Transmission can be obtained not only
via radio but also from copper & optical fiber.
In the past direct modulation was used which guarantee a circuit simplicity to the detriment of the
quality in the communication. Today modulation is achieved on a fixed and well stabilized frequency
(intermediate frequency) signal that translates at frequency of channel to be used & makes circuit
complexity balanced & easily controlled.
Figure 10.1 Basic Block diagram of RF Transmitter

Functions of the blocks of transmitter:
The local oscillator provides the modulator with a signal whose frequency is stabilized through
a PLL circuit. The modulator changes the frequency spectrum of the signal provided by the local
oscillator, according to the kind of modulation used and the provided information and generates the IF
49
signal. The IF frequency is always equal and does not depend on the frequency of the RF channel that is
to be used. This enables the optimisation of the modulation and filtering circuits. The IF filter cleans the
useful signal from any inter modulation products or noise. As the IF is always the same the filter does
not need any regulation or calibration. The frequency converter has the purpose to translate the
frequency from IF to RF and so to the frequency of the channel that is to be used. The RF filter or
output filter, cleans the useful signal from the inter modulation products that was added during
frequency conversion. As the RF can be changed the filter must be calibrated again.
RF RECEIVER:
The purpose of receiver is to convert the modulated radio frequency signal into information
that is to be received. Using an antenna RF signal is picked up by the space in which it travelled
electromagnetic wave and sent through a transmission line to the electronic circuit of the receiver
in order to be demodulated. The reception cannot be only radio but also from other supports like
copper & optical fiber.
In the past, direct modulation was used which guarantee a circuit simplicity to the detriment of
the quality in the communication. Today, demodulation is achieved on a fixed and well stabilised
frequency (intermediate frequency) signal that translates at frequency of channel to be used &
makes circuit complexity balanced & easily controlled.
Figure 10.2 RF Receiver Block Diagram

Operation of block of receiver (Super heterodyne receiver):
The filter and RF amplifier remove the channel we do not want to receive from the useful signal
and increases its amplitude level. As the RF signal can be different, the input filter must change its
characteristics. Typically this occurs automatically without the user intervention, by means of
D.C control circuits. The frequency converter translates the frequency from RF channel
frequency that is to be received to IF. It employs a frequency stabilised oscillator with a PLL
circuit. The filter and IF amplifier clean the useful signal from any inter-modulation products or
noise and increase its amplitude level. As the IF is always the same, the filter does not need
regulation or calibration and can be a commercial component optimised for this purpose. The
demodulator must receive or extract the information contained into the IF signal. The frequency
spectrum of the IF signal depends on the kind of modulation technique used and on the
information. The IF frequency is always equal and does not depend on the frequency of the RF
channel that is to be used. This optimises the modulation and filtering circuits.
50
PROCEDURE:
Following section is used for the converter 1: VCO1, 2: modulator, 3: IF filter

Set the SW1 on the modulation selectors section to AM/DSB/FM
Turn the trimmer Level completely Clockwise to obtain the maximum amplitude on the signal
VCO1 out provided by the local Oscillator VCO1
Set switch SW6 to DC to obtain the manual control of the local Oscillator frequency
Adjust trimmer DC source of VCO1 out to obtain a frequency of about 10750 kHz
Connect the input AM/DSB/MOD into a sine signal with amplitude of 1Vpp and frequency of
50 kHz using an external generator
Set switch SW4 to Mix out so that the signal of the local oscillator reaches the input
CARRIER IN of the mixer
Set switch SW3 to DSB: in this condition the mixer is perfectly balanced and does not show the
signal with higher frequency (carrier) across the output
Connect and set the oscilloscope as follows: a. Channel 1 to the input AM/DSB/MOD IN
b. Channel 2 to the output of the mixer (TP2)
Check that the signal across TP2 which is the product of the carrier and modulating
signal is of DSB shape
With the current setting of SW4, the signal produced by the mixer reaches the section IF filter
Set switch SW5 to QUARTZ so that the signal crosses the quartz band pass filter
Turn the trimmer LEVEL completely clockwise to obtain the maximum amplitude of the
signal across TP3 at the output of the section IF FILTER
Connect the oscilloscope to TP3 & check there is a sine signal. Adjust modulating
signal to display max amplitude
Connect the oscilloscope to TP3 and measure the frequency of the present signal which is equal
to 10.7MHz
Set switch SW5 to CERAMIC so that the signal crosses the ceramic band pass filter
Connect one probe of the Oscilloscope to TP3 of IF filter
Following section used for converter2: VCO1&2, modulator, IF filter, RF mixer, RF filter, RF
power amplifier
Remove external generator
Set the sw1 on the modulation selectors section to AM/DSB/FM
Set switch SW6 to PLL to obtain automatic control of the fixed local Oscillator frequency
51
Set switch SW4 to VCO1 out so that the signal of the local oscillator reaches the IF filter
Set switch SW5 to QUARTZ
Turn the trimmer LEVEL completely clockwise to obtain the maximum amplitude of the
signal across TP3
Connect the oscilloscope to TP3 and measure the frequency of the present signal which is equal
to 10.7MHz
Set switch SW7 to PLL to obtain automatic control of the fixed local Oscillator frequency.
With these setting choice of ceramic or quartz filter does not change received signal
substantially
Connect the oscilloscope to VCO2 OUT and measure the frequency which is equal to
11.7MHz
Set switch SW10 to LPF that corresponds to the low pass filter with cut-off frequency of
1.5MHz
Set switch SW11 to OFF in order to turn off antenna amplifier
Connect one probe of the oscilloscope to the out put CABLE OUT and check there is the
signal of frequency equal to 1MHz
Adjust the LEVEL of the section RF FILTER for the best display
Now Set switch SW7 to DC to obtain the manual control of the local Oscillator frequency
Connect oscilloscope to VCO2 out & adjust DC source to get freq of 12MHz. Check frequency
of output signal
52
LAB SESSION 11
LAB PROJECT (3)
MARKS OBTAINED:
53
LAB SESSION 12
AM-RF AND SSB-RF TRANSMITTER
OBJECTIVES:
(a) To examine the operation of AM-RF (Radio Frequency) transmitter

(b) To examine the operation of SSB-RF (Radio Frequency) transmitter
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Power supply mod. PSI-PSU/ EV
Experiment Mod MCM24/EV
1 Dual-trace Oscilloscope
1 Function generator
PRE-LAB THEORY (a):
Amplitude Modulation:
It is the simplest form of signal processing in which the carrier amplitude is simply changed
according to the amplitude of the information signal hence the name amplitude modulation.
When the information signals amplitude is increased the carrier signals amplitude is increased and
when the information signals amplitude is decreased the carrier signals amplitude is decreased .In other
words the ENVELOPE of the carrier signals amplitude contains the information signal.
Generation of Amplitude Modulation in RF TX:

In the module, BALUN (impedance match transformer) converts balanced signal at o/p into unbalance
signal or vice versa to match mixer operation. Mixer is calibrated to operate in balance mode. DSB/AM
enables to balance or unbalance the circuit. IF filter is used in particular as ceramic BPF is centred on
IF frequency equal to 10.7MHz. Here we use transmission channel with 1MHz frequency via PLL or
variable tuning. SW7 enables TWO modes: fixed tuning at RF channel at 1MHz using VCO, variable
tuning using DC Source. To filter output signal we use LPF of 1.5MHz. Amplifiers present in signal
path (buffer) are used to match output or input impedance of filters. RF power amplifier consist of 2
stages: antenna amplifier tuned on frequency of 1MHz to operate with ferrite antenna, cable amplifier
gives output via coaxial cable.
54
PROCEDURE (a):
Following sections are used: VCO1, Low frequency, and modulator blocks
Connect output OUT2 to input AM/DSB MOD IN
Set switch SW3 to AM to carryout AM modulator with unbalance mixer
Set switch SW4 to Mix out to take signal of the mixer & not the one of VCO
Set switch SW5 to CERAMIC so that the signal crosses the ceramic band pass filter
Connect and set the oscilloscope as follows:
Channel 1 to the input AM/DSB/MOD IN
Channel 2 to the output of the mixer (TP2)
Adjust the trimmer LEVEL of modulating signal for the best display
Vary the amplitude of the modulating signal and check the 3 following conditions: a. Modulation
percentage lower than the 100%, b. Equal to the 100%, c. Superior to 100% over modulation
Remove modulating signal & check presence of carrier signal.
Remove carrier signal & check complete absence of signal across output
Frequency Response of the Ceramic Filter:

Provide a signal of 1kHz-1 Vpp to modulating input
Move probe from TP2 to TP3 & see no changes are visible. This is because filter removes all
unnecessary components & displayed signal represent only single IF component.
Remove modulator & measure amplitude of IF signal
Connect modulator again & increase its frequency
AM Radio Transmitter:
Set switch SW10 to LPF to use output LPF
Set switch SW11 to TX ON to enable antenna power amplifier
Adjust the trimmer LEVEL of the section RF MIXER to maximum amplitude & check signal
after conversion made by RF MIXER at TP6
Observe signals at output via cable & antenna
At TP7 observe signal higher than power supply voltage due to effect of tuned circuits.
With sine signal of 1kHz if output is distorted then reduce level of IF signal to reduce saturation
of mixer
55
PRE-LAB THEORY (b):
DSB to SSB (Double side Band to Single side band):
The carrier does not carry any information as it has constant amplitude & frequency independently
from mo d u la t i n g s i g n a l . The s i g n a l is called s uppressed carrier modulation or DSB modulation.
The two side bands are exactly same. It follows that information can be transmitted using single side
band: carrier is superfluous & the other sideband redundant. We can generate SSB by using filters.
First amplitude modulation with suppressed carrier DSB is generated using balanced modulator then a
BPF extracts one of two side bands.
Transmit SSB signal it is necessary to convert SSB signal with IF on RF channel suppression is made
through quartz filter. This becomes IF signal that must be converted into RF using conversion stage. To
filter o/p signal from RF mixer & take single component use RF BPF with center frequency 3.5MHz.
Amplifiers present in signal path (buffer) are used to match output or input impedance of filters. RF
power amplifier consist of 2 stages: antenna amplifier tuned on freq of 1MHz to operate with ferrite
antenna, cable amplifier gives o/p via coaxial cable. Here o/p via cable is used as it is wide band.
PROCEDURE:

Connect o/p OUT2 to i/p AM/DSB MOD IN
Set switch SW3 to DSB to carryout AM modulator with unbalance mixer
Set switch SW4 to Mix out to take signal of the mixer & not the one of VCO.1
Connect and set the oscilloscope as follows: a. Channel 1 to the input AM/DSB/MOD IN
b.Channel 2 to the output of the mixer (TP2)
See waveforms of the signals. Adjust the trimmer LEVEL of modulating signal for the best
display.
Single Side Band Generation (SSB):
Set switch SW1 to SSB & SW2 to LSB
Set switch SW5 to QUARTZ so that the signal crosses the band pass filter
Connect o/p OUT3 to i/p AM/DSB MOD IN
Connect and set the oscilloscope as follows: a. Channel 1 to the input of modulating signal
AM/DSB/MOD IN b. Channel 2 to the output of the mixer (TP2)
Move probe from TP2 to TP3 & check the presence of sine signal: we can state filter extracts
only one of two components generated by balanced modulator so there is a SSB signal across this
56
TP
Measure the following IF frequencies: a. frequency of carrier (VCO1 OUT) b. frequency of
modulating signal (OUT3) c. frequency of SSB signal across filter output (TP3)
Single Side Band Radio Transmitter (SSB):

Analyze signal during path from IF freq up to RF frequency o/p on CABLE OUT
Set switch SW1 to SSB & SW2 to USB
Check freq relation b/w RF, IF, modulating signal & carrier
Check signal transmitted via CABLE
Compare operation of TX via cable between SSB & AM
Frequency Response to Quartz IF Filter:

Set switch SW1 to SSB & SW2 to LSB
Set switch SW5 to QUARTZ to use quartz band pass filter
Provide a signal of 2kHz-1Vpp to modulating input
The frequency of IF signal in these conditions is equal to centre band frequency of quartz filter
i.e. 10.7 MHz
57
LAB SESSION 13
LAB PROJECT (4)
MARKS OBTAINED:
58

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PRACTICAL WORK BOOK

For Academic Session 2011

Department of Electronic Engineering

For The Course

TC- 391 Communication Systems- I

Communication Systems - I Practical Workbook covers a wide

This L a b work book comprises of the following portions:

Each Lab session also contains a brief account of relevant theory

Credits: Lab Manual on Analog Communication (EC-205), Department

Introduction to MATLAB, basic Mathematical operations,

To observe the operation of Product detector

8. LAB PROJECT (2) 42

To examine the main parameters of the single sideband

To examine the operation of RF (Radio Frequency)

LAB EXAM AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

(a) To get acquainted with MATLABs environment

Figure 1.1 GUI view of MATLAB

Function MATLAB Syntax

>>format ( default format)

Table 1.2 Matrix Operations

Selected portion of one matrix can be assigned to a new matrix

>>B= A(: , 3 :end)

Figure 1.2 Output Plot

Multiple data sets in one plot:

Figure 1.3 Output Plot

Save this file as rkg.m.

2. Use MATLAB to compute: 6(351.4 )+140.35

5. Plot exp(-x) sin(8x) for 0 x 2

8. Use MATLAB to solve following set of equations.

SIGNAL TRANSFORMATION TECHNIQUES,

(a) Learn time domain representation of various discrete signals

PRE-LAB THEORY (a):

Figure 2.1 examples- amplitude-scaling of the function g(t)

Time shifting by t0 corresponds to the transformation:

Figure 2.2 Time shifting example

Then plot the transformed functions:

Problem 2: Draw the following built-in funtions:

Continuous-Time Even and Odd Functions:

Figure 2.3 Even and Odd Signal

Time and Time-Invariant Systems:

Figure 2.4 Time-Invariant System

2. Using MATLAB, graph the following discrete-time function:

g[n]= 10 e-/4 sin(3n/16) u[n]

then graph the following functions: a. g[2n] b. g[n/3]

3. Using MATLAB, find the energy or power of the following signals:

y[n] - 0.4[n-1]+0.75y[n-2]= 2.2403x[n]+2.24908x[n-1]+2.2403x[n-2]

CONVOLUTION AND CORRELATION

PRE-LAB THEORY (a):

Figure 3.1 Projected output of the convolution problem

Figure 3.2 Projected output of Correlation problem

Application of Correlation: Detection of periodic signal buried in noise!

Figure 3.3 Projected output of Application of Correlation Problem

1. X(n)={1 1 1 1}; Y(n)={6 5 4 3 2 1}

(a) To understand the concepts of Fourier Transform

Figure 4.1 Square wave time and frequency domain representation

RESULT AND WAVEFORMS:

AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

(a) To examine the main parameters of an Amplitude Modulated signal

Figure 5.1 Modulation Techniques

Figure 5.2 Amplitude Modulation

Figure 5.3 Frequency Spectrum of AM Signal

Experimental Determination of the Modulation Index

Figure 5.4 Experiment (a)