Biology Option D2: Digestion:

Exocrine Glands: glands with ducts

U1: Exocrine glands secrete to the surface of the body or the lumen of
the gut.
Exocrine glands produce and secrete substances via a duct onto an epithelial
surface either:

The surface of the body (e.g. sweat glands, sebaceous glands)

The lumen of the digestive tract / gut (e.g. digestive glands)

Examples of digestive glands include:

1. Salivary glands secrete saliva which contains amylase (breaks down
starch).
2. Gastric glands secretes gastric juices which includes HCl acid and
proteases (breaks down protein)
3. Pancreatic glands secretes pancreatic juices which include lipase,
protease and amylase.
4. Intestinal glands secretes intestinal juices via crypts of Lieberkhn in
the intestinal wall.

S1: Identification of exocrine gland cells that secrete digestive juices

from electron micrographs.

Exocrine glands are composed of a cluster of secretory cells which

collectively form an acinus
o The acini are surrounded by a basement membrane and are held
together by tight junctions between secretory cells.
o The secretory cells possess a highly developed ER and golgi
network for material secretion and are rich in mitochondria.
Exocrine products are released into a duct, which connects to an epithelial
surface.
o These ducts may arise from a convergence of smaller ductules
(each connected to an acinus) in order to enhance secretion.
 Gastric secretions:
The secretion of digestive juices is controlled by both nervous and
hormonal mechanisms
These mechanisms control both the volume of secretions produced
and the specific content (e.g. enzymes, acids, etc.)

Nervous Mechanism:
The sight and smell of food triggers an immediate response by
which gastric juice is secreted by the stomach pre-ingestion
When food enters the stomach it causes distension, which is
detected by stretch receptors in the stomach lining
Signals are sent to the brain, which triggers the release of digestive
hormones to achieve sustained gastric stimulation

Hormonal Mechanism:
Gastrin is secreted into the bloodstream from the gastric pits of the
stomach and stimulates the release of stomach acids
If stomach pH drops too low (becomes too acidic), gastrin secretion
is inhibited by gut hormones (secretin and somatostatin)
When digested food (chyme) passes into the small intestine, the
duodenum also releases digestive hormones:
Secretin and cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulate the pancreas and
liver to release digestive juices
Pancreatic juices contain bicarbonate ions which neutralise
stomach acids, while the liver produces bile to emulsify fats

Explain how the features of a secretory cell in the epithelium of the

stomach help it to perform its function. Include just details of the position,
shape and the organelles found in secretory cells.

Exocrine glands have ducts through which they secrete their product
Acini are lined by a single layer of secretory cells which release the
exocrine product into the lumen of the duct via secretory vehicles.
Secretory cells are held together by tight junctions, and possess a highly
developed rough ER and golgi network for material secretion.
List three structural features of exocrine glands:
1. Basement membrane
2. Secretory cells acinus (cluster of secretory cells)
3. Duct cell

Explain why secretory cells secrete pepsinogen and how it is activated

- Chief cells secrete digestive enzymes that cut the proteins in food into
smaller pieces
- The main enzyme secreted by chief cells is pepsin. Pepsin is secreted as
an inactive enzyme called pepsinogen.
- Pepsinogen becomes active when it encounters an acidic environment and
is cut apart.

Outline the hormonal control of gastric secretion. Outline the nervous

control of gastric juice secretions.
Pre-ingestion:
- The initial release of gastric juice occurs under nerve stimulation after
sight or smell of food
- This ensures that gastric juice is in the stomach by the time the food is
consumed
Post-ingestion:
- Food entering the stomach causes distension, which is detected by stretch
receptors in the stomach lining
- Impulses are sent to the brain, which triggers the secretion of gastrin from
the pits lining the stomach wall
- Gastrin causes the sustained release of gastric juice, particularly its acid
component
- When the pH drops too low, gastrin secretion is inhibited by hormones.

Stomach acid
U4: Acid conditions in the stomach favour some
hydrolysis reactions and help to control pathogens in
ingested food.

- The gastric glands that line the stomach wall secrete an

acidic solution that creates a low pH environment within
the stomach
o pH of stomach 1.5 2.0: Which is the optmum pH for
hydrolysis reactions by stomach enzymes

- The acidic conditions in the stomach:

1. Assists in the digestion of food (dissolving chemical
bonds in food molecules
2. Activates stomach proteases (pepsin is activated)
3. Prevents pathogenic infection (acid destroys bacteria)
Protection from acidity:
- Stomach wall is lined by a layer of mucus, which protects the
stomach lining from being damaged by the acid conditions:
- The pancreas releases bicarbonate ions into the duodenum which
neutralises the stomach pH
- Certain foods may also neutralise stomach acids

A1: The reduction of stomach acid secretion by proton pump

inhibitor drugs
The low pH environment of the stomach is maintained by proton pumps in
the parietal (acid secreting) cells of the gastric pits.
- Proton pumps secrete H+ ions (via active transport), which combine
with Cl- ions to form HCl.
- Certain medications and disease conditions can increase the
secretion of H+ ions, lowering the pH in the stomach.
Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are drugs which irreversibly bind to the
proton pumps and prevent H+ ion secretion.
- This raises the pH in the stomach to prevent gastric discomfort
caused by high acidity.
- Individuals taking PPIs may have increased susceptibility to gastric
infections due to the reduction of acid secretion.