8.2.

3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds

8.2.3 The Chemical Earth: Compounds

8.2.3 Elements in Earth materials are present mostly
as compounds because of interactions at the
atomic level
8.2.3-LT1:Identify that matter is made of particles that are
continuously moving and interacting
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 53-54

The particle model

Recall: The particle model of matter, which identifies that all matter is composed
of particles that are in constant motion
Solids: closely packed particles in fixed positions, which vibrate within
their positions
Liquids: particles flow past and along one another, as they are not in
fixed positions
Gases: particles with lots of energy and are wide spread

Figure 1: The particle nature of the three phases (from Conquering Chemistry Prelim, p. 34)

Particles that make up matter:

Figure 2: Atoms that constitute matter (from Chemistry 1, p. 53)

Atoms: smallest particles of an element able to participate in chemical

reactions
Molecules: smallest component of a pure substance that can exist separately
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds
Often composed to >2 atoms chemically bound (exception: Noble
gases)
Ions: charged (+ve or ve) atoms or charged molecules

8.2.3-LT3:Describe atoms in terms of mass number and atomic number

Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 54-57

Subatomic particles components which compose atoms

Atoms are composed of the fundamental particles: protons, neutrons and electrons
Structure of an atom
Central nucleus contains the
protons and neutrons
Positively charged
Exceedingly small (when
compared to the size of the
whole atom)
Contains >99.9% of the
atoms mass, thus is
Figure 3: Atom structure (from Chemistry
extremely dense Contexts 1, p. 43)
Electrons (-ve charge) occupy
stable energy levels around the
nucleus; their rapid movement
about the nucleus accounts for
their occasional description as an
electron cloud
Figure 4: Structure of an atom (from
Conquering Chemistry Prelim, p. 40)

Protons (+ve charge) and neutrons (no charge) have similar masses
mp = 1.007 atomic mass units (amu)
mn = 1.008 amu
Electrons have a very small mass (approx. 1/1840 the mass of protons/neutrons):
me = 0.00055 amu
electrons are viewed as mass-less particles for most purposes
Electrons and protons have opposite charges of equal magnitude (1.6010-19 C)

Table 1: Properties of the sub-atomic particles (from Chemistry Contexts 1, p. 41)

8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds

Nuclear symbols
Atomic number (Z)= no protons in nucleus
Fixed value for atoms of the same element
Mass number (A) = no protons + no neutrons in nucleus
Atoms on the periodic table are arrange by their unique atomic number (Z)
A A
Elements are represented: Z E OR Z X
A: Mass no
Z: atomic no
E/X: Element symbol

Isotopes
Isotope: atoms of an element that have different A (atomic mass) due to different
numbers of neutrons within the nucleus
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (i.e. same no protons) with different
atomic masses (due to differences in the no of neutrons contained within their
nuclei)
12 13 14
E.g.: Isotopes of carbon - C ,
6 C , and
6 6 C
All have the same atomic number (Z) making them the same element
Different numbers of neutrons 6,7 and 8, respectively

8.2.3-LT2:Describe qualitatively the energy levels of electrons in

atoms
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 54-56

Electron energy levels (AKA: electron shells)

The fact that negatively charged electrons do not collapse into the positively charged
nucleus suggests electrons have enough energy to resist the attraction of the nucleus
(due to opposite charges)
Leads on to the notion of electron energy levels
The Bohr (and subsequent models) identify that electrons exist in energy shells/levels
Shells/levels are associated with particular (average) distances from the nucleus
The amount of energy an electron has differs between levels:
I.e.: the amount of energy an electron possess increases as the level increases
Each electron shell is designated:
Shell number (n = 1, 2, 3, etc.)
Shell symbol (K, L, M, etc.)
The maximum number of electrons within each shell is determined by:
=2 n2
max . e
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds
Each energy level can only accommodate a specific maximum number of
electrons

Table 2: Electron energy levels (from Chemistry 1, p. 55)

Electrons fill their shells from lowest to highest

The lower shells must be full (or satisfied) before filling the next shell
The M shell (max e- no = 18) is not filled until Cu (e- config.: 2, 8, 18, 1)
Elements Z: 19-28 have incomplete M shell and electrons in their N shell

Electron configuration: the pattern of Figure 5: Electron configurations of lithium,

chlorine and potassium (from Chemistry 1, p.
electrons in each shell 56)

Table 3: Electron configurations for Z1-20 (from

Chemistry 1, p. 56)
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds
Table 4: Electron config of the first 20 elements
(from Chemistry Contexts 1, p. 47)
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds

Noble gas configurations (stable octets)

All noble gases (exception: He) have 8 Table 5: Stable octets of the Noble gases (from
Chemistry 1, p. 56)
e- in their outer shell (an octet)
An octet in the outer shell
(valence shell) accounts for the
stability of an atom
stable electron octet
Valence shell: the outer most shell
of an atom
Valence electrons: electrons that
occupy the valence shell

Most atoms achieve a stable electron octet by binding with other atoms
This is the driving force behind chemical reactivity

8.2.3-LT4:Describe the formation of ions in terms of atoms gaining or

losing electrons
8.2.3-LT6:Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:
- the formation of ions
- the electron sharing in some simple molecules
The formation of ions and electron energy levels
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 57-59
The most stable electron configurations is those of the noble gases (i.e. a stable
electron octet)
An element can attain a stable octet by gaining or losing electrons
Resulting in the formation of an ion
Ions are charged atoms, as they have an imbalance in the number of protons (+ve
charge) and electrons (-ve charge)
They are categorised by their net charge
Cation: positively charged ions
Formed when an element
loses one or more electrons
Usually metals
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds
Figure 6: Formation of (metal) cations (from
Chemistry 1, p. 58)
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds

Anion: negatively charged ions

Formed when an element
gains one or more electrons
Usually non-metals

Figure 7: Formation of (non-metal) anions

(from Chemistry 1, p. 58)

Lewis electron dot structures:visualise the loss/gain of electrons

Illustrate the arrangement of valance shell electrons
only

Figure 8: Lewis electron dot structures for KBr and BaS (from Chemistry 1, p. 59)

Polyatomic ions
Polyatomic ions: atoms that are bonded together that have a net +ve or ve charge
They often end in the suffix: -ate or ite

Table 6: Valencies of common polyatomic ions (from Chemistry 1, p. 64)

8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds

8.2.3-LT5:Apply the Periodic Table to predict the ions formed by atoms

of metals and non-metals
Ions and the periodic table
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 59-60
Elements within the same group have the same number of valence electrons

Table 7: A selection of common stable ions of the periodic table (from Chemistry 1, p. 60)

Hydrogen can gain (forming H-) and lose (forming H+) electrons to fill the K shell
Metals from groups I, II and III form cations whose charge is equal to their group
number
Non-metals from groups V, VI and VII form anions whose charge is equal to 8
minus their group number
Some non-metals and semi-metals do not form simple ions
Some heavy metals can form ions with more than one charge

8.2.3-LT7:Describe the formation of ionic compounds in terms of the

attraction of ions of opposite charge
8.2.3-L11: Construct formulae for compounds formed from:
- ions
- atoms sharing electrons
Ionic bonds and compounds
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 61-62
The formation of cations and anions are often linked
A cation is formed when electrons are removed from a metal atom
A anion is formed when electrons (from a metal atom) are accepted by a non-
metal atom
Cations and anions are attracted to each other to form a compound
In such a manner, electrons are transferred from the cation to the anion so both
ions achieve a stable electron octet in their valence shell
Electrostatic attraction: attraction between a cation and an anion
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds

Ionic compound: compound formed due to the attraction of a cation and a

anion
The structure formed is a crystal lattice

Figure 9: The ionic crystal structure of NaCl (from Chemistry Contexts 1, p. 56)

Ionic compounds are neutral, thus the no of +ve charges equals the no of ve charges
Empirical formula: formula that specifies the simplest whole number ratio
of the number of ions of each element in the ionic compound
E.g.: Sodium chloride (NaCl)

Figure 10: Formation of sodium chloride (from Chemistry 1, p. 61)

Figure 11: Lewis dot structure for sodium chloride (from Chemistry 1, p. 61)

Both ions have achieved a stable electron octet:

The sodium has LOST a valence electron
The chlorine has GAINED a valence electron
E.g.: Magnesium oxide (MgO)

Figure 12: Formation of magnesium oxide (from Chemistry 1, p. 61)

Figure 13: Lewis dot structure for magnesium oxide (from Chemistry 1, p. 62)
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds
E.g.: Magnesium chloride (MgCl2):

Figure 14: Lewis dot structure for magnesium chloride (from Chemistry Contexts 1, p. 51)

Magnesium loses 2 electrons to achieve a stable electron octet

Two chlorine ions each gain 1 electron to achieve stable electron octets each

Valency
Valency: the combining power of an element
I.e.: the ability of an element to combine with other elements, forming a
compound

Valency and ionic compounds

The valency of an ion in an ionic compound is equal to its charge
E.g.: NaCl
Valency of Na+ = +1
Valency of Cl- = -1
Valency is related to the electron configuration of an atoms valence shell

Naming ionic compounds

The valency of the ions in an ionic compound can be used to construct chemical
formula
The sum of the +ve and ve valencies in an ionic compound equals zero
E.g.: Calcium Fluoride (CaF2)
Valency of Ca2+ = +2
Valency of F- = -1
Rules for naming ionic compounds:
The cation is named first
The anion is names second
Where a metal can have several valencies, a Roman numeral is used to indicate
the valency in the ionic compound
The -ide suffix for the non-metal is used in simple binary compounds
Binary compound: a compound made of ONLY 2 elements
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds

8.2.3-LT8:Describe molecules as particles which can move

independently of each other
8.2.3-LT9:Distinguish between molecules containing one atom (the
noble gases) and molecules with more than one atom
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 65-66

Types of molecules
RECALL: molecules are the smallest part of a pure substance that can exist
separately
Molecules are particles that can move independently of one another
Molecules may be elements or compounds
Monoatomic molecules: He atoms
Ar atoms
Diatomic molecules: oxygen, O2
carbon monoxide, CO
Triatomic molecules: water, H2O
carbon dioxide, CO2
Tetra-atomic molecules:ammonia, NH3
white phosphorus, P4
Non-metals (as observed in the above list) are able to bond with other
non-metals to achieve stable electron arrangements
Sharing electrons between non-metals facilitates the stable electron
configuration
The bonds that are present in molecules are covalent bonds

8.2.3-LT10: Describe the formation of covalent molecules in terms

of sharing of electrons
8.2.3-LT6:Apply Lewis electron dot structures to:
- the formation of ions
- the electron sharing in some simple molecules
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 66-

Covalent bonding
Covalent bond: the sharing of electron pairs between neighbouring atoms to
achieve valence stability
Manner of achieving a stable octet
The electrons shared between each atom in a covalent bond considers the
shared electron its own
Covalent bonds are formed when both atoms need to gain electrons to achieve a
stable electron octet
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds
Which elements (i.e. where are they position on the Periodic Table) need to gain
electrons to achieve a stable electron octet?
What can be concluded from the about these elements and covalent bonds?
The number of electrons an atom need to gain informs us as to how many
covalent bonds it will form
The number of covalent bonds formed by an atom is determined by how many
valence electrons it possesses
The atom wants to achieve a stable valence electron octete (valence shell
configuration of its nearest noble gas)
There are 3 types: Figure 15: Bond-line representation of
covalent bonds (from Chemistry 1, p.
1. Single bond: 1 electron 67)
pair is shared
2. Double bond: 2 electron
pairs are shared
3. Triple bond: 3 electron pairs
are shared

The electron pairs that form a covalent bond are called bonding electron pairs
Non-bonding electron pairs (if present) are called non-bonding electron pairs or
lone pairs
E.g.: Hydrogen molecules (H2)
Rather than donating electrons to each other, 2 H-atoms share an electron
pair
A strong covalent bond is created forming a stable diatomic molecule

Figure 16: Lewis electron dot structure within a H2 molecule (from Chemistry 1, p. 66)

E.g.: Carbon dioxide (CO2)

C-atoms 4 valence electrons
O-atom 6 valence electrons
Stability is achieved when O-atoms share 2 electron pairs, forming a
double covalent bond with the C-atom
8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds

Figure 17: Lewis electron dot structure within a CO2 molecule (from Chemistry 1, p. 67)

Figure 18: Lewis electron dot structure of simple molecules (from Chemistry Contexts 1, p. 52)

Figure 19: Lewis electron dot structures of molecules containing multiple covalent bonds (from
Chemistry Contexts 1, p. 53)

8.2.3-L11: Construct formulae for compounds formed from:

- ions
- atoms sharing electrons
Chemistry 1 readings and exercises: pp. 67-70

Molecular compounds (AKA: covalent molecular compounds)

In molecular compounds, valency
is described in terms of the
sharing of electron pairs
Covalency (or valency in covalent
compounds): (of an element in a
molecular compound) no electron
pairs shared to achieve stability

8.2.3: The Chemical Earth - Compounds

Table 8: Valencies of non-metallic
elements in molecular compounds (*
brackets indicate less common
valencies) (from Chemistry 1, p. 68)

Naming Compounds

The formula of covalent molecular compounds illustrate the number of atoms of

each element present in 1 molecule of the compound
How does this compare to ionic compounds?
Greek prefixes are used to indicate the number of each type of atom contained
within a molecular compound:

Table 9: Greek prefixes (from Chemistry 1, p. 69)

Rules for constructing chemical formulae of molecular compounds

(Binary molecules) the sum of the valencies of one element should match the
sum of the valencies of the other element
(>3 elements) sum of the valencies of the first 2 elements should equal the
total valency of the 3rd element
1st element should have:
o The lowest group number OR
o Be in a higher period (if both elements are from the same group)
o (Exception: oxygen in molecular compounds with Cl, Br or I)
A Greek prefix is used to specify the number of atoms of each element present
(mono is omitted in some cases)
(Binary compounds) the -ide suffix is used in place of the last few letters of the
2nd element

Figure 20: The molecular structures of some common compounds (from Chemistry Contexts 1,
p. 54)

Covalent network solids (AKA: covalent lattice solids or covalent lattices)

Covalent network solids: solids where the covalent
bonding extends indefinitely throughout the whole crystal
E.g.: diamond (lattice of C-atoms):
Each C-atom is covalently bound to 4 other C-atoms
Naming Compounds

Figure 21: Diamond structure (Conquering Chemistry Prelim, p. 60)

The chemical formulae of covalent lattices represent the ratio in which the
atoms are present in the molecule or compound (i.e. its empirical formula)
How does this compare to ionic compounds?
A strong structure is formed due to the multiple (strong) covalent bonds
contained within the lattice structure
High melting and boiling points

Naming Compounds

8.2.3 APPENDIX

Drawing electron-dot structures

Table 10 (from Conquering Chemistry Prelim, p. 55)
Naming Compounds

Formulae for ionic compounds

It was observed previously that the charge of some ions can be deduced by
their position in the periodic table
The above is not the case from other elements and transition metals as they can
often from ions with more than one charge
Rules for naming ionic compounds
When ionic compounds are
formed, the ions are present in
ratios such that the total
number of positive charges is
equal to the total number of
negative charges

Table 11 Ions formed by common

elements (from Conquering Chemistry
Prelim, p. 77)

Naming ionic compounds:

Ionic binary compounds
1. The positive ion is name first, followed by the negative ion
2. The end of the negative ion is changed to -ide
Metals that have variable valencies
3. The valence of the metal is higher valence state:
displayed by Roman numeral in -ic
brackets are the name of the 6.
metal (e.g. iron(II) has a valency
of +2) (NB: this is the preferred
method for illustrating valence,
however the bottom method is
still wide spread)
4. The valence state is
indicated using the following
endings:
7. Table 12 Names of positive ions formed
5. Lower valance state: from variable-valency metals (from
-ous Conquering Chemistry Prelim, p. 78)

8. Polyatomic ions
9. Just remember the names and 10.
formulae for the following
polyatomic ions:

11. Table 13 Some common polyatomic ions

and their charge (from Conquering
Chemistry Prelim, p. 79)
Naming Compounds
12.
Naming Compounds

13. Formulae for covalent compounds

14. To determine the values of x and y in the formula AxBy of a covalent
compound, we chose the smallest values for x and y that make
15. x valency of A = y valency of B
16.
17. 19. Naming covalent (binary)
compounds
1. Use the normal element name for
the first element, and end the
second element with -ide
2. The first element is the one which
occurs farther left of the Periodic
table
3. If both elements are in the same
18. Table 14 Valencies of common elements
group, the lower down one is first
in covalent compounds (from names
Conquering Chemistry Prelim., p. 80) 4. Exceptions:
20. Oxygen is named last in
compounds with Cl, Br and I
5. The number of atoms in each type
is given using the following
prefixes:
21. Mono (1); di (2); tri (3);
tetra (4); penta (5); hexa (6)
22.