An ecological pyramid (also trophic pyramid, energy pyramid, or sometimes food pyramid) is a graphical

representation designed to show the biomass or bio productivity at each trophic level
in a given ecosystem.

Biomass is the amount of living or organic matter present in an organism. Biomass

pyramids show how much biomass is present in the organisms at each trophic level,
while productivity pyramids show the production or turnover in biomass.

Ecological pyramids begin with producers on the bottom (such as plants) and proceed through the various trophic
levels (such as herbivores that eat plants, then carnivores that eat herbivores, then carnivores that eat those carnivores, and so on). The highest level
is the top of the food chain.

An ecological pyramid of biomass shows the relationship between biomass and trophic level by quantifying the biomass present at each trophic
level of an ecological community at a particular time. It is a graphical representation of biomass (total amount of living or organic matter in an
ecosystem) present in unit area in different tropic levels. Typical units are grams per meter2, or calories per meter2. The pyramid of biomass may be
"inverted". For example, in a pond ecosystem, the standing crop of phytoplankton, the major producers, at any given point will be lower than the
mass of the heterotrophs, such as fish and insects. This is explained as the phytoplankton reproduce very quickly, but have much shorter individual
lives.

One problem with biomass pyramids is that they can make a trophic level appear to contain more energy than it actually does. For example, all birds
have beaks and skeletons, which despite having mass are not eaten by the next trophic level.

There is also pyramid of numbers which represent the number of organisms in each trophic level. They may be upright (e.g. Grassland ecosystem),
inverted (parasitic ecosystem) or dumbbell shaped (forest ecosystem).

The wave nature of electrons was first experimentally verified by C.J.Davisson and L.H. Germer in 1927 and independently by G.P
. Thomson,in 1928, who observeddiffraction effects with beams ofelectrons scattered by crystals.Davisson and Thomson shared
the Nobel Prize in 1937 for theirexperimental discovery ofdiffraction of electrons bycrystals.The experimental arrange-ment used by Davisson and
Germer is schematically shownin Fig. 11.7. It consists of anelectron gun which comprises ofa tungsten filament F, coatedwith barium oxide and
heatedby a low voltage power supply(L.T. or battery). Electronsemitted by the filament areaccelerated to a desired velocityby applying suitable
potential/voltage from a high voltage power supply(H.T. or battery). They are made to pass through a cylinder with fineholes along its axis,
producing a fine collimated beam. The beam is madeto fall on the surface of a nickel crystal. The electrons are scattered in alldirections by the
atoms of the crystal. The intensity of the electron beam,scattered in a given direction, is measured by the electron detector(collector). The detector
can be moved on a circular scale and is connectedto a sensitive galvanometer, which records the current. The deflection ofthe galvanometer is
proportional to the intensity of the electron beamentering the collector. The apparatus is enclosed in an evacuated chamber.By moving the detector
on the circular scale at ifferent positions, theintensity of the scattered electron beam is measured for different valuesof angle of scatteringwhich is
the angle between the incident and thescattered electron beams. The variation of the intensity () of the scatteredelectrons with the angle of
catteringis obtained for different acceleratingvoltages.The experiment was performed by varying the accelarating voltagefrom 44 V to 68 V. It was
noticed that a strong peak appeared in theintensity (I) of the scattered electron for an accelarating voltage of 54V ata cattering angle= 50The
appearance of the peak in a particular direction is due to theconstructive interference of electrons scattered from different layers of theregularly
spaced atoms of the crystals. From the electron diffractionmeasurements, the wavelength of matter waves was found to be0.165 nm.The de Broglie
wavelengthassociated with electrons, usingEq. (11.11), for
V= 54 V is given by
=h/p1 227V=.nm1 22754=.nm= 0.167 nm
Thus, there is an excellent agreement between the theoretical valueand the experimentally obtained value of de Broglie wavelength. Davisson-
Germer experiment thus strikingly confirms the wave nature of electronsand the de Broglie relation. More recently, in 1989, the wave nature of
abeam of electrons was experimentally demonstrated in a double-slitexperiment, similar to that used for the wave nature of light. Also, in
anexperiment in 1994, interference fringes were obtained with the beams ofiodine molecules, which are about a million times more massive
thanelectrons.The de Broglie hypothesis has been basic to the development of modernquantum echanics. It has also led to the field of electron
optics. Thewave properties of electrons have been utilised in the design of electronmicroscope which is a great improvement, with higher resolution,
overthe optical microscope.
Saturation temperature means boiling point. The saturation temperature is the temperature for a corresponding saturation
pressure at which a liquid boils into its vapor phase. The liquid can be said to be saturated with thermal energy.

megapascal bar megapascal bar megapascal bar megapascal bar megapascal bar
(MPa) (b) (MPa) (b) (MPa) (b) (MPa) (b) (MPa) (b)
1 10 34 340 67 670 100 1000 133 1330
2 20 35 350 68 680 101 1010 134 1340
3 30 36 360 69 690 102 1020 135 1350
4 40 37 370 70 700 103 1030 136 1360
5 50 38 380 71 710 104 1040 137 1370
6 60 39 390 72 720 105 1050 138 1380
7 70 40 400 73 730 106 1060 139 1390
8 80 41 410 74 740 107 1070 140 1400
9 90 42 420 75 750 108 1080 141 1410
10 100 43 430 76 760 109 1090 142 1420
11 110 44 440 77 770 110 1100 143 1430
12 120 45 450 78 780 111 1110 144 1440
13 130 46 460 79 790 112 1120 145 1450
14 140 47 470 80 800 113 1130 146 1460
15 150 48 480 81 810 114 1140 147 1470
16 160 49 490 82 820 115 1150 148 1480
17 170 50 500 83 830 116 1160 149 1490
18 180 51 510 84 840 117 1170 150 1500
19 190 52 520 85 850 118 1180 151 1510
20 200 53 530 86 860 119 1190 152 1520
21 210 54 540 87 870 120 1200 153 1530
22 220 55 550 88 880 121 1210 154 1540
23 230 56 560 89 890 122 1220 155 1550
24 240 57 570 90 900 123 1230 156 1560
25 250 58 580 91 910 124 1240 157 1570
26 260 59 590 92 920 125 1250 158 1580
27 270 60 600 93 930 126 1260 159 1590
28 280 61 610 94 940 127 1270 160 1600
29 290 62 620 95 950 128 1280 161 1610
30 300 63 630 96 960 129 1290 162 1620
31 310 64 640 97 970 130 1300 163 1630
32 320 65 650 98 980 131 1310 164 1640
33 330 66 660 99 990 132 1320 165 1650