INVESTIGATION OF ABSORPTION OF

Gamma PARTICLES by lead

(LAB REPORT# 04 SEMESTER SPRING-2022)
Submission Date (19 Aug, 2022)
BY
Syed sami ullah
Roll No# (19011510-087)
Course Code:
PHYS-309
Course Title:
Modern Physics Lab VI
BS 6th (B) Physics
Submitted To
MAM MAIDA ANWAR
Department of Physics

UNIVERSITY OF GUJRAT
objective:

Investigation of absorption of Gamma particles by lead.

Abstract:

In this experiment, we investigate absorption of gamma particles by lead by using

Geiger-Muller tube. For this purpose, lead sheets of different thickness are used. First of
all, counts are taken without keeping the source in GM Tube to get all background
readings to minimize our error in the final reading. Readings for the counts of
background radiations are noted down by increasing the voltage simultaneously.
Secondly, gamma-source is placed in GM Tube and counts are noted down. After this, a
sheet of lead is introduced in the path of gamma-particles and counts are noted down.
Then, repeat the same process by using lead sheets of different thickness. At the end, the
absorption co-efficient of gamma-particles „µ‟ is calculated by using its formula. All the
readings are observed carefully. For accurate measurements, background radiations
counting rates are subtracted carefully from the source counting.

Introduction:

Gamma rays interact with electrons in the atom. That is why materials with high electron
density, such as lead, are used to stop them. Depending on the energy of the gamma rays,
they might undergo one (or more) of the three processes:

1. Photo-electric effect (absorption of the gamma by an atom, releasing an electron), for

energies up to 100 keV.
2. Compton scattering where a gamma ray of energy 100 keV to 10 MeV is scattered by
an electron and its energy is reduced enough to absorbed through photoelectric effect.
3. Pair production mainly of electron-positron pairs, for gamma rays of energy greater
than approximately 10 MeV. The positrons might annihilate after an encounter with its
antiparticle, electron, and produce more gamma rays, which might undergo any of the
three processes, again. This can go on until the gamma ray is absorbed by the photoelectric
effect, or escapes the dense premises of lead.
The energy of the gamma rays gets converted into the energy of electrons in lead, which in
turn turns into heat.

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Does lead become ionized?
Lead is a conductor, so some atoms are already “ionized”, and are neutralized by free
electrons in the material. Gamma rays will temporarily ionize more atoms, generating
more free electrons.
Working:

When an external particle like a gamma particle enters inside the tube it collides with the
molecules of the gaseous medium ionization happens- It occurs because gamma particle
transfers its energy to the molecules of the gas. The electrons in the outermost shells of
these molecules and atoms absorb some of that energy and if the energy is sufficient
enough these electrons will become free leading to the creation of a positive ion and a free
electron. The central electrode is connected to the positive terminal of the battery and the
metallic surface is connected to the negative terminal of the battery so the central electrode
is acting as an anode and the metallic surface is acting as a cathode and there is an electric
field which is directed from tungsten rod (anode) to metallic surface (cathode). Once all
of these electrons reach the central electrode they will get absorbed by the anode and then
they will move towards positive terminal of the battery and lead to a potential drop across
load resistance which is measured by the electronic switch- Electronic switch detects it as
the existence of an external nuclear particle and this gets added to the counter. Electrons
complete their cycle when they reach back to the surface of the tube. They recombine with
the positive ions accumulated on the tube surface to create neutral molecules thus bringing
the entire setup back to its original state.

Types of Radioactive Decay:

1. Alpha Decay
Emission of alpha particles from a heavy unstable nucleus is called alpha decay.
Alpha particles have two protons and two neutrons. So in this process atomic no of
parent nucleus is changed by 2 and mass number is changed by 2. Some energy is
also emitted in this process. Uranium, plutonium etc. are alpha particle emitters.
2. Beta Decay
Elements which emit beta particles from their nucleus are called beta emitters and
process is called beta decay. In this process a positive electron (positron) is emitted

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 or a negative electron is emitted. Beta particles have more penetrating power than
alpha particles.
3. Gamma Decay
Atoms emitting gamma radiation is called gamma emitters and phenomena is called
gamma decay. In gamma decay no nuclear transmutation takes place but atoms are
only transformed from excited to ground states.

Absorption Co-efficient:
Absorption co-efficient of a medium or a particle is defined as a measure of the rate of
decrease in the intensity of electromagnetic radiations (or particles) as it passes through a
given substance or medium. It is the fraction incident radiant energy absorbed per unit mass
or thickness of an absorber.
𝑵 = 𝑵𝟎𝑒−𝝁𝒙

Apparatus:

 Radioactive source (γ-particles)

 Geiger-Muller Counter
 GM Tube
 Computer with STX software
 Lead Sheets (thickness of 0.032mm, 0.064mm, and 0.125mm)
 Power supply
DIAGRAM:

GM COUNTER
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 Procedure:
 GM Tube is connected to the radiation counter which is already connected to a computer
containing STX software used for detecting radiations.
 Opening the STX software on computer, go to “Experiments” option and then chose
“Plateau” from the appeared dialogue box.
 Voltage range is set from 600-900 in STX, and the interval to 10s.
 Firstly, the background radiation is detected and measured by STX without placing any
radiation source in GM tube as XB.
 Noted Down the reading of counts for different value of voltages.
 Now a gamma source is placed within the Geiger Muller tube.
 Radiation produced by the source are detected by the tube and measured by the computer as
XS.
 Difference between the counts for without and with source is calculated as Real Counts X.
 Mean value is calculated as ̅ .
 Now, lead sheets are introduced above the source for the determination of absorption co-
efficient and readings for counts are taken.
 Set the step voltage to 20V.
 Changed the thickness of lead sheet regularly to take reading for counts for different
thickness of lead sheet, as Y.
 Calculate mean values for the counts of all thickness of lead sheet.
 Calculate absorption co-efficient of γ-particles „µ‟ using the formula

𝝁𝒙
𝑵 𝑵𝟎
Calculations and Observations

High Voltage Source Counts Background Counts Real Counts

( ) ( ) ( )
600 0 0 0
610 0 0 0
620 0 6 -6
630 0 4 -4
640 274 3 271
650 983 7 976
660 1346 4 1342
670 1385 6 1379
680 1480 11 1469
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 690 1470 5 1465
700 1503 3 1500
710 1537 9 1528
720 1574 9 1565
730 1573 4 1569
740 1612 7 1605
750 1557 6 1551
̅ 𝟎
High Voltage Counts for Counts for Counts for
Pb=0.032 mm Pb=0.064 mm Pb=0.125 mm
600 0 0 0
610 0 0 0
620 0 0 0
630 0 0 0
640 120 40 20
650 410 200 149
660 1257 1102 1104
670 1339 1239 1158
680 1435 1417 1298
690 1482 1405 1234
700 1464 1332 1199
710 1497 1308 1209
720 1502 1213 1098
730 1499 1243 1056
740 1494 1367 1176
750 1588 1435 1280

∑ 𝟎 ∑ 𝟎 ∑

̅ 942.938 831.313 748.813

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 log N
2.9745
2.98

2.96

2.94
2.9198
log N

2.92

2.9
2.8744
2.88

2.86
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14

Thickness (mm)
Graphical Representation
𝝁
𝒙 𝟎𝟎

Results and Discussion:

Gamma rays are created by energy transition within the nucleus. When gamma rays
influence on a sheet of absorbing material, some of the radiation will be absorbed or
scattered. As the thickness of the material is increased, the fraction of the radiation
passing through the material will decrease. A specific name is given to the thickness at
which half the radiation is either absorbed or scattered and the other half passes through
the material, this thickness is aptly called the half thickness.

Conclusion :
Through this experiment we are able to find out absorption co-efficient of γ-particles and
we also able to know the relation between absorption co-efficient and the thickness of
absorber material. Graph shows that the value of coefficient of absorption of gamma
particles decreases with the increase in thickness of sheet whereas absorbance increases
by increasing thickness

Advantages of GM Counter:

 It can count alpha, beta, gamma particles as well as cosmic rays.

 It has high sensitivity.
 Power supply need not be precisely regulated as the pulse height is constant over aPage 6 of
large 10
range.
 Because of the fact that output pulse is very high, so the Amplification needed is also very
stable.
Disadvantages of GM Counter:
 Energies cannot be measured by it as it has a lack of differentiating abilities.

 It cannot detect uncharged particles like Neutrons.

 It is less efficient due to the large paralysis time limits and large dead time.

Precautions:

 Background radiations should be subtracted carefully from the source reading to

eliminate background effect.
 Applied voltage must be in the middle of the plateau curve.
 Aluminum sheets of varying thicknesses should be used and counts should be noted
carefully for each value of thickness.

References:

 Experimental Physics by M.H. Musaddiq

 https://labphysics360.blogspot.com/2017/08/tostudy-characteristics-of-gm-
counter-1.html
 https://www.nevis.columbia.edu/~ahanks/shp/BetaGamma

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