Fundamental Equations of Fluid Mechanics

1 Calculus
1.1 Gradient of a scalar, s
The gradient of a scalar is a vector quantity. The forms of the differential gradi-
ent operator depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these forms
are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.

Rectangular coordinates

s s s
s = ix + iy + iz . (1)
x y z
Cylindrical polar coordinates

s 1 s s
s = ir + i + iz . (2)
r r z
Spherical polar coordinates

s 1 s 1 s
s = ir + i + i . (3)
r r r sin

1.2 Gradient of a vector, u

The gradient of a vector u is a tensor quantity. The differential forms of the
gradient of a vector are provided below in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and
spherical polar coordinates.

Rectangular coordinates

The vector is given by u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , so u is given by:

ux ux ux
u = ix ix + iy ix + iz ix
x y z
uy uy uy
+ ix iy + iy iy + iz iy
x y z
uz uz uz
+ ix iz + iy iz + iz iz . (4)
x y z
Cylindrical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , so u is given by:

 
ur 1 ur 1 ur
u = ir ir + u i ir + iz ir
r r r z
 
u 1 u ur u
+ ir i + + i i + iz i
r r r z
uz 1 uz uz
+ ir iz + i iz + iz iz . (5)
r r z

1
Spherical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + u i , so u is given by:

   
ur 1 ur u 1 ur u
u = ir ir + i ir + i ir
r r r r sin r
   
u 1 u ur 1 u cot
+ ir i + + i i + u i i
r r r r sin r
 
u 1 u 1 u ur cot
+ ir i + i i + + + u i i . (6)
r r r sin r r

1.3 Divergence of a vector, u

The divergence of a vector u is a scalar quantity. The differential forms of the
divergence depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these forms
are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.

Rectangular coordinates

The vector is given by u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , so u is given by:

ux uy uz
u= + + . (7)
x y z
Cylindrical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , so u is given by:

1 (rur ) 1 u uz
u= + + . (8)
r r r z
Spherical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + u i , so u is given by:

1 (r2 ur ) 1 (sin u ) 1 u
u= 2
+ + . (9)
r r r sin r sin

1.4 Divergence of a tensor, T

The divergence of a tensor T is a vector quantity. The differential forms of the
divergence depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these forms
are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.

Rectangular coordinates

The tensor is given by T = Txx ix ix + Txy ix iy + Txz ix iz + Tyx iy ix + Tyy iy iy +

Tyz iy iz + Tzx iz ix + Tzy iz iy + Tzz iz iz , so T is given by:

2
  
Txx Tyx Tzx
T = + + ix
x y z
 
Txy Tyy Tzy
+ + + iy
x y z
 
Txz Tyz Tzz
+ + + iz . (10)
x y z

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The tensor is given by T = Trr ir ir + Tr ir i + Trz ir iz + Tr i ir + T i i +

Tz i iz + Tzr iz ir + Tz iz i + Tzz iz iz , so T is given by:

 
1 (rTrr ) 1 Tr Tzr T
T = + + ir
r r r z r
1 (r2 Tr ) 1 T
 
Tz 1
+ + + + (Tr Tr ) i
r2 r r z r
 
1 (rTrz ) 1 Tz Tzz
+ + + iz . (11)
r r r z

Spherical polar coordinates

The tensor is given by T = Trr ir ir + Tr ir i + Tr ir i + Tr i ir + T i i +

T i i + Tr i ir + T i i + T i i , so T is given by:

1 (r2 Trr )
 
1 (sin Tr ) 1 Tr 1
T = + + (T + T ) ir
r2 r r sin r sin r
3
 
1 (r Tr ) 1 (sin T ) 1 T 1
+ + + (cot T + Tr Tr ) i +
r3 r r sin r sin r
1 (r3 Tr )
 
1 (sin T ) 1 T 1
+ + + + (cot T + Tr Tr ) i .
r3 r r sin r sin r
(12)

1.5 Curl of a vector, u

The curl of a vector is also a vector quantity. Once again, the differential forms
of the curls depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these forms
are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coordinates.

Rectangular coordinates

The vector is given by u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , so u is given by:

     
uz uy ux uz uy ux
u= ix + iy + iz . (13)
y z z x x y

3
Cylindrical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , so u is given by:

     
1 uz u ur uz 1 (ru ) 1 ur
u = ir + i + iz . (14)
r z z r r r r

Spherical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + u i , so u is given by:

     
1 (sin u ) 1 u 1 ur 1 (ru ) 1 (ru ) 1 ur
u = ir + i + i .
r sin r sin r sin r r r r r
(15)

1.6 Laplacian of a scalar, 2 s

The Laplacian is formed from the divergence of a gradient operator: = 2 .
The Laplacian of of a scalar is a scalar quantity. The forms of the differential
Laplacian operator depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these
forms are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coor-
dinates.

Rectangular coordinates

2s 2s 2s
2 s = + + . (16)
x2 y 2 z 2
Cylindrical polar coordinates

1 2s 2s
 
1 s
2 s = r + 2 2 + 2. (17)
r r r r z
Spherical polar coordinates

2
   
1 s 1 s 1
2 s = 2 r2 + 2 sin + 2 2 . (18)
r r r r sin r sin 2

1.7 Laplacian of a vector, 4u

The Laplacian of a vector is a vector quantity. The forms of the differential
Laplacian operator depend on the particular geometry of interest. Below, these
forms are provided in rectangular, cylindrical polar, and spherical polar coor-
dinates.

Rectangular coordinates

The vector is given by u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , so 4u is given by:

4
 2 ux 2 ux 2 ux
 
4u = + + ix
x2 y 2 z 2
 2
2 uy 2 uy

uy
+ + + iy
x2 y 2 z 2
 2
2 uz 2 uz

uz
+ + + iz . (19)
x2 y 2 z 2

Cylindrical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , so 4u is given by:

1 2 ur 2 ur

  
1 2 u
4u = (rur ) + 2 2
2 + ir
r r r r r z 2
1 2 u 2 u
   
1 2 ur
+ (ru ) + 2 + 2 + i
r r r r 2 r z 2
1 2 uz 2 uz
   
1 uz
+ r + 2 + iz . (20)
r r r r 2 z 2

Spherical polar coordinates

The vector is given by u = ur ir + u i + u i , so 4u is given by:

2 ur
     
1 2 ur 1 ur 1
4u = r + 2 sin + 2 2 ir
r2 r r r sin r sin 2
 
2 2 u cot 2 u
2
ur + 2 + 2 2 u + 2 ir
r r r r sin
2 u
     
1 2 u 1 u 1
+ r + 2 sin + 2 2 i
r2 r r r sin r sin 2
 
2 ur 1 2 cos u
+ 2 2 u 2 2 i
r2 r sin r sin
2 u
     
1 2 u 1 u 1 1
+ r + 2 sin + 2 2 2 2 u i
r2 r r r sin r sin 2 r sin
 
2 ur 2 cos u
+ 2
+ 2 2 i . (21)
r sin r sin

5
1.8 Vector identities
The relationships below are valid for any coordinate system, and for any scalar
s, vector fields u, u1 , and u2 , and tensor T.

s = 0, (22)
u = 0, (23)
4u = ( u) ( u), (24)
(su) = s u + s( u), (25)
(sT) = s T + s( T), (26)
(T u) = T : u + u ( T), (27)
sI : u = s( u), (28)
(u1 u2 ) = u1 u2 + u2 ( u1 ), (29)
(u1 u2 ) = (u2 )u1 + (u1 )u2 + u2 ( u1 ) + u1 ( u2 ). (30)

1.9 Gauss divergence theorem

The following relationships are valid for any vector u and any tensor T.
Z Z
udV = n udS, (31)
V S
Z Z
TdV = n TdS, (32)
V S
where n is the outer unit normal to an element dS of the surface S of a volume
V.

6
2 Mass conservation (continuity) equations for an
incompressible fluid
2.1 Vector form
u = 0, (33)
where u is the velocity vector.

2.2 Cartesian coordinates

For velocity vector u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz , u is given by

ux uy uz
+ + = 0. (34)
x y z

2.3 Cylindrical polar coordinates

For velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + uz iz , u is given by

1 (rur ) 1 u uz
+ + = 0. (35)
r r r z

2.4 Spherical polar coordinates

For velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + u i , u is given by

1 (r2 ur ) 1 (u sin ) 1 u
2
+ + = 0. (36)
r r r sin r sin

7
3 Momentum conservation equations for an incom-
pressible fluid
3.1 Vector form
 
u
+ u u = g + , (37)
t
where t is time, u is the velocity vector, is the stress tensor, is the density,
and g is the gravitational acceleration vector.

3.2 Cartesian coordinates

For the following quantities:

Velocity vector u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz ;

Gravitational acceleration vector g = gx ix + gy iy + gz iz ;

Total stress tensor = xx ix ix + xy ix iy + xz ix iz + yx iy ix + yy iy iy +

yz iy iz + zx iz ix + zy iz iy + zz iz iz ,

the momentum conservation equations are given by

 
ux ux ux ux xx yx zx
+ ux + uy + uz = gx + + + , (38)
t x y z x y z

 
uy uy uy uy xy yy zy
+ ux + uy + uz = gy + + + , (39)
t x y z x y z

 
uz uz uz uz xz yz zz
+ ux + uy + uz = gz + + + . (40)
t x y z x y z

3.3 Cylindrical polar coordinates

For the following quantities:

Velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + uz iz ;

Gravitational acceleration vector g = gr ir + g i + gz iz ;

Total stress tensor = rr ir ir + r ir i + rz ir iz + r i ir + i i +

z i iz + zr iz ir + z iz i + zz iz iz ,

8
the momentum conservation equations are given by

 
ur ur 1 ur 1 ur 1 (rrr ) 1 r rz
+ ur + u u 2 + uz = gr + + + ,
t r r r z r r r r z
(41)

1 (r2 r ) 1 z
 
u u 1 u 1 u
+ ur + u + ur u + uz = g + + + ,
t r r r z r2 r r z
(42)

 
uz uz 1 uz uz 1 (rrz ) 1 z zz
+ ur + u + uz = gz + + + . (43)
t r r z r r r z

3.4 Spherical polar coordinates

For the following quantities:

Velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + u i ;

Gravitational acceleration vector g = gr ir + g i + g i ;

Total stress tensor = rr ir ir + r ir i + r ir i + r i ir + i i +

i i + r i ir + i i + i i ,

the momentum conservation equations are given by

 
ur ur 1 ur 1 ur 1
u 2 + u 2


+ ur + u + u = gr
t r r r sin r
1 1 (r sin ) 1 r +
+ 2 (r2 rr ) + + , (44)
r r r sin r sin r

 
u u 1 u 1 u 1 cot 2
+ ur + u + u + ur u u = g
t r r r sin r r
1 (r2 r ) 1 ( sin ) 1 r cot
+ 2 + + + , (45)
r r r sin r sin r r

 
u u 1 u 1 u 1 cot
+ ur + u + u + u ur + u u = g
t r r r sin r r
1 (r2 r ) 1 1 r 2 cot
+ 2 + + + + . (46)
r r r r sin r r

9
4 Stress, rate of strain, vorticity, and the constitu-
tive relation for Newtonian fluids
4.1 Rate of strain
The rate of strain tensor, e, for an incompressible fluid is given by
1
u + (u)T .


e= (47)
2
Note that e is a symmetric tensor.

4.1.1 Cartesian coordinates

The Cartesian components of e for velocity components (ux , uy , uz ) in (x, y, z)
directions are
exx exy exz
e = eyx eyy eyz . (48)
ezx ezy ezz
These component are given by
ux uy uz
exx = , eyy = , ezz = , (49)
x y z
   
1 ux uy 1 ux uz
exy = eyx = + , exz = ezx = + , (50)
2 y x 2 z x
 
1 uy uz
eyz = ezy = + . (51)
2 z y
Note that exy = eyx , exz = ezx , and eyz = ezy since e is symmetric.

4.1.2 Cylindrical polar coordinates

The e components for velocity components (ur , u , uz ) in directions (r, , z) are

err er erz
e = er e ez . (52)
ezr ez ezz

These component are given by

ur 1 u ur uz
err = , e = + , ezz = , (53)
r r r z
   
1 1 uz u 1 ur uz
ez = ez = + , ezr = erz = + , (54)
2 r z 2 z r
 
1  u  1 ur
er = er = r + . (55)
2 r r r
Note that ez = ez , er = er , and erz = ezr since e is symmetric.

10
4.1.3 Spherical polar coordinates
The e components for velocity components (ur , u , u ) in directions (r, , ) are

err er er
e = er e e . (56)
er e e

These component are given by

 
ur 1 u 1 u ur u
err = , e = + ur , e = + + cot , (57)
r r r sin r r
   
1 1 ur u u 1 1 ur u u
er = er = + , er = er = + ,
2 r r r 2 r sin r r
  (58)
1 1 u 1 u u
e = e = + cot . (59)
2 r r sin r
Note that er = er , er = er , and e = e since e is symmetric.

4.2 Stress
The total stress, , is given by

= pI + , (60)

1 0 0
where p is pressure, I = 0 1 0 is the unit matrix, and is the deviatoric
0 0 1
stress tensor.

4.3 Constitutive relation

For Newtonian, incompressible fluids, the constitutive relation for is given by
the following vector form expression

= 2e, (61)

where is the dynamic viscosity, and e is the rate of strain tensor (see above).

4.4 Components of stress

4.4.1 Cartesian coordinates
The Cartesian components of are

xx xy xz
= yx yy yz . (62)
zx zy zz

11
These components are given by
ux
xx = p + xx = p + 2 ,
x
uy
yy = p + yy = p + 2 ,
y
uz
zz = p + zz = p + 2 ,
 z 
ux uy
xy = yx = xy = yx = + ,
y x
 
uy uz
yz = zy = yz = zy = + ,
z y
 
uz ux
zx = xz = zx = xz = + . (63)
x z

4.4.2 Cylindrical polar coordinates

The components of in cylindrical polar coordinates are

rr r rz
= r z . (64)
zr z zz

These components are

ur
rr = p + rr = p + 2 ,
r
 
1 u ur
= p + = p + 2 + ,
r r
uz
zz = p + zz = p + 2 ,
z   
u 1 ur
r = r = r = r = r + ,
r r r
 
u 1 uz
z = z = z = z = + ,
z r
 
uz ur
zr = rz = zr = rz = + . (65)
r z

4.4.3 Spherical polar coordinates

The components of in spherical polar coordinates are

rr r r
= r . (66)
r

12
These components are
ur
rr = p + rr = p + 2 ,
r
 
1 u ur
= p + = p + 2 + ,
r r
 
1 u ur u cot
= p + = p + 2 + + ,
r sin r r
 
 u  1 ur
r = r = r = r = r + ,
r r r
  
sin u 1 u
= = = = + ,
r sin r sin
 
1 ur  u 
r = r = r = r = +r . (67)
r sin r r

13
4.5 Vorticity
4.5.1 Vector form
The vorticity is given by the following vector form expression

= u. (68)

4.5.2 Cartesian coordinates

The = x ix + y iy + z iz components in cartesian coordinates for a velocity
vector u = ux ix + uy iy + uz iz are
     
uz uy ux uz uy ux
x = , y = , z = . (69)
y z z x x y

4.5.3 Cylindrical polar coordinates

The = r ir + i + z iz components in cylindrical polar coordinates for a
velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + uz iz are

1 uz u ur uz 1 (ru ) 1 ur
r = , = , z = . (70)
r z z r r r r

4.5.4 Spherical polar coordinates

The = r ir + i + i components in spherical polar coordinates for a
velocity vector u = ur ir + u i + u i are
 
1 u 1 ur 1 (ru )
r = (u sin ) , = , (71)
r sin r sin r r

1 (ru ) 1 ur
= . (72)
r r r

4.6 Rotation tensor

It is also useful to define the rotation tensor, , which has the following vector
form expression
1
u (u)T .


= (73)
2
It is possible to relate the components to the components. We illustrate
this in Cartesian coordinates
1
xy = yx = z ,
2
1
xz = zx = y ,
2
1
yz = zy = x . (74)
2
Note that is not symmetric, unlike the rate of strain tensor e.

14
5 The Navier-Stokes equations for an incompress-
ible, Newtonian fluid
5.1 Vector form
 
u
+ u u = p + g + 2 u. (75)
t

5.2 Cartesian coordinates

2 ux 2 ux 2 ux
   
ux ux ux ux p
+ ux + uy + uz = gx + + + ,
t x y z x x2 y 2 z 2
(76)

2 uy 2 uy 2 uy
   
uy uy uy uy p
+ ux + uy + uz = gy + + + ,
t x y z y x2 y 2 z 2
(77)

2 uz 2 uz 2 uz
   
uz uz uz uz p
+ ux + uy + uz = gz + + + .
t x y z z x2 y 2 z 2
(78)

5.3 Cylindrical coordinates

 
ur ur 1 ur 1 2 ur p
+ ur + u u + uz = gr
t r r r z r
2 2
   
1 1 ur 2 u ur
+ (rur ) + 2 2
2 + , (79)
r r r r r z 2

 
u u 1 u 1 u 1 p
+ ur + u + ur u + uz = g
t r r r z r
2 2
   
1 1 u 2 ur u
+ (ru ) + 2 + 2 + , (80)
r r r r 2 r z 2

 
uz uz 1 uz uz p
+ ur + u + uz = gz
t r r z z
2 2
   
1 uz 1 uz uz
+ r + 2 + . (81)
r r r r 2 z 2

15
5.4 Spherical coordinates
 
ur ur 1 ur 1 ur 1 p
u 2 + u 2


+ ur + u + u = gr
t r r r sin r r
    
1 2 u r 1 ur
+ 2 r + 2 sin
r r r r sin
2
 
1 ur 2 u 2 cot 2 u
+ 2 2 2 u 2 , (82)
r sin 2 r r2 r sin

 
u u 1 u 1 u 1 cot 2 1 p
+ ur + u + u + ur u u = g
t r r r sin r r r
    
1 2 u 1 u
+ 2 r + 2 sin
r r r r sin
2
 
1 u 2 ur 1 2 cos u
+ 2 2 + 2 2 2 u 2 2 , (83)
r sin 2 r r sin r sin

 
u u 1 u 1 u 1 cot
+ ur + u + u + u ur + u u
t r r r sin r r
    
1 p 1 2 u 1 u
= g + 2 r + 2 sin
r sin r r r r sin
2
 
1 u 1 2 ur 2 cos u
+ 2 2 2 2 u + 2 + 2 2 . (84)
r sin 2 r sin r sin r sin

16
6 Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes equations
6.1 Cartesian coordinates
ux uy uz
+ + = 0. (85)
x y z

 2
ux 2 ux 2 ux
  
ux ux ux ux p
+ ux + uy + uz = gx + + +
t x y z x x2 y 2 z 2




+ u0x u0x + u0x u0y + u0x u0z , (86)
x y z

 2
2 uy 2 uy
  
uy uy uy uy p uy
+ ux + uy + uz = gy + + +
t x y z y x2 y 2 z 2




+ u0y u0x + u0y u0y + u0y u0z , (87)
x y z

 2
2 uz 2 uz
  
uz uz uz uz p uz
+ ux + uy + uz = gz + + +
t x y z z x2 y 2 z 2




+ u0z u0x + u0z u0y + u0z u0z . (88)
x y z

17
6.2 Cylindrical coordinates
1 1 u uz
(rur ) + + = 0, (89)
r r r z

 
ur ur 1 ur 1 2 ur p
+ ur + u u + uz = gr
t r r r z r
2 2
   
1 1 ur 2 u ur
+ (rur ) + 2 2 +
r r r r 2 r z 2

 0  1
u0z u0r + u0 u0 ,


+ ru0r u0r + u u0r + (90)
r r r z r

 
u u 1 u 1 u 1 p
+ ur + u + ur u + uz = g
t r r r z r
2 2
   
1 1 u 2 ur u
+ (ru ) + 2 + 2 +
r r r r 2 r z 2
      2
+ u0r u0 + u0 u0 + u0z u0 u0r u0 , (91)
r r z r

 
uz uz 1 uz uz p
+ ur + u + uz = gz
t r r z z
2 2
   
1 uz 1 uz uz
+ r + 2 +
r r r r 2 z 2

 
u0 u0z +


+ ru0r u0z + u0z u0z . (92)
r r r z

18
6.3 Spherical coordinates
1 2

1 1 u
2
r ur + (sin u ) + = 0, (93)
r r r sin r sin

 
ur ur 1 ur 1 ur 1 p
u 2 + u 2


+ ur + u + u = gr
t r r r sin r r
    
1 2 u r 1 u r
+ 2 r + 2 sin
r r r r sin
2
 
1 ur 2 u 2 cot 2 u
+ 2 2 2 u 2
r sin 2 r r2 r sin
 
r2 u0r u0r + sin u0 u0r


+ 2
r r r sin

1 0 0 1
+ u0 u0r + u u + u0 u0 , (94)
r sin r r

 
u u 1 u 1 u 1 cot 2 1 p
+ ur + u + u + ur u u = g
t r r r sin r r r
    
1 u 1 u
+ 2 r2 + 2 sin
r r r r sin
2
 
1 u 2 ur 1 2 cos u
+ 2 2 + 2 2 2 u 2 2
r sin 2 r r sin r sin
   
+ 3 r3 u0r u0 + sin u0 u0
r r r sin
 0 0  cot 0 0
+ u u + u u , (95)
r sin r

 
u u 1 u 1 u 1 cot
+ ur + u + u + u ur + u u
t r r r sin r r
    
1 p 1 2 u 1 u
= g + 2 r + 2 sin
r sin r r r r sin
2
 
1 u 1 2 ur 2 cos u
+ 2 2 u + +
r sin 2 r2 sin2 r2 sin r2 sin2
 
r3 u0r u0 + sin u0 u0


+ 3
r r r sin

cot
+ u0 u0 u0 u0 . (96)
r sin r

19