Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Connor, Secretary
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS A. V. Astin, Director
DISTRIBUTION STATEMENT A
Approved for Public Release
Distribution Unlimited
r
National Bureau of Standards Monograph 88
Issued November 1, 1966
Supersedes Circular 495 and Monograph 18
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price 35 cents
"7
""s,
Contents
This Monograph is a revision of the previous NBS Monograph 18. Its purpose is
to provide an understanding of the heat treatment of iron and steels, principally to
those unacquainted with this subject. The basic principles involved in the heat treat-
ment of these materials are presented in simplified form. General heat treatment
procedures are given for annealing, normalizing, hardening, tempering, case hardening,
surface hardening, and special treatments such as austempenng, ausforming, mar-
tempering and cold treatment. Chemical compositions, heat treatments, and some
properties and uses are presented for structural steels, tool steels, stainless and heat-
resisting steels, precipitation-hardenable stainless steels and nickel-maraging steels.
1. Introduction
The National Bureau of Standards receives other elements. Steel may be defined as an
many requests for general information con- alloy of iron and carbon (with or without other
cerning the heat treatment of iron and steel alloying elements) containing less than about
and for directions and explanations of such 2.0 percent of carbon, usefully malleable or
processes. This Monograph has been prepared forgeable as initially cast. Cast iron may be
to answer such inquiries and to give in simpli- defined as an alloy of iron and carbon (with or
fied form a working knowledge of the basic without other alloying elements) containing
theoretical and practical principles involved in more than 2.0 percent of carbon, not usually
the heat treatment of iron and steel. The malleable or forgeable as initially cast. For
effects of various treatments on the structures reasons that will be apparent later, the divid-
and mechanical properties of these materials ing line between steels and cast irons is taken
are described. Many theoretical aspects are at 2.0 percent of carbon, even though certain
discussed only briefly or omitted entirely, and special steels contain carbon in excess of this
in some instances, technical details have been amount. In addition to carbon, four other
neglected for simplicity. The present Mono- elements are normally present in steels and in
graph supersedes Circular 495, which was pub- cast irons. These are manganese, silicon,
lished in 1950, and Monograph 18 (1960). phosphorus, and sulfur.
Heat treatment may be defined as an opera- Steels may be broadly classified into two
tion or combination of operations that involves types, (1) carbon and (2) alloy. Carbon steels
the heating and cooling of a solid metal or alloy owe their properties chiefly to the carbon.
for the purpose of obtaining certain desirable They are frequently called straight or plain
conditions or properties. It is usually desired carbon steels. Alloy steels are those to which
to preserve, as nearly as possible, the form, one or more alloying elements are added in suf-
dimensions, and surface of the piece being ficient amounts to modify certain properties.
treated. The properties of cast iron also may be modi-
Steels and cast irons are essentially alloys of fied by the presence of alloying elementssuch
iron and carbon, modified by the presence of irons are called alloy cast irons.
2. Properties of Iron
Since iron is the basic element of steel, a ized (equilibrium) time-temperature plot of the
knowledge of some of its properties is a pre- data would appear as shown in figure 1. The
requisite to an understanding of the funda- discontinuities (temperature arrests) in this
mental principles underlying the heat treatment curve are caused by physical changes in the
of steels. iron.
The first arrest at 2,800 F marks the tem-
2.1. Transformation Temperatures perature at which the iron freezes. The other
arrests (known as transformation tempera-
If a molten sample of pure iron were allowed tures or critical points) mark temperatures at
to cool slowly and the temperature of the iron which certain internal changes take place in
were measured at regular intervals, an ideal- the solid iron. Some of these temperatures
are very important in the heat treatment of
1
Retired. steel.
V LIQUID
2800 -'r^. MELTING POINT
2550
r \
Id
<r
]__ \
(E
UI
Q.
1670
1420
Xs FIGURE 2. Crystal structure of iron.
5 ^2
(a) Body-centered cubic (alpha and delta Iron); (b) Face-centered cubic
(gamma Iron).
a ^v
The properties of iron are affected. very and carbon under conditions of equilibrium
markedly by additions of carbon. It should (very slow cooling). A portion of this dia-
be realized that in discussing iron-carbcn al- gram for alloys ranging up to 6.7 percent of
loys, we actually are dealing with plain carbon carbon is reproduced in figure 3; the upper
steels and cast irons. limit of carbon in cast iron is usually not in
excess of 5 percent. The lefthand boundary of
3.1. Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram the diagram represents pure iron, and the
right-hand boundary represents the compound
The complete iron-carbon phase (or consti- iron carbide, Fe3C, commonly called cementite.
tutional) diagram represents the relationship
between temperatures, compositions, and struc- * Iron grown as single-crystal whiskers may exhibit astoundingly
tures of all phases that may be formed by iron high strengths.
J-
3200
6.7% C
STEELS CAST IRONS
CARBON, % BY WEIGHT
The beginning of freezing of the various perature. The body-centered (alpha or delta)
iron-carbon alloys is given by the curve ABCD, iron can dissolve but little carbon, whereas the
termed the liquidus curve. The ending of face-centered (gamma) iron can dissolve a con-
freezing is given by the curve AHJECF, siderable amount, the maximum being about
termed the solidus curve. The freezing point 2.0 percent at 2,065 F (fig. 3). This solid
of iron is lowered by the addition of carbon solution of carbon in gamma iron is termed
(up to 4.3%) and the resultant alloys freeze austenite. The solid solution of carbon in delta
over a range in temperature instead of at a iron is termed delta ferrite, and the solid solu-
constant temperature as does the pure metal tion of carbon in alpha iron is termed alpha
iron. The alloy containing 4.3 percent of car- ferrite, or, more simply, ferrite.
bon, called the eutectic alloy of iron and cemen- The mechanism of solidification of iron-
tite, freezes at a constant temperature as indi- carbon alloys, especially those containing less
cated by the point C. This temperature is than about 0.6 percent of carbon, is rather com-
2,065 F, considerably below the freezing point plicated and is of no importance in the heat
of pure iron. treatment of carbon steels and cast irons. It is
Carbon has an important effect upon the sufficient to know that all iron-carbon alloys
transformation temperatures (critical points) containing less than 2.0 percent of carbon (that
of iron. It raises the A4 temperature and low- is, steel) will, immediately or soon after solidi-
ers the A3. This effect on the A3 temperature
is very important in the heat treatment of fication is complete, consist of the single phase
carbon and alloy structural steels, while that on austenite. Cast irons will consist of two phases
the A4 is important in the heat treatment of immediately after solidificationaustenite and
certain high alloy steels, particularly of the cementite (Fe3C). Under some conditions this
stainless types. cementite formed on cooling through the tem-
It is possible for solid iron to absorb or dis- perature horizontal ECF will decompose partly
solve carbon, the amount being dependent upon or completely into austenite and graphite
the crystal structure of the iron and the tem- (carbon).
2200
Austenite
2065" F___
2000
1800
&cj!
5^670 F
Austenite
1600 -
Cementite
A.*?._ _ :"^T__o
F -
UJ ' \|420F A, ~ S_^^^
1
1
r- 1200 1
a: 1
U)
1000
2 l
UJ 1
1
_ Peorlite with 1 Peorlite with
Excess Ferrit 1 Excess Cementite
600
IT
IS
400-
a O
1 1 1 1 1 > i i- i '111 1 1 1 1 1
0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.6
CARBON.%
FIGURE 4. Phase diagram for carbon steels.
The part of the iron-carbon diagram that is above the A3, begin to precipitate ferrite when
concerned with the heat treatment of steel is the A3 line (GOSfig. 4) is reached. As the
reproduced on an expanded scale in figure 4. temperature drops from the A3 to Ax, the pre-
Regardless of the carbon content, steel exists cipitation of ferrite increases progressively and
as austenite above the line GOSE. Steel of the amount of the remaining austenite de-
composition S (0.80% of carbon) is designated creases progressively, its carbon content being
as "eutectoid" steel, and those with lower or increased. At the Ax temperature the remain-
higher carbon as "hypoeutectoid" and "hyper-, ing austenite reaches eutectoid composition
eutectoid," respectively. (0.80% of carbonpoint S, fig. 4) and, upon
A eutectoid steel, when cooled at very slow! further cooling, transforms completely into
rates from temperatures within the austenitic pearlite. The microstructures of slowly cooled
field, undergoes no change until the tempera- hypoeutectoid steels thus consist of mixtures of
ture horizontal PSK is reached. At this tem- ferrite and pearlite (fig. 5, B and C). The
perature (known as the A! temperature), the lower the carbon content, the higher is the tem-
austenite transforms completely to an aggre- perature at which ferrite begins to precipitate
gate of ferrite and cementite having a typical and the greater is the amount in the final
lamellar structure (fig. 5, D and E). This structure.
aggregate is known as pearlite and the Ax Hypereutectoid s,teels (more than 0.80% of
temperature is, therefore, frequently referred carbon) when slowly cooled from temperatures
to as the pearlite point. Since the Ax trans- above the Acm, begin to precipitate cementite
formation involves the transformation of aus- when the Acm line (SEfig. 4) is reached. As
tenite to pearlite (which contains cementite the temperature drops from the Acm to Ax, the
Fe3C), pure iron does not possess an Ax trans- precipitation of cementite increases progres-
formation (fig. 4). Theoretically, iron must sively and the amount of the remaining aus-
be alloyed with a minimum of 0.03 percent of tenite decreases progressively, its carbon con-
carbon before the first minute traces of pearlite tent being depleted. At the Ax temperature
can be formed on cooling (point P, fig. 4). If the remaining austenite reaches eutectoid com-
the steel is held at a temperature just below A1( position (0.80% of carbon) and, upon further
(either during cooling or heating), the carbide cooling, transforms completely into pearlite.
in the pearlite tends to coalesce into globules The microstructures of slowly cooled hypereu-
or spheroids. This phenomenon, known as tectoid steels thus consist of mixtures of
spheroidization, will be discussed subsequently. cementite and pearlite (fig. 5, F). The higher
Hypoeutectoid steels (less than 0.80% of car- the carbon content, the higher is the temper-
bon), when slowly cooled from temperatures ature at which cementite begins to precipitate
L j-
J
A, Ferrite (a iron). All grains are of the same composition. X100.
B, 0.25% carbon. Light areas are ferrite grains. Dark areas are pearlite. X100.
C, 0.5% carbon. Same as B but higher carbon content results in more pearlite and less ferrite. X100.
D, 0.8% carbon. All pearlite. X100.
E, Same as D. At higher magnification the lamellar structure of pearlite is readily observed. X500.
F, 1.3% carbon. Pearlite plus excess cementite as network. X100.
All etched with either picral or nital.
and the greater is the amount in the final mation considerably. To differentiate between
structure. the critical points on heating and cooling, the
The temperature range between the A, and small letters "c" (for "chauffage" from the
A3 points is called the critical or transforma- French, meaning heating) and "r" (for
tion range. Theoretically, the critical points "refroidissement" from the French, meaning
in any steel should occur at about the same cooling) are added. The terminology of the
temperatures on either heating or cooling very critical points thus becomes Ac3, Ar3, Ac,, Ar
slowly. Practically, however, they do not since etc. The letter "e" is used to designate the
the A, and A, points, affected but slightly by occurrence of the points under conditions of
the rate of heating, are affected tremendously extremely slow cooling on the assumption that
by the rate of cooling. Rapid rates of heating this represents equilibrium conditions ("e" for
raise these points only slightly, but rapid rates equilibrium); for instance, the Ae3, Ae!, and
of cooling lower the temperatures of transfor- Ae([1|.
L
3.2. Correlation of Mechanical Properties With izo
Microstructures of Slowly Cooled Carbon Steels
Some mechanical properties of pearlite 100
formed during slow cooling of a eutectoid
(0.80% of carbon) steel are approximately as &y
follows: <t V
._ 80
Tensile strength115,000 lb/in*.
Yield strength60,000 lb/in1.
Brindell hardness number200.
The amount of pearlite present in a slowly
cooled hypoeutectoid steel is a linear function
o
a
o
o 60 f
of the carbon content, varying from no pearlite, <0^
when no carbon is present (the very slight
amount of carbon soluble in alpha iron may be
40
r i\S> 200
5 uj
4. Decomposition of Austenite
100
In alloys of iron and carbon, austenite is 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
^i oLn oSly at temperatures above the Aex CARBON, PERCENT
(1,330 F). Below this temperature it decom-
poses into mixtures of ferrite and cementite FIOURE 6. Relation of mechanical properties and structure
to carbon content of slowly cooled carbon steels.
(iron carbide). The end product or final struc-
ture is greatly influenced by the temperature at
which the transformation occurs, and this in
turn, is influenced by the rate of cooling,
mce the mechanical properties may be varied
over a wide range, depending on the decomposi-
tion products of the parent austenite, a knowl-
edge of how austenite decomposes and the fac- 1330
AUSTENITE
L
r M.) appears at relatively low temperatures
(about 430 F). If the rate of cooling is still
further increased, the Ar' transformation is
suppressed entirely and only the Ar" trans-
formation is evident. It should be noted that
the temperature of the Ar" is not affected by
the rate of cooling, whereas the temperature of
the Ar' may be depressed to as low as about
1,050 F in this particular steel.
The product of the Ar' transformation is fine
pearlite. As the temperature of the Ar' is
gradually lowered, the lamellar structure of
the resulting pearlite becomes correspondingly
finer and the steel becomes harder and stronger.
The product of the Ar" transformation is mar- os I
tensite (fig. 9, A, and 15, A), which is the TIME, SECONDS
hardest and most brittle of the transformation FIGURE 8. Isothermal transformation diagram (S-curve)
products of austenite and is characterized by a for eutectoid carbon steel.
typical acicular structure. (Metals Handbook, 1948 edition, page 08.) The hardness of the structures
The phenomenon of the occurrence of both formed at the various temperatures is Riven by the scale on the right.
the Ar' and Ar" transformations is known as
the split transformation. The resultant micro- sec before it is completed. The resultant pear-
structures of steels cooled at such rates as to lite is extremely fine and its hardness is rela-
undergo a split transformation consist of vary- tively high. This region of the S-curve where
ing amounts of fine pearlite and martensite decomposition of austenite to fine pearlite
(fig. 9, C). The actual amounts of these two proceeds so rapidly is termed the "nose" of the
constituents are functions of the rates of cool- curve.
ing, the slower rates resulting in more pearlite
and less martensite, and the faster rates result- b. To Bainite
ing in more martensite and less pearlite. If the austenite is cooled unchanged to tem-
4.1. Isothermal Transformation peratures below the nose of the S-curve
(1,050 F), the time for its decomposition
The course of transformation of austenite begins to increase (fig. 8). The final product
when the steel is quenched to and held at vari- of decomposition now is not pearlite, but a new
ous constant elevated temperature levels (iso- acicular constituent called bainite (fig. 15, E)
thermal transformation) is conveniently shown possessing unusual toughness with hardness
by a diagram known as the S-curve (also even greater than that of very fine pearlite.
termed the TTT diagramfor time, temper- Depending on the temperature, then, a cer-
ature, and transformation). Such a diagram tain finite interval of time is necessary before
for eutectoid carbon steel is shown in figure 8 austenite starts to transform into either pear-
and the discussion of this figure will be con- lite or bainite. Additional time is necessary
fined to steel of this particular composition. before the transformations are completed.
a. To Pearlite c. To Martensite
Austenite containing 0.80 percent of carbon, If the austenite is cooled unchanged to a rel-
cooled quickly to and held at 1,300 F, does atively low temperature (below about 430 F
not begin to decompose (transform) until after for the eutectoid carbon steel under considera-
about 15 min, and does not completely decom- tion), partial transformation takes place in-
pose until after about 5 hr (fig. 8). Thus, at stantaneously; the product of transformation is
temperatures just below the Ad, austenite is martensite. Austenite transforms into mar-
stable for a considerable length of time. The tensite over a temperature range and the
product of the decomposition of austenite at amount that transforms is a function of the
this temperature is coarse pearlite of relatively temperature. Only minute amounts will so
low hardness. If the austenite is quickly transform at about 430 F; practically all of
cooled to and held at a somewhat lower tem- the austenite will be transformed at about
perature, say 1,200 F, decomposition begins 175 F. The beginning of this transforma-
in about 5 sec and is completed after about 30 tion range is termed the M (martensite
sec, the resultant pearlite being finer and start) and the end of the range is termed the
harder than that formed at 1,300 F. At a Mt (martensitefinish). As long as the tem-
temperature of about 1,050 F, the austenite perature is held constant within the MsMr
decomposes extremely rapidly, only about 1 sec range, that portion of the austenite that does
elapsing before the transformation starts and 5 not transform instantaneously to martensite
J
remains untransformed for a considerable
length of time, eventually transforming to
bainite.
In ordinary heat treatment of the plain car-
bon steels, austenite does not transform into
bainite. Transformation of the austenite takes
place either above or at the nose of the S-curve,
forming pearlite, or in passing through the
MsMf range, forming martensite or both. It
is evident that in order for austenite to be
transformed entirely into martensite, it must
be cooled sufficiently rapidly so that the tem-
perature of the steel is lowered past the nose of
the S-curve in less time than is necessary for
transformation to start at this temperature.
If this is not accomplished, part of the steel
transforms into pearlite at the high temper-
ature (Ar'), and the remainder transforms
into martensite at the low temperature (Ar"
or M,Ff temperature range). This explains
the phenomenon of the split transformation
described previously.
4.2. Continuous Cooling
Figure 9 represents a theoretical S-curve on
which are superimposed five theoretical cooling
curves. Curves A to E represent successively
slower rates of cooling, as would be obtained,
for instance, by cooling in iced brine, water, oil,
air, and in the furnace, respectively.
The steel cooled according to curve E begins
to transform at temperature tt and completes
transformation at t2; the final product is coarse
pearlite with relatively low hardness. When
cooled according to curve D, transformation
begins at t3 and is completed at tt; the final
product is fine pearlite and its hardness is
greater than the steel cooled according to curve
E. When cooled according to curve C, trans-
formation begins at U and is only partially
complete when temperature t6 is reached; the
product of this partial transformation is very
fine pearlite. The remainder of the austenite
does not decompose until the M, temperature
is reached, when it begins to transform to
martensite, completing this transformation at
the Mf temperature. The final structure is
then a mixture of fine pearlite and martensite
(typical of incompletely hardened steel-f-fre-
quently termed "slack quenched" steel) with a
higher hardness than was obtained with the FIGURE 9. Schematic diagram illustrating the relation be-
steel cooled according to curve D. The rate of tween the S-curve, continuous cooling curves, and result-
cooling represented by curve B is just suffi- ing microstructures of eutectoid carbon steel.
Microstructures: A, martensite; B, martensite with a trace of very fine
cient to intersect the nose of the S-curve, con- pearlite (dark): C, martensite and very fine pearlite; D, (ine pearlite; E,
sequently only a minute amount of the austenite coarse pearlite. All etched with nital. X500.
decomposes into fine pearlite at temperature t7;
the remainder of the austenite is unchanged termed the critical cooling rate and is defined
until the martensite transformation range is as the slowest rate at which the steel can be
reached. If the steel is cooled at a slightly cooled and yet be completely hardened. Since
faster rate, so that no transformation takes this rate cannot be directly determined, the
place at the nose of the S-curve, the steel is rate indicated by curve B, producing only a
completely hardened. This particular rate is trace of fine pearlite (fig. 9, B), is frequently
8
used as the critical cooling rate. The hardness 1000
BJ lfa ld
^ bee ited to a
behave i? ^Po^on,
mular mann r the
other steels cycle, which may be divided into three parts:
and mp ^ * ? - temperatures
ana times of reactions being different Tn (1) Heating, (2) holding at temperature
hypoeutectoid steels, free ferrite phSTn^rlite (soaking), and (3) cooling. Individual cases
are formed if transfomationTgiSs abTelS vary, but certain fundamental objectives may
temperature range of the nose of theTcurv? be stated.
The rate of heating is not particularly im-
tlZTif
lt \?f * ?rrite decreases
transformation
a
SSS
approaches the portant unless a stetsl is in a highly stressed
lD h condition, such as is imparted by severe cold
fri ZLSStS"? ^reutectoid steeg
t* ^lte plus Periite are formed if working or prior hardening. In such instances
the rate of heating should be slow. Fre-
transformation occurs above the nose Thp
time for the start of the traSforniat?on'at the quently this is impracticable, since furnaces
nose increases as the carbon SSSUD to the may be at operating temperatures, but placing
the cold steel in the hot furnace may cause dis-
furtherlncSSim ^n' ^ ^ Sea^w th
That is the Q tortion or even cracking. This danger can be
L shffted Jf?L ^S?f-
(w th
to ose minimized by the use of a preheating furnace
Sme axtf & M* 8 6 Lbon ******
is * maintained at a temperature below the A,.
oTiSnt $ f S ^I increased to The steel, preheated for a sufficient period,
c0rLs?rcarSLontonet.,eft With fUrther in" then can be transferred to the furnace at oper-
The temperature of formation of bainite is ating temperature. This procedure is also
advantageous when treating steels having con-
carbo formation increases with the siderable variations in section thickness or very
low thermal conductivity.
iilv tl M,
,\bynd increasing
-M< temperatures The object of holding a steel at heat-treating
markedly lL lowered are
carbon otm temperature is to assure uniformity of temper-
tent, as is shown for M. in figure 10 The ature throughout its entire volume. Obviously,
temperatures of the plain carbon steels have thin sections need not be soaked as long as
Slfl?1 a.deJ?uately determined; available! thick sections, but if different thicknesses exist
sSf7 JlF* f* the M< 0f hi^h Srbon in the same piece, the period required to heat
St ctaally below room temperature. the thickest section uniformly governs the time
Slight amounts of austenite are frequentlv at temperature. A rule frequently used is
h^ed m *uenched teels, especia lyTnfee to soak y2 hr/in. of thickness.
^pttur68'even when cLed t0 The structure and properties of a steel de-
pend upon its rate of cooling and this, in turn,
is governed by such factors as mass, quenching
5. Heat Treatment of Steels media, etc. It must be realized that the thicker
the section, the slower will be the rate of cool-
All heat-treating operations consist of sub- ing regardless of the method of cooling used
jecting a metal to a definite time-temperature except in such operations as induction harden-
ing to be discussed later.
5.1. Annealing
Annealing is a process involving heating and
cooling, usually applied to produce softening.
The term also refers to treatments intended to
alter mechanical or physical properties, pro-
duce a definite microstructure, or remove gases.
The temperature of the operation and the rate
of cooling depend upon the material being an-
nealed and the purpose of the treatment.
a. Foil Annealing
Full annealing is a softening process in
which a steel is heated to a temperature above
the transformation range (Acs) and, after
being held for a sufficient time at this temper-
ature, is cooled slowly to a temperature below
the transformation range (Art). The steel is
ordinarily allowed to cool slowly in the furnace,
although it may be removed and cooled in some O <X20 0.40 O) 0.80 UX> 1.20 1.40 1.60
medium such as mica, lime, or ashes, that in- CARBON , %
sures a slow rate of cooling. FIQUBE 11. Recommended temperature ranges for heat
Since the transformation temperatures are treating plain carbon steels.
affected by the carbon content, it is apparent
that the higher carbon steels can be fully an-
nealed at lower temperatures than the lower c Spheroidizing
carbon steels. In terms of the diagram shown
in figure 4, steels must be heated to above the Spheroidizing is a process of heating and
line GOSK. The temperature range normally cooling steel that produces a rounded or globu-
lar form of carbide in a matrix of ferrite. It
used for full annealing is 25 to 50 deg F above is usually accomplished by prolonged heating
this line (the upper critical), as shown in at temperatures just below the Acj (fig. 11),
figure 11. but may be facilitated by alternately heating to
The microstructures of the hypoeutectoid temperatures just above the Ac! and cooling
steel -> that result after full annealing are quite
to just below the Art. The final step, however,
similar to those shown for the equilibrium con- should consist of holding at a temperature just
ditions (fig. 5, B and C). Eutectoid and below the critical (Arx). The rate of cooling
hypereutectoid steels frequently spheroidize is immaterial after slowly cooling to about
partially or completely on full annealing (see 1,000 F.
later section and fig. 12, D).
The rate of spheroidization is affected by the
b. Process Annealing initial structure. The finer the pearlite, the
more readily spheroidization is accomplished.
Process annealing, frequently termed stress- A martensitic structure is very amenable to
relief annealing, is usually applied to cold- spheroidization.
worked low carbon steels (up to about 0.25% This treatment is usually applied to the high
of carbon) to soften the steel sufficiently to carbon steels (0.60% of carbon and higher).
allow further cold-working. The steel is The purpose of the treatment is to improve
usually heated close to, but below, the Aci tem- machinability and it is also used to condition
perature (fig. 11). If the steel is not to be ! high-carbon steel for cold-drawing into wire.
further cold-worked, but relief of internal A typical microstructure of spheroidized high
stresses is desired, a lower range of tempera- carbon steel is shown in figure 12, D.
ture will suffice (about 1,000 F). Rate of
cooling is immaterial. 5.2. Normalizing
This type of anneal will cause recrystalliza-
tion and softening of the cold-worked ferrite Normalizing is a process in which a steel is
grains, but usually will not affect the relatively heated to a temperature above the Ac3 or the
small amounts of cold-worked pearlite. Typi- Acm (fig. 11) and then cooled in still air. The
cal structures of cold-worked, process-annealed, purpose of the treatment is to obliterate the
and fully annealed low-carbon steel are shown effects of any previous heat treatment (includ-
in figure 12, A, B, and C, respectively. ing the coarse-grained structure sometimes
10
i J
FIGURE 12. Representative microstructures of carbon steels.
resulting from high forging temperatures) or cementite and the pearlite is finer. These are
cold-working and to insure a homogeneous the results of the more rapid cooling.
austenite on reheating for hardening or full Since the type of structure, and, therefore,
annealing. The resultant structures are pearl- the mechanical properties, are affected by the
ite or pearlite with excess ferrite or cementite, rate of cooling, considerable variations may
depending upon the composition of the steel. occur in normalized steels because of differ-
They are different from the structures result- ences in section thickness of the shapes being
ing after annealing in that, for steels of the normalized. The effect of section thickness on
same carbon content in the hypo- or hypereu- the structure of a normalized 0.5-percent-
tectoid ranges, there is less excess ferrite or carbon steel is shown in figure 12, E and F.
11
L
5.3. Hardening sample increase and the possibility of exceed-
ing the critical cooling rate (fig. 9, B) becomes
Steels can be hardened by the simple expedi- less. To overcome this, the steel may be
ent of heating to above the Ac3 transformation, quenched in a medium having a very high rate
holding long enough to insure the attainment of heat abstraction, such as iced brine, but,
of uniform temperature and solution of carbon even so, many steels have a physical restriction
in the austenite, and then cooling rapidly on the maximum size amenable to complete
(quenching). Complete hardening depends on hardening regardless of the quenching medium.
cooling so rapidly (fig. 9, A and B) that the The marked effect that mass has upon the
austenite, which otherwise would decompose on hardness of quenched steel may be illustrated
cooling through the Arlf is maintained to rela- by measuring the hardness distribution of dif-
tively low temperatures. When this is accom- ferent size rounds of the same steel quenched
plished, the austenite transforms to martensite in the same medium. Curves showing the dis-
on cooling through the M,Mf range. Rapid tribution of hardness in a series of round bars
cooling is necessary only to the extent of lower- of different sizes of 0.5-percent-carbon steel are
ing the temperature of the steel to well below shown in figure 14. The quenching medium
the nose of the S-curve. Once this has been used was water; the quenching temperature
accomplished, slow cooling from then on, either was 1,530 F. The rate of cooling decreased
in oil or in air, is beneficial in avoiding distor- as the diameters of the bars increased. Only
tion and cracking. Special treatments, such as the %-in. round hardened completely through
time quenching and martempering, are de- the cross section, whereas with the 4-in. round
signed to bring about these conditions. As the critical cooling rate was not attained even
martensite is quite brittle, steel is rarely used at the surface.
in the as-quenched condition, that is, without
tempering.
The maximum hardness that can be obtained 5.4. Tempering
in completely hardened low-alloy and plain car-
bon structural steels depends primarily on the Tempering (sometimes called drawing) is
carbon content. The relationship of maximum the process of reheating hardened (martensitic)
hardness to carbon content is shown in or normalized steels to some temperature below
figure 13. the lower critical (Ad). The rate of cooling
70
o 60 3/4"D
_i l/2"0 \ l"0
1!
_i
UJ
J 50
o D
o
IT
V>
60
ri
bJ
n
|'30
<X
| 20
s
X
i to
0
so
1 IT
0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.90 1.00
%L
CARBON,% 40
c
FIGURE 13. Relation of maximum attainable hardness of <
X )
quenched steels to carbon content.
(Burns, Moore, and Archer, Trans. Am. Soc Metals 26, 14 (1938)).
a. Effect of Mass 30
12
r
>/* . ^ - .*...
P^^^S^ii^
'm FIGURE 15. Microsirudures and corresponding hardness of heat-treated high carbon steel.
A, As quenched In brine; martensite, Rockwell C hardness=67. X500.
B, Same as A after tempering at 400 F; tempered martensite, Rockwell C hardness=61. X500.
C, Same as (A) attcr tempering at 800 F; tempered martensite, Rockwell C hardness=45. X500.
D, Same as (A) after tempering at 1,200 F; tempered martensite, Rockwell C hardness=25. X500.
E, Quenched in lead at 650 F; bainite, Rockwell C hardncss=49. X500.
F, Heat-treated steel showing decarburized surface layer (light area) that did not respond to hardening. X100.
All etched in 1% nltal.
is immaterial except for some steels that are into a structure consisting of spheroids of
susceptible to temper brittleness.2 cementite in a matrix of ferrite, formerly
As the tempering temperature is increased, termed sorbite (fig. 15, D). These changes
the martensite (fig. 15, A) of hardened steel are accompanied by a decreasing hardness and
passes through stages of tempered martensite increasing toughness. The tempering temper-
(fig. 15, B and C) and is gradually changed ature depends upon the desired properties and
the purpose for which the steel is to be used.
2
Temper brittleness is manifested as a loss of toughness (ob- If considerable hardness is necessary, the tem-
served only by impact tests of notched bars) after slow cooling
from tempering temperatures of 1.100 F or higher, or after tem-
pering temperature should be low; if consid-
?e.rnK ' the temPerature range between approximately 850 and erable toughness is required, the tempering
1.100 F. It is most pronounced in alloy steels that contain
manganese or chromium and usually can be prevented by rapid temperature should be high. The effect of
quenching from the tempering temperature. The presence of molyb-
denum is beneficial in counteracting the tendency toward temper
tempering on the hardness of fully hardened
brittleness. carbon steels is shown in figure 16.
13
70
__400*F
^":;
60
600* F
\ -^800*F
30
Id ^JO00*F
.
40
30
10 10 I* 2 5 25
SECOND MMUTES HOURS
FISURE16. Effect of tempering temperature on the hard- If structural steels are to be used in the nor-
ness of carbon steels of different carbon content.
malized condition, the normalizing operation is
Specimens were tempered for 1 hr. (Bain, Functions of the alloy-
ing element in atel, Am. Soc. Metals, p. S8, US9.) frequently followed by heating to a tempera-
ture of about 1,200 to 1,300 F. The purpose
Proper tempering of a hardened steel re- of this treatment, which is also designated as
quires a certain amount of time. At any tempering, or stress-relief annealing, is to
selected tempering temperature, the hardness relieve internal stresses resulting on cooling
drops rapidly at first, gradually decreasing from the normalizing temperature and to im-
more slowly as the time is prolonged. The prove the ductility.
effect of time at different tempering temper- 5.5. Case Hardening
atures upon the resultant hardness of a eutec-
toid carbon steel is shown in figure 17. Short Case hardening is a process of hardening a
tempering periods are generally undesirable
and should be avoided. Good practice requires ferrous alloy so that the surface layer or case is
at least y% hr (or, preferably, 1 to 2 hr) at made substantially harder than the interior or
tempering temperature for any hardened steel. core. The chemical composition of the surface
The necessity for tempering a steel promptly layer is altered during the treatment by the ad-
after hardening cannot be overemphasized. If dition of carbon, nitrogen, or both. The most
fully hardened steel is allowed to cool to room frequently used case-hardening processes are
temperature during hardening there is danger carburizing, cyaniding, carbonitriding, and
that the steel may crack. Carbon steels and nitriding.
most of the low alloy steels should be tempered a. Carburizing
as soon as they are cool enough to feel com-
fortable (100 to 140 F) to the bare hands. Carburizing is a process that introduces car-
Steels should not be tempered before they cool bon into a solid ferrous alloy by heating the
to this temperature range because in some metal in contact with a carbonaceous material
steels the Mt temperature is quite low and un- to a temperature above the Ac3 of the steel and
transformed austenite may be present. Part holding at that temperature. The depth of
or all of this residual austenite will trans- penetration of carbon is dependent on temper-
form to martensite on cooling from the tem- ature, time at temperature, and the composi-
pering temperature so that the final structure tion of the carburizing agent. As a rough
will consist of both tempered and untempered indication, a carburized depth of about 0.030
martensite. The brittle untempered marten- to 0.050 in. can be obtained in .about 4 hr at
site, together with the internal stresses caused 1,700 F, depending upon the type of carburiz-
by its formation, can easily cause failure of the ing agent, which may be a solid, liquid, or gas.
heat-treated part. When it is possible that Since the primary object of carburizing is to
such a condition exists, a second tempering secure a hard case and a relatively soft, tough
treatment (double tempering) should be given core, only low-carbon steels (up to a maximum
to temper the fresh martensite formed on cool- of about 0.25% of carbon) either with or with-
ing after the initial tempering treatment. out alloying elements (nickel, chromium, man-
14
SURFACE _j
FIGURE 18. Structure of a carburized steel.
The specimen was cooled slowly from the carburizing temperature. Etched with nital. X75.
15
J
0.140
lated. Molten cyanide should never be per-
mitted to come in contact with sodium or
0.120 or potassium nitrates commonly used for baths
for tempering as the mixtures are explosive.
Furthermore, care is necessary in preparing
a salt bath and the work pieces should be com-
pletely dry before placing in the molten bath.
The advice of salt manufacturers should be
obtained and followed in the operation and
maintenance of salt baths.
c Carbooitriding
y i
use quenched and tempered steel as the base
material. This gives a strong, tough core with
an intensely hard wear-resisting casemuch
harder, indeed, than can be obtained by quench
hardening either carburized or cyanided steel.
Although warpage is not a problem during
nitriding, steels increase slightly in size during
this treatment. Allowance can be made for
this growth in the finished article. Protection
against nitriding can be effected by tin, copper,
or bronze plating, or by the application of cer-
tain paints.
5.6. Surface Hardening
It is frequently desirable to harden only the
surface of steels without altering the chemical
composition of the surface layers. If a steel
contains sufficient carbon to respond to harden-
ing, it is possible to harden the surface layers
only by very rapid heating for a short period,
thus conditioning the surface for hardening
by quenching.
FIGURE 20. Macrograph of induction hardened gear teeth.
a. Induction Hardening Original size, 4-in. diameter (Osborn).
In induction hardening, a high-frequency
current is passed through a coil surrounding
the steel, the surface layers of which are heated Any type of hardenable steel can be flame
by electro-magnetic induction. The depth to hardened. For best results, the carbon con-
which the heated zone extends depends on the tent should be at least 0.35 percent, the usual
frequency of the current (the lower frequencies range being 0.40 to 0.50 percent.
giving the greater depths) and on the duration
of the heating cycle. The time required to 5.7. Special Treatments
heat the surface layers to above the Ac3 is
surprisingly brief, frequently being a matter of a. Austempering
only a few seconds. Selective heating (and
therefore hardening) is accomplished bv suit- Austempering is a trade name for a patented
able design of the coils or inductor blocks. At heat-treating process. Essentially, it consists
the end of the heating cycle, the steel is usually of heating steel to above the Ac3 transformar
quenched by water jets passing through the tion temperature and then quenching into a hot
inductor coils. Precise methods for controll- bath held at a temperature below that at which
ing the operation, that is, rate of energy input, fine pearlite would form (the nose of the
duration of heating, and rate of cooling, are S-curve, fig. 8), but above the Ms temperature
necessary. These features are incorporated in (fig. 10). The product of isothermal decom-
induction hardening equipment, which is usu- position of austenite in this temperature region
ally entirely automatic in operation. Figure is bainite. This constituent combines rela-
20 shows the hardened layer in induction hard- tively high toughness and hardness. A typical
ened steel. microstructure of austempered steel is shown
in figure 15, E.
b. Flame Hardening The austempering process has certain limi-
tations that make it impracticable for use with
Flame hardening is a process of heating the many steels. In order to assure a uniform
surface layers of steel above the transforma- structure (and hence uniform properties), it
tion temperature by means of a high-tempera- is essential that the entire cross section of the
ture flame and then quenching. In this process steel be cooled rapidly enough so that even the
the gas flames impinge directly on the steel center escapes transformation at the nose of
surface to be hardened. The rate of heating the S-curve. In carbon steels the time required
is very rapid, although not so fast as with in- to start transformation at the nose of the
duction heating. Plain carbon steels are S-curve is extremely short, so that only rela-
usually quenched by a water spray, whereas the tively small sections (about %-in. maximum
rate of cooling of alloy steels may be varied thickness) can be successfully hot quenched
from a rapid water quench to a slow air cool in austempering baths. The time required for
depending on the composition. transformation of the austenite of alloy steels
17
:u
to fine pearlite is usually longer, and hence transformation. If cold treatment is used, the
larger sections can be successfully austempered steel should always be tempered afterwards.
(about 1 in. maximum). However, the time Repeated alternate heating to a temperature
required for transformation to bainite fre- slightly below that used in tempering and cool-
quently becomes inordinately long with many ing to a subzero temperature in a refrigerated
alloy steels and the process of austempering, iced brine, carbon dioxide, liquid air, or liquid
therefore, is generally impracticable for these nitrogen is commonly used for transforming
steels. the retained austenite (dimensional stabiliza-
b. Martempering
tion) of steel gages, especially those of the ball-
bearing type composition (AISI 52100).
Martempering consists of heating a steel to d. Ausforming
above its Acs transformation and then quench-
ing into a bath held at a temperature approxi- In this process, medium-carbon alloy steels
mately equal to that of its M.. The steel is are first austenitized and then cooled rapidly
maintained in the hot bath until its tempera- to the temperature range above M. in the "bay"
ture is essentially uniform and then is cooled of the S-curve, between the pearlite and bainite
in air. transformation bands. While held at a tem-
Severe internal stresses develop in steel during perature within this bay the steels are plastic-
hardening. Steel contracts during cooling but ally deformed and subsequently transformed at
undergoes a marked expansion when the lower temperatures to martensite or bainite.
austenite transforms to martensite. Since a The steels are then tempered. This "ausform-
quenched steel must cool from the surface ing" or "hot-working" technique has been
inward, various portions transform at differ- employed to provide higher yield and tensile
ent times. The steel is thus subjected to a strength values than those obtainable for these
variety of differential expansions and contrac- steels by the normal quench and temper
tions, resulting in considerable internal stress. treatments.
By equalizing the temperature throughout the
section before transformation takes place, and
then cooling slowly through the martensite 6. Hardenability
(M,Mf) range, the internal stresses are con-
siderably reduced. This is the prime objec- Hardenability is the property that deter-
tive of martempering. mines the depth and distribution of hardness
Modified martempering differs from stand- induced in steel by quenching. It is increased
ard martempering only in that the bath by increasing carbon and by the addition of all
temperature is lower, ranging from just below the common alloying elements (except cobalt),
the M, point to about 200 F. With the faster provided that these elements are completely
cooling at these lower bath temperatures, steels dissolved in the austenite at quenching tem-
of lower hardenability can be hardened to suffi- peratures. The elements most frequently used
cient depth. However, greater distortion of for this purpose are manganese, chromium, and
sensitive parts is likely with the modified molybdenum. Hardenability is also enhanced
process. by increased grain size' and homogeneity of
c. Cold Treatment the austenite. However, a coarse-grained
austenite increases the tendency of a steel to
The Mf temperature of many alloy steels is so
low that complete transformation of austenite
to martensite does not occur on quenching to ' The grain lie that influences hardenability is that grain size of
the austenite that exists at the quenching temperature. It is usually
room temperature or on cooling after temper- measured under the microscope in terms of the number of grains
per square inch at a magnification of X100. The common range
ing. This retained austenite may be partially of grain size numbers is as follows (note that the larger the num-
or completely transformed by cooling below ber, the finer is the grain sixe; I.e.. the more grains there are per
square inch):
atmospheric temperatures and such treatment
is called "cold treatment." The beneficial American Society for Testing and Materials
effects of cold treatment have not been fully Grain size Grains/in' Grains/ina
explored. It is known that the retained no. at X100 Grain size at X100
austenite of highly alloyed steels is frequently 0
0.5
0.50 7.6 _ 90.5
0.707 8.0 .- 128.
difficult to transform. Cooling these steels to 1.0 1.0 8.5 .- 181.
low temperatures (to the temperature of solid 1.5 1.41 9.0 - 256.
2.0 2.0 9.5 .- 362.
CO* or even lower) immediately after the 2.5
8.0
2.8S 10.0 .- 612.
4.0 10.5 724.
quench is sometimes effective in transforming 8.5 5.66 11.0 1020.
the retained austenite, but with the concomi- 4.0 8.0 11.5 1450.
4.5 . 11.3 12.0 2050.
tant danger of cracking. When the cold treat- 5.0 .
5.5
16.0 12.5 2900.
22.6 13.0 4100.
ment is applied after tempering, the retained 6.0 . S2.0 13.6 6800.
austenite is considerably more resistant to 6.5 . 45.8 14.0 8200.
7.0 64.0
18
J
COOLING RATE AT 1300'F , "F/SEC
distort and crack during heat treatment. 310 125 32 16 10.2 7:0 4,8 3.9 34 32 3JO
Coarse-grained steels also are less tough than 4901195
111 TIT
55 |22| 12.4 8.4 5.6
1
4.3
1
3.6
1
3.3
1
315
1
I 1 1 1
fine-grained steels.
A clear distinction must be drawn between 60
C
' ,
/
/CENTER
t y
u. 2.0 '
diametrically opposite flats about *4 in- wide o /
are ground the length of the bar and Rockwell a. / V
hardness measurements are made at intervals / K
^1/2 RADIUS
of y16 in. on one or both of the flat surfaces so 5 '"u
prepared. The relationship of hardness to dis- 0.5
/
tance from the quenched end is an indication of 1
the hardenability (fig. 21).
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
The conditions of the end-quench test have
DISTANCE FROM WATER QUENCHED END ,1/16 IN.
been standardized and the rates of cooling at
various distances from the quenched end have
FIGURE 22. Relation between distances on the end-quench
been determined and are shown at the top of bar and various locations for equivalent hardness or
figure 21. It is thus possible to correlate hard- cooling rates in round bars quenched in still oil.
ness with cooling rate, which is a function of (Metals Handbook, 1948 edition, p. 492.)
the distance from the water-cooled end. The
cooling rates at various positions in the cross-
sections of different size rounds, when quenched from this curve and the curves given in figures
in still oil and in still water also have been 22 and 23 whether or not a selected size round
determined. Correlations can be made, there- made from the steel will have a desired hard-
fore, between the hardness obtained at various ness at its surface, % radius, V2 radius, or
positions on the end-quench bar and positions center, when quenched either in still oil or
of equivalent hardness of round bars quenched water. Conversely, the hardness values as
in still oil or water (assuming that points of determined at various positions in rounds after
equal hardness have the same cooling rate). quenching in oil or water can be used to advan-
Figure 22 shows this relationship between the tage in approximating the degree of harden-
distances on the end-quenched bar and various ability of a steel suitable for replacement of
locations for equivalent hardnesses in round similar parts.
bars quenched in still oil; figure 23 shows cor- The standard end-quench test is most useful
responding relations for bars quenched in still for steels of moderate hardenability, that is,
water. the low-alloy steels. For shallow hardening
If the hardenability (end-quench) curve of steels, such as plain carbon, a modification of
a steel is known, it is possible to ascertain this test (the L-type bar) is used.
19
4.0 Because of variations in the rate of solidifica-
tion and cooling, castings may be white at the
3.5
surface layers, mottled immediately below, and
/SURFACE /J^ / 1/2
/RADIUS gray in the interior.
at 3.0
u In nodular cast iron, also known as "ductile
iron," "nodular graphite iron," "spherulitic
iron," and "spheroidal graphite iron," the gra-
12.0
fe
phite is present in the form of nodules or
/ /CENTER spheroids (fig. 24, E and F) bestowing consid-
B 1.5 / erable ductility to the cast iron. These nod-
< ules form during solidification due to the treat-
5 |.o / '// ment of the molten iron, just prior to casting,
with a few hundredths percent usually of either
05
f magnesium or cerium; the sulfur content must
be below about 0.015 percent for the treatment
to be effective with these elements. Nodular
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 IS 20
DISTANCE FROM WATER QUENCHED END. 1/16 IN.
iron and gray iron have the same total carbon
content. The mechanical properties of nodular
FIGURE 23. Relation between distances on the end-quench iron can be varied by alloying.
bar and various locations for equivalent hardnesses or
cooling rales in round bars quenched in still water. Cast irons may be given a variety of heat
(Metals Handbook, 1948 edition, p. 4M.) treatments, depending on the compositions and
desired properties. The principles of the heat
treatments applied to cast iron are similar to
7. Heat Treatment of Cast Irons those already discussed for steels.
Cast irons are of three general types, gray, 7.1. Relieving Residual Stresses (Aging)
white, and nodular. The terms gray and white
are descriptive of the characteristic appear- The heat treatment that relieves residual
ances of the fractures and nodular is descrip- stresses is commonly called "aging," "normaliz-
tive of the shape of the graphite particles. ing," or "mild annealing;" the term "stress re-
In gray iron a large proportion of the carbon lieving" is more accurately descriptive. This
is present as graphitic or uncombined carbon treatment can be accomplished by heating the
in the form of flakes. The small proportion of cast iron to between 800 and 1,100 F., holding
carbon that is present as combined carbon or at temperature from 30 min. to 5 hr, the time
cementite is in the form of pearlite just as in a depending on the size and temperature, and
steel. Depending on the amount of combined cooling slowly in the furnace. Such treatment
carbon, the matrix of cast iron may be similar will cause only a slight decrease in hardness,
to a hypoeutectoid steel with varying amounts very little decomposition of cementite, and only
of free ferrite and graphite flakes dispersed a slight change in the strength of the metal.
throughout (fig. 24, A, B, and C). If the
amount of combined carbon is about 0.8 per- 7.2. Annealing
cent, the matrix will be entirely pearlitic; if the
amount is greater, the matrix will be similar to Sometimes, it is desirable to soften castings
a hypereutectoid steel. in order to facilitate machining. The temper-
In white iron most, if not all, of the carbon ature range most commonly used for this pur-
is present as cementite (fig. 24, D). The pose is 1,400 to 1,500 F, although temper-
ill dividing line between white and gray cast iron atures as low as 1,200 to 1,250 F have been
is not clearly defined and iron possessing char- used satisfactorily. Highly alloyed irons are
acteristics of both are called mottled cast iron. sometimes annealed at temperatures as high as
Whether a cast iron will be gray or white 1,800 F. In all annealing, care should be
depends on two factorscomposition and rate taken to prevent oxidation of the casting and
of cooling. Certain elements tend to promote cooling should be slow.
the formation of graphitic carbon; the most In general, softening for machinability is
important of these are silicon, nickel, and accompanied by a decrease in strength and in
sulfur. Others tend to promote the formation the amount of combined carbon, and by an in-
of combined carbon; the most important of crease in graphite content. Irons that contain
these are chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, carbide-forming elements (such as chromium,
and manganese. Rapid solidification and cool- molybdenum, vanadium, and manganese) are
ing, such as result from thin sections cast in more resistant to softening than the ordinary
sand or larger sections cast against chills, pro- gray iron and, therefore, must be annealed at
mote the formation of white iron. Iron so considerably higher temperatures. Completely
produced is frequently termed chilled iron. annealed ordinary gray cast iron has a Brinell
20
I T
1
- ' c^-^" Y * /^ *
warn*?*
y.*
Safe"
T4*
* . .JT ?
-A. ;:\,V .
FIGURE 24. Microstructure of cast irons.
A., Oray iron. The dark flakes are graphite. Unetched. X100.
B, Same as (A). Etched with picral. X100.
C, Same as (B). The matrix consists of pearlite with a small amount of free ferrite (white) and is similar to a hypoeutectoid steel. The appearance of the
graphite flakes is not affected by the etchant. X500.
D, White iron. The white needles are cementite; the dark areas are pearlite; the dark spheroidal areas are the eutectic (Ledeburlte). Etched with picral.
X500.
E, Nodular iron. The dark nodules are graphite; the white matrix is ferrite. Etched with picral. X100.
F, Pearlitic nodular iron. Nodular graphite (dark) in a pearlitic matrix. Etched with picral. X100.
G, Malleable iron. The dark nodules are graphite; the white matrix is ferrite. Etched with picral. X100.
H, Pearlitic malleable iron. Nodular graphite (dark) in a pearlitic matrix. Etched with picral. X100.
21
hardness of 120 to 130, and completely an- tenite plus excess cementite or graphite and the
nealed alloy irons may have a Brinell hardness austenite. can be transformed in the same man-
of 130 to 180, depending on the composition. ner as in steel. Although irons that are almost
The matrix of nodular iron can be made completely graphitic (the common soft gray
completely ferritic by heating at 1,300 F for 1 irons) can be hardened, this is not customary.
to 5 hr, depending on composition, size of cast- Such irons must be held at temperatures well
ing, and amount of pearlite in the as-cast struc- above the critical for long periods of time in
ture; cooling from the annealing temperature order to assure the solution of carbon in the
can be at any convenient rate. If massive or austenite.
primary carbides are present in the as-cast For optimum results, the graphite flakes
structure, they may be converted to spheroidal should be small and uniformly distributed and
graphite by heating at 1,600 to 1,700 F for the matrix should be pearlitic with not too
1 to 5 hr. Slowly cooling from this tempera- much free ferrite (combined carbon from about
ture range to about 1,275 PF and holding from 0.50 to 0.80%). Castings should be heated uni-
3 to 5 hr will convert the matrix to ferrite. formly to the quenching temperature, which
Nodular iron with a ferritic matrix has the usually ranges from 1,500 to 1,600 F. The
desirable combination of maximum machin- quenching medium commonly used is oil; water
ability, toughness, and ductility. The hard- is used to a limited extent and some alloy
ness of ferritic nodular iron varies with the castings may be quenched in air. The iron as
alloy content from a low of about 130 Brinell quenched, generally has a lower strength than
to a high of about 210 Brinell. as cast, but the strength is increased by tem-
a. Malleabilizing pering in the range of 350 to 1,200 F. Soften-
ing proceeds uniformly as the tempering tem-
Malleabilizing (also termed graphitizing) is perature is increased above about 350 to
a process of annealing white cast iron in such 1,200 F.
a way that the combined carbon is wholly or A pearlitic matrix can be produced in nodu-
partly transformed to graphite in the nodular lar iron as cast or by normalizing. The
form (fig. 24, G and H) instead of the flaky normalizing treatment consists of heating to
form that exists in gray cast iron. The nodu- 1,600 to 1,650 F, holding at temperature for
lar form of carbon is called temper or free solution of carbon, followed by cooling in air.
carbon. In some instances, part of the carbon The mechanical properties of the normalized
is lost in the malleabilizing process. irons vary with the composition, fineness, and
White iron that is to be malleabilized should amounts of pearlite; heavy sections are lower
contain all its carbon in the combined form. in hardness and higher in ductility than light
Any carbon present as graphitic carbon (and sections. The Brinell hardness numbers range
hence in the form of flakes) will not be affected from about 200 to 275.
by the graphitizing treatment and is undesir- Martensitic or bainitic structures are pro-
able in the final structure.
The temperatures used in malleabilizing duced in nodular iron by quenching from 1,600
usually range from about 1,500 to 1,650 F. to 1,700 F in oil or water. The irons as
Time at temperature is quite long, frequently quenched have high strengths but low ductility.
being as much as two to three days. Holding However, the ductility of the as-quenched iron
at this temperature causes the decomposition can be materially increased (strength and
of the cementite into austenite plus rather hardness decreased) by tempering at about
rounded forms of graphite. If the iron is then 1,000 to 1,300 F.
cooled very slowly through the critical range
(less than 10 F/hr), the resultant structure 7.4. Special Heat Treatments
will consist of ferrite plus temper carbon.
Cooling less slowly through the transformation Subject to the same limitations as steels, cast
range, or using an iron containing an alloying irons can be flame-hardened, induction-hard-
element that retards graphitization, results in ened, austempered, martempered, or nitrided.
a final product containing various amounts of
pearlite plus ferrite with, of course, temper
carbon. Irons having a pearlitic structure 8. Practical Considerations
plus temper carbon are known as pearlitic
/ malleable irons (fig. 24, H). As might be ex-
pected, pearlitic malleable irons are susceptible Satisfactory heat treatment of steel (and
to heat treatment in the same manner as steels. iron) requires furnaces that have uniform con-
trolled temperatures, means for accurate tem-
7.3. Normalizing, Quenching, and Tempering perature measurement, and for protecting the
surface of the material from scaling or decar-
When heated to above the critical tempera- burizing. Proper quenching equipment is
ture (line SK, fig. 3), cast iron consists of aus- needed also.
22
may be secured by covering the work with cast
8.1. Furnaces and Salt Baths
iron borings or chips.
There are many different types and sizes of Since the work in salt or lead baths is sur-
furnaces used in heat treatment. As a gen- rounded by the liquid heating medium, the
eral rule, furnaces are designed to operate in problem of preventing scaling or decarburiza-
certain specific temperature ranges and at- tion is simplified.
tempted use in other ranges frequently results Vacuum furnaces also are used for annealing
in work of inferior quality. In addition, using steels, especially when a bright non-oxidized
a furnace beyond its rated maximum temper- surface is a prime consideration.
ature shortens its life and may necessitate b. Temperature Measurement and Control
costly and time-consuming repairs.
Fuel-fired furnaces (gas or oil) require air Accurate temperature measurement is essen-
for proper combustion and an air compressor tial to good heat treating. The usual method
or blower is therefore a necessary jwunct is by means of thermocouples; the most com-
These furnaces are usually of the muffle type, mon base-metal couples are copper-Constantan
that is, the combustion of the fuel takes place (up to about 700 F), iron-Constantan (up to
outside of and around the chamber m which about 1,400 F), and Chromel-Alumel (up to
the work is placed. If an open muffle is used, about 2,200 F). The most common noble-
the furnace should be designed so as to prevent metal couples (which can be used up to about
the direct impingement of flame on the work. 2,800 F) are platinum coupled with either the
In furnaces heated by electricity the heating alloy 87 percent platinum13 percent rhodium
elements are generally in the form of wire or or the alloy 90 percent platinum10 percent
ribbon. Good design requires incorporation of rhodium. The temperatures quoted are for
additional heating elements at locations where continuous operation.
maximum heat loss may be expected. Such The life of thermocouples is affected by the
furnaces commonly operate up to a maximum maximum temperature (which may frequently
temperature of about 2,000 F. Furnaces exceed those given above) and by the furnace
operating at temperatures up to about 2,500 F atmosphere. Iron-Constantan is more suited
usually employ resistor bars of sintered for use in reducing and Chromel-Alumel in
carbides. oxidizing atmospheres. Thermocouples are
Furnaces intended primarily for tempering usually encased in metallic or ceramic tubes
may be heated by gas or electricity and are closed at the hot end to protect them from the
frequently equipped with a fan for circulating furnace gases. A necessary adjunct is an
the hot air. instrument, such as a millivoltmeter or poten-
Salt baths are available for operating at tiometer, for measuring the electromotive
either tempering or hardening temperatures. force generated by the thermocouple. In the
Depending on the composition of the salt bath, interest of accurate control, the hot junction of
heating can be conducted at temperatures as the thermocouple should be placed as close to
low as 325 F to as high as 2,450 F. Lead the work as possible. The use of an automatic
baths can be used in the temperature range of controller is valuable in controlling the temper-
650 to 1,700 F. The rate of heating in lead or ature at the desired value.
salt baths is much faster than in furnaces. if temperature-measuring equipment is not
a. Protective Atmospheres available, it becomes necessary to estimate
temperatures by some other means. An inex-
It is often necessary or desirable to protect pensive, yet fairly accurate method involves the
steel or cast iron from surface oxidation (scal- use of commercial crayons, pellets, orpaints
ing) and loss of carbon from the surface layers that melt at various temperatures within the
(decarburization, fig. 15, F). Commercial fur- range 125 to 1,600 F. The least accurate
naces, therefore, are generally equipped with method of temperature estimation is by obser-
some means of atmosphere control. This usu- vation of the color of the hot hearth of the fur-
ally is in the form of a burner for burning nace or of the work. The heat colors observed
controlled amounts of gas and air and directing are affected by many factors, such as the con-
the products of combustion into the furnace ditions of artificial or natural light, the char-
muffle. Water vapor, a product of this com- acter of the scale on the work, etc.
bustion, is detrimental and many furnaces are Steel begins to appear dull red at about
equipped with a means for eliminating it. For 1,000 F, and as the temperature increases the
furnaces not equipped with atmosphere control, color changes gradually through various shades
a variety of external atmosphere generators of red to orange, to yellow, and finally to white.
are available. The gas so generated is piped A rough approximation of the correspondence
into the furnace and one generator may supply between color and temperature is indicated in
several furnaces. If no method of atmosphere
control is available, some degree of protection figure 25.
23
It is also possible to secure some idea of the
_f 1500 temperature of the piece of a carbon or low-
2700 -z - alloy steel in the low temperature range used
C for tempering from the color of the thin oxide
2600 ~z ". film that forms on the cleaned surface of the
~ m 1400 steel when heated in this range. The approxi-
2500 _Z i mate temperature-color relationship for a time
at temperature of about one-half hour is indi-
2400 -^ cated on the lower portion of the. scale in
1300
figure 25.
2300 ~E Color of
Hot Body 8.2. Quenching Media and Accessories
2200 ~E 1200
~ Whit Quenching solutions act only through their
2100 -E
ability to cool the steeL They have no bene-
ficial chemical action on the quenched steel and
1100 in themselves impart no unusual properties.
2000E Most requirements for quenching media are
met satisfactorily by water or aqueous solu-
1900 -E tions of inorganic salts such as table salt or
- I000Y,"0W caustic soda, or by some type of oil. The rate
leoo -Ei of cooling is relatively rapid during quenching
in brine, somewhat less rapid in water, and
1700 -^ Orange slow in oil.
- 900 Brine usually is made of a 5- to 10-percent
1600 -E solution of salt (sodium chloride) in water.
Light Cherry In addition to its greater cooling speed, brine
1800^ - has the ability to "throw" the scale from steel
800 during quenching. The cooling ability of both
1400 ~E Full Cherry water and brine, particularly water, is con-
siderably affected by their temperature. Both
1300 -E 700 should be kept cold.well below 60 F. If the
volume of steel being quenched tends to raise
1200 -E Dark Cherry the temperature of the bath appreciably, the
quenching bath should be cooled by adding ice
1100 600
or by some means of refrigeration.
There are many specially prepared quench-
Dark Red
ing oils on the market; their cooling rates do
loooE not vary widely. A straight mineral oil with
500 a Saybolt viscosity of about 100 at 100 F is
900
generally used. Unlike brine and water, the
oils have the greatest cooling velocity at a
800 -^ __ slightly elevated temperature -about 100 to
400 140 Fbecause of their decreased viscosity
700 -E Temper at these temperatures.
Colors When steel is quenched, the liquid in immedi-
600 -; ~
: 300 Blue
ate contact with the hot surface vaporizes; this
vapor reduces the rate of heat abstraction
800 i Purple markedly. Vigorous agitation of the steel or
Brown the use of a pressure spray quench is necessary
400 -E: 200 Straw to dislodge these vapor films and thus permit
the desired rate of cooling.
300 Shallow hardening steels, such as plain car-
bon and certain varieties of alloy steels, have
200 -E loo such a high critical cooling rate that they must
be quenched in brine or water to effect harden-
100 -E - ing. In general, intricately shaped sections
should not be made of shallow hardening steels
because of the tendency of these steels to warp
FIGURE 25. Temperature chart indicating conversion of and crack during hardening. Such items
Centrigrade to Fahrenheit or vice versa, color temperature should be made of deeper hardening steels ca-
scale for hardening-lemperalure range, and lempering-
temperature range. pable of being hardened by quenching in oil or
air.
24
A variety of different shapes and sizes of
tongs for handling hot steels is necessary. It
should be remembered that cooling of the area 3 o 3
contacted by the tongs is retarded and that
such areas may not harden, particularly if the Z T
steel being treated is very shallow hardening.
Small parts may be wired together or quenched
in baskets made of wire mesh.
Special quenching jigs and fixtures are fre-
quently used to hold steels during quenching
in a manner to restrain distortion.
When selective hardening is desired, portions
of the steel may be protected by covering with
alundum cement or some other insulating ma-
terial. Selective hardening may be accom-
plished also by the use of water or oil jets
designed to direct the quenching medium on the
areas to be hardened. This also is accom-
plished by the induction and flame-hardening
procedures previously described, particularly
on large production jobs.
8.3. Relation of Design to Heat Treatment
Internal strains arise from many causes, but
the most serious are those developed during
quenching by reason of differential cooling and
from the increase in volume that accompanies
the martensitic transformation. These stresses
are frequently sufficient to distort or crack the
hardened steel. Since temperature gradients
are largely a function of the size and shape of
the piece being quenched, the basic principle of
good design is to plan shapes that will keep
the temperature gradient throughout a piece at
a minimum during quenching.
Because of the abruptness in the change of
section, some shapes are impractical to harden, FIGURE 26. Examples of good and bad designs from sland-
without cracking or distortion, by quenching in ?oint of hardening by heat treatment (Palmer and Luerssen,
W steel simplified, p. 392, 1948).
water, but a certain latitude in design is per-
missible when using an oil-hardening or air-
hardening steel. Other things being equal, A, End view of an undercutting form tool incorrectly designed.
temperature gradients are much lower in B, The same tool better designed from the viewpoint of heat treatment.
Heavy sections have been lightened by drilling holes, thus insuring more
shapes quenched in oil than in water, and are uniform cooling. The fillet at (a) minimizes danger of cracking at the sharp
still less in air. Thus a certain design may re-entrant angle. Where a fillet is not allowable, treatment as shown at
(b) is helpful.
be perfectly safe for one type of steel, or one C, Cracking will tend to occur at the sharp roots of the keyways.
type of coolant, and unsafe for another. D, Fillets at the roots of the keyways will reduce the tendency toward
cracking. The incorporation of the two additional keyways, even though
Errors in design reach farther than merely unnecessary in actual service, helps balance the section and avoid warping.
E, A blanking die with the center rib heavier than the surrounding areas.
affecting the internal strains during hardening. This may cause warping on quenching.
A sharp angle or notch serves to greatly con- F, The same die with holes drilled in the centerrib to equalize the amount
of metal throughout the die, thus eliminating warpage difficulties.
centrate the stresses applied during service, Q, A stem pinion with a keyway about one-half the diameter of the stem.
and the design of the part may be entirely re- The base of the keyway is extremely sharp, and the piece is further weakened
by a hole drilled through the center of the stem near the keyway. The base
sponsible for concentrating the service stresses of the keyway should be filleted and hole re-located.
H, A dangerous design consisting of a thin collar adjoining a thick section.
at a point already weakened by internal strains When hardening such pieces, the thin section often warps or cracks at the
produced during hardening. Concentration of Junction with the hub. Extremely generous fillets and drilling holes through
the hub to lighten its mass will be helpful.
service stresses frequently parallels concentra- J, When hardening, the concentration of strains at the Junction of the two
holes In the center are apt to cause failure. Such holes should be plugged
tion of heat-treating strains and is frequently before hardening.
caused and cured by the same combination of K. A blanking die poorly designed. Crack will occur from point of fork
prong to setscrew hole. The position of the setscrew hole should be changed
circumstances. to eliminate cracking.
A part is properly designed, from a stand-
point of heat treatment, if the entire piece can
be heated and cooled at approximately the
same rate during the heat-treating operations.
25
Perfection in this regard is unattainable be- 47xx Nickel 1.05%, chromium 0.45%, molybde-
cause, even m a sphere, the surface cools more num 0.20 or 0.35%
rapidly than the interior. The designer should, 48xx Nickel 3.50%, molybdenum 0.25%
however, attempt to shape parts so that they 60xx Chromium 0.25, 0.40 or 0.50%
50xxx Carbon 1.00%, chromium 0.50%
will heat and cool as uniformly as possible. 51xx Chromium 0.80, 0.90, 0.95, or 1.00%
The greater the temperature difference be- Blxxx Carbon 1.00%, chromium 1.05%
tween any two points in a given part during 52xxx Carbon 1.00%, chromium 1.45%
quenching, and the closer these two points are 61xx Chromium 0.60, 0.80 or 0.95%, vanadium
0.12%, 0.10% min., or 0.15% min.
together, the greater will be the internal strain 81xx Nickel 0.30%, chromium 0.40%, molyb-
and, therefore, the poorer the design. denum 0.12%
When large and small sections are unavoid- 86xx Nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.50%, molyb-
able in the same piece, the thick part frequently denum 0.20%
87xx Nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.05%, molyb-
can be lightened by drilling holes through it. denum 0.25%
Where changes in section are encountered, 88xx Nickel 0.55%, chromium 0.50%, molyb-
angles should be filletted generously. Some denum 0.35%
examples of poor and good design are shown 92xx Manganese 0.85%, silicon 2.00%, chro-
in figure 26. mium 0 or 0.35%
93 Nickel 3.25%, chromium 1.20%, molyb-
denum 0.12%
94xx Nickel 0.45%, chromium 0.40%, molyb-
9. Nomenclature and Chemical denum 0.12%
98xx Nickel 1.00%, chromium 0.80%, molyb-
Compositions of Steels denum 0.25%
* Not included in the current list of standard steels.
9.1. Structural Steels
In order to facilitate the discussion of steels, Listings of the AISI type numbers and chem-
some familiarity with their nomenclature is ical composition limits of the standard struc-
desirable. tural steels (complete as of January 1966) are
A numerical index, sponsored by the Society given in table 1. The SAE type numbers (not
of Automotive Engineers (SAE) and the shown in the table) are the same as the AISI
American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) is numbers, except that the latter may be given a
used to identify the chemical compositions of letter prefix to indicate the method of manu-
the structural steels. In this system, a four- facture. These prefixes and their meanings
numeral series is used to designate the plain are as follows: B denotes acid bessemer carbon
carbon and alloy steels; five numerals are used steel, C denotes basic open hearth or basic
to designate certain types of alloy steels. The electric furnace carbon steels, E denotes elec-
first two digits indicate the type of steel, the tric furnace alloy steels. A few of the AISI
second digit also generally (but not always) steels are not included in SAE listings.
gives the approximate amount of the major Small quantities of certain elements are
alloying element and the last two (or three) present in alloy steels that are not specified as
K? ar? mtende^ to indicate the approximate required. These elements are considered as
middle of the carbon range. However, a devi- incidental and may be present to the maximum
ation from the rule of indicating the carbon amounts as follows: copper, 0.35 percent;
range is sometimes necessary. nickel, 0.25 percent; chromium, 0.20 percent;
The series designation and types are sum- molybdenum, 0.06 percent.
marized as follows: The list of standard steels is altered from
1 time to time to accommodate steels of proven
Serie* merit and to provide for changes in the metal-
h denotation
lOxx
Type*
Nonsulphurized carbon steels
lurgical and engineering requirements of
industry.
llxx ___. Resulphurized carbon steels (free ma- Many of the alloy structural steels are manu-
chining)
12xx Rephosphorized and resulphurized carbon
factured to meet certain specified limits in
steels (free machining) hardenability as determined by the standard
13xx
23xx
Manganese 1.75% end-quench test. Such steels, table 2, are des-
Nickel 3.50% ignated by the letter "H" following the AISI
25xx Nickel 5.00%
31xx Nickel 1.25%, chromium 0.65% number. The chemical composition limits of
33xx Nickel 3.50%, chromium 1.55% these steels have been modified somewhat from
40xx Molybdenum 0.20 or 0.25% the ranges or limits applicable to the same
41xx grades when specified by chemical composition
Ch r
0 i2io0 2% 0r '95%' molybdenum
43xx Nickel 1.80%, chromium 0.50 or 0.80%,
only. The hardenability of an "H" steel is
molybdenum 0.25% guaranteed by the manufacturer to fall within
44xx Molybdenum 0.40% a hardenability band having maximum and
45xx Molybdenum 0.52% minimum limits as shown by two limiting hard-
46xx Nickel 1.80%, molybdenum 0.25% enability curves for that particular steel.
26
~T
TABLE 1. Composition limits of standard steels
NONRESULPHURIZED CARBON STEELS
Designation Designation
number Chemical composition limits, percent number Chemical composit on limits, percent
C 1006 0.06 max 0.36 max 0.040 0.050 C 1042 0.40/0.47 0.60/0.90 0.040 0.050
C 1006 .08 max 0.25/0.40 .040 .050 C 1043 .40/0.47 .70/1.00 .040 .050
C 1008 .10 max .25/0.50 .040 .050 C 1044 .43/0.50 .30/0.60 .040 .050
C 1010 0.08/0.18 .30/0.60 .040 .060 C 1045 .43/0.50 .60/0.90 .040 .050
C 1011 .08/0.18 .60/0.90 .040 .050 C 1046 .43/0.50 .70/1.00 .040 .050
C 1012 .10/0.15 .30/0.60 .040 .050 C 1048 .44/0.62 1.10/1.40 .040 .050
C 1013 .11/0.16 .60/0.80 .040 .050 C 1049 .46/0.63 .60/0.90 .040 .050
C 1016 .13/0.18 .30/0.60 .040 .050 C 1050 .48/0.55 .60/0.90 .040 .050
C 1016 .18/0.18 .60/0.90 .040 .060 C 1051 .45/0.66 .86/1.15 .040 .050
C 1017 .16/0.20 .30/0.60 .040 .050 C 1052 .47/0.66 1.20/1.50 .040 .050
C 1018 .16/0.20 .60/0.90 .040 .060 C 1053 .48/0.55 .70/1.00 .040 .050
C 1019 .16/0.20 .70/1.00 .040 .060 C 1056 .60/0.60 .60/0.90 .040 .050
C 1020 .18/0.23 .30/0.60 .040 .050 C 1059 .56/0.65 .60/0.80 .040 .050
C 1021 .18/0.23 .60/0.90 .040 .050 C 1060 .66/0.65 .60/0.90 .040 .060
C 1022 .18/0.28 .70/1.00 .040 .050 C 1061 .56/0.65 .76/1.05 .040 .060
C 1028 .20/0.26 .30/0.60 .040 .050 C 1064 .60/0.70 .50/0.80 .040 .050
C 1024 .19/0.25 1.36/1.66 .040 .050 C 1065 .60/0.70 .60/0.90 .040 .050
C 1026 .22/0.28 0.30/0.60 .040 .060 C 1066 .60/0.70 .85/1.15 .040 .060
C 1026 .22/0.28 .60/0.90 .040 .050 C 1069 .65/0.75 .40/0.70 .040 .050
C 1027 .22/0.29 1.20/1.60 .040 .060 C 1070 .66/0.76 .60/0.90 .040 .050
C 1029 .26/0.31 0.60/0.90 .040 .050 C 1072 .66/0.76 1.00/1.30 .040 .050
C 1030 .28/0.34 .60/0.90 .040 .060 C 1074 .70/0.80 .50/0.80 .040 .060
C 1034 .32/0.38 .60/0.80 .040 .050 C 1075 .70/0.80 .40/0.70 .040 .050
C 1036 .32/0.88 .60/0.90 .040 .050 C 1078 .72/0.86 .30/0.60 .040 .050
C 1086 .30/0.37 1.20/1.60 .040 .050 C 1080 .76/0.88 .60/0.90 .040 .050
C 1037 .32/0.38 0.70/1.00 .040 .050 C 1084 .80/0.93 .60/0.90 .040 .050
C 1038 .86/0.42 .60/0.90 .040 .060 C 1086 .80/0.98 .30/0.60 .040 .050
C 1089 .37/0.44 .70/1.00 .040 .050 C 1090 .86/0.98 .60/0.90 .040 .050
C 1040 .37/0.44 .60/0.90 .040 .050 C 1096 .90/1.03 .30/0.50 .040 .050
C 1041 .36/0.44 1.85/1.65 .040 .050
1
RESULPHURIZED CARBON STEELS
Designation Designation
number Chemical composition limits, percent number Chemical composition limits, percent
C 1108 0.08/0.13 0.60/0.80 0.040 0.08/0.13 C 1137 0.32/0.39 1.85/1.65 0.040 0.08/0.13
C 1109 .08/0.13 .60/0.90 .040 .08/0.13 C 1189 .35/0.43 1.35/1.66 .040 .12/0.20
C 1110 .08/0.13 .30/0.60 .040 .08/0.13 C 1140 .37/0.44 .70/1.00 .040 .08/0.13
C 1116 .14/0.20 1.10/1.40 .040 .16/0.23 C 1141 .87/0.46 1.35/1.65 .040 .08/0.13
C 1117 .14/0.20 1.00/1.30 .040 .08/0.13 C 1144 .40/0.48 1.35/1.66 .040 .24/0.33
C 1118 .14/0.20 1.30/1.60 .040 .08/0.13 C 1145 .42/0.49 .70/1.00 .040 .04/0.07
C 1119 .14/0.20 1.00/1.30 .040 .24/0.33 C 1146 .42/0.49 .70/1.00 .040 .08/0.13
C 1182 .27/0.84 1.35/1.65 .040 .08/0.13 C 1161 .48/0.65 .70/1.00 .040 .08/0.13
ACID BESSEMER RESULPHURIZED CARBON STEELS REPHOSPHORIZED AND RESULPHURIZED CARBON STEELS
Designation Designation
number Chemical composition limits, percent number Chemical composition limits, percent
AISI C Mn P S AISI C Mn P S
B 1111 0.13 max 0.60/0.90 0.07/0.12 0.08/0.16 C 1211 0.13 max 0.60/0.90 0.07/0.12 0.08/0.15
B 1112 .13 max .70/1.00 .07/0.12 .16/0.23 C 1212 .18 max .70/1.00 .07/0.12 .16/0.23
B 1113 .13 max .70/1.00 .07/0.12 .24/0.33 C 1213 .13 max .70/1.00 .07/0.12 .24/0.33
C 1216 .09 max .76/1.05 .04/0.09 .26/0.35
JC 12L14 .15 max .80/1.20 .04/0.09 .25/0.35
27
TABLE 1. Composition limits of standard steelsContinued
OPEN HEARTH AND ELECTRIC FURNACE ALLOY STEELS
1
Dodcnation
number Chemical composition limits, percent
28
TABU 1. Composition, limit of tandard steelsContinued
OPEN HEARTH AND ELECTRIC FURNACE ALLOY STEELS '-(continued)
Designation
number Chemical compoeition limit*, percent
BORON STEELS
Then steel can be expected to ha 0.0006 percent minimum boron content.
Designation
number Chemical composition limit, percent
NITRIDING STEEL
Designation
number Chemical composition limits, percent
29
T
TABLE 2. Standard H-steels
OPEN HEARTH AND ELECTRIC FURNACE STEELS
Designation
number
Chemical composition limiti. percent
AISI Mn Ni Cr Mo
1S30 H 0.27/0.83 1.45/2.05 0.20/0.86
1836 H .82/0.38 1.45/2.05 .20/0.35
1840 H .87/0.44 1.45/2.05 .20/0.85
8140 H .87/0.44 0.60/1.00 .20/0.85 1.00/1.46 0.45/0.86
8810 H .07/0.18 .30/0.70 .20/0.85 3.20/3.80 1.30/1.80
4027 H .24/0.30 .60/1.00
'4028 H .20/0.36 0.20/0.80
.24/0.30 .60/1.00 .20/0.35
4087 H .84/0.41 .60/1.00 .20/0.80
4047 H .44/0.61 .20/0.35 .20/0.80
.60/1.00 .20/0.86 .20/0.80
4118 H .17/0.23 .60/1.00
4180 H .20/0.36 0.80/0.70 .08/0.15
.27/0.83 .30/0.70 .20/0.85
4187 H .84/0.41 .60/100 .75/1.20 .16/0.26
4140 H .87/0.44 .20/0.36 .76/1.20 .16/0.26
.65/1.10 .20/0.36 .76/1.20
4142 H .89/0.46 .66/1.10 .20/0.85 .16/0.26
414S H .42/0.49 .66/1.10 .76/1.20 .15/0.26
4147 H .44/0.61 .20/0.35 .75/1.20 .15/0.26
.65/1.10 .20/0.86 .76/1.20
4160 H .47/0.64 .66/1.10 .20/0.35 .16/0.26
4161 H .66/0.66 .66/1.10 .76/1.20 .16/0.26
.20/0.35 .66/0.96 .25/0.86
4820 H .17/0.23 .40/0.70 .20/0.86
4887 H .84/0.41 1.56/2.00 .86/0.65 .20/0.80
.66/0.90 .20/0.85 1.65/2.00 .66/0.95
4840 H .87/0.44 .65/0.90 .20/0.80
E4S40 H .37/0.44 .20/0.85 1.66/2.00 .66/0.96 .20/0.80
.60/0.95 .20/0.86 1.66/2.00 .66/0.95 .20/0.30
4419 H .17/0.23 .86/0.76 .20/0.36 .46/0.60
4620 H .17/0.23 .86/0.76
4621 H .17/0.28 .20/0.36 1.66/2.00 .20/0.80
.60/1.00 .20/0.36 1.56/2.00
4626 H .28/0.29 .40/0.70 .20/0.35 .20/0.80
.65/1.05 .15/0.25
4718 H .15/0.21 .60/0.96
4720 H .17/0.28 .20/0.35 0.86/1.25 .30/0.60 .80/0.40
.46/0.75 .20/0.85 0.86/1.25 .80/0.60 .15/0.26
4816 H .12/0.18 .80/0.70
4817 H .14/0.20 .20/0.36 3.20/3.80 .20/0.80
.30/0.70 .20/0.35 3.20/3.80
4820 H .17/0.28 .40/0.80 .20/0.30
.20/0.85 8.20/3.80 .20/0.80
6120 H .17/0.23 .60/1.00
6180 H .27/0.83 .20/0.85 .60/1.00
6182 H .60/1.00 .20/0.35 .76/1.20
.29/0.86 .50/0.90 .20/0.36
6186 H .82/0.88 .60/0.90 .66/1.10
6140 H .87/0.44 .20/0.35 .70/1.15
.60/1.00 .20/0.35 .60/1.00
6146 H .42/0.49 .60/1.00
6147 H .45/0.62 .20/0.35 .60/1.00
.60/1.05 .20/0.35 .80/1.26
6160 H .47/0.64 .60/1.00
6165 H .60/0.60 .20/0.35 .60/1.00
.60/1.00 .20/0.35 .60/1.00
6160 H .65/0.65 .66/1.10 .20/0.36 .60/1.00
6118 H .15/0.21 .40/0.80
6160 H .47/0.64 .20/0.35 .40/0.80 0.10/0.15
.60/1.00 .20/0.35 .75/1.20 .16 min.
8617 H .14/0.20 .60/0.95
8620 H .17/0.23 .20/0.35 0.85/0.76 .86/0.65 .16/0.26
.60/0.95 .20/0.35 .35/0.75 .85/0.66
8622 H .19/0.26 .60/0.95 .15/0.26
8626 H .22/0.28 .20/0.35 .85/0.76 .35/0.65 .16/0.26
.60/0.95 .20/0.35 .35/0.76 .86/0.65
8627 H .24/0.30 .60/0.95 .16/0.25
8630 H .27/0.83 .20/0.35 .35/0.65 .35/0.65 .16/0.25
8637 H .60/0.96 .20/0.35 .85/0.75 .85/0.66
.84/0.41 .70/1.05 .20/0.85 .15/0.25
8640 H .87/0.44 .85/0.75 .85/0.65 .15/0.25
8642 H .70/1.06 .20/0.35 .86/0.76 .86/0.65
.89/0.46 .70/1.06 .20/0.35 .16/0.26
8645 H .42/0.49 .85/0.75 .86/0.65 .16/0.25
8655 H .70/1.05 .20/0.35 .86/0.76 .85/0.66
.60/0.60 .70/1.06 .20/0.35 .16/0.26
.86/0.75 .35/0.65 .16/0.26
8720 H .17/0.28 .60/0.95
8740 H .37/0.44 .20/0.35 .35/0.75 .85/0.65 .20/0.80
.70/1.05 .20/0.35 .85/0.76 .35/0.65 .20/0.80
8822 H .19/0.26 .70/1.05 .20/0.35 .85/0.75 .85/0.66 .80/0.40
9260 H .65/0.65 .65/1.10 1.70/2.20
30
TABLE 2. Standard H-steelsContinued
BORON H-STEELS
Then steels en be expected to have 0.0006 percent minimum boron content
Designation
number Chemical composition limit, percent
AISI C Hn Si Ni Cr Ho V
The AISI identification and type classifica- See footnotes at end of table.
tion of tool steels is given in table 3. Each
j major group, identified by a letter symbol, may ter symbol. The percentages of the elements
contain a number of individual types that are shown in the table for each type are not to be
identified by a suffix number following the let- considered as the mean of the composition
31
Ir TABLE 3. Identification, and type classification TABLE 3. Identification and type classification
of tool steelsContinued of tool steelsContinued
iL
| : i i : i
HP
as
tiii
! i i i i i : j ; ; i ; ; ; ; ; ig j
:s
M M
OO
-3to
1
! ! I ! i < a )
e i ! i ! ! ! i 1 i i Ti
1 il !!!!: iiiii Mi
8 ! i i i i ! : : ! : i : :
1 1
- 1 18 88
iff ^
i ia
; : :I ii
: : :S :
:t : :1 :
'.BBS : : SS
:aal ; ; so
1*3 in i 'ma
SB
if It ! ! ! ! * **
Hill 111
S
oo a
II SSS88 wo
SSSSS n>aa>s
SSSSS 22S
53335 SSSSS
sssss SSSSS
gsssg S?fSS
SSSSSS 2
S3
ff
MH KHMKM MHMMK H K
s B B 5SB8S SSBSs 258 SS 3 8 B 5 SS
gg ggggg liSii fltitl Sil Hill =1 fo==iJs o|
22 22222 S82S8 SSSSS 83888 28323 5 6232 8|s88 62
33
10. Recommended Heat Treatments the hardening temperature and let it heat
naturallly, hold y% hr/in of thickness, and then
quench; it is sometimes advisable to warm in-
10.1. Structural Steels
tricate sections or complex shapes before put-
ting them into the high temperature unit and
to remove from the quenching medium while
A listing of recommended heat treatments still warm. Usually, the quenched piece should
for many of the steels listed in tables 1 and 2 be allowed to cool until it feels comfortable to
are given in tables 5 and 6. Treatments for the bare hand and then immediately tempered.
the standard steels that are omitted can be esti- To minimize cracking, it is sometimes desirable
mated by interpolation (also see fig. 11). to temper the quenched piece before it reaches
Where different quenching media are sug- room temperature; a double temper (i.e.,
gested, the smaller sections may harden satis- repeating the treatment) is recommended for
factorily in the slower quenching medium. this condition.
The upper end of the heat treating ranges For carburizing, most of the steels may be
should always be used for large size sections. given either (1) a single, (2) double, or (3)
The inclusion of normalizing and annealing triple treatment as is indicated in table 5. The
temperatures does not imply that these treat- time at the carburizing temperature will vary
ments are necessarily a prelude to hardening. depending upon the temperature used and the
For hardening, the general rule is to place desired thickness of the case. The relation
the cold steel in a furnace containing a slightly between time, temperature and case depth is
oxidizing atmosphere or neutral salt bath at illustrated in figure 19.
250/300
Water or oU... 1,400/1,450 Brine or water.
OU
810. 1,660/1,700 do 1,876/1,425 OU.
Cool lowly... 1,876/1,426 ..do 250/300
, do 1,62$/1,676 -.do 1,376/1,425 OU.
fOil
4012 to 4024; 4118 1.660/1,700 do 1.426/1.476 OU-
Cool dowry. 1,426/1,476 -do. 250/300
do 1,600/1,650 -do 1,426/1,475 Oil.
OU
4419,4422 and 4427; 8822 1,660/1,700 .do 1,460/1,500 OU
Cool lowly. 1,450/1,500 do. 250/300
, do 1,625/1,676 do. 1,450/1,500 OU.
on.
4620 1,660/1,700 .do 1,475/1.626 OU.
Cool lowly, 1,476/1,626 .do. 250/300
--do 1,650/1,700 ..do. 1,476/1,526 OU.
4820; 4616 to 4626; 4718 and OU
t 4720 1,650/1,700 do
Cool lowly.
1,426/1,475
1,876/1,425
Oil.
.do 250/800
, do 1,626/1.675 ..do 1,875/1,425 Oil.
on..
4816 to 4820.. 1,660/1.700 .do 1,860/1,400 OU.
Cool lowly, 1,850/1,400 -do. 250/300
do.,.;. 1,660/1,600 .do. 1,360/1,400 Oil.
Oil
6016; 6116 and 6120 1.660/1,700 do 1,426/1,476 Oil
Cool lowly. 1,426/1,475 do... 250/300
do 1.600/1,650 do... 1,425/1,476 Oil-
fOU.
6118 and 6120 1,650/1,700 do 1,460/1,600 OU or water,
Cool lowly.. 1,450/1,500 .do 300/400
do... 1,600/1,660 Oil. 1.450/1,600 Oil or water.
Oil...
8116; 8615 to 8622; 8720; 8822; do 1.450/1,500 ."
9310 and 94B17. 1,650/1,700 250/300
Cool lowly. 1,450/1,500 -do
.do. 1,650/1,600 -.do... 1.450/1.500 OU.
34
T
TABLE 6. Recommended heat treatments for heat treating grade steels
(No tempering treatment! are riven, aa theae temperature depend upon the deaired hardness)
ABI or AlSIor
Normalizing Annealing Hardening Quenching SAE Normalizing Annealing Hardening Quenching
SAE temperature temperature medium
number temperature temperature temperature medium number temperature
Of F 'F F
F 1.476/1.625 1,600/1.560 Oil.
1030 1,626/1,726 1,526/1,676 1.650/1,600 Water or brine. 5046 1,600/1,700
1,600/1,700 1,476/1,626 1,600/1.550 Do. 5130 1,600/1,700 1.600/1.560 1.550/1.600 00 or water.
1040 1.475/1.526 1,526/1,575 Oil.
1060 1,660/1.660 1,460/1.600 1,475/1.625 Do. 6146 1,600/1,700
1.600/1,600 1.426/1,476 1,450/1,600 Do. 6160 1,600/1.700 1.460/1,500 1,500/1,660 Do.
1060 1,450/1,600 Do.
1070 1.600/1,600 1.426/1,476 1,460/1,600 Do. 60100 1,600/1,700 1,400/1.460
1080 1,476/1.676 1,376/1,426 1,400/1.460 Do. 51100 1,600/1,700 1,400/1.460 1,475/1.625 Do.
1.476/1,676 1,876/1,426 1.400/1.460 Do. 62100 1,600/1.700 1.400/1,450 1.600/1.560 Do.
1090 1,560/1,600 Do.
1132 1,626/1,726 1,626/1.676 1.660/1.600 Do. 6160 1,600/1.700 1,600/1.660
1140 1,600/1,700 1.476/1.625 1.600/1,660 Do. 8630 1,600/1,700 1,500/1.660 1,525/1.576 Do.
1,660/1.660 1,460/1,600 1,475/1,625 Do. 8645 1,660/1.700 1.475/1,626 1,600/1,550 Do.
1161
1,600/1.700 1.600/1.660 1,526/1.576 Oil or water. 8660 1.600/1,700 1,460/1.600 1,476/1,626 Do.
1330 1,600/1.650 1,625/1,676 Do.
1340 1.660/1.660 1.475/1.626 1,600/1.650 Do. 8735 1.600/1.700
3140 1.660/1.660 1,476/1,626 1,476/1.626 00. 8742 1,600/1.700 1.600/1.660 1,626/1,576 Do.
4028 1.600/1.700 1,625/1.675 1,660/1.600 Oil or water. 9260 1.600/1,700 1,500/1,550 1.560/1,600 Do.
4042 1,660/1,660 1,475/1.626 1,600/1,660 on. 9840 1,600/1,700 1,476/1,625
1,476/1,626
1.600/1.650
1.600/1,560
Do.
Do.
9860 1,600/1.700
4063 1.660/1.660 1,460/1,600 1.475/1.626 Do.
4130 1,600/1.700 1,625/1,676 1,660/1,600 On or water.
4140 1.600/1.700 1.600/1,660 1,626/1.676 on.
4160 1,600/1,700 1.475/1,625 1,600/1.660 Do.
4340 1,600/1.700 1.500/1.650 1,600/1,660 Do.
36
TABLE 7. Recommended heat treatments for tool steelContinued
CARBURIZING GRADES
F F (BHN) F F F
PI () 1,350/1,650 81/100 1,650/1,700 1,450/1,475 Water or brine 350/500 64/58
n () 1.350/1.500 103/123 1,650/1,700 1,525/1.550 Oil 350/500 64/58
n
P4
()
C)
1.350/1.500
1.600/1,650
109/137
116/128
1.650/1.700
1,775/1.825
1,475/1.626
1.775/1.825 Air
do 350/500
350/500
64/58
64/58
P6 () 1,550/1,600 105/110 1,650/1.700 1.550/1.600 350/500 64/58
P6 () 1,650/1,600 190/210 1,650/1,700 1,450/1.500 Oil 350/450 61/58
PM 1,650 1,400/1,460 150/180 1,600/1,650 1.500/1,600 do 350/500 64/58
P21 1,660 C> '1,300/1,500 950/1,026 40/30
b
* Normalizing: Preheating not necessary.
0.60 to 0.75% C, 1600 F; * Do not normalize.
4
.75 to .90% C. 1450 F: Do not soak.
.90 to 1.10% C. 1600 F; Time at hardening temperature, 2 to 5 min.
1.10 to 1.40% C, 1600 to 1700 F. ' Double tempering recommended.
Annealing: 'Normalising not required.
k
0.60 to 0.90% C, 1360 * to 1400 F 1
Do not anneal.
.90 to 1.40% C. 1400 to 1460 F. Solution treatment.
I Aging treatmentprecipitation hardening steel.
TABLE 8. Recommended heat treatments for stainless and heat resisting steels
GROUP I. HARDENABLE CHROMIUM STEELS (MARTENSITIC AND MAGNETIC)
403
F
1,560/1,650 76/83 RB
F
1,700/1,850 39/43 R.
F
450/700 40/37 R.
r.
1,000/1,100 34 R./86 RB
410 1,500/1,660 75/85 RB 1,700/1,850 39/43 R. 450/700 40/37 R. 1,000/1,400 34 R./86 RB
414 1,200/1,300 98 RB/24 R. 1,800/1,900 42/47 R. 450/700 44/40 R. 1,100/1,300 29 R./99 RB
416 1,650/1,660 78/83 RB 1,700/1,850 40/44 R. 450/700 40/37 R. 1,000/1,400 34 R./86 RB
416 Se 1,650/1,650 80/90 RB 1,700/1,850 39/43 R. 450/700 40/37 R. 1,000/1,400 34 R^86 RB
420 1,650/1,660 81/89 RB 1,800/1,900 53/56 R. 300/700 53/48 R.
4SI 1,150/1,225 97 RB/24 R, 1,800/1,960 42/46 R. 450/700 42/36 R. 1,000/1,200 35 R./99 RB
440 A 1,626/1,675 91/95 RB 1,850/1,950 55/58 R. 300/700 56/61 R,
440 B 1,626/1,675 94/98 RB 1,850/1,950 57/69 R. 300/700 58/53 R.
440 C 1,626/1,676 95/99 RB 1,850/1,950 60/62 R. 300/700 60/55 R.
501 1,525/1,600 80/90 RB 1,600/1,700 35/45 R. 400/1,200 45/25 R.
502 1,526/1,600 72/80 RB C)
GROUP II. NONHARDENABLE CHROMIUM STEELS GROUP III. NONHARDENABLE CHROMIUM-NICKEL AND
(FERRITIC AND MAGNETIC) CHROMIUM-NICKEL-MANGANESE STEELS
(AUSTENITIC AND NONMAGNETIC)
Annealing
AISI Annealing AISI Annealing
AISI type temperature ' type temperature
type Hardness,
Temperature RB
Of F
201 1,850/2,050 309 1,960/2,050
'F 202 1,850/2,050 309S 1,900/2,060
406 1,850/1.500 70/80 301 1,850/2,050 310 1,900/2,100
480 1,400/1,500 80/90 302 1,850/2.060 310 S 1,900/2,100
480 F 1,860/1,500 80/90 302 B 1,850/2,050 314 2,100
430 FSe 1,850/1,500 80/90 303 1,850/2,050 316 1,860/2,050
442 1,800 80/90 303 Se 1,850/2,050 316 L < 1,850/2,060
446 1,450/1,600 80/90 304 1,860/2,060 317 1,850/2,050
804 L 1,850/2,060 821 1,750/2,050
305 1,860/2,050 347 1,850/2,050
308 1,850/2,050 348 1,850/2,050
37
HARDNESS, ROCKWELL C
The stainless steels may be divided into three 30 35 40 45
r
general groups as follows:
a. Group IHardenable Chromium Steels (Martensitic
and Magnetic) - \
These steels respond to heat treatment in a
manner similar to most lower alloy steels and
will, by suitable thermal treatment, develop a
wide range of mechanical properties. The
tempering range of 700 to 1000 F. should be
avoided because it is conducive to temper
brittleness.
b. Group IINonhardenable Chromium Steels (Ferritic
and Magnetic)
These steels are essentially nonhardenable by
heat treatment They develop their maximum
softness, ductility and corrosion resistance in
the annealed condition. \
c Group IIINonhardenable Chromium-Nickel and
Chromium-Nickel-Manganese Steels (Austenitic and
Nonmagnetic)
These steels are essentially nonmagnetic and
cannot be hardened by heat treatment. Cold
working develops a wide range of mechanical
properties and some of these steels, in the
severely cold worked condition, may become
slightly magnetic. They are annealed by 40 280 320 360 400 440
rapidly cooling (air or water) from high tem- BRINELL HARDNESS NUMBER
peratures to develop maximum softness and FIGURE 27. Tensile strength, yield strength, elongatton,
ductility as well as corrosion resistance. and reduction of area as a function of hardness m struc-
Recommended heat treatments for the steels tural steels.
listed in table 4 are given in table 8. Vlid only for steels originally hardened throughout and then temperejl; |
Although drawn as lines, the relationship between these properties Is not
exact, and some deviations may be expected. i
11. Properties and Uses of Steels The modulus of elasticity of steel is the same
11.1. Structural Steels as that of iron (about 29,000,000 lb/in.1). It >
is not affected by heat treatment or by the ad- '
The strength properties of heat treated dition of alloying elements. Since stiffness, or
(quenched and tempered) structural carbon the resistance to deformation under load, is a
and alloy steels are closely related to their function of the modulus of elasticity, it follows
hardness and are surprisingly similar for a se- that the stiffness of steel cannot be changed by
lected hardness provided that the steels origi- heat treatment or by alloying elements, pro-
nally were hardened throughout their cross vided that the total stress is below the elastic
sections. The relations of tensile strength, limit of the steel in question. Either heat
yield strength, elongation, and reduction of treatment or alloying elements can raise the
area to hardness are shown in figure 27. The elastic limit and thus apparently improve the
tempering temperatures necessary to secure stiffness in that higher allowable unit stresses
certain hardness levels in steels are affected by may be imposed on the steel.
alloying elements, and two different steels may a. Plain Carbon Structural Steels
have to be tempered at two different temper-
atures to secure the same hardness. When The plain carbon steels are the least costly
this has been accomplished, however, the and may be used for a variety of purposes.
strength and ductility of the two steels will be The lower carbon grades (up to about 0.25% of
quite similar. It must be emphasized that carbon), frequently termed machinery steels,
these relationships are valid only if the heat are used in the hot- and cold-worked conditions
treated structures are tempered martensite. A and for carburizing.Except when carburized,
steel that has been incompletely hardened (that they are not very responsive to hardening by
is, quenched at too slow a rate to prevent the heat treatment because of the low carbon con-
formation of some fine pearlite) may have, tent. The medium carbon steels (about 0.30 to
after tempering, a hardness and tensile 0.60%) are the forging grades and are com-
strength equal to that of a completely hardened monly used in the heat-treated condition. The
and tempered steel, but its yield strength and higher carbon grades are the spring and tool
ductility will be inferior. steels.
38
Carbon iqteels are essentially shallow-hard- It is pertinent to note that manganese and
ening, usually requiring a water or brine nickel lower the annealing and hardening tem-
quench, although very small sections may be peratures, and that chromium, molybdenum,
successfully hardened in oil. Even with the and vanadium raise these temperatures. Com-
most drastic quench, they cannot be hardened binations of these alloys may therefore, raise,
throughout even in moderate (about %-in.) lower or have no effect on the heat-treating
cross sections. Large cross sections (about temperatures, depending on the combinations
4 in.) cannot be fully hardened even on the of elements and their amounts.
surface except by induction or flame hardening. The low carbon (up to about 0.25% of car-
b. Alloy Structural Steels bon) alloy steels are used mainly as carburiz-
ing steels. The medium carbon (about 0.30
From the viewpoint of heat treatment, the to 0.60% of carbon) alloy steels find wide use
advantages accruing from the use of alloy as stressed members in an almost infinite vari-
steels are threefold: (a) Increased hardenabil- ety of structural parts. Although some of
ity, (b) retention of fine-grained austenite, these alloy steels containing high carbon are
and (c) retardation of softening during used for certain special applications, the maxi-
tempering. mum amount of carbon present in the alloy
All of the alloying elements commonly used structural steels in generally about 0.5 percent.
in structural alloy steels are effective to vary-
ing degrees in displacing the S-curve to the 11.2. Tool Steels
right as compared with plain carbon steels of
similar carbon contents. Consequently, they Practical experience has shown that in a
can be hardened throughout in larger sections majority of instances the choice of a tool steel
and, generally, by means of a milder quenching is not limited to a single type or even to a par-
medium, such as oil. Because of the slower ticular family for a working solution to an
rates of quenching that can be employed in individual tooling problem. It is desirable to
hardening these steels, they are less likely to select the steel that will give the most economi-
distort or crack during hardening than the cal overall performance; the tool life obtained
plain carbon steels. with each steel under consideration should be
The hardenability of alloy steels varies judged by weighing such factors as expected
widely, depending on the composition. Cer- productivity, ease of fabrication, and cost.
tain elements and combinations of elements are Hardness, strength, toughness, wear resist-
very effective in increasing hardenability. Of ance, and resistance to softening by heat are
the five alloying elements most generally used, prime factors that must be considered in select-
and within thesteeIs
amounts normally present in ing tool steel for general applications. Many
^structural ' nickel enhances harden- other factors must be considered in individual
ability but mildly, vanadium, chromium, man- applications; they include permissible distor-
ganese, and molybdenum moderately to tion in hardening, permissible decarburization,
strongly, depending upon the amount of alloy hardenability, resistance to heat checking, ma-
dissolved m the austenite at the hardening tem- chinability, grindability, and heat treating
perature. Combinations of chromium, nickel, requirements.
movbd?nu/?' such M are Present in the The straight carbon tool steels can be used
4300 series (table 1), result in very deep haro- for a variety of purposes, depending upon the
ening steels.
carbon content and heat treatment. The lower
The alloy elements that form stable carbides, carbon ranges are used for tools where tough-
principally vanadium and molybdenum (and ness and resistance to shock are of primary
chromium to a lesser degree), are very effec- importance; these steels are usually tempered
tive m inhibiting grain growth in austenite. at temperatures of 500 to 700 F or even
These steels may be overheated to a consider- higher. The higher carbon ranges are used
able degree during heating for hardening with- where the main requirements are hardness, re-
out suffering grain growth. This is desirable sistance to abrasion, or ability to hold a keen
since martensite formed from fine-grained edge; these steels are usually tempered at tem-
austenite is tougher than that formed from peratures of 300 to 500 F.
coarse-grained austenite.
An addition of 0.20 to 0.50 percent of chro-
Alloying elements, particularly those that mium or of vanadium is frequently made to the
form the more stable carbides, tend to retard carbon tool steels. The chromium-bearing car-
the softening effects of tempering so that alloy bon steels have a greater depth of hardening
steels must frequently be tempered at higher and are slightly more wear-resistant than the
temperatures than carbon steels in order to chromium-free steels of the same carbon con-
secure the same hardness. This is beneficial tent. Vanadium decreases slightly the depth
in conferring increased toughness, i.e., resist- of hardening but increases toughness. (This
ance to shock. may appear contradictory to previous state-
39
7
ments that alloying elements increase harden- The high-speed steels are intended for use
ability. In the case of the carbon-vanadium under heavy cutting conditions where consid-
tool steels, the normal hardening temperatures erable heat is generated. These steels are very
are too low to allow the solution of vanadium complex, containing large amounts of alloying
carbide in the austenite. The presence of un- elements. The high-speed steels, which harden
dissolved carbides decreases hardenability). from a very high temperature (2,150 to
The cutting ability, or the ability to hold an 2,400 F), develop what is termed "secondary
edge, is closely related to the hardness. For hardness" after tempering at about 1,050 to
most purposes, therefore, cutting tools are used 1,100 F and maintain their cutting edge at
in a highly hardened condition. Excessive considerably higher temperatures than do car-
heat, whether caused by heavy cutting or care- bon tool steels.
less grinding, will "draw the temper" (that is, Dies, depending on their use, can be made
decrease the hardness) and ruin the tool, neces- of a variety of steels. When intended for use
sitating rehardening and retempering. Since at low temperatures, even carbon steel may be
hardened carbon steels soften rapidly under the satisfactory sometimes. For use at elevated
influence of heat, the carbon steels cannot be used temperatures, certain minimum amounts of al-
as cutting tools under conditions where an ap- loying elements are necessary and for the
preciable amount of heat is generated at the higher ranges of hot-working temperatures,
cutting edge. Their uses are limited to condi- steels of the high-speed steel type are fre-
tions entailing light cuts on relatively soft quently used.
materials, such as brass, aluminum, and un- The manufacture of dies usually involves
hardened low carbon steels. such considerable expense in machining that
The ranges for the carbon content and some cost of material and heat treatment form but
typical applications of carbon tool steels are a relatively small proportion of the total. It
as follows: is imperative, therefore, that die steels be se-
0.60 to 0.75 percent of carbonHot forming lected carefully and properly heat treated.
or heading dies for short runs, machinery The so-called "nondeforming" tool steels (type
parts, hammers (sledges and pinch bars), con- O).. are favorites for dies that are not required
crete breakers and rivet sets. to operate at elevated temperatures. These
0.75 to 0.90 percent of carbonHot and cold steels usually contain about 0.9 percent of car-
sets, chisels, dies, shear blades, mining drill bon and 1.2 percent to 1.6 percent of manga-
steel, smiths' tools, set hammers, swages, and nese. With the lower manganese content they
flatteners. also contain about 0.5 percent each of chro-
0.90 to 1.10 percent of carbonHand chisels, mium and tungsten. The expansion of these
small shear blades, large taps, granite drills, steels during hardening is much less than is
trimming dies, drills, cutters, slotting and mill- experienced with carbon steels, and the shrink-
ing tools, mill picks, circular cutters, threading age that occurs during the initial stage of
dies, cold header dies, jewelers' cold striking tempering is almost sufficient to return the
dies, blanking, forming and drawing dies, and steel to its original size when it has been tem-
punches. pered at the proper temperature.
1.10 to 1.40 percent of carbonSmall cutters, The high carbon-high chromium steels (type
small taps, drills, reamers, slotting and plan- " D) are frequently used for dies. This type
ing tools, wood-cutting tools, turning tools, and contains about 12 percent of chromium and 1.5
razors. or 2.2 percent of carbon, the lower carbon steel
Suitable tempering temperatures for carbon being air hardening. These steels also are non-
tool steels are as follows: deforming, are more resistant to wear, and
may be used at higher temperatures than the
300.to 375 FLathe tools and milling cut- manganese nondeforming steels. They have
ters,' scrapers, drawing mandrels, dies, bone- the disadvantage of requiring higher hardening
cutting tools, engraving tools, gages, and temperatures (about 1,800 F).
threading dies.
375 to 500 FHand taps and dies, hand 11.3. Stainless and Heat Resisting Steels
reamers, drills, bits, cutting dies, pen knives, Steels for high-temperature service must
milling cutters, chasers, press dies for blanking resist scaling and have high creep strength,
/ and forming rock drills, dental and surgical that is, resistance to deformation under pro-
instruments, hammer faces, wood-carving tools, longed stress at elevated temperatures. Re-
shear blades, and hack saws. sistance to scaling is aided by the presence of
500 to 700 FBending dies, shear blades, chromium, aluminum, or silicon, and heat-
chuck jaws, forging dies, tools for wood cut- resistant steels invariably contain one or more
ting, hammers and drop dies, axes, cold chisels, of these elements. Resistance to creep is aided
coppersmith tools, screwdrivers, molding and by elements that form stable carbides, such as
planing tools, hack saws, butcher knives, and tungsten, vanadium, molybdenum, and chro-
saws. mium.
40
T
The stainless steels, often called corrosion- Pable of being used in the strength range of
resistant steels, contain appreciable amounts of 200,000 psi.
chromium (12% or more), either with or with-
out other elements, the most important of b. Group IINonhardenable Chromium Steels (Ferritic
which is nickel. The heat-resistant and cor- and Magnetic)
rosion-resistant steels all belong to the same
family, the terminology frequently being dic- The distinguishing characteristic of this
tated by the temperature of use. By common poup is that these steels are ferritic at all
consent, this dividing temperature is taken at temperatures and, therefore, incapable of being
about 1200 F. hardened by heat treatment. They can, how-
The three general groups of stainless steels ever, be strengthened by cold working.
have markedly different characteristics, as The ferritic steels develop coarse grained
follows: structures when subjected to temperatures
above 1650 F for varying lengths of time.
t. Group IHardenable Chromium Steeb (Martensitic This gram growth, frequently objectionable
and Magnetic) because of concomitant brittleness, cannot be
eliminated by heat treatment alone. It can be
The significant characteristic of these is that corrected to some extent by cold working, fol-
the steels respond to heat treatment in a man- lowed by annealing.
ner similar to most lower alloy steels. The The ferritic steels have lower strength at
steels possess a pearlitic structure on slow cool- elevated temperatures than the martensitic
ing and a martensitic (hardened) structure on steels, but resistance to scaling and corrosion
rapid cooling from within the austenitic field. is generally better. As a class, the ferritic
The chromium content varies from about 12 to stainless steels resist corrosion from food prod-
18 percent and the carbon content from less ucts, organic acids, salt water, nitric acid,
than 0.1 to over 1.0 percent; the higher chro- many fused salts and molten nonferrous
mium content demands the higher carbon. metals.
The mechanical properties of this group of Type 430 finds extensive use in automobile
steels are markedly improved by heat treat- trim, chemical equipment, food containers, and
ment and heat treatment is essential to realize furnace parts. If ease of machining is im-
their corrosion-resistant properties. The only portant, type 430F or 430F Se may be substi-
exceptions are the low carbon, low chromium tuted. Where greater resistance to corrosion
steels (types 403, 410, 416) which are cor- or oxidation is required, type 446 may be used.
rosion resistant in the annealed condition,
although heat treatment decidedly improves c. Group IIINonhardenable Chromium-Nickel and
mechanical properties. Oirommm-Nickel-Manganese Steels (Austenitic and
Finishing of the martensitic steels has an Nonmagnetic)
important effect on corrosion resistance, since The steels in this group are austenitic at
maximum corrosion resistance is obtained only room temperature and, hence, both nonhard-
with highly finished surfaces. Grinding should enable by heat treatment and nonmagnetic.
be done carefully, using a sharp wheel, light
cute, and plenty of coolant. Grinding burrs They can, however, be strengthened appreci-
and embedded scale serve as focal points for ably by cold work. Depending upon the
corrosion. amount of cold work, the tensile strength
varies from about 80,000 psi for fully annealed
As a group, the martensitic steels resist material to as high as 300,000 psi for severely
many types of corrosive environments, includ- work hardened steel; the highest strengths can
ing the atmosphere, fresh water, mine water, be secured only with small cross sections. A
steam, food acids, carbonic acid, crude oil, gas- stress-relieving treatment of about 1 hr at 750
oline, blood, perspiration, ammonia, and to 800 F after severe cold working improves
sterilizing solutions.
elastic properties without any adverse effect
Type 410 is a general purpose steel suitable upon ductility. Cold work causes partial trans-
tor numerous applications where severe cor- formation of austenite to ferrite, with conse-
rosion is not a problem. Types 416 and 416L quent appearance of magnetism, in some of
are free-machining varieties of type 410. The these steels.
mgher hardness of type 420 makes it suitable The austenitic steels have excellent cold-
ior such uses as cutlery, surgical instruments, forming properties and are extremely tough
valves ball bearings, magnets, etc. Type 420F and ductile, even at low temperatures. Their
is its free-machining counterpart. Where still toughness makes machining of all but the free-
greater hardness is required, type 440A, B, or machining varieties difficult.
^ may be used; the last is the hardest of all the As a group, the austenitic steels are the most
stainless steels. Types 420 and 440 should be corrosion resistant of all the stainless steels.
used only m the hardened and stress-relieved Iney have excellent resistance to acetic, nitric,
conditions; Type 431 is a structural steel ca- and citric acids (liquid), foodstuffs, sterilizing
41
solutions, most of the organic chemicals and erties that make them particularly useful for
dyestuffs, and a wide variety of inorganic structural parts and jet-engine components in
chemicals. Typical applications are for out- high-performance aircraft as well as many
door trim, kitchen equipment, dairy utensils, non-military applications. Desirable charac-
soda fountains, and light weight transportation teristics include ease in hot working, machin-
such as aircraft. ing, forming, and joining. High strength can
This group of steels should not be discussed be obtained by relatively-low elevated-temper-
without some mention of intergranular embrit- ature aging treatments or by refrigeration
tlement. If maintained in the temperature plus aging treatments. Ultrahigh strengths
range of about 800 to 1,400 F, or if slowly can be produced by a combination of cold work-
cooled through this range after annealing, some ing and aging. These steels usually possess
of these steels precipitate carbides at the grain good properties at ambient and moderately ele-
boundaries. This is not deleterious unless the vated temperatures (temperatures below those
steel is either simultaneously or subsequently of the aging treatments) along with good cor-
exposed to acidified corrosive conditions, caus- rosion and oxidation resistance. The austenitic
ing intergranular corrosion. When this occurs, types also retain very good impact properties
the steels lose their metallic ring and become at subzero temperatures.
quite brittle. Martensitic TypesThe martensitic types
Type 302, with its higher carbon content, are austenitic at annealing temperatures but
is more prone to carbide precipitation than is transform to martensite of fairly low hardness
304, which in turn is more susceptible than on cooling to room temperature, either by air
304L. cooling, or by oil or water quenching. Ele-
Prolonged exposure of these steels at temper- ments contributing to the precipitation-harden-
atures within the range of 1000 to near ing phases remain in supersaturated solid-solu-
1600 F may also promote the formation of a tion in the steels on cooling. Precipitation
sigma phase constituent, resulting in increased occurs on the subsequent aging of the steels
hardness and decreased ductility, notch tough- within the temperature range of 800 to 1100 F
ness and corrosion resistance. (Figure 28). The martensitic matrix is also
Type 301, because of its lower alloy content, tempered by the aging treatment. The cooling
is quite susceptible to work hardening and is method, aging temperatures and times at tem-
used largely in the cold rolled or cold drawn perature depend upon the specific composition
form of sheet, strip, and wire. Types 201 and of the steel. Manufacturer's literature should
202 are similar to types 301 and 302 in prop- be consulted for specific recommendations.
erties. The former were developed primarily The ductility and impact strength of these
to conserve nickel. hardened martensitic steels are relatively low
Types 305, 308, 309, and 310 contain pro- compared to those of either the semi-austenitic
gressively higher amounts of chromium and or austenitic types. Increasing the aging tem-
nickel and are, therefore, superior to the lower perature raises the ductility and impact
alloy steels in corrosion and heat resistance. strength with an accompanying loss in the
Types 316 and 317 contain molybdenum. yield and tensile strengths. These steels, in
The incorporation of this element increases the annealed condition, lack formability as
resistance to corrosion, particularly of the "pit- compared with that of the semi-austenitic or
ting" type. austenitic types of precipitation-hardenable
Types 321 and 347 were developed specifi- stainless steels.
cally to resist intergranular corrosion. This Semi-Austenitic TypesThe semi-austenitic
property of the titanium-bearing steel (type steels are austenitic as annealed within the
321) is generally enhanced by a stabilizing temperature range of 1850 to 1950 F and air
heat treatment. This treatment is not particu- cooled to room temperature (large sections
larly necessary for the niobium-bearing steels may be water quenched). They are normally
(types 347 and 348). supplied by the mill in the annealed condition
d. Precipitation-Hardenable Stainless Steels or in an annealed plus severe cold-worked con-
dition. By careful control of composition and
The precipitation-hardenable stainless steels annealing treatment, an austenite can be pro-
constitute a group of proprietary steels for duced which has a stability intermediate be-
which standard specifications have not been tween that of the martensitic and austenitic
published by AISI. They may be grouped into types of precipitation-hardenable stainless
three types; martensitic, semi-austenitic and steels. These steels are readily amenable
austenitic. These steels are of increasing com- to forming operations after the annealing
mercial importance because they can be treatment.
strengthened by heat treatment after fabrica- Some representative heat treatments for
tion without resorting to very high tempera- these steels are shown in figure 28. The series
tures or rapid quenches. They possess prop- of treatments (temperatures and times at tern-
42
i 7
MARTENSITIC TYPES
SEMI-AUSTENITIC TYPES
Anneal 1875-1950 F
Air cool
850-1100 F, 1-3 hr
Cold work
Air cool
850 F, 3 hr
Air cool
AUSTENITIC TYPES
1200 "F, 24 hr
Water quench
(a) Ranges of temperatures, heating periods and cooling rates (quenching mediums) shown include those for several commercial steels,
neat treatment procedures and values depend upon the composition of the specific steel selected. These steels are generally provided
In the annealed (solution-treatd) condition by the mills,
in the annealed (solution-treated) condition by the mills.
perature) to be followed depend upon the spe- increase the strength of the steels by precipita-
cific composition of the steel and the desired tion of solute elements from solid solution as
final properties. After the forming operations, hardening phases (usually nickel-aluminum
these steels are usually given a destabilizing compounds). Cold working of the steel fol-
treatment at temperature ranges of 1375 to lowing the transformation of the austenite to
> 1400 F or 1710 to 1750 F in which some of martensite and prior to the aging treatment
the carbon is rejected from the solid solution produces very high strengths.
as a carbide. This facilitates the transforma- If these semi-austenitic steels are severely
tion of the austenite to martensite during the cold-worked (usually at the mill) following the
cooling to 60 F or -100 F and results in a annealing treatment most of the austenite is
strengthening of the matrix. However, the transformed to martensite by the cold work-
final high strengths of these steels are obtained ing. Then no destabilizing treatment is needed
by the subsequent aging treatments at temper- prior to the aging treatment which produces
atures ranging form 850 to 1100 F. The very high strengths. However, the retained
aging treatments temper the martensite and ductility is usually very low.
43
~_j-
'<
These initially semi-austenitic steels through the reheating of the iron-nickel martensite.
the hardening and aging treatments develop Moreover, no appreciable reversion of martens-
the highest room-temperature tensile proper- ite to austenite occurs during the reheating of
ties (tensile strengths up to nearly 300,000 the steel for the aging reaction (precipitation
psi) of the three types of precipitation-harden- of intermetallic compounds* in the presence of
able stainless steels. Manufacturer's literature suitable alloying elements).
should be consulted for heat treatment proce- The maraging steels are proprietary steels
dures as they depend very strongly on the for which standard specifications have not been
specific composition of the steel and its in- published by AISI. Four grades are commer-
tended use. cially available: 25 Ni (25% Ni, 1.3-1.6% Ti);
Austenitie TypesThe austenitic steels are 20 Ni (20% Ni, 1.3-1.6% Ti); 18 Ni (17-19%
austenitic in both the annealed and hardened Ni, 7-9.5% Co, 3-5% Mo, and 0.2-0.8%Ti); and
conditions. They are normally supplied by the 12 Ni (9-15% Ni, 3-5% Cr, 2-4% Mo, and
mill in the annealed condition. Annealing 0.08-0.55% Ti). All of these steels contain ap-
temperatures (Figure 28) vary from 1650 to preciable amounts of aluminum. The 25 Ni
2050 F, depending upon the composition of and 20 Ni grades have a niobium content of
the steel. The steels are cooled rapidly from 0.30 to 0.50%.
the annealing temperatures either by oil or The maraging steels can be heat treated in
water quenching. These steels are subjected conventional furnaces without protective atmo
to the forming or cold working operations spheres. They can be formed or machined tt
prior to hardening. The hardening treatment final dimensions in the annealed condition anc
(Figure 28) consists of aging within the tem- will retain close tolerances during the aging
perature range of 1200 to 1400 F which pre- treatment. Oxidation during aging is usuallj
cipitates carbides and other hardening phases. insignificant. Heat treating ranges are showr
Cold working of these steels prior to aging in figure 29. As the heat treatment proce
increases the strength with the properties dures depend upon the specific composition O
depending upon both the degree of cold-work- the steel, the manufacturer's literature shoulc
ing and the aging treatment. As the heat be consulted for the chemical composition ant
treatment procedure for these steels depends recommended heat treatment of the selectet
upon the composition of the steel and its in- steel.
tended use, the manufacturer's literature
should be consulted for details of chemical com- a. 25 Ni Maraging Steel
position, recommended annealing and aging The 25 Ni steels remain austenitic upon ai
treatments, and typical properties and uses. cooling to room temperature after annealinj
In general the austenitic steels have lower (solution-anneal) at 1500 F. The steels ii
room-temperature properties than either the this condition are relatively soft and readil;
I martensitic or semi-austenitic types. How- fabricated. As indicated in figure 29, two pre
ever, they retain very good tensile and impact cedures are available for conditioning the steel
properties at subzero temperatures. More- for transformation to martensite. The steel
over, they retain be1 ter tensile, creep and rup- may be given an aging treatment at 1300 _]
ture properties at temperatures up to their which reduces the stability of the austenitx
aging temperatures than the other two types presumably by precipitation of nickel-titaniur
of precipitation-hardenable stainless steels. compounds in the austenite. This raises tb
martensite transformation temperature so th|
11.4. Nickel Maraging Steels the austenite will transform to martensite 6
cooling to room temperature. In the otht
A series of high-strength iron-base alloys of procedure, the martensitic transformation ca
very low carbon content (0.03%) with yield be induced by cold working the annealed stee
strengths of 250,000 psi or greater in combina- to a reduction of 25% or more. After eith
tion with excellent fracture toughness have treatment, cooling at -100 F for sever
been developed in recent years. These are the hours secures complete transformation. Ft
nickel maraging steels which do not require strength properties (250,000-270,000 psi yie
rapid quenching, as the hardening and strength) are then obtained by the agir
strengthening are obtained by an iron-nickel treatment at 900 F for 1 to 3 hours.
martensite transformation and an age-harden-
ing reaction. The iron-nickel martensite is b. 20 Ni Maraging Steel
only moderately hard (approximately Rockwell
C 25) and very tough compared to that of un- The annealed 20 Ni steels have a martensit
tempered carbon steel martensites. The trans- transformation temperature above room tei
formation of austenite to martensite is not perature and hence they transform to marter.
sensitive to cooling rates. Thus rapid quench-
ing is not required and section-size effects are Currently, there is a question as to whether or not order
occurs during the aging treatment and contributes to the streng
small. No significant tempering occurs upon ening of the steel.
44
!|i
-y-
25 Ni MARAGING STEEL 18 Ni Manging Steel
ansa?rpF?i*s s a?
18 Ni MARAGING STEEL
AnneallSOO-F, Ihr per in. thickness In preparing this monograph the anfhr.
Air cool
I IZZI
Cold work, 50%
ST^"SMS
j-to*. to.'Sus tars!
,TS? as?
American Iron and Steel Institute Steel Products
Manuals, as follows: Carbon steel- <5mv,; i. J ^
^^totot-S-to^a5
f 'he annealing? S ntet W?ed f<"10
-100 "Pan/sCS'aX geratin " ^^to^iCiffSTto'JS
45
J'
American Society for Metals, Metals handbook
(1948) and Vol. 1 and 2 (1961 and 1964, respectively),
Am. Soc. Metals, Metals Park, Ohio.
Samuel L. Hoyt, Metal Data (Reinhold Publishing
Corp., New York, N.Y., 1952) 526 pages.
Carl A. Keyser, Basic engineering metallurgy, 2d V
I
1
Edgar C. Bain, Functions of the alloying elements in edition (Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.,
steel, Am. Soc. Metals, Metals Park, Ohio (1939) 312 1959) 507 pages.
pages. Frank R. Palmer and George V. Luerssen, Tool steel
R. M. Brick and Arthur Phillips, Structure and prop- simplified, Carpenter Steel Co., Reading, Pa. (1948)
erties of alloys (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New 564 pages.
York, N.Y., 1949) 485 pages. G. A. Roberts, J. C. Hamaker Jr. and A. R. Johnson,
Malcolm S. Burton, Applied metallurgy for engineers Tool steels, 3rd edition, Am. Soc. Metals, Metals Park,
(McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, N.Y., 1956) Ohio (1962) 780 pages.
407 pages. _, . . George Sachs and Kent Van Horn, Practical metal-
J. M. Camp and C. B. Francis, The making, shaping lurgy, Am. Soc. Metals, Metals Park, Ohio (1940) 567
and treating of steel, 7th edition U.S. Steel Corp., Pitts- pages. )
burgh, Pa. (1957) 1048 pages. Carl H. Samans, Engineering metals and their alloys, J
Walter Crafts and John L. Lamont, Hardenabihty (Macmillan Co., New York, N.Y., 1949) 913 pages. |
and steel selection (Pitman and Sons, New York, N.Y., Bradley Stoughton, Allison Butts, and Ardrey M. /
1949) 279 pages. Bounds, Engineering metallurgy (McGraw-Hill Book
John C. Everhart, et al., Mechanical properties of
metals and alloys, NBS Circ. C447 (1943) 481 pages. Co., Inc., New York, N.Y., 1953) 479 pages.
J. P. Gill, et al., Tool steels, Am. Soc. Metals, Metals E. J. Teichert, Ferrous Metallurgy, vol. IIntroduc-
Park, Ohio (1944) 577 pages. tion to ferrous metallurgy, 484 pages; vol. IIThe
M. A. Grossmann, Principles of heat treatment, Am. manufacture and fabrication of steel, 487 pages; vol.
Soc. Metals, Metals Park, Ohio (1953) 303 pages. IllMetallography and heat treatment of steel, 577 I
I' A. W. Grosvenor, Editor, Basic metallurgy, Vol. 1, pages (McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York, N.Y., f
Am. Soc. Metals, Metals Park, Ohio (1954) 697 pages. 1944).
J. H. Hollomon and L. D. Jaffe, Ferrous metallurgi-
cal design (John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y., Carl A. Zapffe, Stainless steels, Am. Soc. Metals,
1947) 346 pages. Metals Park, Ohio (1949) 368 pages.
46