Microstructure Study of Ferrous and

Non-Ferrous Alloys Under Various

Compositions and Heat Treatment
Conditions
 Abstract

This experiment was conducted to determine the differences between ferrous and non-ferrous
alloys in terms of metallurgical properties. Other than that, to understand the phase diagram of
iron-carbon and non-ferrous alloys systems that enables for heat treating and procedures in heat
treatment involved. At the end of experiment, the student should be able to describe the principal
engineering properties and industrial application of ferrous and non-ferrous alloys. Eight
different specimens were provided which each of the specimens have been treated under certain
conditions. Then, the microstructure of the specimens was observed under the optical
microscope. Microstructures of the all specimens were studied to determine their differences.

1
 Table of Content

No Title Page

1 Introduction 5

2 Theory 6

3 Apparatus 12

4 Procedure 13

5 Results 14

6 Discussions and Conclusions 15

7 References 16

2
 List of Tables

No Table Page

1 Table 1: Ferrous Alloys 13

2 Table 2: Non-Ferrous Alloys 13

3
 List of Figures

No Figure Page
1 Figure 1: Optical Microscope 12

4
1 Introduction

Metal have the certain properties that can be changed or controlled by different processes
such as; strain hardening or cold – working, alloying process and heat treatment. This process
related with the crystalline nature of metals. Metallurgy is subdivided into ferrous metallurgy
(sometimes also known as black metallurgy) and non-ferrous metallurgy or colored metallurgy.
Ferrous metallurgy involves processes and alloys based on iron while non-ferrous metallurgy
involves processes and alloys based on other metals. The production of ferrous metals accounts
for 95 percent of world metal production.

Steels are alloys of iron and other elements, primarily carbon, widely used in construction
and other applications because of their high tensile strengths and low costs. Carbon, other
elements, and inclusions within iron act as hardening agents that prevent the movement of
dislocations that otherwise occur in the crystal lattices of iron atoms.

Heat treating is a group of industrial and metalworking processes used to alter the
physical, and sometimes chemical, properties of a material. Metallic materials consist of a
microstructure of small crystals called "grains" or crystallites. The nature of the grains (grain size
and composition) is one of the most effective factors that can determine the overall mechanical
behavior of the metal. Heat treatment provides an efficient way to manipulate the properties of
the metal by controlling the rate of diffusion and the rate of cooling within the microstructure.
Heat treating is often used to alter the mechanical properties of a metallic alloy, manipulating
properties such as the hardness, strength, toughness, ductility, and elasticity.

In metallurgy, a non-ferrous metal is a metal which is not ferrous, including alloys, that
does not contain iron in appreciable amounts. Generally, more expensive than ferrous metals,
non-ferrous metals are used because of desirable properties such as low weight (aluminiums),
higher conductivity (copper), non-magnetic property or resistance to corrosion (zinc). Some non-
ferrous materials are also used in the iron and steel industries. For example, bauxite is used as
flux for blast furnaces, while others such as wolframite, pyrolusite and chromites are used in
making ferrous alloys.

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2 Theory

Ferrous Steel
Mild steels, carbon steel, stainless steel, cast iron and wrought iron are categorized as ferrous
metals. These metals are used for their strength and durability, especially mild steel which
helps hold up the tallest skyscrapers and the longest bridges in the world. Ferrous metal can
be used in housing construction, industrial containers, large scale piping, rails for railroad
and transportation, automobiles, most of the tools and hardware such the knives and other
utensils at home. Most ferrous metals and alloys are vulnerable to rust when exposed to the
elements due to the high amounts of carbon used when creating them. The metals were very
useful in the creation of large motors and electrical appliances because most ferrous metals
also have magnetic properties. Ferrous metals make up the most recycled materials in the
world.

i. Steels

The carbon content of steel is between 0.002% and 2.1% by weight for plain iron-carbon
alloys. These values vary depending on alloying elements such as manganese, chromium,
nickel, iron, tungsten, carbon and so on. Basically, steel is an iron-carbon alloy that does
not undergo eutectic reaction. In contrast, cast iron does undergo eutectic reaction,
suddenly solidifying into solid phases at exactly the same temperature. Too little carbon
content leaves (pure) iron quite soft, ductile, and weak. Carbon contents higher than those
of steel make an alloy, commonly called pig iron that is brittle (not malleable). While
iron alloyed with carbon is called carbon steel, alloy steel is steel to which other alloying
elements have been intentionally added to modify the characteristics of steel. Common
alloying elements include: manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, boron, titanium,
vanadium, tungsten, cobalt, and niobium. Additional elements are also important in steel:
phosphorus, sulfur, silicon, and traces of oxygen, nitrogen, and copper. Alloys with a
higher than 2.1% carbon content, depending on other element content and possibly on
processing, are known as cast iron. Cast iron is not malleable even when hot, but it can be
formed by casting as it has a lower melting point than steel and good cast ability

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 properties. Certain compositions of cast iron, while retaining the economies of melting
and casting, can be heat treated after casting to make malleable iron or ductile iron
objects. Steel is also distinguishable from wrought iron (now largely obsolete), which
may contain a small amount of carbon but large amounts of slag.

 Low Carbon Steel – Composition of 0.05%-0.25% carbon and up to 0.4% manganese.

Also known as mild steel, it is a low-cost material that is easy to shape. While not as hard
as higher-carbon steels, carburizing can increase its surface hardness.
 Medium Carbon Steel – Composition of 0.29%-0.54% carbon, with 0.60%-1.65%
manganese. Medium carbon steel is ductile and strong, with long-wearing properties.
 High Carbon Steel – Composition of 0.55%-0.95% carbon, with 0.30%-0.90%
manganese. It is very strong and holds shape memory well, making it ideal for springs
and wire.
 Very High Carbon Steel - Composition of 0.96%-2.1% carbon. Its high carbon content
makes it an extremely strong material. Due to its brittleness, this grade requires special
handling.

ii. Stainless Steel

The stainless steels are highly resistant to corrosion in a variety of environments,

especially the ambient atmosphere. Their predominant alloying element is chromium; a
concentration of at least 11wt% Cr is required. Corrosion resistance may be enhanced by
nickel and molybdenum additions.

Stainless steels are divided into three classes which is:

 Martensitic
 Ferritic
 Austenitic

iii. Cast Iron

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 Cast iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with carbon content greater than 2%. The alloy
constituents affect its color when fractured: white cast iron has carbide impurities which
allow cracks to pass straight through.

iv. Gray Iron

Gray iron is a hard-brittle material with excellent damping characteristics. This is due to
graphite flakes which precipitate into the iron during solidification. The carbon and
silicon contents of gray cast irons vary between 2.5 wt% and 4.0 wt% and 1.0 wt% and
3.0 wt%, respectively. A great thermal conductor with great wear resistance, gray iron is
the engineering alloy.

v. Ductile Iron

Adding a small amount of magnesium and cerium to the gray iron before casting
produces a distinctly different microstructure and set of mechanical properties Ductile
Iron is a unique engineering alloy that is similar to gray iron except that it is not brittle.
The material is able to flex and has more fatigue resistance than gray iron. These
properties are a result of creating graphite nodules instead of graphite flakes during
solidification. Ductile iron boasts more strength and flexibility than gray iron while also
featuring impact resistance.

vi. White Iron and Malleable Iron

For low-silicon cast irons which contains less than 1.0 wt% Si and rapid cooling rates,
most of the carbon exists as cementite instead of graphite. A fracture surface of this alloy
has a white appearance, and thus it is termed white cast iron. Generally, white iron is
used as an intermediary in the production of yet another cast iron, malleable iron.

vii. Compacted Graphite Iron

A relatively recent addition to the family of cast irons is compacted graphite iron. As a
gray, ductile and malleable irons, carbon exists as graphite which formation is promoted

8
 by the presence of silicon. Silicon content ranges between 1.7 wt% and 3.0 wt%, whereas
carbon concentration is normally between 3.1 wt% and 4.0 wt%.

Non-Ferrous Metals

Non-ferrous metals include aluminum, brass, copper, nickel, tin, lead, and zinc, as well as
precious metals like gold and silver. While non-ferrous metals can provide strength, they are
primarily used where their differences from ferrous metals can provide an advantage.
For instance, non-ferrous metals are much more malleable than ferrous metals. Non-ferrous
metals are also much lighter, making them well-suited for use where strength is needed, but
weight is a factor, such as in the aircraft or canning industries. Because they contain no iron,
non-ferrous metals have a higher resistance to rust and corrosion, which is why you’ll find
these materials in use for gutters, water pipes, roofing, and road signs. Finally, they are also
non-magnetic, which makes them perfect for use in small electronics and as electrical wiring.
As far as recycling goes, aluminum is the third most recycled material in the world.
However, many other non-ferrous materials like copper, brass and lead are relatively scarce,
and metallurgists rely heavily on scrap material recycling to make new ones.

i. Copper Alloys

The similarity in external appearance of the various alloys, along with the different
combinations of elements used when making each alloy, can lead to confusion when
categorizing the different compositions. There are as many as 400 different copper and
copper-alloy compositions loosely grouped into the categories: copper, high copper alloy,
brasses, bronzes, copper nickels, copper–nickel–zinc (nickel silver), leaded copper, and
special alloys. The following table lists the principal alloying element for four of the
more common types used in modern industry, along with the name for each type.

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 Unalloyed copper is so soft and ductile that it is difficult to machine. It also has an almost
unlimited capacity to be cold work. Furthermore, it is highly resistant to corrosion in
diverse environments including the ambient atmosphere, sea water and some industrial
chemicals. . Most copper alloys cannot be hardened or strengthened by heat-treating
procedures; consequently, cold working and solid-solution alloying must be utilized to
improve these mechanical properties.

ii. Aluminium Alloys

Aluminium alloys are alloys in which aluminium (Al) is the predominant metal. The
typical alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin and zinc. There
are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and wrought alloys, both of which
are further subdivided into the categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About
85% of aluminium is used for wrought products, for example rolled plate, foils and
extrusions. Cast aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due to the low melting
point, although they generally have lower tensile strengths than wrought alloys.
Aluminium alloys are characterized by a relatively low density, high electrical and
thermal conductivities and a resistance to corrosion in some common environments
including the ambient atmosphere. Many of these alloys are easily formed by virtue of
high ductility; this is evidenced by the thin aluminium foil sheet into which the relatively
pure material may be rolled. Since aluminium has an FCC crystal structure, its ductility is
retained even at very low temperature. The chief limitation of aluminium is its low
melting temperature, which restricts the maximum temperature at which it can be used.

iii. Magnesium Alloys

Magnesium alloys are mixtures of magnesium with other metals (called an alloy), often
aluminum, zinc, manganese, silicon, copper, rare earths and zirconium. Magnesium is the
lightest structural metal. Magnesium alloys have a hexagonal lattice structure, which
affects the fundamental properties of these alloys. Plastic deformation of the hexagonal
lattice is more complicated than in cubic latticed metals like aluminium, copper and steel.
Perhaps the most outstanding characteristic of magnesium is its density, 1.7g/cm3, which

10
 is the lowest of all the structural metals; therefore, its alloys are used where light weight
is an important consideration. Magnesium has an HCP crystal structure, is relatively soft
and has a low elastic modulus. At room temperature magnesium and it alloys are difficult
to deform. In fact, only small degrees of cold work may be imposed without annealing

iv. Titanium Alloys

Titanium alloys are metals that contain a mixture of titanium and other chemical
elements. Such alloys have very high tensile strength and toughness (even at extreme
temperatures). They are light in weight, have extraordinary corrosion resistance and the
ability to withstand extreme temperatures. However, the high cost of both raw materials
and processing limit their use to military applications, aircraft, spacecraft, medical
devices, highly stressed components such as connecting rods on expensive sports cars
and some premium sports equipment and consumer electronics.

11
3 Apparatus

Eyepieces/Ocular

Objective

Coarse Focus
Stage

Fine Focus

Light
intensity
Power switch
regulator
Figure 1: Optical Microscope

12
4 Procedure

Students provided with 8 specimens, which have been heat treated under the following
conditions. The microstructures were observed under the optical microscope and the data
obtained was recorded.

Ferrous Alloy

SPECIMEN 1 (X17) 0.8% carbon steel, rolled bar, heated for 1 hour at 800°C,
furnace cooled (annealed) to room temperature

SPECIMEN 2 (X18) 0.8% carbon steel, rolled bar, heated for 1 hour at 800°C
cooled in still air (normalized)
SPECIMEN 3 (X19)
0.35% carbon steel bar, furnace cooled from 870°C

SPECIMEN 4 (X20)
1.3% carbon steel bar, furnace cooled from 970°C

Table 1: Ferrous Alloy

Non-Ferrous Alloy

SPECIMEN 5 (X12) Cu 58% / Zn 42%, reheated to 800°C for 1 hour, furnace

cooled to 600°C and the water quenched

SPECIMEN 6 (X13) Cu 58% / Zn 42%, reheated to 800°C for 1 hour, furnace

cooled to room temperature.

SPECIMEN 7 (X14) Aluminum / 4% copper alloy, sand cast, heated at 525°C for
16 hours and then water quenched.
Aluminum / 4% copper alloy, sand cast, heated at 525°C for
SPECIMEN 8 (X15)
16 hours and then water quenched, reheated at 260°C for 70
hours.
Table 2: Non-Ferrous Alloy

13
Results

14
Discussions and Conclusions

15
References

1. G.K. Narula, K.S. Narula, V.K. Gupta, (1988). Material Science, New Delhi, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited
2. Bramfitt. B. L, (2001). “Metallographic Guide” (ASM International)
3. J C M Li, (2000). Microstructure and Properties of Material: (Volume 2), World
Scientific Publishing Company
4. Difference between Ferrous Alloy and Nonferrous Alloys. Retrieved from
http://www.differencebetween.com/difference-between-ferrous-and-vs-nonferrous-alloys/
5. The Characteristics of Ferrous Metals. Retrieved from
http://www.altonmaterials.com/the-differences-between-ferrous-and-non-ferrous-scrap-
metal/#.WusGdhYRWEc

16
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 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Teamwork Assessment Form

Name : Muhamad Aiman bin Mohd Radzuan

Member’s Name 1 : Muhammad Azim bin Adzha Shafawi
2 : Muhammad Ikmal Hakim bin Zaidi
3 : Muhammad Khairi bin Ali

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Scale
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I was ready to work with my team
I did my assigned work well and always on time
I was fair to my teammates and myself
I listened to others appreciatively and was supportive
I was very committed and focused in my team
I put extra efforts to finish or accomplish our task
I encouraged others in my team and was helpful
I managed and coordinated team efforts effectively
I was able to lead discussions and provide solutions
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19
 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Teamwork Assessment Form

Name : Muhammad Ikmal Hakim bin Zaidi

Member’s Name 1 : Muhammad Azim bin Adzha Shafawi
2 : Muhamad Aiman bin Mohd Radzuan
3 : Muhammad Khairi bin Ali

1 2 3 4 5
Scale
Level Poor Acceptable Excellent

You will rate yourself and your team’s member on the following criteria

Earned Assessment
Element Members
Self
1 2 3 4
I was ready to work with my team
I did my assigned work well and always on time
I was fair to my teammates and myself
I listened to others appreciatively and was supportive
I was very committed and focused in my team
I put extra efforts to finish or accomplish our task
I encouraged others in my team and was helpful
I managed and coordinated team efforts effectively
I was able to lead discussions and provide solutions
Overall, I was very satisfied and enjoyed my work
Total

Comment
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Member 1:
Member 2:
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 FACULTY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
Teamwork Assessment Form

Name : Muhammad Khairi bin Ali

Member’s Name 1 : Muhammad Azim bin Adzha Shafawi
2 : Muhamad Aiman bin Mohd Radzuan
3 : Muhammad Ikmal Hakim bin Zaidi

1 2 3 4 5
Scale
Level Poor Acceptable Excellent

You will rate yourself and your team’s member on the following criteria

Earned Assessment
Element Members
Self
1 2 3 4
I was ready to work with my team
I did my assigned work well and always on time
I was fair to my teammates and myself
I listened to others appreciatively and was supportive
I was very committed and focused in my team
I put extra efforts to finish or accomplish our task
I encouraged others in my team and was helpful
I managed and coordinated team efforts effectively
I was able to lead discussions and provide solutions
Overall, I was very satisfied and enjoyed my work
Total

Comment
Self:
Member 1:
Member 2:
Member 3:
Member 4:

21