Upon completion of this course, you are expected to:

CO1. Recognize the physical and structural properties for most common and advanced construction
materials
CO 2. Conduct experiments on common construction materials according to international
standards such as the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
CO 3. Evaluate the results of the test of common construction material

Unit Learning Outcomes: At the end of the unit, you are expected to:
a. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the properties and
behaviors of most common and advance construction material such as
metals and wood.
b. Conduct/Familiarize the methods, procedures and formulas of different
experiments on common construction materials according to international
standards such as ASTM & AASTHO.

This section deals with the study of different types and properties of construction

materials such as metals.

INTRODUCTION: METALS

WROUGHT IRON, CAST IRON, STEEL AND ALLOYS

Metals are any chemical element having "metallic properties". It is a solid material that is
typically hard, shiny, malleable, fusible, and ductile, with good electrical and thermal conductivity.
Metals are refined from ores that have been extracted from the earth. Metals is one of the four broad
categories of construction materials. Due to the addition of a mixture of materials, metals have a wide
variation in properties.

❖ PROPERTIES OF METALS
◼ Luster: Metals are shiny when cut, scratched, or polished.
◼ Malleability: Metals are strong but malleable, which means that they can be easily bent or shaped.
◼ Conductivity: Metals are excellent conductors of electricity and heat.
Because they are also ductile, they are ideal for electrical wiring.
◼ High melting point: Most metals have high melting points and all except
mercury are solid at room temperature.
◼ Sonorous: Metals often make a ringing sound when hit.
◼ Reactivity: Some metals will undergo a chemical change (reaction), by themselves or with other
elements, and release energy. These metals are never found in a pure form, and are difficult to
separate from the minerals they are found in. Other metals don’t react at all with other metals.
This means they can be found in a pure form (examples are gold and platinum). Because copper
is relatively inexpensive and has a low reactivity, it’s useful for making pipes and wiring.

❖ CLASSIFICATION OF METALS
1. FERROUS METALS

Ferrous metals are those in which the chief ingredient is the chemical
element iron (ferrum). Iron (chemical symbol Fe), mixed with other minerals, is
found in large quantities in the earth’s crust. Iron is a shiny, grayish metal that rusts
in damp air. It is the most abundant of all metals, its pure form rapidly corrodes
from exposure to moist air and high temperatures.To be useful, iron must be
 extracted from mined ore, have impurities removed and ingredients added to alter
its properties, and then be formed into usable products.

Ferrous metal products are widely used in the construction industry. They are a major
construction material. For commercial purposes, iron must have alloying elements added to
improve its characteristics.
Annealing is the process of heating iron and allowing it to cool slowly - hardening process.
Pig iron is the starting point for commercial iron products. Iron ore is converted into pig iron in a blast
furnace. It contains 3 to 5 percent carbon and traces of other elements, such as manganese, sulfur, silicon,
and phosphorus.
Blast furnace separates the iron from the waste materials and sinters the ore and flue dust.
Smelting is a process in which the ore is heated, permitting the iron to be separated from impurities
that may be chemically or physically mixed in.
Reduction is a process that separates the iron from oxygen with which it is chemically mixed.
2. WROUGHT IRON
Wrought iron is the iron containing almost no carbon. It is a mixture of less than 0.3% or ideally less
than 0.1% carbon iron and 1 or 2 percent amount of slag. It is soft, tough, and ductile (easily worked). It
can be heated and reheated and worked into various shapes.

Although wrought iron exhibits properties that are not found in other forms of ferrous metal, it lacks
the carbon content necessary for hardening through heat treatment. Wrought iron may be welded in the
same manner as mild steel, but the presence of oxides or inclusions will provide defective results.

Chemical Composition

Element Content (%)

Iron, Fe 99-99.8
Carbon, C 0.05-0.25
Phosphorus, P 0.05-0.2
Silicon, Si 0.02-0.2
Sulfur, S 0.02-0.1
Manganese, Mn 0.01-0.1

Physical Properties

Properties Metric Imperial

Density 7.7 g/cm3 0.278 lb/in3
Melting point 1540°C 2800°F

Mechanical Properties

Properties Metric Imperial

Tensile strength 234-372 MPa 34000-54000 psi
Yield strength 159-221 MPa 23000-32000 psi
Modulus of 193100 MPa 28000 ksi
 elasticity

Applications of Wrought Iron

• Decorative items such as railings, outdoor stairs, fences and gates

• Nuts and bolts
• Handrails

3. CAST IRON
Cast irons have carbon contents above 1.7 percent having white, gray, and malleable types. Cast
iron is obtained from the pig-iron which is re-melted with coke and limestone. Cast iron has lot of
engineering properties so, that it can be used in many ways like for sanitary fittings, rail chairs, casting
molds.
Properties of Cast Iron

• Good corrosion resistance, so it can be used for water carrying pipes.

• Does not get attracted to magnet.
• Specific gravity is 7.5.
• Melting point is about 1250oC.
• Tensile strength is about 150 N/mm2 and compressive strength is about
600 N/mm2.so, it is good in compression.
• It becomes soft when placed in salt water and it shrinks on cooling.
• It cannot be useful for forging work because of lack of plasticity.

Types of Cast Iron

Grey Cast Iron - as the name suggests, it is grey in color. It has coarse crystalline structure. Its melting
point is very low thus it has weak strength and it is only used for casting purposes.

Malleable Cast Iron - is a type of material that has the ability to form into any shape without
breaking or cracking. It has good corrosive resistance. Its manufacturing process
involves two steps. In the first step, it is casted and cooled as ordinary cast iron
and then again it is heated to 1050oC and is soaked in water for long
period (several hours or days). Hence, carbon content is slightly reduced and
graphite content is carbon.This reduce the brittleness of cast iron. So, it can be
worked easily using machine. It is used for making pipe fittings, and etc.
fastenings, automobiles precipitated as

Mottled Cast Iron - is the medium stage cast iron which properties are in
between grey cast iron and white cast iron. It has Small amount of graphite in
its composition. So, mottled type fractures are developed in its micro structure.
 Toughened Cast Iron
Toughened cast iron is the combination of cast iron and wrought iron. To
obtain this wrought iron scrap and cast iron melted together. The
composition of wrought iron is about 0.15 to 0.25 weight of the cast iron.

White Cast Iron - is silver in color. Its melting point is high so, strength wise is
better but not used for delicate casting purposes. Because of its heavy strength, it
cannot be used easily.

Ductile Cast Iron- is also called as spheroidal graphite iron. Its

manufacturing process is veryeasy compared to other types.

Its manufacturing process consists manganese treatment which helps to

increase the carbon content and opposes the formation of graphite in flaky
form. It has very goodengineering properties than malleable cast iron.

Ductile cast iron has very good corrosion resistance, high strength and
durability. So, usage of ductile iron dominates the other types. It is used for making sewer
pipes, water conveying pipes, etc.

Chilled Cast Iron- consists two layers of which one layer has white cast iron
properties and other one has grey cast iron properties. This type of iron is used
for casting process in which grey cast iron layer is provided in inner surface and
white cast iron layer is provided as outer surface. Hence the casting molds serve
longer. Machine parts are also made using chilled cast iron.
 4. STEEL
Steel, the world's foremost construction material, is an iron alloy that contains between 0.2% and
2% carbon by weight and sometimes small amounts of other elements, including manganese.
Steel specified for structural purposes is of major importance to architects and engineers. It has
low-to-medium carbon content. The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) publication
Code of Standard Practice for Steel Buildings and Bridges includes requirements that must be
specified in construction documents, including columns, beams, trusses, bearing plates, and various
fastening devices and connectors. The AISC publication Specification for Structural Steel Buildings
details information on structural steels for use in building construction.

Structural steel fall into four major classifications:

1. Carbon steel (ASTM A36, A529, UNS K02600)

2. Heat-treated construction alloy steel

(ASTM A514,UNS K11630)

3. Heat-treated high-strength carbon steel (ASTM A633, A678, A852, UNS K01803, K01600, K12043)
4. 4. High-strength low-alloy steel (ASTM A242, A572, A588 UNS K11510, K02303, K11430)

⚫ Carbon steels must meet maximum content requirements for manganese and silicon. Copper requirements
have minimum and maximum specifications. There are no other minimums specified for other alloying elements.

⚫ Heat-treated construction alloy steels have more stringent alloying

element specifications than carbonsteel. They produce the strongest
general-use structural steel.

⚫ Heat-treated high-strength carbon steels are brought to desired strength and toughness levels by heat-
treating. Heat-treating refers to the process of heating and cooling metals to produce changes in
the physical and mechanical properties.
⚫ High-strength low-alloy steels are a group of steels to which alloying elements have been added to produce
improved mechanical properties and greater resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Their carbon range is typically
from 0.12 to
0.22 percent.
 Commercial steels are also generally classified into four groups that differ according to their
metal alloy content and end-use applications:
1. Carbon steels include low carbon (less than 0.3% carbon), medium
carbon (as much as 0.6% carbon), highcarbon (as much as 1% carbon), and
ultra-high-carbon (as much as 2% carbon) steels.

• Low carbon steel is the most common and the weakest of the three types. It's available in a wide array
of shapes, including sheets and beams. The higher the carbon content, the more difficult the steel is to work with.

• High carbon and ultra-high-carbon steels are used in cutting tools, radiators, punches, and wires.

2. Alloy steels contain other metals such as aluminum, copper, or nickel.

They may be used in auto parts, pipelines, and motors.
3. Stainless steels always contain chromium and maybe also nickel or molybdenum.
They are shiny and generally resistant to corrosion.
Types of stainless steel

✓ Ferritic- which is similar to carbon

steel and strongly resistant to stress
corrosion cracking but is not good for
welding.
✓ Austenitic- which is the most
common and good for welding
✓ Martensitic- which is moderately
resistant to corrosion but high in
strength.
✓ Duplex- which consists of half
ferritic and half austenitic steels and is
stronger than either of those two types.
Because stainless steels are easily
sterilized, theyare often used in medical
equipment and instruments and food
production equipment.

4. Tool steels are alloyed with hard metals such as vanadium, cobalt, molybdenum, and tungsten.
As their name suggest they are often used to make tools, including hammers.

Structural Steel Shapes

⚫ W-shape (wide flange) / W 16 3 31 indicates a W-shape with a web 16 inches deep and a
weight of 31 pounds per linear foot. The W- shape has parallel inner and outer flange surfaces
with a consistent thickness. The most widely used structural steel member is the W- shape,
whose cross-section forms the letter H. It is designed so that its flanges provide strength in a
horizontal plane, while the web gives strength in a vertical plane. W-shapes are used as
beams, columns, truss members, and in other load-bearing applications.

⚫ S-shape (American Standard I-beam) has a slope of approximately 17 degrees on the inner flange surfaces.
It is distinguished by its cross-section being shaped like the letter I. S-shapes are used less
frequently than are W-shapes, since the S-shapes provide less strength.
⚫ C-shape (American Standard channel) is similar to the S-shape in that its inner flange surface is also
sloped. It is called the American Standard channel and has a cross-section similar to the letter
C. It is especially useful in locations where a single flat face without a flange on one side is
required. The C-shape is not very efficient for a beam or column when used alone, but can be
efficiently built up of channels welded together with other structural shapes.

⚫ The bearing pile, or HP-shape, is almost identical to the W-shape except that the flange
thickness and web thickness of the bearing pile are equal, whereas the W-
shape has different web and flange thicknesses.

⚫ Steel angle is a structural shape whose cross-section resembles the letter L. Angles are available in an equal
leg angle and an unequal leg angle. The angle is identified by the length and thickness of its
legs; for example, 8 in. 3 6 in. 3 1/2 in. When an angle has unequal legs, the dimension of the
wider leg is given first. The third dimension applies to the thickness of the legs, which always
have equal thickness.

⚫ Structural tees have a cross-section that resembles the letter T. They are produced by
splitting the webs of beams with rotary shears. Structural tees are designated by their depth
and weight per liner foot

⚫ Steel pipe and structural tubing are available in square, rectangular, and circular shapes and are
commonly used for columns and other load-bearing applications. They are designated by their
cross-sectional dimensions.

⚫ Steel plate is a structural shape whose cross-section is in the form of a flat rectangle that has a width of
greater than 8 in. and a thickness of 1/4 in. or greater. Plates frequently are referred to by
their thickness and width in inches, as plate 1/2 in. 3 24 in. Plates are frequently used to
make connections between other structural members or as component parts of built-up
structural members.

NONFERROUS METALS

Nonferrous metals are those containing little or no iron. In other words, all metals other
than iron and steel are nonferrous. Nonferrous metals commonly found in construction include
aluminum, copper, lead, tin, and zinc.

1. ALUMINUM

Aluminum (chemical symbol Al) is a versatile material used widely

in building, and the construction industry is one of its largest
consumers. Aluminum is lightweight, having a specific gravity of only
2.7 times that of water and approximately one-third that of steel. For
many products, aluminum must have alloying elements added to
alter its physical properties. The major alloying elements added to
aluminum are manganese, copper, magnesium, silicon, and zinc.
Properties:
⚫ Pure aluminum melts at 1,220°F (665°C), considerably lower than the
melting point of other structural metals. It also is relatively weak as far as
mechanical properties are concerned.
⚫ Aluminum elastically deforms about three times more than steel under comparable loading.
⚫ It can be strengthened by alloying, cold working, or strain hardening.
⚫ Aluminum alloys do not lose ductility or become brittle at cryogenic (low) temperatures.
⚫ Aluminum is a good conductor of electricity. Compared to copper wire of the same diameter, aluminum’s
conductivity is roughly 65 percent that of copper.
⚫ Aluminum Alloys is relatively soft and ductile and has a tensile strength of
around 7,000 psi (48,258 kPa). Aluminum alloys classifications:

1. Wrought alloys are those that are mechanically worked by processes, such as
forging, drawing, extruding, or rolling, to form sheet material.
2. Cast alloys are those used to produce a product for which the molten metal is
cast in a finished shape, such as a grille, in a sand mold or permanent mold.

2. COPPER

Copper (chemical symbol Cu) is a

nonmagnetic reddishbrown metal with
excellent electrical and thermal
conductivity.
Properties:
⚫ Copper has the highest conductivity properties of all commonly used metals
except silver.
⚫ It is ductile, malleable, and easily worked.
⚫ When alloyed, it offers a wide range of properties suitable for a variety of construction applications.
⚫ High resistance to corrosion, wear defiance makes it ideal for plumbing
pipe, gas lines, and components exposed to the atmosphere or corrosive
chemical elements.
⚫ Its ductility properties make it a material easily bent, stretched, stamped,
machined, and otherwise formed into useful products.

⚫ Copper has a relatively low tensile strength, about 32,000 psi, which can be
improved by heat-treating, cold- working, and alloying.
⚫ Copper has a melting point of 1,981°F (1,083°C) and a coefficient of thermal
expansion of 0.0000168/°F(0.0000093/°C).
Uses of Copper and Copper Alloys
⚫ Copper are excellent for outdoor uses, such as siding, roofing, flashing, guttering, and screen wire.
⚫ Copper Alloys are used extensively for plumbing pipe in residential and
commercial structures and in the manufacture of plumbing fittings, such as
valves, drains, and faucets.
⚫ Sewage treatment plants and industrial plants, such as chemical processing
installations, utilize copper for many purposes, including lining vessels that
contain corrosive materials.
⚫ Various types of hardware and fasteners, such as nails, screws, and bolts, are made from copper alloys.

3. LEAD

Lead (chemical symbol Pb) is a soft, heavy

metal with good corrosion resistance that is
easily worked. Its ability to resist
penetration from radiation is a unique
feature.

Properties of Lead
• Lead h a s h i g h density and weight.
• Lead is usually soft and malleable.
• Lead has low melting point (620°F; 327°C)
• Lead has a good electrical conductivity.
• Lead has low strength and lack of elasticity.

Uses of Lead
• Lead pipes and tank liners are used in installations that process
highly corrosive materials, but they are never used for piping to
carry drinking water.
• Lead is a good self-lubricant, it is used when high-pressure lubricating is necessary.
• Lead solder works for electrical connections because it is a good
conductor, but it is not used on water pipe connections.
• Lead pipe and lead-lined tanks have high corrosion resistance and can find
use in industrial production applications, such as in the chemical
manufacturing industry.
• Sheet lead is used for roofing, flashing, and spandrels in areas where
there is severe industrial air contamination or on seacoasts.
 4. ZINC

Zinc (chemical symbol Zn) is a bluish-white metal that is brittle and has low
strength. It is often referred to as a white metal and is widely used as a
protective coating over steel to prevent corrosion.
Properties
⚫ Zinc has low strength and is brittle.
⚫ Zinc has a low melting point of 787°F (419°C).
⚫ It is also subject to creep, a permanent dimensional deformation over time.
⚫ Its tensile strength can be greatly increased by cold-working and alloying.
⚫ It can be hot and cold rolled, drawn, extruded, cast, and machined.
⚫ It can be joined by welding, soldering, and various
mechanical fasteners.Uses of Zinc
• Zinc as the main agent for galvanizing - forming a protective coating over steel to prevent rust.
• Zinc are used for some types of hardware and plumbing items. They are
usually die cast and finished by polishing or plating with chromium, brass, or
other materials.
• Zinc also finds use as an alloying element in brasses.
• Various zinc compounds serve in the production of paper, plastics, ceramics,
rubber, abrasives, paint, and other products.
• Zinc is also used for specialized products in which corrosion resistance is
important, such as anchors, flashing, screws, nails, expansion joints, and
corner beads.
• Solid zinc strip material is used to produce a wide range of products, such as
low-voltage buss bars, cavity wall ties, electric cable binders, electric motor
covers, grading screens, and roofing and fascia material.

QUALITY TEST FOR BENDING, TENSION AND CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

Terminology

Stress
Stress is the ratio of applied force F to a cross section area - defined as "force per unit area".
 • Tensile stress - stress that tends to stretch or lengthen the material - acts normal to the stressed area

• Compressive stress - stress that tends to compress or shorten the material

- acts normal to the stressed area
• Shearing stress - stress that tends to shear the material - acts in plane to the
stressed area at right-angles to compressive or tensile stress

Strain (Deformation)
Strain is defined as "deformation of a solid due to stress".

• Normal strain - elongation or contraction of a line segment

• Shear strain - change in angle between two line segments originally perpendicular

Hooke's Law

Most metals deform proportional to imposed load over a range of loads. Stress is
proportional to load and strain is proportional to deformation as expressed with Hooke's Law.

Bending Strength / Flexural Strength

-Is defined as its ability to resist deformation under load.
Tensile Strength
- is the ability to undergo a great deal of force without breaking or deforming. This is due to a mixture of strength
and flexibility.

“Standard Test Methods for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials”

REFERENCED STANDARD: ASTM E8/ E8M – 13a
Suppose that a metal specimen be placed in tension-compression-testing machine. As the axial
load is gradually increased in increments, the total elongation over the gauge length is measured at
each increment of the load and this is continued until failure of the specimen takes p3lace. Knowing
the original cross-sectional area and length of the specimen, the normal stress σ and the strain ε can
be obtained. The graph of these quantities with the stress σ along the y-axis and the strain ε
along the x-axis is called the stress-strain diagram. The stress-strain diagram differs in form for
various materials. The diagram shown below is that for a medium-carbonstructural steel.

Metallic engineering materials are classified as either ductile or ductile materials. A ductile
material is one having relatively large tensile strains up to the point of rupture like structural steel
and aluminum, whereas brittle materials has a relatively small strain up to the point of rupture
like cast iron and concrete. An arbitrary strain of 0.05 mm/mm is frequently taken as the dividing
line between these two classes.

ASTM E8 describes tensile testing of metals such as steel or metal alloys. These test methods
cover the tension testing of metallic materials in any form at room temperature, specifically, the
methods of determination of yield strength, yield point elongation, tensile strength, elongation,
and reduction of area, modulus of elasticity and, rupture strength.
 Proportional Limit (Hooke's Law)
From the origin O to the point P called proportional limit, the stress-strain curve is a straight
line. This linear relation between elongation and the axial force causing was first noticed by Sir
Robert Hooke in 1678 and is called Hooke's Law that within the proportional limit, the stress is
directly proportional to strain.
Elastic Limit
The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to its original
shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may developed such that there is
no permanent or residual deformation when the load is entirely removed.

Elastic and Plastic Ranges

The region in stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range.
The region from P to R is called the plastic range.
Yield Point
Yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable
elongation or yielding without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength
The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength
or tensile strength.
Rapture Strength
Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also
known as the breaking strength.

Significance and Use:

Tension tests provide information on the strength and ductility of materials under uniaxial
tensile stresses. This information may be useful in comparisons of materials, alloy development,
quality control, and design under certain circumstances.
 Apparatus:

• Universal (Hydraulic) Testing Machine is capable of applying tensile load at a controlled

rate of deformation or load.

• A gripping device, used to transmit the load from the testing machine to the test.
• An extensometer, used to measure the deformation of the specimen.

• Caliper used to measure the dimensions of the specimen.

Test Procedure:

1. Measure and record the specimen dimensions necessary to determine the cross-
sectional area at its smallest point. The original cross-sectional area is used for all
engineering stress calculations.

2. Use ink and a scribe or punch to place gauge marks on the test specimen at the appropriate
gauge length. The distance between the gauge marks after the specimen is broken is used to
determine the percent elongation at break. Note: To accurately compare elongation values
between tests, the gauge lengths must be the same.

3. Zero the testing machine without the specimen inserted in the grips. Then install the
specimen in the grips and start loading the sample. The speed of testing is generally specified
in one of three manners: a) the rate of straining of the specimen (0.5 in/in of the gauge length
per minute ;) b) the rate of stressing of the specimen; or c) the rate of separation of the
crossheads. In addition, the test rate is to remain constant through yield but can then be
increased when determining ultimate tensile strength and elongation at break.

4. Run the test until specimen failure or fracture. Remove the broken sample from the machine
and fit the fractured ends together. Measure the distance between the gage
marks to the nearest 0.05 millimeters.\
Analysis and Results:
• Plot the stress versus strain curve.
• Determining the yield strength using offset method
• Determining the modulus of elasticity using Hooke’s law.

σ=Eε
where:
E = Modulus of elasticity
σ = stress in proportional limit
ε = corresponding strain, mm/mm (in/in)
• Calculate the tensile

strengthwhere:
σ = tensile strength/ ultimate strength, in MPa (psi)
Pmax = maximum load carried by the specimen during
tension test, N (lb)\A = original cross- sectional area of
the specimen, mm² (in².)

• Calculate the elongation

Percent elongation = [ (Ls-
Lo)/Lo) x 100]Where:
Ls= gauge length after
rupture, mm (in.) Lo=
original gauge length, mm
(in.)
For elongation > 3.0%, fit the ends of the fractured specimen together and measure Ls as the
distance between two gauge marks. For elongation ≤ 3.0%, fit the fractured ends together and apply
an end load along the axis of the specimen sufficient to close the fractured ends together, then
measure Ls as the distance between gauge marks.

• Calculate the rupture

strengthWhere:
= rupture strength, MPa (psi)
Pf = final load, N (lb)
A = original cross- sectional area of the specimen, mm² (in².)
• Calculate the reduction of cross-sectional area
Percent reduction in cross- sectional area = [ (Ao –
As)/Ao ) x 100 ]Where:
Ao = original cross- sectional area of the
specimen, mm² (in².)As = cross-sectional
area after rupture, mm² (in².)
Replacement of the Specimen:
The test specimen should be replaced if
▪ the original specimen had wrong dimensions
▪ the test procedure was incorrect
▪ the fracture was outside the gauge length
▪ for elongation determination, the fracture was outside the

middle half of the gauge length.

Example:
The following data were obtained during a tension test of an aluminum alloy. The initial diameter of the test
specimen was 0.505 in. and the gage length was 2.0 in.

Load Elongation Load Elongation

(lb) (in.) (lb) (in.)
0 0 14 000 0.020
2 310 0.00220 14 400 0.025
4 640 0.00440 14 500 0.060
6 950 0.00660 14 600 0.080
9 290 0.00880 14 800 0.100
11 600 0.0110 14 600 0.120
12 600 0.0150 13 600 Fracture
Plot the stress-strain diagram and determine the following mechanical properties: (a) proportional
limit; (b) modulus of elasticity; (c) yield point; (d) yield strength at 0.2% offset; (e) ultimate
strength; and (f) rupture strength.
Area, A = 0.25π(0.5052) = 0.0638π in2
Length, L = 2 in.
Strain = Elongation/Length
Stress = Load/Area

Load (lb) Elongation (in.) Strain Stress (psi)

(in/in)
0 0 0 0
2 310 0.0022 0.0011 11 532.92
4 640 0.0044 0.0022 23 165.70
6 950 0.0066 0.0033 34 698.62
9 290 0.0088 0.0044 46 381.32
11 600 0.011 0.0055 57 914.24
12 600 0.015 0.0075 62 906.85
14 000 0.02 0.01 69 896.49
14 400 0.025 0.0125 71 893.54
14 500 0.06 0.03 72 392.80
14 600 0.08 0.04 72 892.06
14 800 0.1 0.05 73 890.58
14 600 0.12 0.06 72 892.06
13 600 Fracture 67 899.45
From stress-strain diagram:
a. Proportional Limit = 57,914.24 psi
b. Modulus of Elasticity: E = 57914.24/0.0055 = 10,529,861.82 psi
E = 10,529.86 ksi
c. Yield Point = 69,896.49 psi
d. Yield Strength at 0.2% Offset
Strain of Elastic Limit = at PL +0.002
Strain of Elastic Limit = 0.0055 +0.002

Strain of Elastic Limit = 0.0075 in/in

: The offset line will pass through Q (See figure below):

Slope of 0.2% offset = E = 10,529,861.82 psi

Test for location:

Slope = rise/ run
 10,529,861.82 = (6989.6 + 4992. /run
run = 4 61)
0.00113793
Slope of EL to
σ1 / ε1 = Y P 6989.64/0.
0025
σ1 / ε1 = 2 795 856
ε1 = σ1 / 2 795 856
For the required point:
E = (4992.61 + σ1)
/ ε1
10 529 = (4992. + σ1) / (σ1 2 795 856)
861.82 61 /
3.7662 σ1 = 4992.6 + σ1
1
σ1 = 1804.84 psi

Yield Strength at 0.2% Offset = EL + σ1

= 62906.85 + 1804.84
= 64 711.69 psi
e. Ultimate Strength = 73 890.58 psi
f. Rupture Strength = 67 899.45 psi

“Standard Test Methods for Bend Testing of

Material for Ductility”“Guided Bend”
REFERENCED STANDARD: ASTM E290-14
Forces and couples acting on the materials (metals) cause bending
(flexural stresses) and shearing stresses on any cross section of the materials
(metals) and deflection perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the materials
(metals). Bend test machines are typically universal testing machines
specifically configured to evaluate material ductility, bend strength, fracture
strength, and resistance to fracture.
These test methods cover bend testing for ductility of materials were a
guided-bend test using a mandrel or plunger of defined dimensions to force the
mid-length of the specimen between two supports separated by a defined space.
After bending, the convex surface of the bend is examined for evidence of a
crack or surface irregularities. If the specimen fractures, the material has failed
the test. When complete fracture does not occur, the criterion for failure is the
number and size of cracks or surface irregularities visible to the unaided eye
occurring on the convex surface of the specimen after bending, as specified by
the product standard. Any cracks within one thickness of the edge of the
specimen are not considered a bend test failure. Cracks occurring in the corners
of the bent portion shall not be considered significant unless they exceed the size
specified for corner cracks in the product standard.
Significance and Use:
Bend tests for ductility provide a simple way to evaluate the quality of
materials by their ability to resist cracking or other surface irregularities during
one continuous bend. No reversal of the bend force shall be employed when
conducting these tests.

Apparatus:

300 Series Electromechanical Universal Test

Machines
Force range of 5 kN to 600 kN (1,125 lbf to 135,000 lbf)
The most popular choice for static tension and
compression tests,these dual column testers are
available in both tabletop and floor standing models

600 Series Universal Test Machines

Force range of 300 kN to 2,000 kN (67,500 lbf to 450,000
lbf) The best choice for performing static tension and/or
compression applications when force capacities of 300 kN
(67,000 lbf) or more are needed. Includes its own grips

ASTM E290 Guided Bend Weld Test Fixture

are used to convert the axial motion or rotary motion
of the ELF and Instron fatigue testers into various forms of
bending motion or motions that combine bending and
other motion

PLUNGER OR MANDREL
A plunger forces the specimen into a 180°
bend againstrollers on a base
Test Procedure:

1. Place the specimen over two rounded supports separated by a clearance

(C) equal to (2r + 3t), 6 (t/2), where (r) is the radius of the plunger or
mandrel and (t) is the specimen thickness.

2. Bend the specimen by applying a force through a plunger or mandrel in contact with the
specimen at the mid-length between supports (C/2) on the opposite side of the specimen
from the end supports. Apply the bending force smoothly and without shock.

3. Continue bending until failure occurs, or until the specified angle of bend, or maximum
angle for the fixture is achieved. The angle of bend is measured while the specimen is under
the bending force.
4. When the required angle cannot be achieved in the bend fixture shown in Fig. 3, complete the
test by pressing the specimen between suitable platens until the specified conditions of bend
are obtained. Apply the force smoothly, without shock. When it is desired not to exceed 180°
of bend while completing the bend, place between the two legs of the specimen a spacer
having a thickness twice the required bend radius,
 Calculation:
• Compute for Bending

StrengthFlexure Formula:
OR
Where:
fb = bending stress
Mmaxx = the largest bending moment of the specimen
C = is the distance the neutral axis to the outermost point of the section
E = modulus of elasticity of the specimen
R = Radius of Curvature a point to the neutral axis

Example:
“Standard Test Methods for Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Carbon Steel, Low-
Alloy Steel, Silicon Chemical Analysis of Carbon Steel, Low-Alloy Steel, Silicon Electrical Steel,
Ingot Iron, and Wrought Iron”

REFERENCED STANDARD: ASTM E350- 95

This test method covers the chemical analysis of carbon steels, low-alloy steels, silicon
electrical steels, ingot carbon steels, low-alloy steels, silicon electrical steels, ingot iron, and
wrought iron having chemical compositions within iron, and wrought iron having chemical
compositions within the following limits:

Element Concentration Range, %

Aluminum 0.001 to 1.50
Antimony 0.002 to 0.03
Arsenic 0.0005 to 0.10
Bismuth 0.005 to 0.5
Boron 0.0005 to 0.02
Calcium 0.0005 to 0.01
Cerium 0.005 to 0.50
Chromium 0.005 to 3.99
Cobalt 0.01 to 0.30
Columbium 0.002 to 0.20
(Niobium)
Copper 0.005 to 1.50
Lanthanum 0.001 to 0.50
Manganese 0.01 to 2.50
Molybdenum 0.002 to 1.50
Nickel 0.005 to 5.00
Nitrogen 0.0005 to 0.04
Oxygen 0.0001 to 0.03
Phosphorus 0.001 to 0.25
Selenium 0.001 to 0.50
Silicon 0.001 to 5.00
Sulfur 0.001 to 0.60
Tin 0.002 to 0.10
Titanium 0.002 to 0.20
Tungsten 0.005 to 0.10
Vanadium 0.005 to 0.50
Zirconium 0.005 to 0.15

Some of the concentration ranges are too broad to be covered by a single test method and
therefore this broad to be covered by a single test method and therefore this standard contains
multiple test methods for some elements. The user must select the proper test method by matching
the information given in the Scope and Interference sections of each test method with the composition
of the alloy to be each test method with the composition of the alloy to be analyzed.
Significance and Use:
• These test methods for the chemical analysis of metals and alloys are primarily intended as
referee methods to test such materials for compliance with compositional specifications,
particularly those under the jurisdiction of ASTM Committees A-1 on Steel, Stainless Steel, and
Related Alloys and A-4 on Iron Castings. It is assumed that all who use these test methods will be
trained analysts capable of performing common laboratory procedures skillfully and safely. It is
expected that work will be performed in a properly equipped laboratory und under appropriate
quality control practices.

REINFORCING STEEL

Most people are familiar with reinforcing steel, commonly called "rebar". It is used in
bridges, buildings, skyscrapers, homes, warehouses, and foundations to increase the strength of a
concrete structure.
Rebar is used in concrete to provide additional strength, as concrete is weak in tension, while
steel is strong in both tension and compression. Steel and concrete have similar coefficients of
thermal expansion, so a concrete structural member reinforced with steel will experience
minimal stress as the temperature changes.
Types of Steel Reinforcement
The steel reinforcement used in concrete construction is mainly of 4 types.
1. Hot Rolled Deformed Bars
Hot rolled deformed bars are most commonly used steel reinforcement for R.C.C structures. As
the name says, the hot rolling of the reinforcement is undergone leaving certain deformations on
its surface in the form of ribs. These ribs help to form a bond with the concrete. The typical yield
strength of hot-rolled deformed bars is 60000psi.

2. Cold Worked Steel Bars

A cold worked reinforcement bar is obtained by letting he
hot rolled steel bars to undergo cold working. In the cold
working process, the bars will undergo twisting and drawing.
The process is performed at room temperature. The cold
worked steel bars do not undergo a plastic yield thus have less
ductility when compared with hot rolled bars.

3. Mild Steel Plain Bars

The mild steel plain reinforcement bars do not have ribs on their
surface. They have a plain surface. These bars are used for small projects
where the major concern is the economy. The tensile yield strength of
these bars has a value of 40000psi.
 4. Prestressing Steel Bars

The prestressing steel reinforcement are steel bars used in the form of strands or
tendons. Multiple strands are employed in concrete in order to perform the prestressing
action. The strands are made of multiple wires either 2 or 3 or 7 wire strands. The wires used
here are cold formed and have a high tensile strength ranging from 250000 – 270000 psi. This
high strength helps to effectively prestress the concrete.

Need for Steel Reinforcement

Plain concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. Tensile property for concrete
structures is obtained by incorporating steel reinforcement. The steel reinforcement is strong in
both tension and compression. The tensile property provided by the steel reinforcement will
prevent and minimize concrete cracks under tension loads.

The coefficient of thermal expansion of steel reinforcement and concrete are similar in that
they undergo similar expansions during temperature changes. This property will ensure that the
concrete is subjected to minimal stress during temperature variations. The surface of the steel
reinforcement bars is patterned to have a proper bond with the surrounding concrete material.

The two main factors that provide strength to the concrete structures are steel and concrete.
The design engineer will combine both the elements and design the structural element such a way
that the steel resists the induced tensile and shear force, while the concrete takes up the
compressive forces.

Advantages of Steel Reinforcement

Steel reinforcement is a reinforcing choice compared to other reinforcing materials due to its
unique advantages. They are:

• Compatibility with Concrete: The fresh concrete is placed on the formwork mold already
prepared with reinforcement. The steel reinforcement won’t float in concrete during the
concrete placing procedure. Hence, steel reinforcement does not demand special tying up
with formworks.
• Robustness of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars are robust in nature that they have the
ability to withstand the rigors, the wear and tear during the construction activities.
• Bent Property of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars once manufactured to standard
size, it can be bent to the requiredspecifications. Hence fabricated steel bars are
delivered easily at the site.
• Recycling Property: The steel reinforced left over after the service life of a structure is
recycled again and used for new construction.
• Easily Available: Every region of a country will have a steel supplier or manufacturer.
Hence steel reinforcement is easily available.
Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement
The main disadvantages of steel reinforcement are mentioned below:
• Reactive Nature of Steel Reinforcement: In concrete structures where the cover is small and
subjected to external moisture and salt action, the reinforcement undergoes reaction and
starts to corrode. These can lessen the strength of concrete and finally to failure.
• Expensive: The cost of steel reinforcement in high. This will increase the cost of construction
• Melts at high temperature: At higher temperatures, the steel reinforcement may melt. This is the
reason why the steel reinforcement is tied up and not welded.
If reinforcing bars have been sitting on the jobsite for a while, and begin to show signs of rust,
can they still be used that way?

The answer is "yes," but with certain exceptions. There are a number of things that can get onto
the surface of rebar and affect the bond strength — the bond between the reinforcing bar and the
concrete. These include scale, rust, oil, and mud.

Scale is a material found normally on the bars that is produced at the time the bars are
manufactured. It results from the cooling of the hot metal. Loose scale is usually removed when the
bars are handled at the fabricating shop — or it falls off while it's being loaded, unloaded, or handled.
Rust actually improves bond because it increases the roughness of the surface. However — and
this is the exception — if there is so much rust that the weight of the bar is reduced OR the height of
the deformations is reduced to below that weight, area, or deformation required by the applicable
ASTM, then the rust is considered harmful.

If oil and grease get onto the surface of the bar, it must be cleaned off. You can do this by wiping
it off with a solvent. And finally, mud. You should load and unload bars to avoid getting them covered
with mud. Any mud on the bars needs to be washed off before using thebars.

STEEL BARS

Steel reinforcing bars, also called as “rebars”, are used as a tension device for concrete
construction. It strengthens and aids the concrete under tension, since concrete is known to be strong
under compression, yet weak in its tensile strength.
 Rebars are very essential for ensuring safe, durable structures that will be reliable for years.
Having no reinforced steel to aid, the natural expansion and contraction of the concrete will cause weak
areas to develop, which will ultimately collapse in the long run.

Rebars are hot-rolled in much same way as structural shapes. It has a round cross-sectional
area. It usually have deformations with ribs, lugs or indentations for better bonding with concrete,
reduce risk of slippage, and also for the increase of the tensile strength of a structure.

PRODUCTION OF REBARS

1. Steel (carbon or alloy) is melted down to liquid form, which requires an extreme amount of
heat to achieve. Once melted, the liquid steel is pulled through small round
openings to give the rebar its shape.

2. While unfinished steel is the cheapest form of rebar available, some jobs necessitate epoxy-
coated or stainless steel. The reason being is that rust can occur when the rebar has prolonged
exposure to salt water, which can ultimately lead to a build-up of internal pressure that can
cause the concrete form to crack. Since this is not a profitable or safe option in the long-term,
most developers will opt to purchase higher-grade material.

3. Once the steel has been properly shaped, the manufacturer will make the twists and grooves on the
metal to ensure it will stay firmly in place inside the structure.

4. Since these reinforced metal bars are highly hazardous when it comes to installation, their
ends are often covered with plastic caps to prevent accidental harm to construction workers.

5. Rebar is often distributed straight from the manufacturer to the job site, although contractors
can arrange for pickup if they need to. Once on site, the product will need to be bent to the
proper specs. This is accomplished with specialty hydraulic benders and cutters. Only certain
types of rebar can be welded, which is why many construction companies utilize wire and
coupling splices to join the ends together.
 I. BAR MARKINGS

There are many ways

to identify reinforcing
steel bar (rebar) from the
production mill to the
fabrication shop to the
jobsite. Some rebars have
the same appearance that
leads to some people
finding it hard to identify
the rebar themselves,
which may cause mistakes
easily.

Engineers should have the knowledge about the manufacturing and composition of each
bar of reinforcing steel.

❖ ASTM Rebar Markings:

Each individual reinforcing bar is manufactured with a series of individual markings:

▪ The first letter or symbol identifies the producing mill and its deformation pattern.

▪ The next marking is the bar size. It is about the bars' diameter and length.

▪ The third marking symbol designates the type of reinforcing steel, usually either;
• "S" for carbon-steel (ASTM A615)
• "W" for low-alloy steel (ASTM A706)
• "SS" for stainless steel (ASTM A955)
• "R" for rail-steel (ASTM A996)
• "I" for axle-steel (ASTM A996)
• "A" for rail-steel (ASTM A996)
• "CS" for low-carbon chromium (ASTM A1035)

▪ The last marking shows the grade of reinforcing bar;

• 40: grade 40
• 60: grade 60
• 75: grade 75
• 4: grade 420, also grade 60
• 5: grade 520, also grade 75

Furthermore, the grade also can be identified by its additional lines, which must be at least
five deformations long. If it has no line, it means grade 40. If there is an addition of one line it
represents grade 60, or two lines grade 75, three lines grades 80 and 100, and four lines grade
120.
II. BASIC PROPERTIES OF REINFORCED STEEL
Rebar, also known as reinforcement steel and reinforcing steel, is a steel bar or mesh of
steel wires used in reinforced concrete and masonry structures to strengthen and hold the
concrete in tension. To improve the quality of the bond with the concrete, the surface of rebar is
often patterned.

❖ Different uses of rebar include:

▪ Primary reinforcement

▪ Secondary reinforcement

▪ Provide resistance to concentrated loads, spreading it through a wider area.

▪ Assist other steel bars in accommodating their loads by holding them in the correct position.

❖ The Properties of Reinforcing Steel are:

1. Strength

The steel is strong as a material, due to uniform lattice structure at the atomic level.

2. Ductility

The ability of steel to be drawn into wires is quantitatively higher than other metals.

3. Malleability

The steel can readily be beaten into sheets due to the intrinsic property
of the alloy due to its lattice structure.
 4. Weldability

Steel materials can easily be welded, as their melting temperature is within the limit of majority welders.

5. Durability

Steel products survive years of damage, wear and tear, and endure impacts before failures are observed.

6. Toughness

Steel as a material tough, making it resistant to sudden impact.

The rougher the surface of the steel, the better it adheres to concrete. Thus, steel with a light,
firm layer of rust is superior to clean steel; however, steel with loose or scaly rust is inferior.
Loose or scaly rust can be removed from the steel by rubbing the steel with burlap or similar
material. This action leaves only the firm layer of rust on the steel to adhere to the concrete.

NOTE: Reinforcing steel must be strong in tension and, at the same time, be ductile enough to be shaped
or bent cold.

III. TENSILE TEST

Steel reinforcing bar, or rebar, is embedded in concrete to improve the overall strength of
the concrete that surrounds it. Material products standards exist to help ensure that rebar
produced throughout the world exhibits the same physical, chemical, and mechanical properties
regardless of the source. Proper mechanical testing is then necessary for determining if the rebar
meets its published specifications, ensuring the quality of the product.

Mechanical testing requirements for rebar can vary, but typically fall
into the following basic test categories: Tensile Bend Compression
Fatigue.
Equipment Considerations
❖ Universal (Hydraulic) Testing Machine

❖ Accommodating Bent Specimens

As the standards indicate, it is necessary to straighten rebar specimens prior to tensile

testing. As a result, many test pieces may still have a slight bend or non-linearity over their length.

Therefore, it is best if the load frame and grips are able to accommodate slightly bent specimens.
Uncoiled rebar exhibiting slight bends over length
Grips that mechanically clamp on center are recommended in order to maintain axial
alignment of the specimen. This helps improve alignment and eliminates the need to “reset” the
grips between tests.

❖ Specimen Deformations and Scaling Grip

Jaws (faces) must accommodate the deformations and scale that is common on the surface of
rebars specimens. Build-up of scale in the teeth of the jaws can lead to specimen slippage. Tooth
patterns that are too aggressive can cause premature specimen failures and may also prevent the
specimen halves from being easily removed after the test. Therefore, tooth profiles should allow scale
to fall away naturally or be easily brushed away between tests. They should also alleviate the chance
of failures that are caused by the grips. If the broken specimen halves remain stuck in the jaw faces,
the operator must dislodge them through use of a hammer or other means. This can reduce efficiency
and add to operator fatigue and frustration. The mechanical functions of the grips should also be
protected against the falling scale. If scale is allowed to get between moving parts, critical surfaces
can be galled and lead to poor performance or grip failure. It is important to regularly remove scale
from the testing equipment to help prevent unnecessary wear and tear.
❖ Violent Specimen Failures

Because rebar specimens release a lot of stored energy during tensile failure, the testing system
must be able to withstand the shock that results from the specimen recoil. The grips are impacted the
most and must be robust enough to absorb the energy and still hold the broken specimen halves so
they do not eject from the testing frame. Flying specimen pieces could become a safety hazard to the
operator and result in damage to the equipment. For all of these reasons, hydraulically actuated grips
(wedge or side-acting) are recommended.

#18 (57 mm) bar separation (recoil) after failure

Testing Speeds and Control

One of the more challenging aspects of complying with test standards is determining how to
properly and efficiently execute the tensile test. Despite standards providing specific details for
allowable test speeds and control modes for the different stages of the test, it can still be difficult to
perform the test properly. This may relate to both standard interpretation challenges and the
limitations of the test equipment.

For rebar tensile testing, it is helpful to break down the tensile test into the separate stages of
the test. This applies regardless of which test standard is being followed.

▪ The 5 basic regions are:

• Pretest
• Preload
• Elastic Region
• Yielding
• Plastic Region

❖ Pretest
During the pretest stage, the machine is made ready for testing. The proper grips are installed
and test opening adjustments are made. Prior to installing the specimen, the force (load)
measurement should be set to zero.

Once the specimen is loaded into the system, the force should NOT undergo any further
“zeroing” as this will affect the test results. If using a manual extensometer for measuring strain, it
should be attached to the specimen making sure to properly set the knife edges at the instrument’s
gauge length. The strain measurement should then be set to zero prior to loading the specimen.
❖ Preload
The preloading stage is used to apply a minimal preload (<5% of expected yield strength) to
the specimen in order to properly seat it in the grips and to also aid in pulling the specimen straight
prior to testing. A plot of stress or force versus crosshead or actuator displacement will typically
show significant displacement for a minimal increase in load due to the grips and load string pulling
tight (taking up system compliance). If a preload is not applied and an extensometer is being used,
many rebar specimens will show negative strain at the beginning of the test as the specimen
straightens. Because of this and/or system compliance, the data during the preloading portion of
the test is often ignored or not recorded on the Stress-Strain graph.

Depending on the amount of system compliance or slack that was taken up (reduced) during
the preload, it may be necessary or desirable to zero the strain measurement at the end of
preloading. However, caution must be taken so as to not adversely affect the overall strain
measurement. In either case, test results that rely on strain from the extensometer should be
adjusted so any non-linear behavior at the very beginning of the test curve does not adversely affect
any test results. This is addressed under the Linear Slope section of results.
❖ Elastic Region (before Yielding)
The elastic region or straight-line portion of the test as seen on the Stress-Strain plot can often
exhibit some non-linear behavior initially due to further straightening of the rebar specimen. If
using an extensometer, this may show up as slightly negative strain at the beginning of the test and
is generally considered normal for rebar. Depending on the standard being followed, a variety of test
control and target speeds are allowed during the elastic region and until the onset of yielding. The
control and associated rate used may depend on the equipment limitations or specific product being
tested.

❖ Yielding

Once yielding begins, many rebar grades exhibit a defined yield point that is seen as an abrupt
bend in the Stress-Strain test curve. It is then followed by a period of specimen elongation with little
to no increase in force. Because of this, servo-controlled systems must be controlled using
crosshead or actuator displacement feedback in order to maintain a constant rate of travel
throughout yielding.

It is very important to note that using stress control during yielding will cause the test to
accelerate excessively, which is in direct violation of the standards. This can also cause the yield
point (upper yield) to be masked or smoothed and cause yield strength results to be higher than
expected. Likewise, strain control from an extensometer can also become erratic during yielding
and, is therefore, not recommended when testing rebar.

Elastic and Yielding regions of a rebar Stress-Strain curve

❖ Plastic Region (after Yielding)

As the standards clearly define, it is acceptable for the test speed to be increased after yielding
has completed. For servo-controlled machines, the best way to control the test during this final
region is from crosshead or actuator displacement feedback (same as yielding). However, the speed
used can be increased according to the standard being followed. This allows for the test to complete
in a shorter period of time while still producing acceptable and repeatable results.

Target test rates for rebar test regions

• Results Nomenclature

Test standards incorporate terms, result names, and symbols to properly

identify critical information sought during testing.
It is very important to fully understand this information in order to ensure standards
compliance and proper results reporting. If testing to multiple standards, it is also necessary to
understand the similarities and differences between these items. In some cases, standards
organizations can use different terms or result names to refer to the same property. The following
table shows a few common examples of results that are found in ISO and ASTM standards. You can
see from the table where there are similarities and also differences.
Common rebar tensile results for ISO and ASTM
• Results – No Extensometer
For lower grade bars that exhibit a distinct yield point, it is possible to perform the entire
test without the use of an extensometer. The yield point can be determined from the stress-
extension test curve by locating the first point at which stress drops while extension continues to
increase.
On older testing systems, the yield point can be determined manually from witnessing the momentary
drop of the load pointer and calculating the stress from this load value and the nominal
cross- sectional area of the bar.
• Results – With Extensometer
Many higher grades of rebar do not exhibit a distinct yield point. In this case it is usually
necessary to determine the yield strength from the offset method. This requires measuring strain
with an extensometer and plotting a Stress-Strain curve from which a 0.2% offset yield strength
(Rp 0.2) can be determined. Most modern testing systems are capable of automatically generating
the yield strength. However, it is important to verify and validate the test method setup to make
sure it is delivering consistent and accurate yield strength results. The following areas should be of
particular focus.

• Linear Slope
The test standards describe various approaches for fitting a line to the linear portion of the
test curve. This line is meant to represent the slope of the elastic region of the curve and can
intersect the strain axis somewhere other than the origin due to grips seating and the load string
pulling tight as described previously in the Preload section. Since the yield strength is dependent
on both the slope of this line and its x-intercept, it is critical that the setup is done properly. The
following graph (fig. 10) shows a properly defined linear slope and the corresponding offset yield
strength (Rp0.2).
 Improper setup of this slope line could lead to incorrectly failing or
passing material due to inaccurate yield strength results! The graph in fig.
11 includes the same test plot as that in fig. 10. However, the line defining the

linear slope is not fit properly to the test curve and the corresponding offset
yield strength(Rp0.2) is reported higher than it should be.

• Yield Strength – Offset Method (Rp0.2)

The most common offset used for determining the yield strength of rebar is 0.2%. As the
standards clearly describe, the offset line is drawn parallel to the line representing the linear or
elastic region of the graph and is offset from the x intercept of this line. In order to ensure a
proper offset, it is necessary to measure strain accurately all the way through yield. Anything that
adversely affects the strain reading - such as improper instrument setup or slippage during the
test - could directly affect the yield strength result. Improper test control during yielding can
result in yield strengths that are too high. As described previously, acceleration during yielding
violates the test standards. More importantly, acceleration or test speeds in excess of those
allowed by the standards can lead to elevated yield strength values. This is less obvious on rebar
grades that do not normally produce a distinct yield point and can make it easy to incorrectly pass
otherwise failing material. Avoid this type of risk by confirming proper test control is established.

• Elongation
When using an extensometer, it may be possible to record elongation results, such as Agt or
% Elongation after fracture (A5), directly from the strain measurement. This can help automate
the recording of elongation results and eliminate the need for marking the specimen and taking
manual measurements after the test.
When determining Agt automatically, the extensometer must remain attached through
maximum force. The total strain at the maximum stress point can then be reported automatically
by the system testing software. It can also be automatically adjusted to the x-intercept of the
linear slope line. However, if the extensometer is a manual type device that needs to be removed
before failure, it can be quite dangerous to require the operator to remove it after maximum
force occurs. Many grades of rebar will exhibit violent failure shortly after maximum force is
achieved. Automatic extensometers provide the added benefit of automatic removal at any point
during the test. This protects the operator and possibly the instrument while still allowing for
automatic capture of Agt.
 When automatically determining % Elongation after fracture, typically the extensometer
must be left on through fracture. Strain is then recorded at the break point determined at the end
of the test. The test software must also be able to subtract off the elastic portion of strain to make
the result more comparable to the manual method. This is dependent on the standard being
followed. If the fracture occurs too close to the knife edge, the elongation results will be lower
than expected and may not pass.

TENSION TEST OF
STRUCTURAL STEEL
REFERENCED STANDARD:
ASTM E8

Objectives:
• To determine the tensile strength of a steel sample
• To examine/evaluate the elastic and inelastic behavior of the tested steel under given load conditions.
• To describe the pattern of failure of the tested steel.
• To plot the stress-strain diagram for the tested specimen.

Apparatus/Materials:
• Universal Testing Machine
• Mechanical and Electronic Extensometer
• Micrometer

Procedure:
1.) Measure the dimensions of the specimen. Mark each quarter point along
the length of the steel bar.

2.) Determine and record the average cross-sectional dimensions of the

specimen with a micrometer.

3.) Secure the ends of the specimen in the UTM.

4.) Switch on the UTM. Set gage dials to zero. Apply increments of the load slowly until the
specimen fails. Record the applied load and corresponding elongation for each increment load.

5.) Remove the failed section. Measure. Observe the fracture pattern. Put the broken parts together
and measure the dimensions of tested specimen.