CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGINEERING MATERILAS

INTRODUCTION
The basic knowledge of engineering materials and their properties is of great significance for a design and
manufacturing engineer. The elements of tools, machines and equipments should be made of such a material which
has properties suitable for the conditions of operation. In addition to this, a product designer, tool designer and
design engineer should always be familiar with various kinds of engineering materials, their properties and
applications to meet the functional requirements of the design product. They must understand all the effects which
the manufacturing processes and heat treatment have on the properties of the engineering materials. The common
characteristics of engineering materials are mechanical, physical, chemical, thermal, electrical and optical.
Engineering materials can be classified into: (1) metals, (2) ceramics, (3) polymers and (4) composites. Their
chemistries, mechanical and physical properties are different, and these differences affect the manufacturing
processes.

Fig. 4.1 Classifications of engineering materials

CHAPTER 1 METALS

GUIDE TO THE PROCESSING OF METALS

A wide variety of manufacturing processes are available to shape metals, enhance their properties, assemble and
finish them for appearance and protection. Metals are shaped by all of the basic processes, including casting,
powder metallurgy, deformation processes, and material removal. In addition, metal parts are joined to form
assemblies by welding, brazing, soldering, and mechanical fastening; and finishing processes are commonly used to
improve the appearance of metal parts and/or to provide corrosion protection. These finishing operations include
electroplating and painting.

Classification of Metals
i) According to their composition:
- Pure metals: Metals composed of only one metallic element. For example: gold, silver, iron, copper etc.
- Metal alloys: are homogeneous combination of two or more metals. For example: bronze, brass, steel, etc.
ii) According to their iron content:
(a) Ferrous metals are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as pig iron, cast iron, wrought
iron and steels.
(b) Non-ferrous metals are those which have a metal other than iron as their main constituent, such as aluminum,
magnesium, copper, brass, bronze, titanium, tin, silver, gold, chrome, lead, zinc, etc.
iii) According to their density:
- Ultra light: Density less than 2 g/cm3; For example: magnesium.
- Light: Density between 2 and 5 g/cm3; Aluminum and titanium.
- Heavy: Density superior to 5g/cm3; all the other metals are heavy: steel, copper, gold, zinc, tin.

METALS: are the most important engineering materials characterized by their technological and commercial
importance in addition their general properties as:

I. FERROUS METALS:
The ferrous group can be further subdivided into steels and cast irons.
Iron making: to produce iron, a charge of ore, coke, and limestone are dropped into the top of a blast furnace.
 Iron ores: consisting of iron oxide (50% to 70% iron) or carbonate associated with earth impurities.
 Limestone: is a rock containing high proportions of calcium carbonate (CaCO 3) used as a flux/cleaner to
react with and remove impurities in the molten iron and produces slag.
 Coke /coal: is the carbon fuel, produces heat to melt the ore in the blast furnace.
 Blast furnace is a refractory-lined chamber with a diameter of about 9 to 11 m (30–35 ft) at its widest and a
height of 40 m (125 ft), in which
 Hot gases are forced into the lower part of the chamber at high rates to accomplish combustion and
reduction of the iron.
i) The charges /raw materials descend slowly from the top of the furnace towards the base and are heated to
temperatures around 16500C (30000F). Burning of the coke is accomplished by the hot gases (CO, H 2, CO2, H2O,
N2, O2, and fuels) as they pass upwards from the lower part.
ii) When the materials descend a chemical reaction takes place. The iron separates from the elements which were
contained in the original mineral.
iii) The lime combines with impurities such as silica (SiO2), sulfur (S), and alumina (Al2O3) in reactions that
produce a molten slag that floats on top of the iron and the molten metal comes out of the bottom (iron + carbon +
impurities).
iv) The molten iron is also called pig iron, the immediate product of the blast furnace. Pig iron has impurities and
very high carbon content, typically 3-5%, which makes it very brittle and not useful directly as a material.
v) Further refinement of the metal is required for both cast iron and steel. To become steel, it must be melted and
reprocessed to reduce the carbon to the correct amount, at which point other elements can be added to improve the
properties. A furnace called a cupola (Section 11.4.1) is commonly used for converting pig iron into gray cast iron.
For steel, compositions must be more closely controlled and impurities brought to much lower levels.
It is instructive to note that approximately 7 tons of raw materials are required to produce 1 ton of iron. The
ingredients are proportioned about as follows: 2.0 tons of iron ore, 1.0 ton of coke, 0.5 ton of limestone, and (here’s
the amazing statistic) 3.5 tons of gases. A significant proportion of the byproducts are recycled.

Electrolytic iron is the purest, at about 99.99%, for research and other purposes where the pure metal is required.

Fig. 6.6 Schematic diagram indicating details operation of the blast furnace
1.1 PIG IRON: is the first product of ironmaking produced during the smelting of iron ore. It is produced
when liquid iron (hot metal) is cast in the pig moulds in which the iron tapped from the base of the blast
furnace called pig iron contains various other constituents in varying form of impurity such as carbon, silicon,
Sulphur, manganese and phosphorus etc. It has the following approximate composition which is given as follows.

Carbon — 3.5 to 4.5% Phosphorus — 0.1 to 2.0%

Silicon — 0.4 to 2.0% Sulphur — 0.4 to 1.0%
Manganese — 0.2 to 1.5 % Iron — Remainder
Carbon exists in iron in free form (graphite) and/or in combined form (cementite and pearlite).
Pig iron is classified on the basis of contents of free and combined carbon as follows & these classifications are also
termed as grades.
Properties of pig iron: pig iron is hard, wear resistant, fairly fusible and very brittle. It is not useful
directly as a material except for limited applications. It has a low melting point as compared to steel.
Typically, its hardness varies between 250 BHN to 450 BHN, tensile strength between 25 kN to 50 kN
and % elongation in the range of around 0 % and 0.5 %. The lower melting point of pig iron combined
with higher density of the charge due to it, results into lower energy requirements and faster melting time
when compared to that of all-steel charge make-up in a melting furnace. Pig iron is classified on the basis of
contents of free and combined carbon as follows & these classifications are also termed as grades.

1.1.1) Grey pig iron (Grades 1, 2 and 3)

Grey pig iron contains about 3% carbon in free form (i.e., graphite form) and about 1% carbon in combined form.
This is a soft type of pig iron.
1.1.2) White pig iron (Grades 4)
White pig iron is hard and strong. It contains almost all of the carbon in the combined form.
1.1.3) Mottled pig iron (Grade 5)
This type of pig iron is in between the grey and white variety. It has an average hardness and molted appearance.
The free and combined forms of carbon are in almost equal proportion in mottled pig iron.

1.2 PLAIN CARBON STEEL: is an alloy of iron and carbon with carbon content 0.05 - 1.5% even
though other elements / impurities such as silicon, Sulphur, phosphorus and manganese are also present to greater
or lesser amount to impart certain desired properties to it. The effect of adding carbon is an increase in strength
and hardness. The effect of carbon on properties of steel is given in Fig. 4.3. Carbon steel has its properties mainly
due to carbon content and does not contain more than 0.5% of silicon and 1.5% of manganese. It often includes
other alloying ingredients as shown below in the table.
According to a designation American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI) and the Society of Automotive Engineers
(SAE), plain carbon steels are specified by a four-digit number system: 10XX, in which 10 indicates that the steel is
plain carbon, and XX indicates the percent of carbon in hundredths of percentage points. For example, 1020 steel
contains 0.20% C.
Effect of impurities on steel
i) Silicon: Silicon content in the finished steel usually ranges from 0.05 to 0.30%. It is added in low carbon steels
for preventing them from becoming porous. It helps in removing the gases and oxides. It prevents blow holes there
by making steel tougher and harder.
ii) Sulphur: It renders free cutting properties in steel. It is found in steel either as iron sulphide or manganese
sulphide. Iron sulphide due to its low melting point, produces brittleness whereas manganese sulphide does not
affect so much. Therefore, manganese sulphide is less objectionable in steel than iron sulphide.
iii) Manganese: It serves as a valuable deoxidizing and purifying agent, in steel.
Manganese also combines with sulphur and thereby decreases the harmful effect of this element remaining in the
steel. It increases wear resistance, hardness and strength and decreases machineability. When used in ordinary low
carbon steels, manganese makes the metal ductile and of good bending quantities. In high-speed steels, it is used to
tougher the metal and to increase its critical temperature.
iv) Phosphorus: It induces brittleness in steel. It also produces cold shortness in steel.
In low carbon steels, it raises the yield point and improves the resistance to atmospheric corrosion. The sum of
carbon and phosphorus usually does not exceed 0.25%.
To produce needed improvement in properties of plain carbon steel, certain elements in steel are alloyed for
specific purposes to increase wearing resistance, electrical and mechanical properties which cannot be obtained in
plain carbon steels.
The steel may be of various kinds and few important types are explained as under.

Depending upon the carbon content, a plain carbon steels can be divided in to the following types:

1.2.1. Low Carbon or Mild Steel: It contains 0.15 to 0.30% C and it is by far the most widely used steels which has
tensile strength of 555 N/mm2 and hardness of 140 BHN. It possesses bright fibrous structure. It is tough,
malleable, ductile and more elastic but not very hard than wrought iron. It can be easily forged and welded but it
does not respond well to heat treatment. It can absorb shocks. It is inexpensive to produce but rusts easily. Its
melting point is about 1410°C. Low carbon steel or Mild steel is further classified in to three types basing on
their composition i-e percentage of carbon.

a) Dead mild steel or mild steel containing 0.05 to 0.15% of carbon.

b) Mild steel containing 0.15 to 0.2% of carbon.

c) Mild steel containing 0.2 to 0.3% of carbon.

a) Dead Carbon Steel: possesses very low percentage of carbon varying from 0.05 to 0.15%. It has a tensile
strength of 390 N/mm2 and a hardness of about 115 BHN. Dead mild steel is used for making steel wire, sheets,
rivets, screws, pipe, nail, chains, camshafts, sheets and strips for fan blades, welded tubing, forgings, stamping,
automobile body etc.

b) Mild steel containing 0.15 to 0.2% carbon is used for making camshafts, sheets, strips for blades,
welded tubing, forgings, drag lines, etc.

Applications: Mild steel containing 0.15 to 0.20% carbon is used for general purpose applications; in structure
steels, universal beams, car bodies, tubes, sheets, profiles, bars, screws, drop forgings, case hardening steel, bars,
rods, rivets, angles and channels, in refrigerators etc.

c) Mild steel containing 0.2 to 0.3% carbon is used for making valves, gears, crank shafts, connecting
rods, railways axles, fish plates and small forgings, etc.

Applications: Mild steel containing 0.20-0.30% carbon is used in making machine structure, gears, free cutting
steels, valves, crankshafts, connecting rods, railway axles, fish plates, free cutting steel shaft and forged
components, etc.

Typical applications mild steels: are automobile sheet-metal parts, plate steel for fabrication, and railroad rails.
These steels are relatively easy to form, which accounts for their popularity where high strength is not required.

1.2.2) Medium-Carbon Steel: contains between about 0.30% to 0.70% carbon. It possesses bright fibrous
structure when fractured. It is tough and more elastic in comparison to wrought iron.

It can be easily forged, welded, elongated due to ductility and beaten into sheets and its good malleability. It can
easily absorb sudden shocks. It is usually produced as killed or semi killed steels and is hardenable by heat
treatment to increase strength, especially with the higher carbon contents . Hardenability is limited to thin
sections or to the thin outer layer on thick parts. Its tensile strength is better than cast iron and wrought iron but
compressive strength is better than wrought iron but lesser than cast iron. It rusts readily. Its melting point is
1400°C. It can be easily hardened and it possesses good balance of strength and ductility.

Medium carbon steels are of three categories.

a) Steel containing 0.35 to 0.45% carbon is used for connecting rod, wires & rod, spring clips, gear shaft,
key stock, shafts & brakes lever, axle, small & medium forgings, etc.

b) Steel containing 0.45 to 0.55% carbon is used for railways coach axles, axles & crank pins on heavy
machines, splines shafts, crank shafts, etc.

c) Steel containing 0.6 to 0.7% carbon is used for drop forging die & die blocks, clutch discs, plate
punches, set screws, valve springs, cushion ring, thrust washers, etc.

General Applications: Medium-carbon steel are specified for applications requiring higher strength than the low
Carbon steels including machinery components and engine parts such as springs, axles, connecting rods, gears,
shafts, railway rails/axles, crank pins on heavy machines, spline shafts, crankshafts, and break levers . It is also used
for making bolts, key stock, wires and rods, small and medium forgings, forging dies, set screws, die blocks, self-
tapping screws, clutch discs, valve springs, plate punches, thrust washers etc.
1.2.3) High-Carbon Steel: (Hard Steels): These steels are of various types which are identified by the carbon
percentage, hardness and applications containing from 0.7 to 1.5% carbon. It has high strength but low ductility.
High carbon steel loses their hardness at temperature from 200°C to 250°C.

Increasing carbon content strengthens and hardens the steel, but its ductility and malleable is reduced. High carbon
steels can be heat treated to form martensite, making the steel very hard and strong.

Uses:

a) Steel containing 0.7 to 0.8% carbon is used for making cold chisels, wrenches, jaws for vice, pneumatic drill
bits, wheels for railway service, wire for structural work, shear blades, automatic clutch disc, hacksaws, etc.

b) Steel containing 0.8 to 0.9% carbons is used for making rock drills, railway rail, circular saws, machine chisels,
punches & dies, clutch discs, leaf springs, music wires, etc.

c) Steel containing 0.9 to 1.0% carbon is used for making punches & dies, leaf & coil springs, keys, speed discs,
pins, shear blades, etc.

d) Steel containing 1.0 to 1.1% carbon is used for making railway springs, machine tools, mandrels, taps, etc.

e) Steel containing 1.1 to 1.2% carbon is used for making taps, thread metal dies, twist drills, knives, etc.

f) Steel containing 1.2 to 1.3% carbon is used for making files, metal cutting tools, reamers, etc.

g) Steel containing 1.3 to 1.5% carbon is used for making wire drawing dies, metal cutting saws, paper knives,
tools for turning chilled iron, etc.

General Applications: Common uses include drills, cutting tools, knives, and springs. They are specified for higher
strength applications and where stiffness and hardness are needed like springs, cutting tools & blades operating at
low cutting speeds and wear-resistant parts, for gears mechanisms, pieces of machines or engines and also for some
tools/ annealed and pre-tempered strips and wires.
HR = hot-rolled; CD = cold-drawn; HT = heat treatment involving heating and quenching, followed by tempering
to produce tempered martensite

The table below provides representative mechanical properties for several common carbon steels.

Yield Ultimate Elongation Elastic Density Poisson's

Material Condition
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] % Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio
Hot Rolled 32 50 25
Cold Worked 60 70 5
Stress
AISI 1020 50 65 10 29e6 0.283 0.32
Relieved
Annealed 28 48 30
Normalized 34 55 22
Hot Rolled 45 75 15
Cold Worked 80 90 5
Stress
AISI 1045 70 80 8 29e6 0.283 0.32
Relieved
Annealed 35 65 20
Normalized 48 75 15
ASTM A36 36 58 21 29e6 0.283 0.3
ASTM A516 Grade 70 38 70 17 29e6 0.283 0.3

1.3 CAST IRON:

Cast iron is a ferrous alloy containing high levels of carbon, about 2% to 6.67% C. It also contains small
amounts of silicon, manganese, phosphorus and sulphur in form of impurities elements. The carbon present in the
cast iron can take the form of graphite or carbide. Cast irons have a low melting temperature (about 300°C
lower than pure iron) due to presence of eutectic point at 1153°C and more carbon content) which makes
them well suited to casting.
Casting is a process by which a molten metal or material in its liquid state is poured into a mold / cavity and
allowed to become solid in the shape of the mold. The mold is then broken from around the solidified part or
complex shape. Casting is used to create more complex or detailed parts that would be difficult to manufacture
using other methods.
Cast iron is basically an alloy of iron and carbon and is obtained by re-melting / refining pig iron with coke,
limestone and steel scrap.
General properties of cast iron
Cast iron is very brittle and weak in tension and therefore it cannot be used for making bolts and machine parts
which are liable to tension. Since the cast iron is a brittle material and therefore, it cannot be used in those parts of
machines which are subjected to shocks.
It has low cost, good casting characteristics, high compressive strength, high wear resistance and excellent
machinability. These properties make it a valuable material for engineering purposes. Its tensile strength varies
from 100 to 200 MPa, compressive strength from 400 to 1000 MPa and shear strength is 120 MPa. The
compressive strength of cast iron is much greater than the tensile strength. The carbon in cast iron is present either
of the following two forms:
1. Free carbon or graphite. 2. Combined carbon or cementite.
The cast iron is classified into seven major kinds as follows:
i) Grey cast iron, ii) White cast iron, (iii) Mottled cast iron (iv) Malleable cast iron, (v)Nodular cast iron, (vi)
Meehanite cast iron. (vii) Alloy cast iron and the chemical composition, extraction, properties and general
applications of these types of cast iron are discussed as under.

i) Gray Cast Iron: It has a composition in the range 2.5% to 4% carbon and 1% to 3% silicon. The structure causes
the surface of the metal to have a gray in color when fractured due to the carbon being principally in the form of
graphite (free form of carbon). The fracture surface of gray cast iron has a gray color, which is how it got its
name. It has two attractive properties:
(1) Good vibration damping, which is desirable in engines and other machineries
(2) Internal lubricating qualities, which makes the cast metal machinable.
Gray cast iron is intended to provide a minimum tensile strength (TS).
The compressive strength of gray cast iron is significantly greater than its tensile strength. Ductility of gray cast
iron is very low; it is a relatively brittle material. Products made from gray cast iron include automotive engine
blocks and heads, motor housings, and machine tool bases.
Specification for various gray cast iron classes: Class 20 gray cast iron has a TS of 20,000 lb/in 2, Class 30 has a TS
of 30,000 lb/in2, and so forth, up to around 70,000 lb/in2 (see Table 6.6 for equivalent TS in metric units).
Grey cast iron is containing:
C = 2.5 to 3.8%. Mn = 0.4 to 1.0% S = less than 0.1%
Si = 1.1 to 2.8 % P = less than 0.15% Fe = Remaining (~ 92 to 95)

This table attempts to indicate the particular cast iron grade using the most common identification for each type.
Cast irons also contain phosphorus and sulfur usually totaling less than 0.3%.
Properties
(i) When fractured it gives grey color.
(ii) It can be easily cast.
(iii) It is marked by presence of flakes of graphite in a matrix of ferrite and pearlite or austenite; graphite flakes
occupy 10% of metal volume.
(iv) It can be easily machined and possesses machinability better than steel.
(v) It possesses lowest melting of ferrous alloys.
(vi) It possesses high vibration damping capacity.
(vii) It has high resistance to wear.
(viii) It possesses high fluidity and hence can be cast into complex shapes and thin sections.
(ix) It possesses high compressive strength.
(x) It has a low tensile strength.
(xi) It has very low ductility and low impact strength as compared with steel.
Applications
The grey iron castings are mainly used for machine tool bodies, automotive cylinder blocks, pipes and pipe fittings
and agricultural implements. The other applications involved are:
(i) Machine tool structures such as bed, frames, column etc.
(ii) Household appliances etc.
(iii) Gas or water pipes for underground purposes.
(iv) Main holes cover.
(v) Piston rings.
(vi) Rolling mill.
(vii) Automotive Cylinder blocks and heads for I.C. engines.
(viii) Frames of electric motor.
(ix) Ingot mould.
(x) General machinery parts.
(xi) Sanitary wares.
(xii) Tunnel segment.

ii. White Cast Iron: The carbon in this iron is in combined form as iron carbide which is commonly specified as
cementite & it is the hardest constituent of iron. It is produced in furnace by refining of pig iron. has less carbon
and silicon than gray cast iron. It is formed by more rapid cooling of the molten metal after pouring, thus causing
the carbon to remain chemically combined with iron in the form of cementite. When fractured, the surface has a
white crystalline appearance. Owing to the cementite, white cast iron is hard and brittle, and its wear resistance is
excellent. Strength is good, with TS of 276 MPa (40,000 lb/in 2) being typical. These properties make white cast
iron suitable for applications in which wear resistance is required as well as for the production of malleable
cast iron. Railway brake shoes are common an examples of white cast irons.
The chemical composition of white cast iron is given as under.
C = 3.2 to 3.6% Mg = 0.1 to 0.4% S = less than 0.2%
Si = 0.4 to 1.1 % P = less than 0.3% Fe = Remaining
Properties
(i) Its name is due to the fact that its freshly broken surface shows a bright white fracture.
(ii) It is very hard due to carbon chemically bonded with iron as iron carbide (Fe 3C), which is brittle also.
(iii) It possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance.
(iv) Since it is extremely hard, therefore it is very difficult to machine.
(v) Its solidification range is 2650-2065°F.
(vi) Shrinkage is 1/8 inch per foot.
(vii) The white cast iron has a high tensile strength and a low compressive strength.
Applications: The chills are used when a hard and wear resistance surface is desired for products such as for wheel
rims, rolls crushing jaw, crusher plates.
(i) For producing malleable iron castings.
(ii) For manufacturing those component or parts which require a hard and abrasion resistant surface such as rim of
car.
(iii) Railway brake blocks.

iii) Ductile Cast Iron (Nodular Cast Iron): Nodular iron is produced by adding elements such as nickel and
molybdenum to the molten metal. The addition of magnesium to gray cast iron improves the ductility of the
material. The resulting material is called nodular cast iron because the magnesium causes the graphite
flakes to form into spherical nodules. It is also called ductile cast iron. Nodular cast iron has good
strength, ductility, and machinability. Common uses include crankshafts, gears, pump bodies, valves, and
machine parts. Nodular iron is:
 very high strength  good machinability  good Resistance to wear
This type of iron is used for high quality castings such as lathe and machine tool beds and where hard wearing and
resistance to shock qualities are required.
Silicon is also used as an alloying element since it has no effect on size and distribution of carbon content. The
magnesium controls the formation of graphite. But it has little influence on the matrix structure. Nickel and
manganese impart strength and ductility.
Ductile cast iron has high fluidity, excellent castability, strength, high toughness, excellent wear resistance, pressure
tightness, weldability and higher machinability in comparison to grey cast iron.
Compositions of ductile cast irons are as follows:
Carbon = 3.2 to 4.2% Magnesium = 0.1 to 0.8% Manganese = 0.5 to 0.1%
Silicon = 1.0 to 4.0 % Nickel = 0.0 to 3.5% Iron = Remaining

iv. Malleable cast Iron:

Malleable cast iron is produced by heat treating white cast iron or placing white iron castings in an annealing
furnace and subjecting them to temperatures above 870°. The heat treatment improves the ductility of the
material while maintaining its high strength.
Malleable iron is produced by placing white iron castings (packed casting) in an annealing furnace and heated
around 900°C temperature and kept at that temperature for about two days and it is then allowed to cool slowly in
the furnace will separate the combined carbon to temper carbon (free form carbon). The ordinary cast iron is very
hard and brittle.
Malleable cast iron is unsuitable for articles which are thin, light and subjected to shock. It can be flattened under
pressure by forging and rolling. The tensile strength of this cast iron is usually higher than that of grey cast iron.
Property:
1. It has excellent machining quality and is used for making machine parts.
2. Malleable cast iron is like steel than cast iron.
3. It is costly than grey cast iron and cheaper than softer steel.
Applications
Malleable cast irons are generally used to form automobile parts, agriculture implementation, hinges, door keys,
spanners mountings of all sorts, seat wheels, cranks, levers thin, waned components of sewing machines and
textiles machine parts. Typical uses for malleable iron are for pipe fittings & plumbing fixtures.

v) Alloy Cast Irons: can be alloyed for special properties and applications.
These alloy cast irons are classified as follows: (1) heat-treatable types that can be hardened by martensite
formation; (2) corrosion-resistant types, whose alloying elements include nickel and chromium; (3) heat-resistant
types containing high proportions of nickel for hot hardness and resistance to high temperature oxidation.
The cast irons as discussed above contain small percentages of other constituents like silicon, manganese, sulphur
and phosphorus. These cast irons may be called as plain cast irons. The alloy cast iron is produced by adding
alloying elements like nickel, chromium, molybdenum, copper and manganese in sufficient quantities in the molten
metal collected in ladles from cupola furnace. These alloying elements give more strength and result in
improvement of properties. The alloy cast iron has special properties like increased strength, high wear resistance,
corrosion resistance or heat resistance. The alloy cast irons are extensively used for automobile parts like cylinders,
pistons, piston rings, crank cases, brake drums, parts of crushing and grinding machinery etc.
Effect of impurities on cast iron
The cast iron contains small percentages of carbon, silicon, Sulphur, manganese and phosphorus. The effect of
these impurities on the cast iron are as follows:
(a) Carbon. Carbon is one of the important elements in cast iron. It reduces melting point of iron. Pure iron has a
melting point of about 1500°C but iron with 3.5% C has melting point of about 1350°C. When carbon is in free
form i.e. as graphite form, the resulting cast iron is known grey cast iron. On the other hand, when the iron and
carbon are chemically combined form of cementite, the cast iron will be hard and known as white cast iron.
(b) Silicon. Presence of silicon in cast iron promotes the decomposition of cementite into graphite. It also helps to
reduce the shrinkage in cast iron when carbon is changed to graphite forms.
 (c) Sulphur. It makes the cast iron hard and brittle. Since too much sulphur gives unsound casting, therefore, it
should be kept below 0.1% for most casting purposes.
It is often responsible for creating troubles to foundry men. It will make cast iron hard thereby counteracting the
softening influences of silicon. It decreases strength and increases brittleness. It also promotes oxidation of cast
iron. Hence, it is kept as low as possible in cast iron.
.
(d) Manganese. It makes cast iron white and hard. It is often kept below 0.75%. It helps to exert a controlling
influence over the harmful effect of Sulphur. It reduces the harmful effects of the sulphur by forming the
manganese sulphide which is not soluble in cast iron.
(e) Phosphorus. It increases fusibility and fluidity in cast iron and induces brittleness.
It is rarely allowed to exceed 1%. Phosphorus in irons is useful for casting of intricate shapes and for producing
very cheap and light engineering castings.
Phosphorus has no effect on the carbon as well as on shrinkage in the cast iron.

Cast Iron Materials Table: The table below provides representative mechanical properties for several common cast irons.

Poisson'
Yield Ultimate Elongat Elastic Density
Material Class Condition s
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] ion % Modulus[psi] [lb/in3]
Ratio
G1800 --- 18 --- 9.6 - 14e6
Gray G2500 --- 25 --- 12 - 15e6
ASTM
Cast G3000 --- 30 --- 13 - 16.4e6 0.264 0.26
A159
Iron G3500 --- 35 --- 14.5 - 17e6
G4000 --- 40 --- 16 - 20e6
Grade 60-40-18 40 60 18 24.5e6 0.256 0.29
Ductile Grade 65-45-12 45 65 12 24.5e6 0.256 0.3
ASTM
Cast Grade 80-55-06 55 80 6 24.5e6 0.256 0.31
A536
Iron Grade 100-70-03 70 100 3 24.5e6 0.256 0.3
Grade 120-90-02 90 120 2 23.8e6 0.256 0.28

1.4 WROUGHT IRON:

Wrought iron is the assumed approximately as purest iron which possesses at least 99.5% iron. It is said as a
mechanical mixture of very pure iron and a silicate slag. This iron is produced from pig iron by re-melting it in the
puddling furnace or air furnace or reverberatory furnace. The molten metal free from impurities is removed from
the furnace as a pasty mass of iron and slag. The balls of this pasty mass, each about 45 to 65 kg in weight, are
formed.
Wrought iron is very ductile; forges well, can easily bend hot or cold, and can be welded.
It has a tensile strength of about 275 M Pa and it is high cost.
This iron contains practically no carbon and therefore can not be hardened.
Chemical Composition
A chemical composition range of typical wrought iron includes:
C = 0.02 – 0.03% P = 0.05 – 0.25% Si = 0.02 – 0.10%
S = 0.008 – 0.02% Mn = 0.0 – 0.02% Slag = 0.05 – 1.5%
Fe = remainder
Properties
The wrought iron can be easily shaped by hammering, pressing, forging, etc. It is never cast and it can be easily
bent when cold. It is tough and it has high ductility and plasticity with which it can be forged and welded easily. Its
ultimate strength can be increased considerably by cold working followed by a period of aging. It possesses a high
resistance towards corrosion.
It can accommodate sudden and excessive shocks loads without permanent injury. It has a high resistance towards
fatigue. Its ultimate tensile strength is 2,500 kg/cm 2 to 5,000 kg/cm2 and the ultimate compressive strength is 3,000
kg/cm2. It can be elongated considerably by cold working. It has high electrical conductivity. The melting point of
wrought iron is about 1530°C. It has elongation 20% in 200 mm in longitudinal direction and 2–5 % in transverse
direction. Its poison’s ratio is 0.30. It can be easily formed when cold, without the outer side cracking at the formed
portion.
Applications
It is used for making chains, crane hooks, railway couplings, and water and steam pipes.
It has application in the form of plates, sheets, bars, structural works, forging blooms and billets, rivets, and a wide
range of tubular products including pipe, tubing and casing, electrical conduit, cold drawn tubing, nipples and
welding fittings, bridge railings, blast plates, drainage lines and troughs, sewer outfall lines, weir plates, sludge
tanks and lines, condenser tubes, unfired heat exchangers, acid and alkali process lines, skimmer bars, diesel
exhaust and air brake piping, gas collection hoods, coal equipment, cooling tower and spray pond piping.

1.5 ALLOY STEELS (SPECIAL ALLOY STEELS):

Special alloy steels: such as tool steel and highspeed steel are alloys with chrome, vanadium,
molybdenum, tungsten, etc. depending on the desired properties and applications.
The main purpose of alloying element in steel is to improve machinability, elasticity, hardness, case hardening,
cutting ability, toughness, wear resistance, tensile strength, corrosion resistance, and ability to retain shape at high
temperature, ability to resist distortion at elevated temperature and to impart a fine grain size to steel. Some low-
alloy steels are designated as high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels. What sets HSLA steels apart from
other low-alloy steels is that they are designed to achieve specific mechanical properties rather than to
meet a specific chemical composition. Low alloy steels are not easily welded, especially at medium and high
carbon levels.

Alloy Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the maximum of the range given for the content of
alloying element exceeds one or more of the following limits.

Mn-1.65%, Si-0.6%, Cu-0.6% or in which a definite maximum quantity of any of the following elements
is specified.

Al, B, Cr, up to 3.99%, Cu, Mo, Ni, Ti, W, V, or any other alloying element added to obtain a desired
alloying effect.

Low and medium alloy steel: In low and medium alloy steel alloying element is not exceeding 10%.

i) 1st symbol: 100 times the average percentage of carbon.

ii) 2nd, 4th, 6th, etc symbol: Elements

iii) 3rd, 5th, 7th, etc. symbol: percentage of elements multiplied by factors as follows.

iv) Last element: It indicates special characteristics.

High alloy steel: In high alloy steel, total alloying element is more than 10%.

For example: X10, Cr 18, Ni 9, S3

X- High alloy steel

10 % - 0.1 %C Cr18 – 18 % Cr Ni 9 – 9 % Ni S 3 – Pickled condition

The table below provides representative mechanical properties for several common alloy steels.

Yield Elastic
Ultimate Elongation Density Poisson's
Material Condition Strength Modulus
Strength [ksi] % [lb/in3] Ratio
[ksi] [psi]
Hot Rolled 70 90 20
Stress Relieved 85 105 10
AISI 4130 29e6 0.283 0.32
Annealed 55 75 30
Normalized 60 90 20
Hot Rolled 90 120 15
Stress Relieved 100 120 10
AISI 4140 29.7e6 0.283 0.32
Annealed 60 80 25
Normalized 90 120 20
ASTM A242 46 67 18 30e6 0.282 0.3
Grade A 45 75 15
ASTM A302 29e6 0.282 0.29
Grade C 50 80 17
ASTM A514 Quenched & tempered 100 110 18 29e6 0.283 0.3
ASTM A517 Grade F 100 115 16 29e6 0.280 0.29
Class 1 50 80 18
ASTM A533 Class 2 70 90 16 29e6 0.282 0.29
Class 3 83 100 16
ASTM A572 Grade 50 50 65 18 30e6 0.283 0.3
ASTM A588 50 70 18 29.7e6 0.280 0.28
ASTM A633 Grade E 55 75 18 29.7e6 0.280 0.28
Grade 50 50 60 20
Grade 60 60 70 17
ASTM A656 Grade 70 70 80 14 29e6 0.282 0.29
Grade 80 80 90 12
Grade 100 100 110 12
ASTM A710 Grade A 80 85 20 29.7e6 0.280 0.3
HY-80 80 --- 18 29.7e6 0.280 0.3
HY-100 100 --- 16 29.7e6 0.284 0.3

Effect of alloying elements in steel

The chief alloying elements used in steel are chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, nickel, cobalt, vanadium,
manganese, silicon and. Each of these elements possesses certain qualities upon the steel to which it is added. These
elements may be used separately or in combination to produce the desired characteristic in steel. Following are the
effects of alloying elements on steel.
Chromium (Cr):
The most common chrome steels contain from 0.5 to 2% chromium and 0.1 to 1.5% carbon. The chrome steel is
used for balls, rollers and races for bearings. A Nickel-Chrome steel containing 3.25% nickel, 1.5% chromium and
0.25% carbon is much used for armor plates. Chrome nickel steel is extensively used for motor car crank shafts,
axles and gears requiring great strength and hardness.
 improves corrosion resistance (about 12 to 18% addition).
 increases tensile strength, hardness, wear resistance and heat resistance.
 provides stainless property in steel.
 decreases malleability of steel.
Tungsten (W):
When tungsten is added to an extent of 6% to high carbon steel, it retains the magnetic properties to high degree
and produce field more intense than ordinary steel. Steel having 8% tungsten gives sufficient hardness to it to
scratch even glass. The principal uses of tungsten steels are for making permanent magnets, high-speed cutting
tools, dies, valves, taps. Additional effects of tungsten alloying in steel are:

 increases hardness, wear resistance, shocks resistance and magnetic reluctance.

 increases ability to retain hardness and toughness at high temperature
 promotes strength at elevated temperature (resists heat).
 promotes fine grains.
  prohibits grain growth and increases hardness, wear resistance, shock resistance, toughness, magnetic
reluctance and the depth of hardening of quenched steel.

ii. Molybdenum (Mo):

A very small quantity (0.15 - 0.30%) of molybdenum is generally used with chromium and manganese (0.5 to
0.8%) to make molybdenum steel.
 It increases hardness, wear / abrasion resistance, thermal resistance and extra tensile strength.
 improves / enhances corrosion resistance in stainless steels.
 It counteracts tendency towards temper brittleness.
 It makes steel tough at various hardness levels.
 It acts as a grain growth inhibitor when steels are heated to high temperatures.
 It is used for airplane fuselage and automobile parts.
 It can replace tungsten in high-speed steels.
 raises tensile & creep strength at high temperatures
 makes steel fine grained.

iv. Nickel (Ni):

The percentage of Nickel varies from 2 to 45% in steel. Steels contain 2 to 5% nickel and from 0.1 to 0.5% carbon
increase its strength and toughness used for making rivets, boiler plates & tubes, bolts and gears etc. In this range,
nickel contributes great tensile strength, yield strength, toughness and forming properties and hardness with high
elastic limit, good ductility and good resistance to corrosion.
An alloy containing 25% nickel possesses maximum toughness and offers the greatest resistance to rusting for
making stainless and might be used for valves I.C. engine, and sparking plugs for petrol engines turbine blade etc.
Ni alloy up to 27%, makes the steel non-magnetic and noncorrodible.
A nickel steel alloy containing 36% of nickel is known as invar. It has nearly zero coefficient of expansion used for
measuring instruments, surveyor tapes and clock pendulums.
Steel having 45% Ni steel possesses extension equal to that of glass, a property very import making links between
the two materials i.e. in electronic valves and bulbs.

Nickel:

 increases toughness & resistance to impact.

 lessens distortion in quenching.
 Lowers the critical temperatures of steel & widens the range of successful heat treatment.
 strengthens steels.
 Renders high-chromium iron alloys austenitic.
 does not unite with carbon.
vii. Manganese (Mn):
 when manganese is added in steel between 1.0 to 1.5%, it improves the strength and hardness of steel.
 When the steel is heat treated, hardenability is improved with increased manganese.
 11 to 14% manganese in steel with carbon 0.8 to 1.5% makes it very hard, tough, non-magnetic and
possesses considerably high tensile strength.
 Manganese steel may be forged easily but it is difficult to machine and hence it is usually ground.
 It is weldable and for welding it, a nickel manganese welding rod is used.

 It counteracts brittleness from Sulphur.

 Lowers both ductility & weldability if it is present in high percentage with high carbon content in steel.
Applications: the manganese alloy steels containing over 1.5% manganese with a carbon range of 0.40 to 0.55%
are used extensively in gears, axles, shafts and other parts where high strength combined with fair ductility is
required. The principal use of manganese steel is in machinery parts subjected to severe wear. Because of work
hardening, it is suitable for jaws of stone and ore crushers, grinding plants, tramway and railway points and
crossing etc. Manganese steel in the form of bars is now widely used for screening coke. It is also used for helmets
and shields. It is used for agricultural implements such as shovels etc.
v. Vanadium (V):
 improves tensile strength, toughness, hardenability, elastic limit, ductility, fatigue resistance, shock
resistance and response to heat treatment.
 It promotes in obtaining a fine grain structure in steel.
 The addition of a very small amount of vanadium (less than 0.2%) produces a marked increase in tensile
strength and elastic limit in low and medium carbon steels without a loss of ductility.
 The chrome- vanadium steel containing about 0.5 to 1.5% chromium, 0.15 to 0.3% vanadium and 0.13 to
1.1% carbon have extremely good tensile strength, elastic limit, endurance limit and ductility.
 These steels are frequently used for parts such as springs, shafts, gears, pins and many drop forged parts.
vi. Silicon:
 It improves magnetic permeability and decreases hysteresis losses.
 It decreases weldability and forgeability.
 improves the electrical properties of steel. It also increases fatigue strength and ductility.
 It is also added as a deoxidizer during casting of ingots.
 It takes care of oxygen present in steel by forming SiO2.
 Silicon steels behave like nickel steels.
 These steels have a high elastic limit as compared to ordinary carbon steel.
 Silicon steels containing from 1 to 2% silicon and 0.1 to 0.4% carbon and other alloying elements are used
for electrical machinery, valves in I.C. engines, springs and corrosion resisting materials.
Applications
1. Steel with Mn = 1 %, Si = 2% and C = 0.4 to 0.6% has very high elastic limit and is used for springs.
2. Steel containing 5 to 7% silicon retains its hardness and resistance to oxidation at high temperature. It is used for
making internal combustion engines.
3. Steel possessing 13% Si has a very high corrosion resistance and it can be used in chemical industrial
applications.
4. Steel possessing 1% Si and up to 0.95% Mn is suitable for structural purposes.
viii. Titanium (Ti):
 It acts as a good deoxidizer and promotes grain growth.
 It prevents formation of austenite in high chromium steels.
 It is the strongest carbide former.
 It is used to fix carbon in stainless steels and thus prevents the precipitation of chromium carbide.
Applications: Alloy steels are used for making high quality tools, drills, knifes, orthopedics, etc.

High speed steel & tool steel

ix. Structural steels

Structural steels possess high strength and toughness, resistance to softening at elevated temperatures and enough
resistance to corrosion. In addition, they should possess weldability, workability and high hardenability. The
principal alloying elements in structural steels are chromium, nickel and manganese.
Applications: they are used for structural members of bridges, buildings, rail road, cars, etc. They are also used for
manufacturing components subjected to static and dynamic loads. These components include valves, pins, studs,
gears, clutches, bushes, shafts etc.
1.6 STAINLESS STEEL:
General Properties of Stainless Steels
 It possesses wide range of strength and hardness, high ductility, formability, high corrosion resistance,
good creep resistance, good thermal conductivity, good machinability, good weldability, high hot, cold
workability, high resistance to scaling and oxidation at elevated temperatures, excellent surface appearance
and finish.
 Their principal alloying element is chromium usually above 15% while some other elements like nickel,
manganese etc. can also be present in small amounts and rest is iron.
 Minimum chromium content of 12% is required for the film’s formation, and 18% is sufficient to resist the
most severe atmospheric corrosive conditions.
 Addition of nickel improves ductility and imparts strength.
 Corrosion resistance to stainless steels increases with increase in nickel content against neutral chloride
solution and weakly oxidizing acids.
 Addition of molybdenum improves its resistance to sulphuric, and organic acids. Addition of manganese
increases hot workability of these steels.
 Steels having 15 to 20% Ni and about 0.1 % carbon possesses great strength, hardness and toughness and
extremely good resistance to corrosion however, increasing the carbon content has the effect of reducing
corrosion protection.
 Another type of stainless steel containing 11 to 14% chromium and about 0.35% carbon is used for cutlery,
surgical and dental instruments and other purposes where hard edges are required

The table below shows the typical compositions of stainless steels:

Element Austenitic Ferritic Martensitic

Carbon 0.03 - 0.25% 0.08 - 0.20% 0.15 - 1.2%
Chromium 16 - 26% 11 - 27% 11.5 - 18%
Nickel 3.5 - 22% --- ---
Manganese 2% 1 - 1.5% 1%
Silicon 1 - 2% 1% 1%
Thus, the material doesn’t oxidize and can be used outdoor or to make objects exposed to water, as well as the
fabrication of containers, pipes, tanks and other instruments for the alimentary industry.

Stainless steels products

Classification of Stainless Steel
On basis of their micro-structure / metallurgical properties, stainless steels are classified as follow:
1.6.1 Martensitic stainless steels 1.6.4. Precipitation hardening
1.6.2. Ferritic stainless steels stainless steels
1.6.3. Austenitic stainless steels 1.6.5. Duplex stainless steels
1.6.1 Martensitic Stainless Steels:
1.6.1 Martensitic Stainless Steel:
 contains 12 to 16% chromium and 0.1 to 1.2 % carbon.
 Possess martensitic microstructure.
 They are magnetic in all condition & possess the best thermal conductivity of the stainless types.
  It is very hard and possesses high strain / ductility and corrosion resistance properties.
 Have higher carbon content than ferritic stainless, thus permitting to be strengthened by heat treatment.
 Have as much as 18% Cr but no Ni. They are strong, hard, and fatigue resistant, but not generally as
corrosion resistant as the other two groups.
 Common applications include cutlery and surgical instruments.
 They can be cold worked without difficulty, especially with low carbon content, can be machined
satisfactorily.
 They have good toughness.
 They have good corrosion resistance to weather and to some chemicals.
 They are easily hot worked.
Applications
 Stainless steels containing 12 to 14% chromium and 0.3% carbon are extensively used for table cutlery,
tools and equipment etc.
 Stainless steels containing 16-18% chromium and 0.2% carbon are used as springs, ball bearing, valves,
knife blades and instruments under high temperature and corrosive conditions.
 These steels are generally used for making utensils, surgical and dental instruments, and springs of high
temperature operations, ball valves and toilet seats.

Composition: C 0.15 to 1.2%, Si 1%, Mn 1%, Cr 11.5 to 18%

Applications:

 Pumps & valve parts

 Rules & tapes
 Turbine buckets
 Surgical instruments, etc.
1.6.2 Ferritic Stainless Steels:
 They do not work harden and contain 16 to 30% chromium and 0.08 to 0.2 % carbon, and no nickel.
 They possess a primarily ferritic microstructure
 It has good corrosion resistance rather than high strength.
 Cannot be strengthened through heat treatment, and can only be strengthened via cold work.
 They have very low carbon and possess considerable ductility, ability to be worked hot or cold, excellent
corrosion resistance and are relatively inexpensive.
 They are always magnetic and retain their basic microstructure up to the melting point.
 Are magnetic and are less ductile and corrosion resistant than the austenitic and martensitic.
 They develop their maximum softness, ductility & corrosion resistance in the annealed condition.

Composition: C 0.08 to 0.20%, Si 1%, Mn 1 to 1.5%, Cr 11to 27%

Applications:

 Lining for petroleum industry.

 Interior decorative work.
 Screws & fittings.
 Oil burner parts.
 extensively used for kitchen equipment, diary machinery interior decorative work, automobile trimmings,
jet engine, chemical engineering industry, stainless steel sinks, food containers, refrigerator parts, beer
barrels, etc.
  also used as high temperature furnace parts when chromium content is high.

1.6.3 Austenitic Stainless Steel:

 is the most common form of stainless steel.

 They possess austenitic structure at room temperature.
 It is also the most weldable of the stainless steels due to its low carbon content.
 It can only be strengthened through cold work.
 are generally more expensive than other stainless steels due to nickel content.
 Addition of substantial quantities of Ni to high Cr alloys gives rise to, austenitic steel.
 It has the highest general corrosion / acids resistance (even hot or cold nitric acid)
 This steel contains 16 to 24% Cr, 8 to 22% Ni and less than 0.2% C.
 Addition of nickel stabilizes austenite.
 A steel containing 18% Cr and 8% Ni is very widely used and is commonly referred to as 18/ 8 stainless
steel and are most corrosion resistant of the other groups.
 They are nonmagnetic and very ductile; but they show significant work hardening.
 These steels do not harden by heat treatment but can be rolled hard.
 These steels possess a brilliant luster when polished.
 These are highly resistant to many acids even nitric acids.
 The heat conductivity of steel is low, about 5% that of copper.
 Slight amount of tungsten and molybdenum are added to increase the strength at elevated temperatures,
 Silicon and aluminum are added to improve the resistance to scaling and selenium and Sulphur are added to
improve machinability.
 It is easily weldable; fter welding, it is susceptible to corrosive attack in the area adjacent to the weld.
 They possess greatest strength and scale resistance at high temperature.
 They retain ductility at temperature approaching absolute zero.
 They are non-magnetic.

Composition:

 C 0.03 to 0.25%, Mn 2 to 10%, Si 1 to 2%

 Cr 16 to 26%, Ni 3.5 to 22%
 P & S Normal Mo & Ti in some cases
Applications
It is used for making heat exchangers, conveyors chains, furnaces, spokes, brewery, dairy and chemical industrial
components and food processing equipment, cutlery parts, surgical and dental instruments, household appliances
such as kitchen utensils, sinks and saucepans as well as machinery parts requiring high corrosion resistance.
These are also used in making components in power stations, especially in nuclear power stations, steam pipes,
boiler tubes, radiator and super heater tubes.

Common applications include

 Aircraft industry (Engine parts)  Dairy industries (milk cans)

 Chemical processing (heat exchangers)  Transportation industry (Trailers &
 Food processing (Kettles, tanks) railways cars)
 Household items (cooking utensils)  Fasteners, pressure vessels, piping.

1.6.4 Precipitation hardening stainless steels:

  which have a typical composition of 17% Cr and 7%Ni, with additional small amounts of alloying elements
such as aluminum, copper, titanium, and molybdenum.
 Strength and corrosion resistance are maintained at elevated temperatures, which suits these alloys to
aerospace applications.
 can be strengthened through precipitation hardening, which is an age hardening process.
 Due to its hardness and high tensile strength and high resistance to corrosion and temperature, it
uses to many applications like in the high technology or aerospace engineering fields.

1.6.5. Duplex stainless steels:

 possesses a structure that is a mixture of austenite and ferrite in roughly equal amounts.
 It can have up to twice the strength of austenitic stainless steel.
 It also has a high toughness, corrosion resistance, and wear resistance.
 is generally as weldable as austenitic, but it has a temperature limit.
 Their corrosion resistance is similar to the austenitic grades, and they show improved resistance to stress-
corrosion cracking.
Applications:
 include heat exchangers, pumps, and wastewater treatment plants.
 Gears, Valves, Shafts, Specialized engine components, turbine blades, molding dies and other
tools or components that require high degree of strength and hardness.

Stainless Steel Materials Table: The table below provides representative mechanical properties for several
common stainless steels

Yield Ultimate Elongation Elastic Density Poisson's

Material Class Condition Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] % Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio
AISI 201 Austenitic Annealed 40 75 40 28e6 0.289 0.27
AISI 202 Austenitic Annealed 40 75 40 28e6 0.289 0.27
AISI 302 Austenitic Annealed 30 75 40 28e6 0.289 0.27
AISI 304 Austenitic Annealed 30 75 40 28e6 0.289 0.29
AISI 304L Austenitic Annealed 25 70 40 28e6 0.289 0.28
AISI 316 Austenitic Annealed 30 75 40 28e6 0.289 0.26
AISI 316L Austenitic Annealed 25 70 40 28e6 0.289 0.26
AISI 405 Ferritic 25 60 20 29e6 0.282 0.28
Annealed 40 70 16
AISI 410 Martensitic Quenched & 29e6 0.282 0.28
80 100 12
Tempered
AISI 430 Ferritic 30 60 20 29e6 0.282 0.28
AISI 446 Ferritic Annealed 40 65 16 29e6 0.282 0.28
Martensitic H900 170 190 10
15-5PH precipitation H1025 145 155 12 28.5e6 0.283 0.27
hardenable H1150 105 135 16
Martensitic H900 170 190 10
17-4PH precipitation H1025 145 155 12 28.5e6 0.282 0.27
hardenable H1150 105 135 16
Semiausteniti
17-7PH c precipitation TH1050 150 177 6 29e6 0.276 0.28
hardenable
Austenitic
A-286 precipitation 95 140 15 29.1e6 0.287 0.31
hardenable
Duplex
Alloy
Austenitic- 65 95 25 28.5e6 0.287 0.27
2205
Ferritic
Ferrallium Duplex 80 110 15 28.5e6 0.287 0.27
255 Austenitic-
 Ferritic

1.7 TOOL STEELS: are a class of (usually) highly alloyed steels designed for use as industrial cutting tools, dies,
and molds. To perform in these applications, they must possess high strength, hardness, hot hardness, wear
resistance, and toughness under impact load. To obtain these properties, tool steels are heat treated. Principal
reasons for the high levels of alloying elements are (1) improved hardenability, (2) reduced distortion during heat
treatment, (3) hot hardness, (4) formation of hard metallic carbides for abrasion resistance, and (5) enhanced
toughness. The AISI uses a classification scheme that includes a prefix letter to identify the tool steel.
Tool Steel refers to a variety of carbon and alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to be made into
tools. Their suitability comes from their distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion, their ability to hold a
cutting edge, and/or their resistance to deformation at elevated temperatures. Tool steel is generally used
in a heat-treated state. Many high carbon tool steels are also more resistant to corrosion due to their higher
ratios of elements such as vanadium. With carbon content between 0.7% and 1.5%, tool steels are
manufactured under carefully controlled conditions to produce the required quality.

Tool steels are primarily used to make tooling for use in manufacturing, for example cutting tools, drill
bits, punches, dies, and chisels. Alloying elements are typically chosen to optimize hardness, wear
resistance, and toughness.

Properties of Tool steel: v) Very good machinability

i) Slight change of form during hardening. vi) A definite cooling rate during hardening

ii) little risk of cracking during hardening. vii) A definite hardening temperature

iii) good toughness viii) Resistance to de-carburization

iv) good wear resistance ix) Resistance to softening on heating

Classification of Tool steel:

The Joint Industry Conference, U.S.A. has classified tool steel as follows:

Symbol Meaning
T W-High speed steel
M Mo-High speed steel
D High C, high Cr steel
A Air hardening steel
O Oil hardening steel
W Water hardening steel
H Hot work steel
S Shock resistance steel
1.8 HIGH SPEED STEELS:
High Speed Steels (HSS) have been given this name due to the fact that these steels may be operated as cutting
tools at much higher speeds that are possible with plain carbon tool steel. It contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium
and 1 % vanadium, 0.8 carbon and remaining iron. It is considered to be one of the best of all purpose tool steels
which developes high hardness at elevated temperatures. High speed steels cutting tools operate at cutting speed 2
to 3 times higher than for high carbon steels. At higher cutting speeds, sufficient heat may be developed during the
cutting process. This heat causes the cutting edge of the tool to reach a high heat (red heat).
This heat softens the carbon tool steel and thus the tool will not work efficiently for a longer period. These steels
have the property of retaining their hardness even when heated to red heat. These brand of high speed steel are
generally used for machining operations on steel and non-ferrous materials to make lathe cutting tools, planner
cutting tools, shaper cutting tools, slotting cutting tools, drills, reamers, broaches, milling cutter and punches. There
are four general types of high-speed steels used in machine shop.

i. Molybdenum based high speed steel:

It contains 6% Mo, 6% W, 4% Cr, 2% V, 0.8% C and remaining Fe. It has excellent toughness and cutting ability.
Molybdenum high speed steels are cheaper than other types of steels and are particularly used for drilling and
tapping tools. These steels are also used for making rough cutting tools, lathe tools and various kinds of milling
cutters.
ii. Cobalt based high speed steel:
It contains 1 to 12% Co, 20% W, 4% Cr, 2% V, 0.8 carbon and remaining iron. This is also known as super high
speed steel, because cutting tool made of this steel can be operated at much higher speeds in comparison to high
speed steel of 18:4:1 kind. In this steel, cobalt is added from 2 to 15 per cent in order to increase the cutting
efficiency especially at high temperature. Cobalt high speed steel generally contains 20% W, 4% Cr, 2% V and
12% Co and remaining Fe. Since the cost of this steel is more, therefore, it is principally used for making cutting
tools for heavy operations which impose high pressure and temperature on the tool.
It is extensively used for making high production tools of heavy work for high production lathe, planer, shaper,
milling and boring machine.
iii. Vanadium High Speed Steel:
Generally, this steel contains more than 1% V and 0.70% C. This steel possesses better abrasive resistance in
comparison to normal HSS type steel. It is preferred for machining materials which are highly difficult to machine
by conventional means. These steels cutting tools are close competitors of carbides cutting tools such as drills,
reamers, milling cutters etc. In addition to having heat resistance properties of high speed steels possesses desirable
properties of high hardness, high compressive strength and outstanding wear resistance.
High-speed tool steels are used as cutting tools in machining processes. They are formulated for high wear
resistance and hot hardness. They permitted dramatic increases in cutting speed compared to previously used tools.
The two AISI designations indicate the principal alloying element:
T - for tungsten and M for molybdenum.
H -Hot-working tool steels are intended for hot-working dies in forging, extrusion, and die-casting.
D -Cold-work tool steels are die steels used for cold working operations such as sheet metal press working, cold
extrusion, and certain forging operations. The designation ‘‘D’’ stands for die. Closely related AISI designations
are A and O. A and O stand for air-and oil hardening. They all provide good wear resistance and low distortion.
W - Water-hardening tool steels have high carbon with little or no other alloying elements. They can only be
hardened by fast quenching in water. They are widely used because of low cost, but they are limited to low
temperature applications. Cold heading dies are a typical application.
S - Shock-resistant tool steels are intended for use in applications where high toughness is required, as in many
sheet metal shearing, punching, and bending operations.
P - Mold steels are used to make molds for molding plastics and rubber.
L - Low-alloy tool steels are generally reserved for special applications.
Tool steels are not the only tool materials. Plain carbon, low alloy, and stainless steels are used for many tool and
die applications. Cast irons and certain nonferrous alloys are also suitable for certain tooling applications. In
addition, several ceramic materials (e.g. Al2O3) are used as high-speed cutting inserts, abrasives, and other tools.

II. NON-FERTROUS METALS:

The nonferrous metals include metal elements and alloys not based on iron. The most important engineering metals
in the nonferrous group are aluminum, copper, magnesium, nickel, titanium, and zinc, and their alloys.
Although the nonferrous metals as a group cannot match the strength of the steels, certain nonferrous alloys have
corrosion resistance and/or strength-to-weight ratios that make them competitive with steels in moderate-to-high
stress applications. In addition, many of the nonferrous metals have properties other than mechanical that make
them ideal for applications in which steel would be quite unsuitable. For example, copper has one of the lowest
electrical resistivity among metals and is widely used for electrical wire. Aluminum is an excellent thermal
conductor, and its applications include heat exchangers and cooking pans. It is also one of the most readily formed
metals, and is valued for that reason also. Zinc has a relatively low melting point, so zinc is widely used in die
casting operations. The common nonferrous metals which have their own combination of properties that make them
attractive in variety of engineering applications are:
2.1. ALUMINUM:
The principal aluminum ore is a clay mineral called bauxite, which consists largely of hydrated aluminum oxide
(Al2O3 –H2O) and other oxides, silica, clay and titanium oxide. Extraction of the aluminum from bauxite can be
summarized in three steps: (1) washing and crushing the ore into fine powders; (2) the Bayer process, in which the
bauxite is converted to pure alumina (Al 2O3); and (3) electrolysis, in which the alumina is separated into aluminum
and oxygen gas (O2).
Using the electrolytic process we can get aluminium which is 99.9 % pure.

Properties: pure aluminium has silvery white color and lustrous, ductile, malleable and very good conductor of
heat and electricity. It has a very high resistance to corrosion than the ordinary steel. Its specific gravity is 2.7 and
melting point is 660°C. Its tensile strength varies from 95 to 157 MN/m 2. In proportion to its weight it is quite
strong. In its pure state the metal would be weak and soft for most purposes, but when mixed with small amounts of
other alloys, it becomes hard and rigid as steel. It may be blanked, formed, drawn, turned, cast, forged and die cast.
Its good electrical conductivity is an important property and is broadly used for overhead cables. Pure aluminum is
relatively low in strength, but it can be alloyed and heat treated to compete with some steels, especially when
weight is an important consideration.
Applications: it is mainly used in aircraft and automobile parts where saving of weight is an advantage.
The high resistance to corrosion and its non-toxicity makes it a useful metal for cooking utensils & high-tension
cables under ordinary conditions. Aluminum metal of high purity has got high reflecting power in the form of
sheets and is therefore, widely used for reflectors, mirrors and telescopes.
It is used in making furniture, doors and window components, rail road, trolley cars, automobile bodies and pistons,
electrical cables, rivets, kitchen (cooking) utensils and collapsible tubes for pastes. Aluminum foil is used as silver
paper for food packing etc. In a finely divided flake form, aluminum is employed as a pigment in paint. It is also
used for forging, stamping, bars, sheets, tubes, bolts, and rivets. When it is alloyed with copper it is used in
automobile and aircraft engines for cylinder heads, pistons, cylinder heads, crank cases of internal combustion
engines die casting, pump rods etc., surgical and orthopedic work, non-magnetic work and measuring instrument
parts.

Aluminum rim Aluminum window

Aluminum alloys: the aluminum may be easily alloyed with other elements like copper, magnesium, zinc,
manganese, silicon and nickel to improve various properties. The addition of small quantities of alloying elements
into other metals helps to convert the soft and weak metal into hard and strong metal, while still retaining its light
weight.
Duralumin: is an important wrought alloy of copper manganese magnesium & Aluminum & can be very easily
forged, casted and worked because it possesses low melting point. It has high tensile strength, comparable with
mild steel combined with the characteristics of lightness. It however possesses low corrosion resistance and high
electrical conductivity. This alloy possesses higher strength after heat treatment and age hardening. This alloy is
soft enough for a workable period after it has been quenched. It is light in weight as compared to its strength in
comparison to other metals. It can be easily hot worked at a temperature of 500°C. However, after forging and
annealing, it can also be cold worked.
Duralumin is used in the wrought conditions for forging, stamping, bars, sheets, tubes, bolts, and rivets. Due to its
higher strength and lighter weight, this alloy is widely used in automobile and aircraft components. To improve the
strength of duralumin sheet, a thin film of Al is rolled along with this sheet. Such combined sheets are widely used
in air-craft industries. It is also employed in surgical and orthopedic work, non-magnetic work and measuring
instrument parts constructing work.
Y – alloy: called copper-aluminum alloy increases its strength and machinability can be easily cast and hot worked.
it is heat treated and age hardened used for forged components; it is much used in aircraft engines for cylinder
heads, pistons, cylinder heads, crank cases of internal combustion engines die casting, pump rods etc.
Magnesium: Aluminum and magnesium are light metals, and they are often specified in engineering applications
for this feature. Both elements are abundant on Earth, aluminum on land and magnesium in the sea, although
neither is easily extracted from their natural states.
Magnesium is light in weight and brittle. This alloy possesses poor castability and good machinability. It can be
easily welded. It is made by melting the aluminum with 2-10% magnesium in a vacuum and then cooling it in a
vacuum or under a pressure of 100 to 200 atmospheres.
Due to its light weight and good mechanical properties, it is mainly used for making aircraft and automobile
components.
Hindalium: It is an alloy of aluminum, magnesium, manganese, chromium and silicon etc.
commonly produced as a rolled product in 16 gauges. Utensils manufactured by these alloys are strong and hard,
easily cleaned, low cost than stainless steels, having fine finish, having good scratch resistance, do not absorb much
heat etc.
It is used for manufacturing anodized utensil. Utensils manufactured by these alloys are strong and hard, easily
cleaned, low cost than stainless steels, having fine finish, having good scratch resistance, do not absorb much heat
etc.

Aluminum: derives primarily from its ore bauxite. It is light, strong and functional. It is the most
widespread metal on earth and because of its properties such as durability, light weight, corrosion
resistance, electrical conductivity and ability to form alloys with most metals. It also doesn’t magnetize
and is easy to machine.

 Structural applications: due to its light weight, high tensile strength and corrosion resistance, it is
used for the construction of aircrafts, automobile bodies /parts, trucks, ships, railway cars, kitchen
utensils, food packing (cans and foils), rivets ...etc. Its resistance to weather makes it possible to
use in architecture such as roofing, windows, doors, frames and furniture as well as for reflectors
and telescopes.
 Electrical industry: due to its high electrical conductivity, it is used to manufacture electric wires
and cables.
 Brewery, beverage and other food processing industries: as aluminum does not react chemically
with foods and does not alter their tastes, it is extensively used as a food containers or packings of
those food processing companies.
 Rocket and missile industry: due to its light weight, high tensile strength and corrosion resistance.

Aluminum Alloys

Pure aluminum is soft and weak, but it can be alloyed to increase strength. Pure aluminum has good
corrosion resistance due to an oxide coating that forms over the material and prevents oxidation. Alloying
the aluminum tends to reduce its corrosion resistance.

Aluminum alloys are named according to a 4-digit number, where the first number indicates the major
alloying element. A processing code follows the 4-digit number, which indicates the condition and
treatment of the material.

Series Major Alloying Element Heat Treatable

1XXX None (commercially No
pure)
2XXX Copper Yes
3XXX Manganese No
4XXX Silicon No (mostly)
5XXX Magnesium No
6XXX Magnesium and Silicon Yes
7XXX Zinc Yes
Suffi Treatment
x
-F As fabricated
-O Annealed
-HX Cold worked (strain hardened)
 -TX Solution heat treated, precipitation
hardened

The 2000, 6000, and 7000 series aluminum alloys can all be heat treated, and therefore these can achieve
the highest strengths. The other alloys can be strengthened through cold work.

The table below provides representative mechanical properties for several common aluminum alloys.

Elongatio
Yield Ultimate Elastic Density Poisson's
Material Condition n
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio
%
Al 2014 T6, T651 59 67 7 10.5e6 0.101 0.33
Al 2024 T4 40 62 10 10.5e6 0.1 0.33
Al 5052 H32 23 38 9 10.1e6 0.097 0.33
H116, H321 31 44 10
Al 5083 10.3e6 0.096 0.33
H32 31 56 12
T4 16 26 16
Al 6061 9.9e6 0.098 0.33
T6 35 38 8
Al 7075 T6, T651 68 78 6 10.3e6 0.101 0.33

Nickel Alloys: Nickel alloys have high temperature and corrosion resistance. Common alloying
ingredients include copper, chromium, and iron. Common nickel alloys include Monel, K-Monel, Inconel,
and Hastelloy.

The table below provides representative mechanical properties for several common nickel alloys. (Note 1)

Yield Ultimate Densit

Elongation Elastic Poisson's
Material Condition Strength Strength y
% Modulus [psi] Ratio
[ksi] [ksi] [lb/in3]
Hastelloy C-
Solution annealed 41 100 40 29.8e6 0.321 0.28
276
Grade 1 55 110 30
Inconel 625 29.8e6 0.305 0.28
Grade 2 40 100 30
Grade 1 85 120 20
Inconel 686 Grade 2 125 135 20 29.8e6 0.315 0.28
Grade 3 150 160 20
Solution annealed & aged 120 150 20
Inconel 718 29.4e6 0.297 0.29
Solution heat treated 150 180 10
Solution annealed 40 75 45
Inconel 725 29.6e6 0.3 0.31
Solution annealed & aged 120 150 20
Annealed 25 70 35
Hot worked 40 75 30
Monel 400 26e6 0.319 0.32
Cold worked, stress
50 80 20
relieved
Annealed & aged 85 130 20
Monel K-500 26e6 0.306 0.32
Cold worked & aged 100 140 15

2.2 MAGNESIUM AND ITS ALLOYS:

Magnesium (Mg) is the lightest of the structural metals. Magnesium and its alloys are available in both wrought
and cast forms. It is relatively easy to machine.
Properties and Designation Scheme: As a pure metal, magnesium is relatively soft and lacks sufficient strength
for most engineering applications. However, it can be alloyed and heat treated to achieve strengths comparable to
aluminum alloys. In particular, its strength-to-weight ratio is an advantage in aircraft and missile components.
Magnesium alloys are shown below in the table

Copper: When talking about different types of metals, copper and its alloys cannot be overlooked. It has
a long history because it is easy to form. Even today, it is an important metal in the industry. It does not
occur in nature in its pure form. Thus, smelting and extracting from ore is necessary.

Metals are good conductors and copper stands out more than the others. Due to its excellent electrical
conductivity, it finds application in electrical circuits as a conductor. Its conductivity is second only to
silver. It has also excellent heat conductivity. This is why many cooking utensils & heating elements are
from copper.

 Used to make household utensils.

 Used in the manufacturing of electrical cables and wires.
 Used in motor windings.
 Used in condensers and boilers.

Copper Alloys: Copper alloys are generally characterized as being electrically conductive, having good
corrosion resistance, and being relatively easy to form and cast. While they are a useful engineering
material, copper alloys are also very attractive and are commonly used in decorative applications.

Copper alloys primarily consist of brasses and bronzes. Zinc is the major alloying ingredient in brass. Tin
is a major alloying element in most bronzes. Bronzes may also contain aluminum, nickel, zinc, silicon,
and other elements. The bronzes are typically stronger than the brasses while still maintaining good
corrosion resistance.

Brass: is an alloy of copper and zinc. The amount of each of the metals may vary depending on the
electrical and mechanical properties sought of the metal. It also contains trace amounts of other metallic
elements such as aluminum, lead, and manganese. Brass is a great candidate for low friction applications
such as locks, bearing, plumbing, musical instruments, tools and fittings. It is indispensable in
intrinsically safe applications to prevent sparks and allow usage in flammable environments.

Bronze: is also an alloy of copper and tin. But instead of zinc, bronze contains tin. Adding other elements
such as phosphorus, manganese, silicon, and aluminum may improve its properties and suitability for a
particular application. Bronze is brittle, hard, and resists fatigue well. It also has good electrical and
thermal conductivity and corrosion resistance. Bronze finds application in the manufacturing of mirrors
and reflectors. It is used for electrical connectors. Due to its corrosion resistance, it finds usage in
submerged parts and ship fittings.

The aluminum bronze alloys are very hard and have good wearing properties, and so are commonly used
in bearing applications. The beryllium copper alloys have good strength and fatigue properties, and good
wear resistance when lubricated properly. Beryllium copper is commonly used for springs, bearings, and
bushings.

The table below provides representative mechanical properties for several common copper alloys. 

Yield Ultimate Elastic

Elongation Density Poisson's
Material Condition Strength Strength Modulus
% [lb/in3] Ratio
[ksi] [ksi] [psi]
Annealed 18 45 30
70/30 Copper-Nickel 21.8e6 0.323 0.3
Cold worked 50 65 10
Annealed 15 38 30
90/10 Copper-Nickel 20.3e6 0.323 0.3
Cold worked 30 50 15
Aluminum Bronze 32 85 12 15.5e6 0.269 0.316
Solution heat treated 75 85 8
Beryllium Copper Precipitation heat 18.5e6 0.298 0.27
140 165 3
treated
Nickel Aluminum Bronze Annealed 34 90 10
16.7e6 0.274 0.32
632 Quench hardened 50 90 15
2.3. COPPER:
is one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in industry. It is extracted from ores of copper such as cuprite,
chalcopyrite.
Manufacture: copper ore is first ground and then smelted in a reverberatory or small blast furnace for producing
an impure alloy. Then the air is blown through the molten metal to remove Sulphur and iron contamination to
obtain blister copper in the converter. Copper is then refined further using electrolysis processes.
Properties: pure copper is soft, malleable and ductile metal with a reddish-brown appearance. It is a good
conductor of electricity (low electrical resistivity). It is one of the best conductors of heat and it is highly resistant to
corrosion and resist weather very effectively. Its tensile strength varies from 300 to 470 MN/m 2 and melting point is
1084°C. This nonferrous metal can withstand severe bending and forging without failure. It does not cast well. If
copper is heated to red heat and cooled slowly it becomes brittle, but if cooled rapidly it becomes soft, malleable
and ductile. It can be welded at red heat.
Note that the conductivity of copper decreases significantly as alloying elements are added.
Cu is also an excellent thermal conductor. Copper is one of the noble metals (gold and silver are also noble metals),
so it is corrosion resistant.
On the downside, the strength and hardness of copper are relatively low, especially when weight is taken into
account. Accordingly, to improve strength (as well as for other reasons), copper is frequently alloyed. Bronze is an
alloy of copper and tin (typically about 90% Cu and 10% Sn. Additional bronze alloys have been developed, based
on other elements than tin; these include aluminum bronzes, and silicon bronzes. Brass is another familiar copper
alloy, composed of copper and zinc (typically around 65% Cu and 35% Zn). The highest strength alloy of copper is
beryllium-copper (only about 2% Be). It can be heat treated to tensile strengths of 1035 MPa (150,000 lb/in2). Be-
Cu alloys are used for springs.
Applications: copper is mainly used in making electric wires and cables for electric machinery, motor winding,
electric conducting appliances, and electroplating etc. It can be easily forged, casted, rolled and drawn into wires.
Copper in the form of tubes is used widely in heat transfer work mechanical engineering field. It is used for
household utensils. It is also used in production of boilers, condensers, roofing etc. It is used for making useful
alloys with tin, zinc, lead, nickel and aluminium to form alloys like brass, bronze and gun metal.
 Copper wire Copper tube
2.4. BRASS:
is an alloy of copper (main constituent) and zinc and small amounts of lead or tin or aluminum.
There are various types of brasses, depending upon the proportion of copper and zinc. The fundamental a binary
alloy comprises 50% copper and 50% zinc. By adding small quantities of other elements, properties of brass may
be greatly changed. For example, addition of lead (1 to 2%) improves the machining quality of brass. It has a
greater-strength than that of copper, but has a lower thermal and electrical conductivity. Brasses alloys are very
resistant to atmospheric corrosion and can be easily soldered. They can be easily fabricated by processes like
spinning and can also be electroplated with metals like nickel and chromium.
Applications: Brass is used for applications of utensils, household fittings, decorative objects, etc.
Bronze is an alloy of copper and tin and possesses very good corrosion resistance. It is used in making valves and
bearings. Brass and bronze can be machined at high speeds to fine surface finish.
The following copper alloys are important
If the amount of zinc is up to 36%, it has good mechanical properties, good corrosion resistance but it possesses
lower electrical conductivity than copper.
If the amount of zinc increases beyond 36%, it becomes hard but quite tough at room temperature.
When zinc content is increased in brass beyond 45%, it becomes extremely brittle, which makes it unsuitable for
general engineering purposes.
i. Red brass: contains 85% copper & 15% zinc which has excellent corrosion resistance and workability. It
possesses tensile strength ranging from 27-31 kg/mm 2. Percentage elongation of this brass is 42-48%.
Applications: red brass is an important material used for heat conducting purposes mainly utilized for making heat
exchanger tubes, condenser, radiator cores, plumbing pipes, sockets, hardware, etc.
ii. Yellow Brass or Muntz Metal: Yellow brass is also known as muntz metal contains 60% copper & 40% zinc. It
has high strength and high hot workability. Its tensile strength is approximately 38 Kg/mm 2. The percentage
elongation of this brass is 45%.
Applications: yellow brass or muntz metal is suitable for hot working by rolling, extrusion and stamping. It is
utilized for making small various components of machine and electrical equipment such as bolts, rods, tubes, valves
and fuses. This metal is utilized for making for pump parts, valves, taps, condenser tubes, sheet form for ship
sheathing (because of excellent corrosion resistance).
iii. Cartridge Brass: contains 70% Cu and 30% Zn. It is having good combination of strength and ductility.
It is having tensile strength between 31-37 kg/mm 2. Percentage elongation of this brass is 55-66%. It is generally
processed into rolled sheets. The metal alloy can be easily cold worked using cold working processes such as wire
drawing, deep drawing and pressing.
Applications: it is utilized for making tubes, automotive radiator cores, hardware fasteners, rivets, springs, plumber
accessories and in tube manufacturing.
iv. Admiralty Brass: contains 71 Cu %, 29 Zn % & 1% Sn
Properties:
 Admiralty brass is highly resistant to corrosion.
 It is highly resistant to impingement attack of sea water.
 It is having tensile strength 30 kg/mm2 (approx.).
 It can be cold worked
 It possesses good corrosion resistance to sea water corrosion.
 The percentage elongation of admiralty brass is 65%.
Applications: Admiralty brass is utilized for making condenser tubes in marine and other installations.
It is used for making plates used for ship building. It is utilized also for making bolts, nuts, washers, condenser
plant and ship fitting parts, etc.
v. Naval Brass: It contains 59% Cu, 40% Zn & 1% Sn
Properties: naval brass is similar to muntz metal. As 1% zinc is replaced by 1% tin in Muntz metal to make navel
brass, corrosion resistance of this material to sea water is significantly improved. The percentage elongation of
navel brass is 47% and its tensile strength is 38 kg/mm 2 (approx.).
Applications: is commonly utilized for making marine hardware casting, piston rods, propeller shafts, welding
rods etc.
vi. Manganese Brass: is sometimes also called manganese bronze. It contains 60%Cu, 38% Zn, 0.5%Mn, 1.0% Fe,
0.5%Sn
Properties: Manganese brass possesses sufficient toughness and good corrosion resistance. It is very active in
reducing the oxides of other metals.
Applications: Manganese brass is utilized for making hydraulic rams, valves and cylinders, tubes, pump rods,
propellers, bolts, nuts etc.
vii. Iron Brass: contains 60% Cu, 37% Zn & 3% Fe
Iron brass is hard, strong, tough, and having good corrosion resistance. It can be casted easily.
Applications: If corrosion is to be resisted in mild steel, then some amount of iron brass or delta metal is added in
mild steel.
viii. Gilding Brass: contains 85%Cu &15% Zn & it is very cheap metal for making jewellery, decorative and
ornamental products.
Applications: Because of better appearance this metal is commonly used for jewellery, decorative and ornamental
work.
ix. Free Cutting Brass: contains 57.5% Cu, 40%Zn & 2.5%Pb
It is highly machinable and it does not allow bending.
Applications: it is used for making cast, forged or stamped blanks to be used for further machining such as high-
speed turning and screwing.
x. Lead Brass: is also known as cloak brass which contains 65%Cu, 34%Zn & 1%Pb
Applications: Lead brass or cloak brass is used in making small gears and pinions for clock work.

2.5. BRONZE:
is an alloy of copper and tin. The wide range of composition of these alloys comprise of 75 to 95% copper and 5 to
25% tin.
Properties: it has higher strength, better corrosion resistance than brasses. It is comparatively hard and resists
surface wear and can be shaped or rolled into wire, rods and sheets very easily. It has antifriction or bearing
properties. Bronze is costlier than brass. The tensile strength of bronze increases gradually with the amount of tin,
reaching a maximum when tin is about 20%. However, the percentage of tin content if increases beyond this
amount, the tensile strength decreases very rapidly. Bronze is most ductile when it contains about 5% of tin. As the
amount of tin increases about 5%, the ductility gradually decreases and practically disappears with about 20% of
tin. Whereas presence of zinc in the bronze increases fluidity of molten metal, strength and ductility. Some of the
common types of bronzes are discussed as under:
i. Phosphor Bronze: it is produced when bronze contains very small amount of phosphorus commonly as: 89 to
94%Cu, 6 to 10%Sn, 0.1 to 0.3%P.
Properties: Tensile strength, ductility, elasticity, soundness of castings, good wearing quality and resistance to
fatigue of phosphor bronze increases with increase of phosphorus in bronze. This material possesses good corrosion
resistance especially for sea water, so that it is much used for propeller blades. Phosphor bronze of proper
composition can be easily casted, forged, drawn, and cold rolled.
Applications: is used for making bolts, electric contact springs, bearings, bushes, gears, ship sheathing, valve parts,
propeller blades, worm wheels, gears, nuts for machine lead screws, pump parts, linings and for many other
purposes. It is also suitable for making springs and corrosion resistance my cables.
ii. Silicon bronze: it contains 96% Cu, 3% Si, 1% Mn or Zn.
It has good general corrosion resistance of copper combined with higher strength. It can be cast, rolled, stamped,
forged and pressed either hot or cold and it can be welded by all the usual methods.
Applications: it is widely used for making boilers, tanks, stoves or where high strength and good corrosion
resistance is required. It is used also for making screws, tubing’s, pumps etc.
iii. Beryllium bronze: it contains 97.5%Cu, 2.5%Br.
It possesses higher tensile strength than other bronzes. It possesses excellent corrosion resistance. It is having high
yield point and high fatigue limit. It is having good hot and cold resistance. This can be heat treated by precipitation
hardening. It possesses excellent formability in soft condition, and high fatigue and creep resistance in hardened
condition. However, it involves high cost.
Applications it is particularly suitable material for making springs, tubes, diaphragms and electrical contacts, heavy
duty electrical switches, cams and bushings. This is used for springs, heavy duty electrical switches, cams and
bushings. Having non-sparking characteristics, it is used for making chisels and hammers using for such conditions
where spark might cause explosion. It has a film forming and a soft lubricating property, which makes it more
suitable as a bearing metal. Since the wear resistance of beryllium copper is five times that of phosphorous bronze,
therefore it is used as a bearing metal in place of phosphor bronze.
iv. Manganese bronze: is an alloy of copper, zinc and little percentage of manganese. The usual composition of
this bronze is 60% Copper, 35% Zinc & 5% Manganese
Manganese bronze is highly resistant to corrosion. It is stronger and harder than phosphor bronze.
Applications: is mainly used for bushes, plungers, feed pumps, rods etc. Worm gears are frequently made from this
bronze.
v Aluminum Bronze: possesses: 85 to 88% Cu, 8 to 11% Al, 3%Fe, 0.5%Sn
Properties: with 8% aluminum possesses very good cold working properties. When iron is added to this metal, its
mechanical properties are greatly improved by refining the grain size and improving the ductility. The maximum
tensile strength of this alloy is 450 MPa with 11 % aluminium. This material possesses good resistance to corrosion
and it is somewhat difficult to cast due to oxidation problem.
Applications: is generally used for making fluid connection fittings, gears, propellers, air pumps, bushings, tubes,
slide and valves etc. Cams and rollers are commonly produced using this alloy.
vi. Bell Metal: generally contains 66.7% Cu & 33.3%Sn
It is very strong, possesses resistance to corrosion water and atmosphere & It is used to make bells.
vii. Constantan: The composition of constantan is 55% Cu, 45% Ni
Properties:
 Constantan is high specific resistance
 (ii) Specific resistance is unaffected by temperature variation.
Applications: it is used for accurate resistors like thermo-couples,
 Wheet-stone bridge,
 (ii) Low temperature heaters and
 (iii) Resistances

2.6. NICKEL AND ITS ALLOY:

Nickel (Ni) is a silvery shining white metal having extremely good response to polish. Nickel is similar to iron in
many respects. It is magnetic, and its modulus of elasticity is virtually the same as that of iron and steel.
Manufacture: The most important ore of nickel is pentlandite ((Ni, Fe) 9 S8) which is an iron sulphides which
contain about 3% of nickel. About 90% of the total production of nickel is obtained by this source. The ore of
Nickel is initially roasted to reduce the sulphur content and then smelted to separate the gangue from it. Matte
(impure product of the smelting of sulphide ore especially those of nickel or copper, is known as matte) delivered
by the smelting furnace is then put in a Bessemer converter to oxidize the iron. The iron oxide thus combines with a
limestone and quartz and form the slag. The Bessemer’s matte consists chiefly of copper and nickel sulphides.
Properties: it is much more corrosion resistant, tough.
it is as hard as steel. It possesses good heat & corrosion resistance. Its melting point is 1452°C and specific gravity
is 0.85. At normal temperature, nickel is paramagnetic. When it contains small amount of carbon, it is quite
malleable. It is somewhat less ductile than soft steel, but small amount of magnesium improves ductility
considerably.
Applications: Because of its corrosion-resistant characteristics, it is widely used to make alloys of stainless steel, in
kitchen utensils, in laundry and dairy machinery ; as a plating metal on other metals such as plain carbon steel.
It is extensively useful for electroplating plating work for protecting surfaces of plain carbon, steel and brass from
corrosion. It is also utilized as an important alloying element in some type of cast iron and steel. Its alloys are
discussed as under.
Nickel Alloys: Alloys of nickel are commercially important in their corrosion resistance and high temperature
performance. Composition, tensile strength, and ductility of some of the nickel alloys are given below in Table
6.12.

Nickel Alloys
The important nickel alloys are haste alloy, Monel metal, inconel, nomonic and ni-chrome.
i. Haste Alloy or high Temprature Alloy
Haste alloy or high temperature alloy is mainly a nickel base alloy.
It contains 45% Ni, 22% Cr, 9%, Mo, 1.5%, Co, 0.5%, W, 0.15% C, and the remaining is Fe
Properties
 It can be hot and easily cold worked, casted and welded.
 It has high resistance corrosion especially to acids and salts except nitric acid
(HNO3).
 It can be machined also.
 This alloy is used where the resistance to corrosion is of consideration.
Applications
The high temperature alloys are those alloys which can withstand high temperatures about 1100°C. These alloys are
used in components of nuclear plants, jet and rocket engines etc.
ii. Monel Metal: is an important alloy of nickel and copper. It contains 68% Ni, 30% Cu, 1% Fe and small amount
of other constituents like iron, manganese, silicon and carbon.
Properties: it is superior to brass or bronze in resisting corrosion and in retaining its strength at high temperature. It
is magnetic at ordinary temperatures. Its mechanical properties are improved by cold working. It can be cast, cold
and hot worked, forged and welded. It resembles nickel in appearance and is strong, ductile and tough. It has good
mechanical properties and can retain them even at elevated temperatures. It has high excellent corrosion resistance.
Applications: is used for pump fittings, condenser tubes, sea water exposed parts etc.
It is widely used for making turbine blades, containers, parts for chemical plants, food handling machinery parts,
marine parts, pump impellers, propellers, evaporators and heat exchangers in chemical works.
iii. Inconel: contains 80% Ni, 14% Cr & 6% Fe
Properties: has high resistance to corrosion and oxidation at elevated temperatures. It can be readily cold-worked
and hot-worked, but does not respond to heat treatment. It contains high mechanical properties coupled corrosion
and heat resisting properties. It can be cast, forged, rolled and cold drawn. Its specific gravity is 8.55 and melting
point is 1395°C. Its Brinell Hardness is about 160BHN. It can be soft soldered or can be welded by oxyacetylene
welding.
Applications: Inconel is used for making springs, exhaust manifold of aircraft engines, machinery for food
processing industries, especially milk and milk products. It is widely used for processing uranium and for sheathing
for high temperature heating elements.
iv. Nomonic alloy
The composition of nomonic alloy is 15 to 18% Cr, 15 to 18% Co, l.2 to 4.0% Ti, l.5% A & Remaining is Ni
Properties
(i) Nomonic is a special type of nickel alloy having good strength
(ii) It can be easily heat treated to attain excellent properties for very high temperature service.
Applications: it is widely used for making gas turbine engines
v. Ni-Chrome: It contains 60% Ni, 15% Cr & 20%Fe
Properties
Ni-chrome is non-corrosive. It can easily withstand high temperatures without oxidation.
Applications
Ni-chrome is commonly used for making electrical resistance wire for electric furnaces and heating elements.

2.7. ZINC (Zn): It is bluish grey in color and is obtained from common ores of zinc are zinc blende (ZnS), zincite
(ZnO), calamine (ZnCO3). These ores are commonly available in Burma. The oxide is heated in an electric furnace
where the zinc is liberated as vapor. The vapors are then cooled in condensers to get metallic zinc.
With regards to industrial applications, zinc is the fourth most utilized metal after iron, aluminum, and copper.
Properties: Zinc possesses specific gravity is 6.2 and low melting point of 419°C. Its tensile strength is 19 to 25
MPa. It becomes brittle at 200°C and can be powdered at this temperature. It possesses high resistance to corrosion
and oxidation and poor mechanical properties. It can be readily worked and rolled into thin sheets or drawn into
wires by heating it to 100-150°C.
Applications:
 Zinc is a widespread metal and finds a lot of use in the medical and industrial sector.
 Zinc is commonly used as a protective coating on iron and steel in the form of a galvanized or sprayed
surface.
 Zinc is also used to manufacture die castings for the electrical, hardware, and automobile industry.
 Since zinc has low electrochemical potential, its uses include marine applications to prevent
corrosion of other metals through cathode protection.
 Sacrificial zinc anodes may protect valves, pipelines, and tanks.
 It is used for generating electric cells and making brass and other alloys.
 The oxide of zinc is used as pigment in paints.
 Parts manufactured by zinc alloys include carburetors, fuel pumps, automobile parts, ducts and pipes for
rainwater, for musical instruments, decoration (due to the gold-like appearance), pieces of machines, etc.

1.2.8. LEAD (Pb): Lead and tin are often considered together because of their low melting temperatures, and
because they are used in soldering alloys to make electrical connections.
Lead is a highly machine able, corrosion resistant metal. Piping and paint represent some use-cases.
Lead is a bluish grey metal with a high metallic luster when freshly cut. It is a dense metal, with a low melting
point, highly malleable and very soft and easy to handle; other properties include low strength, low hardness (the
word ‘‘soft’’ is appropriate), high ductility, and good corrosion resistance.
That’s why it was used to make tubes, these tubes or pipes can be easily shaped. Nevertheless, it is no suitable for
drinking water because it is poisonous. It is also resistant to chemical attack and absorbs radiations. It is used for
batteries and for protection against radioactivity.
It is a very durable and versatile material. The heavy metal obtained from the bottom of the furnace is further
oxidized in Bessemer’s converter to remove most of the impurities.
Lead was used as an anti-knocking agent in gasoline. Later, it was discovered that the byproduct of this
lead was responsible for serious health complications.
Properties: it has properties of
 high density and easy workability.
 It has very good resistance to corrosion and many acids have no chemical action on it.
 Its melting point is 327°C and specific gravity is 11.35.
 It is the softest and heaviest of all the common metals.
 It is very malleable and may be readily formed into foil.
 It can readily be scratched with fingernail when pure.
Applications:
 In addition to its use in solder, applications of lead and its alloys include ammunition, type metals; x-ray
shielding, storage batteries, bearings, and vibration damping.
 It has also been widely used in chemicals and paints.
 Principal alloying elements with lead are tin and antimony.
 The lead pipes installed in Bath; Lead is used in safety plug in boilers, fire door releases and fuses.
 It is also used in various alloys such as brass and bronze.
 It finds extensive applications as sheaths for electric cables, both overhead and underground.
 Its sheets are used for making roofs, gutters etc.
 It is employed for chemical laboratory and plant drains.
 In the soldering process, an alloy of lead and tin is most widely utilized as a solder material for joining
metals in joining processes.
 Lead is still common in ammunition, car batteries, radiation protection, lifting weights, cable
sheathing etc.

2.9. TIN (Sn): is recognized as brightly shining white, ductile and malleable metal. It does not corrode in wet and
dry conditions.
Therefore, it is commonly used as a protective coating material for iron and steel. Tin has an even lower melting
point than lead; other properties include low strength, low hardness, and good ductility. The main source of tin is
tinstone.
Manufacture: To obtain crude tin, the ores of tins are crushed, calcined, washed and then smelted in
a furnace using anthracite coal and sand. The crude tin is then refined in a reverberatory furnace to get
commercially pure tin. Chemically pure tin is made by electrolytic deposition from commercial tin.
Properties: Tin is considered as a soft and ductile material. It possesses very good malleability. Its melting point is
232°C and specific gravity is 7.3. It is malleable and hence can be hammered into thin foils
Applications: It is used to make bronze. Bronze is a metal alloy consisting of copper and tin, but sometimes with
other elements & to make a solder. Solder is an alloy of tin and lead. Other uses of tin is as coating on other metals
and alloys including tin-coated sheet steel containers (‘‘tin cans’’) for storing food owing to its resistance to
corrosion. Tin-base white metals are commonly used to make bearings that are subjected to high pressure and load.
It is employed in low melting point alloys as a substitute for Bismuth. It is generally preferred as moisture proof
packing material. Because of its high malleability, it finds application in tin cans for storing food and food items. It
is a material resistant to corrosion and with low-friction properties. It is used for pieces of machines, ship
propellers, sculptures, coins, musical instruments, bells, etc.
- To make a material which is also called tin plate or simply tin. It consists in a steel plate covered by a thin layer of
tin in order to avoid the steel oxidation. It is used to make cans for the alimentary industry.
- Combined with lead, it is used to solder wires, due to its low melting point (around 200 ºC)
 Fig.tin can fig. solder

Tin Base Alloy: Tin base alloy is also known as Babbitt metal which contains 88%Sn, 8% Sb, 4% Cu
Properties: Babbit metal possesses excellent antifriction properties and sufficient mechanical strength.
It can be easily casted. It is expensive because of high tin content.
Applications: Because of the above properties, Babbit metal is the most common bearing metal used with cast iron
boxes where the bearings are subjected to high pressure and load applications.

i. BEARING OR ANTIFRICTION ALLOYS

A bearing alloy or antifriction alloy commonly possesses good wearing quality, low co-efficient of friction, high
thermal conductivity, good casting qualities, non-corrosive properties, ability to withstand high pressure and
impact, low shrinkage after coating and less cost. Various Bearing Metals are:
ii. Admiralty Gun Metal: The composition of admiralty gun metal generally contains 88%Cu, 10% Sn 2% Pb
Properties: Admiralty gun metal is having tensile strength of the order of 270 MN/m 2. It possesses elongation of
about 20% and Brinell Hardness of 65 BHN.
Applications: Admiralty gun metal is generally utilized where lubrication is needed and oiling is difficult.
iii. Lead Bronze: generally, contains 80% Cu, 10% Sn, 10% Pb
Properties: Lead bronze possesses tensile strength of 230 MN/m 2 , Brinell Hardness of 65 BHN and elongation of
about 15%.
Applications: Lead bronze possesses antifriction properties and hence is generally utilized where lubrication is
doubtful.
iv. Hard Bearing Bronze: basically contains 85% Cu, 15% Sn
Properties: Hard bearing bronze generally possesses tensile strength of 220 MN/m 2, 100 BHN and percentage
elongation of 2%.
Applications: Hard bearing bronze is commonly used for high compressive loads such as locomotive slide valves
etc.

2.10. TITANIUM AND ITS ALLOYS:

Titanium (Ti) is fairly abundant in nature, constituting about1% of Earth’s crust (aluminum, the most abundant, is
about 8%). The density of Ti is between aluminum and iron and its melting point is 1668 0C. Its importance has
grown in recent decades due to its aerospace applications, in which its light weight and good strength-to-weight
ratio are exploited.
Titanium Production: The principal ores of titanium are rutile, which is 98% to 99% TiO2, and ilmenite, which is
a combination of FeO and TiO2. Rutile is preferred as an ore because of its higher Ti content.
Properties of Titanium: coefficient of thermal expansion are relatively low among metals. It is stiffer and stronger
than aluminum, and it retains good strength at elevated temperatures. Pure titanium is reactive, which presents
problems in processing, especially in the molten state. However, at room temperature it forms a thin adherent oxide
coating (TiO2) that provides excellent corrosion resistance.

These properties give rise to two principal application areas for titanium: (1) in the commercially pure state, Ti is
used for corrosion resistant components, such as marine components and prosthetic implants; and (2) titanium
alloys are used as high-strength components in temperatures ranging from ambient to above 550 0C (1000 0F),
especially where its excellent strength-to-weight ratio is exploited. These latter applications include aircraft and
missile components. Some of the alloying elements used with titanium include aluminum, manganese, tin, and
vanadium. Some compositions and mechanical properties for several alloys are presented in Table 6.13.

Titanium is an important engineering metal due to being strong and lightweight. It also has high thermal
stability even at temperatures as high as 4800 C. Due to these properties; it finds application in the
aerospace industry. Military equipment is one use-case for this metal. Since titanium is also corrosion
resistant, medical applications also use it. Titanium is also used in the chemical and sporting goods
industry.

Titanium Alloys: Titanium alloys are light, strong, and have high corrosion resistance. Their density is
much lower than steel, and their strength-to-weight ratio is excellent. For this reason, titanium alloys are
used fairly commonly, especially in the aerospace industry. One primary downside of titanium alloys is
the high cost.

There are three categories of titanium alloys: alpha alloys, beta alloys, and alpha-beta alloys. Alpha alloys
do not respond to heat treatment and are instead strengthened through solid-solution strengthening
processes. The beta and alpha-beta alloys can be strengthened by heat treatment, primarily through
precipitation hardening.

Titanium alloys are identified using the percentages of alloying elements, for example Ti-6Al-4V.

The table below provides representative mechanical properties for several common titanium alloys. 

Elongatio
Yield Ultimate Elastic Density Poisson's
Material Condition n
Strength [ksi] Strength [ksi] Modulus [psi] [lb/in3] Ratio
%
Commercially
Grade 2 40 50 20 14.8e6 0.163 0.34
Pure
Ti-5Al-2.5Sn Annealed 110 115 10 15.5e6 0.162 0.31
Ti-6Al-4V Grade 5 120 130 10 16e6 0.16 0.31
Ti-6Al-4V, ELI Grade 23 110 120 10 16.5e6 0.16 0.31
Ti-5-1-1-1 Grade 32 85 100 10 16e6 0.16 0.31

Titanium: is a metal with low density and good corrosion resistant. It is used to make some alloys, mainly for
aerospace applications and also for surgical instruments and implants.

2.11. REFRACTORY METALS:

The refractory metals are metals capable of enduring high temperatures. The most important metals in this group
are molybdenum and tungsten. Other refractory metals are columbium (Cb) and tantalum (Ta). In general, these
metals and their alloys are capable of maintaining high strength and hardness at elevated temperatures.
i Molybdenum (Mo): has a high melting point (26190C) and is relatively dense, stiff, and strong. It is used both as a
pure metal (99.9+% Mo) and as an alloy. The principal alloy is TZM, which contains small amounts of titanium
and zirconium (less than 1% total). Mo and its alloys possess high temperature strength with applications including
heat shields, heating elements, electrodes for resistance welding, dies for high temperature work (e.g., die casting
molds), and parts for rocket and jet engines. In addition to these applications, molybdenum is also widely used as
an alloying ingredient in other metals, such as steels and super alloys.

Tungsten is used as a pure metal and as an alloying ingredient, but few alloys are based on W.

ii. Tungsten (W): has the highest melting point (3400 0 C) among metals and is one of the densest, stiffest and
hardest of all pure metals. Its most familiar application is filament wire in incandescent light bulbs. Application:
Tungsten is typically characterized by high operating temperatures, such as parts for rocket and jet engines and
electrodes for arc welding. It is also widely used as an element in tool steels, heat resistant alloys and tungsten
carbide.
A major disadvantage of both Mo and W is their propensity to oxidize at high temperatures, above about 600 0C
(1000 0 F), thus detracting from their high temperature properties. To overcome this deficiency, either protective
coatings must be used on these metals in high temperature applications or the metal parts must operate in a vacuum.
For example, the tungsten filament must be energized in a vacuum inside the glass light bulb.
Tungsten is used to make very hard steels for high quality tools and also for filaments for incandescent lamps.

2.12. PRECIOUS METALS:

The precious metals, also called the noble metals because they are chemically inactive, include silver, gold, and
platinum. They are attractive metals, available in limited supply, and have been used throughout civilized history
for coinage and to underwrite paper currency. They are also widely used in jewelry and similar applications that
exploit their high value. As a group, these precious metals possess high density, good ductility, high electrical
conductivity, and good corrosion resistance.
All three precious metals are mined from deposits in which the pure metal is mixed with other ores and metals.
Silver is also mined from the ore Argentite (Ag2S).
Silver (Ag) is less expensive per unit weight than gold or platinum. Nevertheless, its attractive ‘‘silvery’’ luster
makes it a highly valued metal in coins, jewelry, and tableware (which even assumes the name of the metal:
‘‘silverware’’). It is also used for fillings in dental work. Silver has the highest electrical conductivity of any metal,
which makes it useful for contacts in electronics applications. Finally, it should be mentioned that light sensitive
silver chloride and other silver halides are the basis for photography.
Gold (Au) is one of the heaviest metals; it is soft and easily formed, and possesses a distinctive yellow color that
adds to its value. In addition to currency and jewelry, its applications include electrical contacts (owing to its good
electrical conductivity and corrosion resistance), dental work, and plating onto other metals for decorative purposes.
Platinum (Pt) is also used in jewelry and is in fact more expensive than gold. It is the most important of six
precious metals known as the platinum group metals, which consists of Ruthenium (Ru), Rhodium (Rh), Palladium
(Pd), Osmium (Os), and Iridium (Ir), in addition to Pt. They are clustered in a rectangle in the periodic table.
Osmium, Iridium, and Platinum are all denser than gold (Ir is the densest material known, at 22.65 g/cm 3). Because
the platinum group metals are all scarce and very expensive, their applications are generally limited to situations in
which only small amounts are needed and their unique properties are required (e.g., high melting temperatures,
corrosion resistance, and catalytic characteristics). The applications include thermocouples, electrical contacts,
spark plugs, corrosion resistant devices, and catalytic pollution control equipment for automobiles.

2.13 SUPERALLOYS:
Super alloys constitute a category that straddles the ferrous and nonferrous metals. Some of them are based on iron,
whereas others are based on nickel and cobalt. In fact, many of the superalloys contain substantial amounts of three
or more metals, rather than consisting of one base metal plus alloying elements. Although the tonnage of these
metals is not significant compared with most of the other metals discussed in this chapter, they are nevertheless
commercially important because they are very expensive; and they are technologically important because of what
they can do.
The super alloys are a group of high-performance alloys designed to meet very demanding requirements for
strength and resistance to surface degradation (corrosion and oxidation) at high service temperatures. Conventional
room temperature strength is usually not the important criterion for these metals, and most of them possess room
temperature strength properties that are good but not outstanding. Their high temperature performance is what
distinguishes them; tensile strength, hot hardness, creep resistance, and corrosion resistance at very elevated
temperatures are the mechanical properties of interest. Operating temperatures are often in the vicinity of 1100
0
C(2000 0F). These metals are widely used in gas turbines, jet and rocket engines, steam turbines, and nuclear
power plants systems in which operating efficiency increases with higher temperatures.
The super alloys are usually divided into three groups, according to their principal constituent: iron, nickel, or
cobalt:
i. Iron-based alloys have iron as the main ingredient, although in some cases the iron is less than 50% of the total
composition.
ii. Nickel-based alloys generally have better high temperature strength than alloy steels. Nickel is the base metal.
The principal alloying elements are chromium and cobalt; lesser elements include aluminum, titanium,
molybdenum, niobium (Nb), and iron compositions to nearest percent.
Other elements include carbon, niobium, titanium, tungsten, manganese, and silicon.
Some familiar names in this group include Inconel, Hastelloy, and Rene 41.
iii. Cobalt-based alloys consist of cobalt (around 40%) and chromium (perhaps 20%) as their main components.
Other alloying elements include nickel, molybdenum, and tungsten.
In virtually all of the superalloys, including those based on iron, strengthening is accomplished by precipitation
hardening.
Methods for enhancing mechanical properties of metals can be grouped into three categories: (1) alloying, (2) cold
working, and (3) heat treatment. Cold working has previously been referred to as strain hardening; its effect is to
increase strength and reduce ductility. The degree to which these mechanical properties are affected depends on the
amount of strain and the strain hardening exponent in the flow curve, Cold working can be used on both pure
metals and alloys. It is accomplished during deformation of the work part by one of the shape forming processes,
such as rolling, forging, or extrusion. Strengthening of the metal therefore occurs as a by-product of the shaping
operation.
Heat treatment refers to several types of heating and cooling cycles performed on a metal to beneficially change its
properties. They operate by altering the basic microstructure of the metal, which in turn determines mechanical
properties. Some heat
treatment operations are applicable only to certain types of metals; for example, the heat treatment of steel to form
martensite is somewhat specialized because martensite is unique to steel. Heat treatments for steels and other metals
are discussed below.