Effect of impurities on cast iron

Impurities:
a. Silicon: It tends to make cast iron softer when present in small
proportions (below 2.5%) and make the iron free from defects like blow holes and
oxides.
In higher proportion it makes cast iron brittle and hard and also render resistance
to acids.

blow holes and oxides

b. Sulphur: It tends to convert free carbon in combined carbon (form of
carbides—distinguished from graphitic carbon) in the cast iron which is just
reverse effect of silicon. Higher portion of sulphur makes cast iron stronger and
more brittle.
It is kept below 0.5%
 c. Phosphorus: It lowers the melting point of cast iron and is therefore
helpful in making thin casting. In higher portions, it retains carbon in the
combined form whereas in smaller portion keep carbon in the form of graphite. It
varries from 0.05 – 1.5%.

d. Manganese: In small portion, it tends to make cast iron softer and

weaker. It results in more hardness and brittleness with increased portion. It
varries from 0.2 – 1.5% in pig iron.

e. Carbon: The carbon present in cast iron is either free form or combined
form. Carbon increases the strength of iron when in combined form. Carbon in
graphite form acts as a softner for iron, reduces shrinkage and improve
machinability.
Effect of alloying elements on cast iron

Alloying elements:
a. Nickel: The proportion of nickel may vary from 0.5 – 20% in cast iron.
When nickel is present 0.5 – 3%, the cast iron possesses uniform machinability.
Cast iron with 3 – 5% nickel is resistant to abration while 20% nickel makes it
corrosion resistant.

b.Chromium: It increases the hardness and tensile strength of cast iron

specially at high temperature. Generally, chromium is added uo to 3%. It checks
the formation of carbide and increases corrosion resistance.
 c. Molybdenum: It when added up to 1.5% in the cast iron, improves the
strength and wear resistance but decresaes machiability. It improves the
uniformity of structure.

d. Vanadium: It when added up to 0.5%, improves carbide formation and

thus increase the strength and hardness of cast iron very much.
Steel
Steel is an alloy that consists mostly of iron and has carbon content between 0.2 –
2.1% by weight depending on the grade.

Types of steel

1. Carbon steel

a) Low carbon steel: It contains 0.08 – below 0.3% carbon. Use: Sheets,
wires, pipes etc.
b) Medium carbon steel: It contains 0.3 - 0.7% carbon. Use: Rails, biolers
plate, axles, structures etc.
c) High carbon steel: It contains 0.7 – 1.5% carbon. Use: Surgical
instruments, razor blades, cutlery, spring etc.
2. Stainless steel
It contains 14 -18% chromium and 7 – 9% nickel.
Use: Car accessories, watch case, utensils, cutlery.

3. Alloy steel
a) Mn-steel: It contains 10 -18% Mn. Use: Rail tracks, armor plate, safe etc.
b) Si-steel: It contains 1 -5% Si. Use: parmanent magnet.
c) Ni-steel: It contains 2 -4% Ni. Use: Gear, shaft, cable etc.
Manufacture of Steel

q Bessemer process

Bessemer process is the industrial process for the manufacture of steel from molten pig iron.

The principle involved is that of oxidation of the impurities in the iron by the oxygen of air that is
below through the molten iron.

The heat of oxidation raises the temperature of the mass and keeps it molten during operation.

The process is carried on in a large container called Bessemer converter (egg shaped with usual
charge capacity of 15- 18 tons) which is made of steel and has lining of silica and clay or dolomite.

The capacity is from 8 – 30 tons of molten iron.

At its narrow upper end, it has an opening through which the iron to be treated is introduced and
the finished product to be poured out. The wide end or bottom end has a number of perforations
(tuyers) through which air is forced upward into the converter during operation. There is a set of
pivots so that it can be tilted at an angle to receive the change and for pouring the molten steel after
full operation.

As the air passes upward through molten pig iron impurities such as silicon, manganese and carbon
unit with oxygen in the air to form oxides. The carbon monoxide burns off with a blue flame and
other impurities to form slag. Dolomite is used as the converter lining when the phosphorus
content is high, the process is then called basic bessemer in which phosphorus is not removed.

In order to provide the elements necessary to give the steel the desired properties, another
substance (often spiegeleisen, an iron-carbon-manganese alloy) is usually added to the molten
metal after the oxidation is complete.

The converter is then empties into ladles from which the steel is poured into molds and the slag left
behind.

The whole process is completed in 15 – 20 min.

Manufacture of Steel

q Open-hearth process

It is a large finebrick bowl around 15✖46 ft across and 40 ft high. The pig irons from blast furnace
process are mixed up with the scrap steel and melted.

In this process, the steel is directed over the metal. The hearth can hold 50 -70 tons of metal and could
take 11 hrs to refine. At the end of the process, the alloying elements and exact carbon content are
added and the steel is drawn into the large finebricks lined crucibles and cast iron ingots.
In the operation, a charge of limestone and scrap is placed in the furnace. Fuel is usually of gas and
air under pressure, enters at one end near the top of the furnace, ignites and is directed downward
and over the metals.

After the scrap metal melted down ( in 2 hrs), hot metal from blast furnace is added the the
reinforment of the metal continues. The flame touch the metal and above and thus a very high
temperature keeps the iron into a liquid state. Samples form the white hot metals are taken and tested
to check the appropriate amount of carbon. The carbon is gradually removed in the form of gas.
When the molten metal contains right amount of carbon, it is poured into ingots.

Most of the silica and manganese are oxidized and combine with limestone. Other non-metallic
elements form slag which float on the top. The slag protect metal from direct action of flame.

Steel made in open hearth process is called open hearth stee.

Use: Bridges, rails, bolts, screws, shafts, stc. It is also used for making high grade tool steel.

Although, the process is slow and expenssive, it produces better grade steel and stronger than steel
makde in bessemer process (bessemer steel).
Effects of alloying elements in steel

a) Aluminium: It acts as a deoxidiser. It restricts grain growth and form hard

nitrides when heated in contact with nitrogen. From 2 – 5% gives heat
resistance and resistance to oxidation.

b) Boron: It is very powerful hardening agent. It is used not over 0.03%. Too
much boron produces brittleness and hot shortness.

c) Carbon: It is an essential constituent for hardening by heating and

quenching. It increases the strength up to 0.08% above which steel becomes
increasingly brittle.

d) Chromium: It forms hard carbides and gives deep hardening and good wear
resistance. Its small amount give toughness, increased strength and impact
resistance. It decreases machinability and decrease hardening range unless
balanced with nickel.
Effects of alloying elements in steel

e) Nickel: It increases hardness, strength, ductility and impact resistance. It

decreases machinability. It reduces danger of warpage and cracking. It
refines structure and retards grain growth.

f) Cobalt: It produces red hardness. It increases hardness and strength, residual

magnetism and coersive magnetic force in steel for permanent magnets.

g) Copper: It is added from 0.1 to 0.4%. It increases resistance to atmospheric

corrosion and also acts as a strengthening agent.

h) Manganese: It is a deoxidiser and desulphuriser. It increases hardness,

strength and wear resistance. It increases coefficient of expansion. It
decreases tendency to distort during heat treatement. Usually it is employed
from 0.3 – 0.9%.
Effects of alloying elements in steel

i) Molybdenum: It increases strength and impact resistance at high

temperature but hardens and embrittles at low temperature. It increases
machinability of carbon steel.

j) Phosphorus: It promots cold shortness. Its small amounts increase strength

slightly and increase resistance to corossion.

k) Silicon: It is a deoxidiser and graphitiser. It throws carbon out of solution.

l) Sulphur: It forms soft and weak sulphides which weakens the steel and
promotes hot shortness.
Effects of alloying elements in steel

m) Tantalum: It is used in some special steel to give resistance to scaling at

high temperature.

n) Titanium: It fixes carbon in inert particles. It reduces martensitic hardness

in chromium steel.

o) Tungsten: It addes red hardness, widens hardening range, gives deep

hardening and increases strength and wear resistance. It gives increased
residual magnetism and greater coersive force for parmanent magnets.

p) Vanadium: It is a strong deoxidiser. It toughens and strengthens steel and

forms hard carbides. It refines the grain and reduces grain growth. It widens
hardening range.
High speed steel
Alloy steels suitable as tool material for high-speed machining are known as high speed steels.
High speed steels are high in alloy content, have excellent hardenability and retain a good cutting edge
up to a temperature of around 650 °C.

Applications: Cutters, taps, drills, tool bits, saw blades, kitchen knives, pocket knives, files, other
industrial and household tools.
Although there are numerous high speed steel compositions, they may all be grouped in the following three
classes.

1. 18:4:1 high speed steel: This steel contains 18% tungsten, 4% chromium and 1% vanadium. This
steel is considered to be one of the best all purpose tool steels. In some steels of similar composition,
the percentage of vanadium is increased slightly in order to obtain better results in heavy duty work.

2. Molybdenum high speed steels: Many high speed steels use molybdenum as the principal alloying
element since one will replace two parts of tungsten. Molybdenum steels such as 6: 6: 4: 2 contains 6%
tungsten, 6% molybdenum, 4% chromium and 2% vanadium which possess excellent toughness and
cutting ability.

For many applications particularly drilling and tapping operations, molybdenum high speed steels are
better and cheaper than other types.

3. Super high speed steels: Some high speed steels have cobalt added to them in the amount ranging
from 2% to 15% since this element increases cutting efficiency specially at high temperatures. This
steel contains 20% tungstens, 4% chromium, 2% vanadium and 12% cobalt. Because of higher cost of
this alloy, ti is used principally for heavy cutting operations which impose high pressure and
temperatures on the tool.